Leguminous Vegetable Cultivation and Seed Production S ...
Leguminous Vegetable Cultivation and Seed Production S ...
Leguminous Vegetable Cultivation and Seed Production S ...
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<strong>Leguminous</strong> <strong>Vegetable</strong> <strong>Cultivation</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Seed</strong> <strong>Production</strong><br />
S. Shanmugasundaram<br />
Introduction<br />
<strong>Leguminous</strong> vegetables have been cultivated for more than 6,000 years in different parts of<br />
the world. Legumes for human consumption constitute about 5% of the cultivated crops. World<br />
production of selected vegetable legumes are given in table 1.<br />
Table 1. Area <strong>and</strong><br />
Ve etable<br />
Green peas<br />
Green beans<br />
Dry peas<br />
Dry beans<br />
Soybeans<br />
roduction of selected ve g etable le<br />
Countr / Region Area (ha x 1000)<br />
World<br />
802<br />
Asia<br />
89<br />
World<br />
391<br />
Asia<br />
102<br />
World<br />
8,428<br />
Southeast Asia<br />
27<br />
World<br />
25,959<br />
Southeast Asia<br />
1,437<br />
World<br />
52,600<br />
Asia<br />
7,500<br />
ions <strong>and</strong> the world<br />
<strong>Production</strong> (t x 1000)<br />
4,699<br />
144<br />
2,527<br />
636<br />
11,361<br />
22<br />
14,637<br />
1,082<br />
96,000<br />
10,000<br />
In countries like India where majority of the population are vegetarians, leguminous<br />
vegetables serve as the major source of protein in the diet. In developing third world countries,<br />
especially for the' poor, the major protein source in the diet are vegetable legumes. Most<br />
leguminous vegetables are rich in phosphorus, calcium, iron, <strong>and</strong> a number of essential vitamins;<br />
crops like soybean, groundnut, <strong>and</strong> Bamabara groundnut are also rich in fats which are needed by<br />
the body to absorb vitamin A. Although leguminous vegetables are deficient in some of the sulfurcontaining<br />
aminoacids, they are well compensated when consumed with cereals. In some instances<br />
the leaves, tender shoots, <strong>and</strong> roots are harvested <strong>and</strong> used as vegetables. The whole seed of some<br />
of the legumes are called grain. <strong>Seed</strong>s of legumes without seed coat <strong>and</strong> cotyledons split into half<br />
are commonly called as pulses in India. Similarly the split pigeon pea, Cicer arietinuin, L. is<br />
referred to as dal in India <strong>and</strong> Pakistan. According to Vavilov all the main centers of origin of<br />
cultivated plants have contributed to the cultivated legumes of today.<br />
Legumes are rather unique compared to other vegetables in that they can obtain free<br />
atmospheric nitrogen through their symbiotic association with the nitrogen-fixing bacteria,<br />
Rhizobiwn or Pradyrhizobium, in legume root nodules. The nitrogen fixed in the root nodules are<br />
not only available to the plant but they also enrich the soil, in varying amounts, when the plants<br />
complete their life cycle.<br />
Many leguminous vegetable plants contain toxic substances like trypsin inhibitor<br />
{ (soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merrill)], rotenone (yam bean, Pachyrhizus erosus L.), <strong>and</strong><br />
cyanogenic glucoside (hyacinth bean, Lab lab niger L., <strong>and</strong> Lathyrus sativus L.). There are diverse<br />
ways by which the toxic effects of these vegetables can be eliminated rendering them safe for<br />
human consumption.<br />
1
Depending upon the country some of the legumes are included in the field crops category,<br />
others are included under horticultural crops, while still others are included in the oilseeds crop<br />
group. However, in many of the monographs dealing with vegetable legumes published in<br />
different countries almost all these crops are treated as vegetable crops.<br />
<strong>Leguminous</strong> vegetables are used as fresh pod, immature seed <strong>and</strong> mature dry seed, <strong>and</strong> majority of<br />
these vegetables are also canned <strong>and</strong> frozen for the market. Some of the legume seeds are sprouted<br />
<strong>and</strong> are popular in many Asian countries. any legumes are also processed.<br />
In international trade leguminous vegetables play an important role. Dry seeds, canned <strong>and</strong><br />
frozen foods, <strong>and</strong> processed food products from leguminous vegetables enter the international<br />
market where they are important commodities for foreign exchange.<br />
Botany<br />
Legumes are dicotyledonous annuals or perennials. There are about 480 genera <strong>and</strong> more<br />
than 12,000 species in the family Leguminosae (commonly called the pea family). As a group they<br />
contain at least 28 different vegetable crops belonging to 18 genera. Almost all the vegetable crops<br />
belong to the subfamily Papilionaceae.<br />
When the seeds germinate, in some legumes, the cotyledons remain inside the soil due to<br />
limited elongation of the hypocotyl. Such germination is referred to as hypogeal germination.<br />
Example: peas, Pisum sativuin L. In other instances, as in the case of soybean (Glycine max L.<br />
(Merr.) <strong>and</strong> common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) the cotyledons are pushed above the soil surface<br />
by the rapid elongation <strong>and</strong> growth of the hypocotyl. Such germination is called epigeal<br />
germination.<br />
2
A list of leguminous vegetables commonly grown in South <strong>and</strong> Southeast Asia are given in<br />
table. 2<br />
Table 2. <strong>Leguminous</strong> vegetables<br />
g own in S<br />
Crop<br />
Botanical name<br />
outh <strong>and</strong> Southeast Asia.<br />
l iromosome Edible part<br />
no.<br />
Adaptation<br />
Beans<br />
Common, Snap, Phaseolus vulgaris L.<br />
String<br />
22 Immature pod, mature seeds Temp. <strong>and</strong> tropics<br />
Lima bean P. lunatus L. 22 Green seeds Warm season<br />
Tepary bean P. acutifolius A. Gray 22 Dry beans Dry areas<br />
Adzuki bean Vigna angularis (Wind) Ohwi & 22 Immature pod, mature seeds Warm season<br />
Mungbean, greengram<br />
Ohashi<br />
V. radiata (L.) Wilczek 22 Green pod, mature seeds, Warm season<br />
sprouts<br />
Blackgram, Urd bean V. mungo (L.) Flepper 22 Mature dry seeds<br />
Warm season, dry tropics<br />
Rice bean V. umbellate (Thunb) Ohwi <strong>and</strong> 22 Mature dry Warm season<br />
Peas<br />
Ohasi<br />
Pist nn sativunl L. 14 Immature, seeds, pods, tender Cool, humid season<br />
Peanut, Groundnut Arachis hypogaea L. 40 Mature seed, tender shoots, <strong>and</strong> Tropics <strong>and</strong> subtropics,<br />
leaves<br />
warm temp.<br />
Swordbean Canavalia gladiata (Jacq.) D.C. 22, Young pods <strong>and</strong> beans Tropics<br />
44,<br />
46<br />
Pigeon pea, redgram Cajanus cajan L. Millsp. 22 Young green pods, seeds, Warm season<br />
mature seeds<br />
Chickpea, Cicer arietinum L. 16 Green pods, tender shoots, dried<br />
Bengalgram<br />
seeds<br />
Cool, dry<br />
Clusterbean, guar Cyamopsis tetragoraoloba (L.) 14 Young tender pods<br />
Dry tropics<br />
Taub.<br />
Soybean<br />
Glycine max (L.) Merr. 40 Immature green seed; mature dry Tropics to 52°N<br />
seed, sprouts<br />
Hyacinth bean, lablab Lab lab purpureus (L.) 22 Young pods, tender bean, dried Dry season<br />
bean<br />
seeds<br />
Grass pea, Chickling Lathyrus sativus L. 14 <strong>Seed</strong>s, leaves used as herbs Cool season<br />
pea<br />
Lentil Lens culin..aris Medikus 14 Mature seed Winter crop<br />
Yam bean Pachyrhizus erosus Urban 22 Succulent roots Hot, wet tropics,<br />
perennial<br />
Potato bean P. tuberosus spreng 22 Tubers<br />
Perennial<br />
Winged bean Psophocarpus tetragonolobus 18 Almost all parts used Tropical Asia<br />
D.C.<br />
Fenugreek<br />
Trigonella foenum-graecum L. 7 Mature seeds Winter<br />
Faba bean, broad Vicia faba L. 12 Green beans, dry seeds Temp. cool season<br />
bean, Horse bean,<br />
Windsor bean<br />
leaves<br />
Cowpea, Catjang Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp 22 Immature pods, young shoots, Trop. Africa<br />
dry beans<br />
Yardlong bean, V. sesquipedalis (L.) Walp 22 Immature pods<br />
Warm season<br />
Asparagus bean<br />
Bambara groundnut Vigna subterranea (L.) Walp 22 Immature <strong>and</strong> mature seeds Tropical Africa<br />
Horsegram Macrotylom.a unifloruin (Lam) 20, Mature seeds Dry tropics<br />
Verde 22<br />
Runner bean Phaseolus coccineus L. 22 Green pods Temperate<br />
Moth bean Vigna aconitifolia (Jacq.) 22 Green pods, dry whole or split Tropical<br />
Marechal<br />
seeds<br />
3
Description of Selected Legumes<br />
L Snap, String, or French Bean<br />
Phaseolus vidgaris likely originated from Central America. It is commonly associated with<br />
corn <strong>and</strong> squash culture in the tropical Latin American countries. It is an annual with epigeal<br />
germination.<br />
CIAT in Cali, Colombia has classified the world collection of this bean into the following<br />
four main types by growth habit: (1) dwarf determinate, (2) dwarf indeterminate, (3) prostrate<br />
indeterminate, <strong>and</strong> (4) climbing indeterminate. Beans are also classified according to use as<br />
follows: snap or string beans (for tender fresh pods); green shell beans (green shelled condition,<br />
normally bush <strong>and</strong> climbing varieties); <strong>and</strong> dry-shell or field beans (mature dry seeds);<br />
a_lLus<br />
Peas probably originated in Southwest Asia. It is a cool season crop in the subtropics <strong>and</strong><br />
also grown at higher altitudes in the tropics.<br />
2, Mungbean<br />
India or the Indo-Burmese region is the origin of mungbean. In South Asia it is one of the<br />
major leguminous vegetable crops. In Southeast Asia it is one of the three main legumes.<br />
4. <strong>Vegetable</strong> Soybean (Fdamame)<br />
Soybean originated as a domesticate in the eastern half of northern China around the 11th<br />
century BC. It was introduced from China to the USA, Japan, Korea, <strong>and</strong> South <strong>and</strong> Southeast<br />
Asian countries at different times.<br />
Large yellow or green-seeded varieties with gray hilum are preferred for use as vegetable<br />
soybeans. Based on latitudinal adaptation soybean cultivars in the USA <strong>and</strong> Canada have been<br />
classified into 13 maturity groups (MG). MG 000, 00, <strong>and</strong> 0 are early <strong>and</strong> adapted to extreme<br />
north latitudes while MG IX <strong>and</strong> X are late <strong>and</strong> adapted to tropical latitudes. However, this MG<br />
system breaks down in the tropical <strong>and</strong> subtropical latitudes.<br />
Controlled Hybridization Procedures<br />
1 . Mun . bean<br />
India has done considerable research on mungbean through their "Pulse Scheme" since<br />
1943. In 1967 an All-India coordinated Pulse Improvement Program commenced with yield <strong>and</strong><br />
disease resistance as the primary concerns. A number of varieties have been released (table 3).<br />
4
Table ri beLan cultivars released in India<br />
Ctdtivar name Source/ parents Year Location Improve& Ref.2<br />
(days) characters<br />
"T - ileysiap.0 as selections<br />
Type 1<br />
Muzaffarpur 1948 U.P. 60 G, GM 1<br />
Shining Mung No. 1 Kuhl bung Type 1 Punjab 65 LG, S 2<br />
COI Local 1952 Tamilnadu 135 SG, DL 3<br />
CO2 PLS 365/3 1975 Tamilnadu 65 DG 4<br />
CO3 PLS 367 1976 Tamilnadu 70 SG, IRC 4<br />
BR-2 Bhagalpur Local Bihar 110-115 MG 5<br />
Arndt Bihar Local Bihar 9 0 MY, YMV 5<br />
Khargone-1 K 119-56 M.P. 65 LG, GM 5 _<br />
R-288-8 Local Rajasthan 70-75 SG 5<br />
Krishna-11 Gwalior Local M.P. 65 LG, GM 5<br />
D66-26 Local 1968 Rajasthan 60-65 SG 5<br />
Musa-Baisakhi Type 44 New Delhi 60-65 DG, spring 5<br />
<strong>and</strong> summer<br />
Kopergaon<br />
Local<br />
1975 Maharashtra 60 SG 6<br />
Developed b bridization <strong>and</strong> selection<br />
Type 44 Type 1 x Type 49 1948 U.P. 60-65 DG, summer, 7<br />
spring<br />
Type 51 4465-4 x Type 49 1962 U.P. 75-80 SG, mixed 8<br />
crop<br />
Jawahar-45 Madira x UP local 1972 M.P. 75-80 SG, kharif 9<br />
S-8 (Mohini) BR 2 x T2 1972 New Delhi 60-65 SG 10<br />
Kanke Multipurpose Tl x China Moong 1973 SG 11<br />
781<br />
ML 1 Hyb. 45 x 23-67 1973 Punjab 9 0 G, tolerant to 12<br />
KM I S 8 x PS 16 1978 Tamilnadu 65<br />
disease<br />
YMV, pod 5<br />
borer<br />
NM 5 No. 54 x Hyb. 45 Punjab 80-85 G, kharif 5<br />
PS 7 1981 New Delhi 60-65 DG, Summer 5<br />
PS 10 1981 New Delhi 60-65 DG, Summer 5<br />
G = green seed; GM = for green manure; LG = light green seed; SG = shiny green seed; S =<br />
shiny seed; DO = dull seed; DL = dry l<strong>and</strong>; IRC = irrigated conditions; MG = mottled green<br />
seed; MY = mottled yellow; YMV = yellow mosaic virus-tolerant.<br />
2 1 - S.P. Singh 1955; 2 - S.G. Singh 1965; 3 - Premsekar <strong>and</strong> Srinivasan 1961; 4 -<br />
Rathnaswamy et al. 1977; 5 - D.P. Singh 1982; 6 - M<strong>and</strong>oli <strong>and</strong> Nigam 1966; 7 - Pathak <strong>and</strong><br />
Singh 1961; 8 - Pathak et al. 1962; 9 - L. Singh et al. 1972; 10 - S.P. Singh 1972; 11 -<br />
'Bhargava 1973; 12 - S. Singh et al. 1973.<br />
In the Philippines syncrhronized maturity, seasonal adaptation, <strong>and</strong> high yield along with<br />
disease resistance were emphasized. The Bureau of Plant Industry <strong>and</strong> the University of the<br />
Philippines Los Banos conduct research <strong>and</strong> develop new varieties.<br />
Indonesia, Thail<strong>and</strong>, USA, Sri Lanka, <strong>and</strong> Australia have mungbean breeding programs<br />
which have released new improved varieties that are high yielding, carry resistance to powdery<br />
mildew <strong>and</strong> cercospora leaf spot, have synchronized maturity, <strong>and</strong> large seed size. A list of<br />
varieties from AVRDC materials released in different countries are given in table 4.<br />
5
Table 4. AVRDC mun bean selections released as cultivars in different countries<br />
Cultivar AVRDC no. Year of Country<br />
release<br />
Improved characters'<br />
ASVEG VC 1089-A 1978 Costa Rica HY<br />
B angasa V 3476 1980 Korea HY, UM, LR<br />
Tainan Sel. #3 VC 1628A 1981 Taiwan HY, UM, LR<br />
M 986 VC 156OD 2 1981<br />
India 2<br />
1982 Australia<br />
King V 13882<br />
1982 Australia HY, EM, PW, LR<br />
Station 46 VC 1000-45-B 1982 Fiji HY<br />
Seonhwa Nogdu VC 1973-A 1982 Korea HY, MMV, RPM, (CLS), UM<br />
Type 77 VC 1131-B-12-2B 1982 Sri Lanka HY, MYMV, CR<br />
Manyar VC 1089-A 1983 Indonesia HY, CLS, R<br />
Nuri V 2773 1983 Indonesia HY, (CLS), R<br />
1983 Malaysia 3<br />
Imara V 1380 1983 Tanzania<br />
Station 25 VC 1007-14-1-5B 3 1984 Fiji<br />
Station 27 VC 1160-1-1-2B 3 1983 Fiji<br />
BPI Mg2 VC 1163 1984 Philippines HY, CLS, RPM, R<br />
Xu Yin No. 1 VC 1973-A 1985 China HY, WA<br />
Boliche 451 VC 1163 3 1985 Ecuador<br />
KPS No. 1 VC 1973-A 1985 Thail<strong>and</strong><br />
KPS No. 2 VC 2778-A 1985 Thail<strong>and</strong><br />
Walet VC 1163-A 1986 Indonesia HY, NS< CLS, 'RPM, TDO, UM<br />
Gelatik VC 1160-22B-1-B 1986 Indonesia HY, NS< CLS, RPM, UM<br />
BPI Mg4 VC 2764-B 1986 Philippines HY, UM, LR, EM, (CLS), RPM<br />
DX 102a VC 2768-A 1986 Vietnam HY, SLS-R, RLD<br />
DX 113 VC 2763-A 1986 Vietnam NY, TASS, RLD<br />
1 HY = high-yielding; UM uniforrn maturing; LR = lodging-resistant; EM = early maturing; PW<br />
= resistant to pod weathering; CLS/(CLS) = resistant/moderately resistant to cercospora leaf<br />
spot; RLD = resistant to local diseases; SLS-R; S<strong>and</strong>y loam soil after rice; TDO = tolerant to<br />
damping off; R = rust-resistant; MMV = resistant to mungbean mottle virus; RPM = resistant to<br />
powdery mildew; MYMV = resistant to mungbean yellow mosaic virus; CR = resistant to<br />
charcoal rot; WA = wide adaptability; TASS = tolerant to acidic <strong>and</strong> saline soils; NS =<br />
nonshattering.<br />
2<br />
3<br />
Adapted selection developed from AVRDC parental stocks.<br />
Reported released but no further information.<br />
Through intensive research efforts at AVRDC in collaboration with national program<br />
scientists the yield potential of mungbean has been improved from 0.5 t/ha to more than 2 t/ha.<br />
Photoperiod insensitivity, multiple disease resistance, large seed size, <strong>and</strong> synchronized maturity<br />
have been incorporated in improved lines.<br />
2„Ve g etable Soybean<br />
The most popular vegetable soybeans in Japan are predominantly developed by private seed<br />
companies. Among 50 new vegetable soybeans, the most popular ones are: Tzuzunoko, Ryokkoh,<br />
Kegon, Hatsutaka, Taisho Shiroge, Nakate Maori, Suzumo, Enrei, Fukuda, Raityo, Shirobato,<br />
Tamasudare, Hakutyo, Shiratsuyu, <strong>and</strong> Blue Side.<br />
In Taiwan at present the leading varieties are Kaohsiung No. 1., Tzuzunoko, <strong>and</strong><br />
Ryokkoh. Kaohsiung No. 1 (KS #1) is a pureline selection from Taisho Shiroge from Japan done<br />
at AVRDC. Detailed trials <strong>and</strong> final assessment for release were done by Kaohsiung District
Agricultural Improvement Station (DAIS). KS #1 was released in 1987. In 1988 it occupied 51%<br />
of the total vegetable soybean area in Taiwan. In 1989, it occupied more than 80% of the area.<br />
References<br />
Fehr, W.R. <strong>and</strong> H.H. Hadley. 1980. Hybridization in crop plants. American Society of<br />
Agronomy. Madison, Wisconsin, USA 765 p.<br />
Gritton, E.T. 1986. Pea Breeding. In: P. 283-319. M.J. Bassett (ed.). Breeding <strong>Vegetable</strong> Crops.<br />
AVI Publishing Co. Westport, Connecticut, USA.<br />
orton, F., R.E. Smith <strong>and</strong> J.M. PoehIman. 1982. The Mungbean. University of Puerto Rico,<br />
Mayaguez. 136 p.<br />
P<strong>and</strong>ita, M.L., <strong>and</strong> P.S. Pratap. 1986. Peas <strong>and</strong> Beans. In: P. 469-496. T.K. Bose <strong>and</strong> M.G.<br />
Som (ed.). <strong>Vegetable</strong> Crops in India. Maya Prokash, Calcutta-Six.<br />
Parthesarathy, V.A. 1986. French bean. In: P. 497-514. T.K. Bose <strong>and</strong> M.G. Som. (ed.).<br />
<strong>Vegetable</strong> Crops in India, Nayo Prokash, Calcutta-Six.<br />
Shanmugasundaram, S. 1988. A catalog of mungbean cultivars released around the world.<br />
AVRDC, Shanhua, Tainan. 20 p.<br />
Shanmugasundaram, S. <strong>and</strong> B.T. McLean. '1988. Mungbean: Proceedings of the Second<br />
International Symposium. AVRDC, Shanhua, Tainan. 730 p.<br />
Shanmugasundaram, S., S.C.S. Tsou, <strong>and</strong> S.H. Cheng. 1989. <strong>Vegetable</strong> soybeans in the East.<br />
In: P. 1979-1986. A.J. Pascale (ed.). World Soybean Research Conference IV.<br />
Shanmugasundaram, S., <strong>and</strong> J.M. Poehlrnan. 1989. Genetics <strong>and</strong> breeding of Mungbean. In:<br />
A.K. M<strong>and</strong>al (ed.). Genetics <strong>and</strong> Cytogenetics of Crop Plants.<br />
Sibernagel, M.J. 1986. Snap bean breeding. In: P. 243-282. M.J. Bassett (ed.) Breeding<br />
<strong>Vegetable</strong> Crops. AVI Publishing Co. Westport, Connecticut, USA.<br />
Van der Maesen, L.J.G. <strong>and</strong> S. Somoatmadja. 1989. Plant Resources of South-East Asia. Pudoc<br />
Wageningen. 105 p.<br />
Yamaguchi, Mas 1983. World <strong>Vegetable</strong>. AVI Publishing Co. Westport, Connecticut, 414 p.<br />
7
No-Tillage Rice Stubble Soybean <strong>Cultivation</strong> (NTRSC)<br />
Many farmers in southern Taiwan have been growing soybean after harvesting rice,<br />
without tilling the l<strong>and</strong>. After producing two rice crops, the farmers are able to grow a third crop of<br />
soybean in the same field. They use minimum resources <strong>and</strong> earn a reasonable income. This<br />
practice can be easily adopted in other tropical countries where rice-based cropping systems<br />
predominate.<br />
The no-tillage approach for growing soybean after rice with limited resources produce a<br />
high-value soybean crop with low inputs within a short growing season.<br />
Soybean cultivation practiced by farmers in southern Taiwan is presented in the following:<br />
• The no-tillage rice stubble soybean cultivation or N-T-R-S-C can be practiced in a rice-based<br />
cropping system wherever rice is a major crop.<br />
• The farmers in southern Taiwan grow two rice crops from January to September <strong>and</strong> a third crop<br />
of short duration early maturing soybean from September to December just after harvesting rice<br />
without l<strong>and</strong> tillage.<br />
• After the rice crop is harvested <strong>and</strong> threshed, the rice straw is bundled <strong>and</strong> kept in the rows.<br />
e The rice stubbles left after the harvest serve as markers of planting rows for soybean.<br />
• To plant soybean, either a planter is used or a group of men <strong>and</strong> women are employed for<br />
planting. A bag containing soybean seed is worn around the waist <strong>and</strong> each person plants about 5<br />
rows at a time. Each individtial plants about 1,000 M2 in one day.<br />
e With the help of a small trowel, a shallow hole (3 to 4 centimeters deep) is made near each rice<br />
stubble <strong>and</strong> 3-4 seeds are dropped in each hole. The hole is not covered.<br />
• The spacing between <strong>and</strong> within the row is the same as that for rice, either 22.5 cm by 22.5 cm<br />
or 25 cm by 25 cm.<br />
• Just after planting, a herbicide mixture of alachior at the rate of 1.5-2 kilograms active ingredient<br />
(al.) per hectare plus paraquat 0.75 kg a.i./ha is applied to control weeds.<br />
• The rice straw is then spread on the field. The straw should not be allowed to hang on to the<br />
stubble to prevent shading which could result in lanky <strong>and</strong> weak seedlings.<br />
• A paddy row marker is used as a roller to press the rice straw close to the ground. The rice straw<br />
mulch conserves moisture <strong>and</strong> suppresses weed growth.<br />
• In some low-lying areas, the straw is burnt after spreading. Burning of the straw reduces excess<br />
moisture, destroys the weeds, kills some insect pests <strong>and</strong> their eggs <strong>and</strong> adds potash to the soil.<br />
e Reduction of soil moisture loosens the soil making it friable, <strong>and</strong> providing optimum conditions<br />
for seed germination.<br />
• The seedlings emerge easily from the straw mulch.<br />
• A fertilizer mixture containing 20 to 30 kg N + 60 kg P205 + 80 kg K20/ha is prepared <strong>and</strong><br />
broadcasted on the mulched field. Or, it may be applied just after burning the straw. In the burnt<br />
field, the quantity of potash is reduced to 50-60 kg/ha.<br />
• You can see the excellent germination in fields with rice straw mulch or on a burnt field.<br />
8
At the seedling stage, the crop is usually attacked by beanflies. The adult beanfly may be found<br />
on the leaf. The beanfly larva or maggot tunnels through the stem <strong>and</strong> causes the most serious<br />
damage.<br />
To control beanfly, spraying of insecticides such as monocrotophos or omethoate or dimethoate<br />
at the rate of 0.25-0.5 kg a.i./ha 3-4 days after emergence of seedlings is suggested. The spray is<br />
repeated 3 to 4 times or more at weekly intervals depending on insect infestation.<br />
Soybean is attacked by rust disease which may cause serious yield losses. Plant rusttolerant/resistant<br />
cultivars, if available. Fungicides such as mancozeb or triadimefon at 2 kg<br />
a.i./ha can be sprayed against soybean rust. Spray 2 to 3 times as needed. To reduce the cost of<br />
spraying, the fungicide <strong>and</strong> a compatible insecticide can be mixed <strong>and</strong> sprayed. If labor is<br />
available, the field may be h<strong>and</strong> weeded occasionally.<br />
Three to four seeds planted per hole gives a density of about 500,000 to 600,000 plants per<br />
hectare which covers the field very well <strong>and</strong> also controls weed growth. The crop matures in<br />
about 85 to 100 days. Harvesting is generally done manually.<br />
• The beans are threshed with a locally developed mechanical thresher. Threshed seeds are cleaned<br />
<strong>and</strong> dried in the sun <strong>and</strong> marketed.<br />
• The yield of an 85 to 100-day soybean crop is between 1.4 <strong>and</strong> 3 tons per hectare.<br />
Mungbean Sprout Productioq<br />
Mungbean is an important legume crop extensively cultivated in many developing countries<br />
where a variety of mungbean dishes <strong>and</strong> other products are prepared. The mungbean sprout is a<br />
traditional vegetable in China <strong>and</strong> Southeast Asia. However, mungbean sprout is not well known<br />
in South Asia, Africa <strong>and</strong> most other mungbean-producing countries where a vast potential for its<br />
commercial production, consumption <strong>and</strong> export exists.<br />
Mungbean sprout production is a simple germination process which requires neither<br />
sunlight nor soil; it has no seasonal limitations. The process is completed in just four to eight days.<br />
The sprout production is extremely inexpensive, requiring only mungbean seeds, sprouting<br />
containers <strong>and</strong> water as inputs. It can, therefore, be practiced even by poor farmers in augmenting<br />
their meager resources. Mungbean sprouts serve as a good alternative vegetable <strong>and</strong> source of<br />
income. This is especially true during hot wet summer <strong>and</strong> rainy seasons when there is acute<br />
shortage of fresh vegetables, or in the event of crop losses due to natural calamities like typhoon,<br />
flood or epidemics of diseases or insect pests.<br />
The potentials of mungbean sprout as a cheap nutritious food <strong>and</strong> the method of producing<br />
mungbean sprout for domestic use as well as for earning an income are described below:<br />
• Mungbean sprouts cooked alone or mixed with meat or other vegetables provide a fresh <strong>and</strong><br />
naturally nutritious dish.<br />
Mungbean sprout production simply involves germination, which can be done indoors<br />
throughout the year. It does not require soil <strong>and</strong> sunlight.<br />
• The procedure involved in sprout production includes washing, soaking, sprouting, harvesting<br />
<strong>and</strong> packing.<br />
e Small hard-seeded mungbean often has poor germination <strong>and</strong> weak sprout growth. Large-seeded<br />
mungbean is also not so economical since they result in lesser sprouts.<br />
9
• Choose good quality, premium grade mungbean seeds of medium size with smooth seed coats.<br />
Remove broken <strong>and</strong> shriveled seeds. Be sure that beans are not treated with fungicides<br />
or insecticides.<br />
• Store seeds under cool <strong>and</strong> dry conditions to ensure high seed germination <strong>and</strong> sprout vigor.<br />
Beans stored under WC <strong>and</strong> 85% relative humidity produce good quality sprouts. <strong>Seed</strong>s with<br />
15% moisture can be safely stored for one year at 10 0 C or below.<br />
• Before soaking, wash the seeds in fresh water, stirring vigorously three to four times to allow<br />
the empty, broken <strong>and</strong> light seeds to float. Remove the floating seeds <strong>and</strong> debris. Repeat<br />
washing using fresh water every time until the beans are thoroughly cleaned.<br />
. In Taiwan, traditional earthen wares <strong>and</strong> stone jars are used for sprouting mungbean seeds.<br />
These containers have holes near the bottom to drain out excess water.<br />
• For larger quantity of seeds, use germination tanks of convenient size, preferably lined with tiles.<br />
Wash containers thoroughly with hot water (80 0 C) before use. Big plastic containers will also do<br />
• Arrange <strong>and</strong> perform all sprouting operations in a sheltered place to protect the sprouts from<br />
light. Darkness ensures bright white <strong>and</strong> long mungbean sprouts. Moderate temperature (23-<br />
28 0 C) <strong>and</strong> high humidity (85-90%) in the sprouting room help produce good quality crispy<br />
sprouts.<br />
. After washing, soak the beans in tap water at room temperature for eight hours. In the cool<br />
season, use warm water (32 0 C) for soaking. Put the soaked beans in containers. Do not fill the<br />
containers to more than 75% of their capacity to avoid overflowing when the seeds sprout.<br />
Apply a fine water spray or mist uniformly over the seeds at three-to four-hour intervals during<br />
the hot season Ad six to seven hours during the cool season. Apply just enough water to<br />
keep the sprouts continuously moist without drying.<br />
• A overhead water pipe line fitted with taps <strong>and</strong> movable water pipe or automatic sprinkler system<br />
connected to a timer are very convenient for watering.<br />
• Stage 1: Beans are swollen after eight hours of soaking.<br />
Stage 2: <strong>Seed</strong>s start germinating one day after soaking.<br />
Stage 3: <strong>Seed</strong>s germinate fully two to three days after soaking with 1 to 2 cm-long sprouts.<br />
Stage 4: Sprouts increase in length to 2 to 3-cm after three to four days soaking.<br />
Stage 5: Sprouts attain a length of about 5 cm or more in four to five days of soaking. In most<br />
countries, st<strong>and</strong>ard marketable sprouts are at least 5 cm long.<br />
Stage 6: Sprouts grow further, reaching a length of 8 to 9 cm after six to eight days of soaking.<br />
Longer sprouts are preferred by consumers in Taiwan.<br />
• Consumer preferences determine the size of sprouts produced. Relative sprout lengths at<br />
different stages provide a wide choice.<br />
Transfer sprouts of marketable size from the sprouting containers to drums/troughs or buckets<br />
for washing Wash <strong>and</strong> pack sprouts during early morning to avoid spoilage by high temperature<br />
after sunrise. Remove all broken roots, sprout pieces <strong>and</strong> other debris while washing.<br />
• Wash with fresh cold water three to four times to separate the seed coats still attached to the<br />
sprouts. Remove the sprouts from the drum using a basket or sieve.
. Use plastic bags to pack the sprouts for the market. A kilogram of dry seed yields around eight to<br />
nine kilograms of sprouts.<br />
. Vendors in the local market usually sell the sprouts in open containers, but sprouts kept this way<br />
are likely to deteriorate quickly. Well-developed market centers/ supermarkets use special<br />
packages laminated with cellophane to prevent drying <strong>and</strong> quick deterioration. To enhance shelf<br />
life, keep the sprouts refrigerated.<br />
<strong>Vegetable</strong> Soybean <strong>Cultivation</strong><br />
<strong>Vegetable</strong> soybean is popular in Japan, Korea, China <strong>and</strong> Taiwan, <strong>and</strong> consumption is<br />
increasing very rapidly. Although the vegetable-type varieties of soybean are preferred, the greenshelled<br />
beans as well as whole tender green pods of grain soybean can also be used as a vegetable.<br />
Grain soybean is already widely cultivated in many countries of the tropics <strong>and</strong> subtropics, so the<br />
production of vegetable soybean can be readily adopted. The cultivation practices for vegetable<br />
soybean <strong>and</strong> grain soybean are similar except that vegetable soybeans are harvested when the pods<br />
are still green <strong>and</strong> full. Generally, the green seeds of vegetable soybean are larger, more tender <strong>and</strong><br />
sweet. Green-shelled beans can be cooked to make a tasty <strong>and</strong> nutritious meal or snack.<br />
The importance <strong>and</strong> cultivation practices of vegetable soybean are described below:<br />
. <strong>Vegetable</strong> soybean, a rich source of vitamin A, <strong>and</strong> also good source of carbohydrate, protein<br />
<strong>and</strong> iron, has excellent potential for enriching the human diet. It is more nutritious than vegetable<br />
green peas. The pods of vegetable soybean are harvested when they are still green, just before<br />
the seeds turn yellow.<br />
. The seeds of vegetable soybeans are commonly larger, sweeter <strong>and</strong> more tender than grain type<br />
soybean. Such green seeds are commonly used in most countries. Even grain soybeans at green<br />
pod stage can be used as a vegetable.<br />
In addition to domestic consumption, vegetable soybean also has export potential. Export market<br />
requirements are:<br />
Hundred seed weight (dry): 30 g;<br />
No. of seeds per pod: 2<br />
Pubescence on pod: gray<br />
Flavor: good<br />
Pod texture after cooking: easy to squeeze<br />
Taste: slightly sweet<br />
Cooking time: short<br />
Frozen vegetable soybeans are popular in supermarkets of Japan <strong>and</strong> Taiwan.<br />
The best planting date for vegetable soybean differs with season <strong>and</strong> location depending upon<br />
temperature <strong>and</strong> daylength. The optimum temperature range for soybean cultivation is 20-30 0 C<br />
with short day length (< 14 hours). However, planting should be avoided at cooler temperatures<br />
during winter. Loam soil with a pH of 6.0-6.5 is suitable for its cultivation, but the field should<br />
be well drained.<br />
At AVRDC, the following suggested cultural management practices are adopted for high yields<br />
of good quality vegetable soybean. You can make modifications to suit local conditions.<br />
Field preparation: L<strong>and</strong> tillage makes the soil friable for good germination, increases soil<br />
porosity <strong>and</strong> aeration for healthy plant growth <strong>and</strong> kills weeds to control weed-crop competition<br />
for soil nutrients, moisture <strong>and</strong> light. This in turn helps plant productivity. Plow <strong>and</strong> rototill the<br />
field.<br />
1 1
Basal fertilizer application: Have soil samples analyzed. The fertilizer requirements are<br />
determined on the basis of the soil test. The higher the soil nutrient level, the lesser will be the<br />
quantity of fertilizer needed. To get a good harvest (7-10 tons green pods per hectare) <strong>and</strong><br />
maintain soil nutrient status for consistent productivity, a fertilizer mix containing N, P205 <strong>and</strong><br />
K20 at the rate of 20-30, 60 <strong>and</strong> 80 kg/ha respectively is applied by broadcast as a basal dose<br />
<strong>and</strong> incorporated into the soil with final harrowing <strong>and</strong> leveling of the field.<br />
Use of Rhizobium inoculation: Usually Rhizobium inoculation is not required in fields<br />
where legumes are cultivated. But newly opened l<strong>and</strong>s need Rhizobium bacteria inoculations at<br />
10 g per kilogram of seed. The use of Rhizobium bacteria culture will promote nodule formation<br />
<strong>and</strong> nitrogen fixation by the plant roots.<br />
<strong>Seed</strong>bed preparation: The soil should not be too dry at the time of seed bed preparation.<br />
Inadequate moisture will result in poor seed germination. At AVRDC, we irrigate the field 3-4<br />
days prior to sowing to ensure sufficient moisture in the soil for good germination of seed.<br />
Prepare 20-cm raised beds spaced one meter apart from center of one bed to the center of the<br />
next.<br />
<strong>Seed</strong> treatment <strong>and</strong> planting: The seed is' treated with protectant fungicides such as captan or<br />
thiram at 3 g a.i./kg seed for protection against soilborne fungal diseases. Spacing between rows<br />
is 45 cm <strong>and</strong> between plants 5-10 cm depending upon seed size <strong>and</strong> season. Two to three seeds<br />
are sown in each hill. However, spacing between rows varies with variety <strong>and</strong> season. Usually<br />
seeding (60 to 80 kg seed/ha) is regulated to obtain a population of 400,000 plants per hectare.<br />
Sow seeds by h<strong>and</strong> or by, a h<strong>and</strong> operated planter.<br />
Top dressing of fertilizer: The first top dressing is done at the rate of 20 kg N + 25 kg K20<br />
per hectare along plant rows at flowering for higher pod set. A second application of 20 kg N per<br />
hectare is done at the beginning of pod filling stage to improve seed size.<br />
Weed controlt At AVRDC, application of alachlor at 1.5 kg a.i./ha either alone or combined<br />
with pendimethalin at 0.75 kg a.i./ha as pre-emergence spray is practiced to control weeds.<br />
Intertillage: Intertillage once or twice is beneficial for aeration of root system <strong>and</strong> to control<br />
weeds which emerge after the effect of chemical weedicides fades off.<br />
Irrigation: Maintaining proper soil moisture throughout the crop growing season is important<br />
for good quality pods. Usually, first irrigation is needed within a week after sowing under<br />
AVRDC soil conditions. Irrigation is done in furrows. Depending upon weather <strong>and</strong> soil<br />
moisture conditions, the irrigation is continued at 10-15-day intervals until the pods are well<br />
developed. However, irrigating the crop is essential at critical periods such as flowering <strong>and</strong> pod<br />
filling stages.<br />
Disease control: Rust may be a serious problem, especially for seed production, causing up to<br />
100% yield loss. Tan, dark brown or reddish brown lesions occur on leaves of rust-affected<br />
plants. None of the commercial cultivars are resistant to rust, but rust-tolerant breeding lines have<br />
been selected at AVRDC. Fungicides such as mancozeb or triadimefon at the rate of 2 kg a.i./ha<br />
are sprayed at 10-day intervals to control rust in susceptible cultivars.<br />
Downy mildew disease commonly occurs during spring <strong>and</strong> autumn seasons but it does not<br />
generally cause yield reduction. The symptoms are pale green to light yellow spots on the surface<br />
of the leaf. These spots later enlarge into pale to bright yellow lesions. The underside of the leaf<br />
shows white powdery spores. To control downy mildew, plant resistant cultivars. For<br />
susceptible cultivars spray fungicides such as mancozeb at the rate of 2 kg a.i./ha depending<br />
upon severity of disease attack.<br />
2
Bacterial pustule can cause yield losses of up to 40% in vegetable soybean. Early symptoms of<br />
this disease are small pale green lesions which become watersoaked with bacterial ooze that dries<br />
to become white crust on upper/lower leaf surfaces. The best way to control bacterial pustule<br />
disease is by planting resistant varieties.<br />
Insect pest control: Beanfly is a serious pest of soybean. Beanfly larvae feed inside the plant<br />
stem <strong>and</strong> their damage cannot be recognized easily. Beanfly damage is more severe in relatively<br />
cool season (e.g. during autumn at AVRDC) compared to long dry weather conditions (e.g.<br />
spring at AVRDC) due to lower insect population. Soybean must be protected against beanfly.<br />
For the autumn crop at AVRDC, monocrotophos, omethoate or dimethoate is sprayed at the rate<br />
of 0.5 kg a.i./ha at 3, 7, 14, 21, 28 <strong>and</strong> 35 days after emergence (DAE). The first three sprays<br />
are very important <strong>and</strong> should not be delayed. Spraying is stopped at 35 DAE. In spring, usually<br />
there is no serious damage by beanfly.<br />
Pod borers may attack soybean but usually they do not cause significant yield loss under<br />
AVRDC conditions if we use insecticides for beanfly control.<br />
Stink bug commonly occur on vegetable soybeans late in spring <strong>and</strong> summer season crops. They<br />
do not cause any economic damage under AVRDC conditions. However, if you notice high<br />
population (i.e. 3 to 4 insects per meter rove) uniformly over the entire field in early pod filling<br />
stage, spray insecticides such as fenvalerate at 100 g a.i./ha or deltamethrin at 30-50 g a.i./ha at<br />
weekly intervals till the insect infestation is controlled.<br />
Defoliators feed on leaves. Minor damage does not require insecticide application. However,<br />
when the attack is severe, they can also be controlled by the insecticides used for stink bug<br />
control.<br />
Stop spraying chemicals at least 10 days prior to harvest. Overuse of insecticides or fungicides is<br />
hazardous for human <strong>and</strong> animal health.<br />
Harvesting: Harvesting is done when 80% of the pods have reached physiological maturity<br />
stage. It may take 65 to 75 days after germination for vegetable soybeans to be ready for harvest<br />
depending upon variety, temperature <strong>and</strong> weather conditions. The pods are still green. In<br />
Taiwan, harvesting usually begins at midnight when dew <strong>and</strong> cool temperature help to preserve<br />
the green color <strong>and</strong> freshness of the vegetable soybeans. When harvested in daytime, the plants<br />
are kept under the shade. The pods are stripped from the plants by h<strong>and</strong>. Harvesting machines<br />
which can save labor, cost <strong>and</strong> time are also available.<br />
Grading is important for export of good quality vegetable soybeans. The diseased <strong>and</strong> insectdamaged<br />
pods <strong>and</strong> pods with spots <strong>and</strong> blemishes are sorted out. The good marketable yields<br />
are:<br />
0 pods - 7-10 t/ha, or<br />
green beans - 4-7 t/ha, or<br />
whole plant - 18-25 t/ha<br />
I 3
<strong>Seed</strong> <strong>Production</strong> Technology of Garden Peas<br />
S.<br />
Shanrnugasundaram<br />
Garden peas are one of the four most important seed legumes. It occupies an important<br />
place among the winter vegetables in India. In the North Indian hills, it is the most important offseason<br />
vegetable grown both as a summer <strong>and</strong> autumn crop. It is cultivated in states like<br />
Bihar, TYL9 ' , Aauonn.MoburobLru,Delhi, West Bengal, Punjab, uodHinoaoboJPradesh. The most<br />
important garden pea growing state iu}3.P.which accounts for more than 60 % of production.<br />
In self-pollinated crops like garden pea, hybrid vigor is commonly found when different<br />
purelines are crossed. Since self-polliooUioo is the general rule, inbreeding is necessary to obtain<br />
pozeIiueoin this group of plants.<br />
Whether or not it is economically feasible to use hybrid vigor depends upon the cost of<br />
producing the hybrid seed in relation to the value of the increased yields. Since most self-pollinated<br />
crops produce urclativeln small amount of pollen, which is not transferred by the wind or by<br />
insects to any significant degree, h<strong>and</strong> pollination is most likely necessary to bring about u1rans{er<br />
of pollen between plants. If many seeds are produced by each h<strong>and</strong> pollination then the increased<br />
yield justifies hybridization for greenhouse <strong>and</strong> early market use. With a crop like garden peas, it is<br />
very unlikely that hybrids will ever be used because of difficulty of h<strong>and</strong> pollination <strong>and</strong> the small<br />
number of seeds produced per pollination.<br />
The production of quality seeds not only involves the selection of the best <strong>and</strong> true to type<br />
plants in varieties of different vegetables but also the adoption of specific techniques suited to each<br />
kind. For the production of good quality seeds such information as whether a particular crop is<br />
self-pollinated or cross-polliootcd is absolutely oeceaary,as the technique to be used will depend<br />
on it.<br />
<strong>Seed</strong> <strong>Production</strong><br />
<strong>Seed</strong>s of garden peas of almost all varieties can be quite efficiently produced in the North<br />
Indian plains. Therefore, there seems to be no real advantage in producing pea seed in the hills for<br />
supplying to the vegetable growers in the plains.<br />
The agronomic practices to be followed for crops raised for seed production are the same as<br />
for those raised for commercial green pod purposes. Some of the important aspects of cultivation<br />
are:<br />
Soil <strong>and</strong> Climatic Requirements:<br />
Peas can be<br />
in a variety of soils, from light s<strong>and</strong>y loam to clay though the best<br />
results are achieved on well drained loose, friable loamy soils, <strong>and</strong> not in acidic soils. The most<br />
favorablepH range is between 6.0 uod7.5.<br />
Peas prefer cool weather; they do not grow well during the intense heat of summer. The<br />
blossoms <strong>and</strong> pod are more susceptible to frost than the leaves uods1e000.Tbe seeds can germinate<br />
at nroinicunzo temperature of 50C; the optimum temperature for germination is about 220C. At<br />
higher temperatures, germination is rapid but loss of st<strong>and</strong> may result from various decaying<br />
organiazom.<br />
}
Early varieties can be sown from mid-October to the first week of November while midseason<br />
varieties can be sown from the last week of October to mid-November. Late varieties can be<br />
sown up to the end of November.<br />
<strong>Seed</strong> Rate:<br />
Use 70 to 75 kg/ha for late varieties <strong>and</strong> 100 kg/ha for early varieties. For the variety Arkel<br />
the seed rate can be increased up to 125 kg/ha.<br />
Inoculation:<br />
Inoculation of pea seeds with pea nodule bacterium culture is recommended when peas are<br />
planted for the first time <strong>and</strong> also when the crop is to be grown on poor soil. Emulsify the culture<br />
material in a small quantity of 10 % sugar or gur solution, sufficient to moisten the seed. Heap the<br />
seed on a clean floor <strong>and</strong> moisten <strong>and</strong> mix thoroughly with the solution. Then spread moistened<br />
seed in a thin layer in the shade to dry <strong>and</strong> sow in the field in the evening or on a cloudy day.<br />
Spacing:<br />
Use 30 cm for row-to-row spacing for early <strong>and</strong> 45 cm for mid-season <strong>and</strong> late varieties.<br />
Within-row continuous sowing is done <strong>and</strong> later on the plants can be spaced at adistanoe of 2 to<br />
ljozo.l1labor is cheap <strong>and</strong> adequate then sowing with odibbler with spikes at 3"x7" distance is<br />
preferred.<br />
Fertilizer Use:<br />
A high dose of nitrogenous fertilizer may have a deleterious effect on nodule formation <strong>and</strong><br />
nitrogen fixation. A small dose of nitrogenous fertilizer ( about 25 N/ha ) is necessary to stimulate<br />
early growth ,of legumes. Phosphates increase yield <strong>and</strong> improve the quality of peas, whereas<br />
potassium appears to increase the yield <strong>and</strong> nitrogen fixation ability of the legumes. Apply about<br />
20 t FYM/ha, 125 kg CAN/ha or 60-65 kg urea/ha, 420 kg Superphosphate/ha, <strong>and</strong> 100 kg to<br />
100 kg Murate of Potash /ha during field preparation.<br />
Irrigation:<br />
For proper germination presoaking is advisable. If the soil moisture is less at the time of<br />
sowing, a light irrigation may be necessary after planting to ensure proper germination. Thereafter,<br />
during the dry period, light irrigation may be given at an interval of 10-15 days. One or two<br />
irrigations at the time of flowering <strong>and</strong> fruit-setting are essential. Light irrigation during frosty<br />
weather is also essential to protect the developing flowers <strong>and</strong> pods from frost damage. Irrigation<br />
with sprinkler is very much recommended.<br />
Isolation:<br />
Since garden pea is a self-pollinated crop, not much contamination is expected in producing<br />
pure seeds of a variety. Consequently the only isolation necessary is to have a planting space far<br />
enough to prevent mechanical mixtures at planting or harvesting time. However, when producing<br />
the foundation seed, two different varieties should be kept about 20 m.<br />
Roguing:<br />
The term "rogue" as used today applies to any off-type plant. Rogues may originate as a<br />
result of mechanical mixture, volunteer mixture from earlier plantings, natural crossing or<br />
morphological changes caused by mutations.<br />
2
For roguing inspect the pea field at least three, times: (I ) before flowering stage; ( 2 ) during<br />
flowering <strong>and</strong> fruiting; ( 3 ) during the mature fruit stage.<br />
A high st<strong>and</strong>ard of pureness to typ e allows 1 off-type plant in 200 plants. To avoid<br />
volunteer mixtures do not sow seed on l<strong>and</strong> that has been planted to a different strain within the<br />
preceeding two years.<br />
Harvesting <strong>and</strong> Curing:<br />
Harvest the crop from the time the peas become hard in the pod up to the time they become<br />
completely mature. It takes about 30 days for the peas to sufficiently mature for germination after<br />
they reach their green stage. Put the vines in small bunches to cure for at least 10 days between<br />
harvesting <strong>and</strong> thrashing to allow the sweat to pass.<br />
Thrashing:<br />
thrasher.<br />
<strong>Seed</strong> Yield:<br />
Thrash the peas as soon as the plants dry. Thrashing can be done with an ordinary grain<br />
rare.<br />
The seed yield per hectare varies from 1.4 to 2 t. <strong>Seed</strong> yield as high as 2.5 t are also not<br />
\`<br />
3
<strong>Seed</strong> <strong>Production</strong> Technology of Beans<br />
There are 18 types of beans found throughout the world. Of these, French bean (Phaselous<br />
vulgaris L.) lablab beans (Labial) purpureus), cowpea (Vigna sinensis Savi) <strong>and</strong> cluster bean<br />
(Cno ir &y /n /uboI.. Taub. ) are very common <strong>and</strong> popularly consumed as green<br />
vegetable in India. Except for cluster bean, the seed of the other three beans is also consumed as<br />
pulse.<br />
All these crops are self-pollinated <strong>and</strong> exhibit very little heterosis. Also because of the less<br />
number of seeds available in the pods economical commercial hybrid seed production is not<br />
possible. Hybrids can be made by h<strong>and</strong> emasculation <strong>and</strong> pollination only 1odevxlope a variety <strong>and</strong><br />
for other improvements in the crop. The crops need 50-10 m isolation distance to produce<br />
foundation <strong>and</strong> certified seeds of two cultivars.<br />
French bean<br />
French bean is grown throughout the world as a green vegetable as well as for dry seed<br />
consumption as pulse. It is a self-pollinated crop with only 2-8% outcrossing.<br />
Climate French bean is uvvaoo-aeugoo crop in the hills but it does not thrive well under<br />
extremely high temperature. It cannot withst<strong>and</strong> drought as well as very heavy rainfall <strong>and</strong> frost.<br />
Even though, muoyculLivars are photo-insensitive, certain cultivars develop floral buds only<br />
during short days but would abscise during long days. Suitable soil temperature for good <strong>and</strong> rapid<br />
germination is 00C. Soil temperature ranging from 18 to 270C induce Rhizoctonia solani<br />
infection in young seedlings. High temperature exceeding 240C for two successive days can cause<br />
ureduction of 2% in the podsqt for each degree of temperature above 240C to 360F ( Davis 1945 ) .<br />
SburnmaeLul. (1983) found that 14-190C temperature <strong>and</strong> 60-70% humidity in autumn season <strong>and</strong><br />
20-250C <strong>and</strong> 50-70% humidity in spring season ared suitable for better growth <strong>and</strong> yield.<br />
Techniques for seed production French bean can be grown successfully in s<strong>and</strong>y loam<br />
soils. Alkaline <strong>and</strong> acidic soils should be avoided. To raise a good crop use 15-20 t FYM, 20 kg<br />
nitrogen, 60 kg phosphorous, <strong>and</strong> 60 kg potash. Except for nitrogen, other fertilizers should be<br />
mixed in the soil at the time of last plowing.<br />
Before sowing make sure that the soil contains sufficient moisture to attain better <strong>and</strong><br />
quicker germination. Watering just after sowing or before germination results in germination<br />
failure. <strong>Seed</strong>s take 6 to 7 days at I50C soil temperature to germinate, germination is delayed at<br />
temperature below 150C.<br />
Sow seeds of dwarf types at a distance of 45-60 cm in rows; plant-to-plant distance should<br />
be kept at 15-20 cm. Pole types require 90-I00 cm distance between rows <strong>and</strong> 30-40 cm between<br />
plants. Nearly 50-55 kg seed for pole type <strong>and</strong> 75-100 kg seed for bush type are required to sow<br />
one hectare of l<strong>and</strong>.<br />
Apply light irrigation <strong>and</strong> perform weeding <strong>and</strong> spraying of insecticide as <strong>and</strong> when<br />
required. Harvest ripe pods by h<strong>and</strong>. Dry the pods in the sun <strong>and</strong> thresh by beating with a stick. If<br />
plants are uprooted then curing must be done at least for 1 week so that pod color turns yellowish.<br />
Remove rotten <strong>and</strong> broken seeds at seed grading. After proper drying, keep the seed in store.<br />
Cowpea (Vigna<br />
oimuasio L.)<br />
Cowpea is grown throughout India for its long pods as green vegetable, seed as pulse, <strong>and</strong><br />
foliage as fodder. When grown for dry seeds, it is known as black eye pea, kaffier pea, China pea,<br />
or southern bean. The cultivars grown for their immature pods are variusly known as asparagus<br />
4
ean, snake bean, <strong>and</strong> yard-long bean. Cowpea belongs the family Leguminoseae, subfamily<br />
Fabaceae.<br />
Soil <strong>and</strong> Climate<br />
Cowpeuoan be grown in almost all types of soils. It is a warm-season<br />
crop <strong>and</strong> thrives best between 21 <strong>and</strong> 350C. It can be grown successfully in spring summer <strong>and</strong><br />
rainy season in the North Indian plains. It cannot withst<strong>and</strong> heavy rainfall <strong>and</strong> water-logging.<br />
D ifferent cultivars respond differently to temperature <strong>and</strong> daylength <strong>and</strong> thus these are distinct<br />
cultivars for spring summer <strong>and</strong> rainy season.<br />
<strong>Seed</strong> <strong>Production</strong> Techniques<br />
Season <strong>and</strong> Sowing Cowpea can be grown in spring summer <strong>and</strong> rainy season. In<br />
locations where the climate is mild, it can be grown almost throughout the year, but otherwise<br />
photo-insensitive cultivars are grown. In India it is usually sown in February/March in the<br />
Northern plains <strong>and</strong> in December/January in the South for spring summer crop; for rainy season<br />
crop, sowing is done in June/July all over the Indian plains.<br />
Sowing is done in well prepared fields by broadcasting seeds or in line sowing. Usually<br />
15-20 kg of seed is required for sowing on 1 hectare depending on cultivar <strong>and</strong> season. Sowing in<br />
lines facilitate better interculture operations <strong>and</strong> after care. Line sowing can be done by a drill<br />
operated by a tractor, bullocks or manual labor. Spacing between rows should be 45-60 cm <strong>and</strong><br />
between plants 10-15 cm. In case of seed crop, l<strong>and</strong> in which one cultivar of cowpea was grown<br />
the previous year should not be used for growing another cultivars the following year to avoid<br />
contaminations.<br />
Interculture Being a leguminous crop cowpea does not require heavy fertilization. Inoculate<br />
seed with Rhizobium culture before sowing. Application of 10-20 kg N, 50-70 kg phosphorous,<br />
<strong>and</strong> 50-70 kg potash has been recommended by Chauhan (1972 ) .<br />
Cowpea is a shallow-rooted crop <strong>and</strong> requires less moisture <strong>and</strong> light irrigation for proper<br />
growth, as it is sensitive to waterlogging. Irrigation prior to flowering helps in pod setting; another<br />
irrigation should be given after the pods have set. At least one hoeing/weeding after 4 weeks helps<br />
control weeds <strong>and</strong> in root nodulation. Spraying Maleic hydrazide ( MH) at 50-200 ppm just before<br />
flowering was reported to increase the yield of pod ( Choudhury <strong>and</strong> Ramphal 1960 ) .<br />
Maintain an isolation distance of 50 nuDor foundation seed <strong>and</strong> 25 nu for the production of<br />
certified seed between two cultivars ( Anon. 1971). Ripe <strong>and</strong> dry pods are harvested by h<strong>and</strong><br />
picking or by cutting the plants in case of last flush. To avoid shattering of the seeds, harvest when<br />
half to two-thirds of the pod has matured. Some cultivars shatter more than others. This problem is<br />
not encountered in ouldvacuwith flashy inflated pods. Threshing is done by beating widha stick or<br />
by a thresher. Extreme care should be taken during threshing to prevent injury l to1heueod.Tbe<br />
seeds maintain viability for two years under normal storage conditions.<br />
Labial) Beans<br />
Lablab beans are self-pollinated <strong>and</strong> partially cross-pollinated by insects. Different cultivars<br />
should be grown 50 roapart in case of foundation seed ud25roapart in case of certified seed.<br />
Lablab beans are indeterminate in response ionho1operiod <strong>and</strong> there are some short-day <strong>and</strong> longd<br />
types. Lablab bean is a relatively cool season crop adapted to tropical <strong>and</strong> subtropical regions.<br />
Drought-resistant strains are available <strong>and</strong> grown as a dry l<strong>and</strong> crop in regions with minimum<br />
rainfall. Fruiting starts at the onset of winter <strong>and</strong> continues throughout the year. Lablab beans are<br />
grown both for green pods as well as dry seeds. Heterosis may not be of much use in this crop but<br />
cross-combinations showing heterosis vigor can be used to develop high-yielding purelines.<br />
<strong>Seed</strong> <strong>Production</strong> Techniques i~ahlabbeans are annuals of bushy or vining type. When the<br />
vines are supported they may grow as high as 6-10 m. They are usaully grown as oso{e crop with<br />
5
staking of the vines. In some places they are grown as a mixed crop with ragi, bajra or sorghum. It<br />
is planted with a distance of about 1 m between crops. The ear heads of the intercrops are<br />
harvested first leaving the stalks as support to the vines. The vines grow on them perfectly. If it is<br />
grown as a sole crop it can be sown with a distance of 2.5 x 1.5 m. Three to four seeds are sown<br />
per hill <strong>and</strong> one or two plants allowed to grow on each hill. Dwarf types can be grown at a distance<br />
of 1.0 x 0.75 m line to line <strong>and</strong> plant to plant. About 20-30 kg seed are required to sow 1 ha of<br />
bush type <strong>and</strong> 10-12 kg for climbing types.<br />
Lablab beans can be grown in a wide range of soils of average fertility. About 20 kg N,<br />
40 kg phosphorus, <strong>and</strong> 5-6 t FYM are required to grow a good crop in 1 ha of l<strong>and</strong>.<br />
Intercultivation can be done to control the weeds until vines spread between rows. Since lablab<br />
beans cannot st<strong>and</strong> waterlogging, frequent irrigations should be avoided.<br />
Ripe mature pods can be h<strong>and</strong>picked from the st<strong>and</strong>ing crop. Threshing can be done by<br />
beating the pods with a stick, moving a stone roller over the pods, or under letting bullocks trample<br />
them. <strong>Seed</strong> should be thoroughly cleaned <strong>and</strong> dried before bagging. Average seed yield is 6-<br />
8 qt/ha.<br />
Cluster Bean<br />
The tender pods are used as a vegetable <strong>and</strong> in the southern part of India they are<br />
dehydrated <strong>and</strong> stored for use. Cluster bean is a self-pollinated crop, yet some outcrossing, i.e. 2%<br />
has been reported. Thus, lesser heterosis is available. Due to less seeds in each pod, economical<br />
commercial hybrid seed production in cluster bean is not possible.<br />
<strong>Seed</strong> <strong>Production</strong> Techniques The crop should be sown in well-drained s<strong>and</strong>y loam soil.<br />
Cluster bean can also tolerate saline <strong>and</strong> moderately alkaline soils with pH ranging 7.5 to 8.0. It<br />
prefers warm climates <strong>and</strong> can also be grown in subtropical areas during summer. It prefers longday<br />
conditions for growth <strong>and</strong> short day for induction of flowering.<br />
Main a row-to-row distance of 45-60 cm <strong>and</strong> plant-to-plant spacing of 10-15 cm. <strong>Seed</strong> rate<br />
for line sowing is 15 kg/ha. To improve seed yield, 10-12 kg N, 50-70 kg P, <strong>and</strong> 50-70 kg K/ha<br />
are recommended. One or two irrigations are needed in case rains are delayed.<br />
Pull out the plants from the field after proper maturity of the pods. Keep the plants in the<br />
leap for curing <strong>and</strong> proper drying for at least one week. Threshing should be done as in the other<br />
beans. Store the seeds after proper grading <strong>and</strong> drying. The average seed yield per hectare is<br />
10 qtl.<br />
Pests of Beans<br />
a.<br />
b.<br />
c.<br />
d<br />
ė.<br />
f.<br />
g.<br />
h.<br />
J -<br />
Aphids (Aphis sp.)<br />
Jassid (Amrasca kerni)<br />
Galerucide beetle (Madurasia obscurella)<br />
Pod borer (Adisura sp. Heliothis arinigera)<br />
Bean weevil (Callosobruchus sp.)<br />
Lygacid bug (Chauliops fallax)<br />
Hairy caterpillar (Ascotis imparata)<br />
Stem fly (Ophiomyia phaseoli)<br />
Root weevil (Stiona lineal:0<br />
Bean lady bird beetle (Epilachna varivestis)<br />
6
Disease of Beans<br />
a.<br />
b.<br />
d.<br />
g.<br />
Anthracnose (Colletotrichum lindemuthianum) Fungal<br />
Bean rust (Uromyces appendiculatus) Fungal<br />
Leaf spot (Cercospora mien/a) Fungal<br />
Powdery mildew (Etysiphe polygoni) Fungal<br />
Dry root rot <strong>and</strong> ashy grey blight <strong>and</strong> wilt <strong>and</strong> Charcoal rot (Fusarium solani f. sp. phaseoli)<br />
Fungal<br />
Bacterial blight (Xanthomonas phaseoli) Bacterial<br />
BCMV (Bean common mosaic virus )Viral<br />
owed:<br />
a. Anthracnose (Colletotrichum lindeinuthianuin) Fungal<br />
b. Dieback (Colletotrichum capsici Syd. Fungal)<br />
c. Ashy stem blight (Macmphomhia phaseolina) Fungal<br />
d. Powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni DC) Fungal<br />
e. Bacterial blight (Xanthomonas vignicola Bunk) Fungal<br />
e. Mosaic virus virus<br />
Cluster bean:<br />
a. Wilt (Fusariuin sp.)<br />
b. Bacterial blight (Xanthomonas cyamopsidis)<br />
c. Powdery mildew (Leveillula taurica)<br />
d. Anthracnose (Colletotrichunm sp.)<br />
Lab-Lab beans:<br />
a. Leaf spot (Cercospora dolichii Ell.) Fungal<br />
b. Powdery mildew (Leveillula taurica) Fungal<br />
c. Yellow mosaic virus<br />
7
Proceedings of a symposium<br />
on sustainable agriculture<br />
The Role of Green Manure crops<br />
in Rice Farming Systems<br />
25 - 29 May 1987<br />
1988 .<br />
The International Rice Research Institute<br />
in collaboration with<br />
The Commission on the Application of Science<br />
to Agriculture, Forestry, <strong>and</strong> Aquaculture
The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) was established in 1960 by the<br />
Ford <strong>and</strong> Rockefeller Foundations with the help <strong>and</strong> approval of the Government<br />
of the Philippines. Today IRRI is one of the 13 nonprofit international research<br />
<strong>and</strong> training centers supported by the Consultative Group on International<br />
Agricultural Research (CGIAR). The CGIAR is sponsored by the Food <strong>and</strong><br />
Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, the International Bank for<br />
Reconstruction <strong>and</strong> Development (World Bank), <strong>and</strong> the United Nations Development<br />
Programme (UNDP). The CGIAR consists of 50 donor countries, international<br />
<strong>and</strong> regional organizations, <strong>and</strong> private foundations.<br />
I RRI receives support, through the CGIAR, from a number of donors<br />
including the Asian Development Bank, the European Economic Community, the<br />
Ford Foundation, the International Development Research Centre, the International<br />
Fund for Agricultural Development, the OPEC Special Fund, the<br />
Rockefeller Foundation, the United Nations Development Programme, the<br />
World Bank, <strong>and</strong> the international aid agencies of the following governments:<br />
Australia, Belgium, Canada, China, Denmark, Finl<strong>and</strong>, France, Federal Republic<br />
of Germany, India, Italy, `Japan, Mexico, The Netherl<strong>and</strong>s, New Zeal<strong>and</strong>,<br />
Norway, the Philippines, Saudi Arabia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerl<strong>and</strong>, United<br />
Kingdom, <strong>and</strong> United States.<br />
The responsibility for this publication rests with the International Rice<br />
Research Institute.<br />
Copyright © International Rice Research Institute 1988<br />
All rights reserved. Except for quotations of short passages for the purpose of<br />
criticism <strong>and</strong> review, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in<br />
retrieval systems, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,<br />
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior permission of<br />
I RRI. This permission will not be unreasonably withheld for use for noncommercial<br />
purposes. IRRI does not require payment for the noncommercial use<br />
of its published works, <strong>and</strong> hopes that this copyright declaration will not diminish<br />
the bona fide use of its research findings in agricultural research <strong>and</strong> development.<br />
The designations employed <strong>and</strong> the presentation of the material in this<br />
publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of<br />
IRRI concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city, or area, or of its<br />
authorities, or the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.<br />
ISBN 97-104-189-8
Contents<br />
Foreword<br />
Symposium recommendations<br />
KNOWLEDGE AND TECHNOLOGY<br />
Economic feasibility of green manure in rice-based cropping<br />
systems 11<br />
M.W. Rosegrant <strong>and</strong> Roumasset<br />
Woody species as green manure crops in rice-based cropping<br />
systems 29<br />
J.L. Brewbaker <strong>and</strong> N. Glover<br />
Green manure in rice the Japan experience 45<br />
M. Ishikawa<br />
Green manure cultivation <strong>and</strong> use for rice in China 63<br />
Chen Lizhi<br />
Green rn'anure crops in irrigated <strong>and</strong> rainfed lowl<strong>and</strong> rice-based<br />
cropping systems in South Asia 71<br />
I.P. Abrol <strong>and</strong> S.P. Palaniappan<br />
Potential of sesbania as a green manure in saline rice soils in<br />
Thail<strong>and</strong> 83<br />
S. Arunin, C. Dissataporn, Y. Anuluxtipan, <strong>and</strong> D. Nana<br />
Stem-nodulating legumes as green manure for rice in West Africa<br />
G. Rinaudo, D. Alazard, <strong>and</strong> A. Moudiongui<br />
Farm-level management systems for green manure crops in Asian rice<br />
environments 111<br />
D.P. Garrity <strong>and</strong> J.C. Flinn<br />
EFFECTS ON SOIL FERTILITY<br />
Microbiological aspects of green manure in lowl<strong>and</strong> rice soils 131<br />
N.S. SubbaRao<br />
Effect of green manure on soil organic matter content <strong>and</strong> nitrogen<br />
availability 151<br />
D.R. Bouldin<br />
Nitrogen fixation by leguminous green manure <strong>and</strong> practices for its<br />
enhancement in tropical lowl<strong>and</strong> rice 165<br />
J.K. Ladha, I. Watanabe, <strong>and</strong> S. Saono
Role of green manure in low-input farming in the humid tropics<br />
J. van der Heide<br />
Transformation of green manure nitrogen in lowl<strong>and</strong> rice soils<br />
S. Nagarajah<br />
Green manure management in rice-based cropping systems<br />
O.P. Meelu <strong>and</strong> R.A. Morris<br />
Measurement of nitrogen fixation in crop <strong>and</strong> shrub legumes 223<br />
M.B. Peoples, D.F. Herridge, <strong>and</strong> F.J. Bergersen<br />
ACIAR-sponsored legume research 239<br />
E.S. Wallis <strong>and</strong> D.E. Byth<br />
Effect of green manure on rice soil fertility in the United States 257<br />
M.P. Westcott <strong>and</strong> D.S. Mikkelsen<br />
Effect of green manure on physicochemical properties of irrigated rice<br />
soils 275<br />
Wen Qixiao <strong>and</strong> Yu Tianren<br />
INTEGRATED USE OF LEGUMES<br />
Annual legumes for food <strong>and</strong> as green manure in a rice-based cropping<br />
system 289<br />
K.R. Kulkarni <strong>and</strong> R.K. P<strong>and</strong>ey<br />
Use of perennial legumes in Asian farming systems 301<br />
P.K.RrNair<br />
Integrated use of green manure in ricefields in South China 319<br />
Liu Chungchu<br />
Use of green manure in rice farming systems in West <strong>and</strong> Northwest<br />
Cameroon 333<br />
A.C. Roy, S.B.C. Wanki, <strong>and</strong> J.A. Takow<br />
GERMPLASM COLLECTION AND SEED<br />
PRODUCTION<br />
Collection <strong>and</strong> evaluation of tropical legume germplasm 343<br />
R. Schultze-Kraft<br />
<strong>Seed</strong> production <strong>and</strong> management of mungbean <strong>and</strong> soybean 359<br />
S. Shanmugasundaram<br />
Participants 376<br />
209<br />
193<br />
185
<strong>Seed</strong> pro u t on <strong>and</strong> mana e ent<br />
of .ungb an n soybean<br />
S. Shanmugasundaram<br />
The seed requirement to plant the world mungbean area is estimated to be<br />
around 68,000 t; for soybean, it is ,156,000t. Current seed supplies cannot<br />
meet that dem<strong>and</strong>. The need to produce sufficient quality seeds in<br />
mungbean <strong>and</strong> soybean is emphasized <strong>and</strong> preharvest <strong>and</strong> postharvest seed<br />
production problems discussed. Future directions for seed production are<br />
examined in the context of innovative concepts <strong>and</strong> procedures in plant<br />
breeding.<br />
In early agriculture, people grew crops primarily for food.. Each season, they saved<br />
some grain as seed for the next crop. Today, farmers in many countries still follow<br />
that age-old practice. In choosing seeds for the next planting, farmers select only the<br />
best (Chin 1969).<br />
Mungbean Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek <strong>and</strong> soybean Glycine max (L.) Merr.<br />
form important constituents of human food <strong>and</strong> animal feed. It is estimated that<br />
worldwide mungbean production amounts to about 1.4 million t harvested from<br />
about 3.4 million ha (Shanmugasundaram <strong>and</strong> Poehlman 1988). <strong>Seed</strong> rate for<br />
planting varies with seed size, percentage of germination, <strong>and</strong> desired plant<br />
population density (Morton et al 1982). However, 68,000 t of seeds are required to<br />
satisfy the need of 3.4 million ha of mungbean production. Assuming an average<br />
seed rate of 20 kg/ha, about 113,333 ha of l<strong>and</strong> is needed to produce 600 kg good<br />
quality seed/ha.<br />
In 1985, 52.6 million ha were planted to soybean (Table 1), about 49% of the<br />
area in North <strong>and</strong> Central America, 27% in South America, <strong>and</strong> 20% in Asia. With<br />
an average seed rate of 60 kg/ ha, it is estimated that 3,156,000 t of seeds are needed.<br />
About 2,104,000 ha of l<strong>and</strong> is required to produce an average 1.5 t good quality<br />
seed/ ha.<br />
The objective in seed production is to maximize the production of seed with<br />
suitable germination capacity (Bowring et al 1978). In the United States in 1983,<br />
certified soybean seed was produced on 387,445 ha, 36% of the total soybean area.<br />
The soybean seed requirement in Thail<strong>and</strong> was 7,000 t in 1983, but the government<br />
produced only 980 t (Potan 1987). In Indonesia, only 30% of the total area is planted<br />
with seeds of improved cultivars (Djauhari et al 1984).
36 2 GREEN MANURE IN RICE FARMING<br />
tropics <strong>and</strong> subtropics has received attention (Dassou <strong>and</strong> Kueneman 1984,<br />
Kueneman 1983, Opefia et al 1987, Shanmugasundaram 1976, Shanmugasundaram<br />
<strong>and</strong> Poehlman 1988).<br />
Successful quality seed production will depend on incorporation of genetically<br />
controlled quality traits with desirable agronomic ones. I-lard seeded ness is known<br />
to improve seed resistance to detrimental environmental influences (Potts et al<br />
1978). Other characters with similar influences are seed coat thickness (Caviness <strong>and</strong><br />
Simpson 1974), pod thickness or composition (Hartwig <strong>and</strong> Edwards 1970), <strong>and</strong><br />
resistance to seedborne diseases (Wilcox et al 1975).<br />
In the past decade, a number of new mungbean <strong>and</strong> soybean varieties were<br />
released to farmers. But seed quality characters have yet to be incorporated into new<br />
varieties.<br />
<strong>Seed</strong> categories<br />
Genetic improvement must be associated with good seed certification. Farmers<br />
should have access to good, relatively affordable seed (Walker 1980). But seed<br />
production, inspection, certification, processing, distribution, <strong>and</strong> marketing vary<br />
widely among countries.<br />
The steps to produce the various categories of seeds described here apply to<br />
mungbean <strong>and</strong> soybean. <strong>Seed</strong> multiplication rates vary with the crop.<br />
The plant breeder carefully selects for various traits (with adaptability <strong>and</strong> high<br />
yield considered essential) <strong>and</strong> identifies a line as suitable for release. The identified<br />
line is unique in a number of qualitative <strong>and</strong> quantitative traits. However, certain<br />
distinct traits are uniform <strong>and</strong> stable. These distinguishing characters are consistent<br />
<strong>and</strong> relatively easy to use for a specified region of adaptation.<br />
For example, when a new soybean variety is released in the USA, characters<br />
such as seed coat color, hilum color, flower color, pubescence color, stem<br />
termination, leaf type, USA maturity group classification, pertinent disease<br />
resistance or susceptibility, <strong>and</strong> protein <strong>and</strong> oil content are described. Foundation<br />
seed is produced from the basic breeder seed. Registered <strong>and</strong> certified seeds are<br />
produced by selected farmers. Methods of seed production by the plant breeder,<br />
maintainer, seed merchant, <strong>and</strong> progressive farmer depend on the crop species <strong>and</strong><br />
on the breeding system (Bowring et al 1978).<br />
The plant breeder's responsibility is to maintain the pedigree seed (Fehr 1978)<br />
or the prebasic seed (Bowring et al 1978). Basic seed is produced from pedigree seed.<br />
A plant breeder supervises production of these two seed categories of seed, making<br />
sure that the variety is pure <strong>and</strong> free from variations that are not described as part of<br />
the variety. Pedigree <strong>and</strong> basic seed also should be free from weed seeds <strong>and</strong><br />
extraneous materials.<br />
A variant is defined as plants or seeds described as part of the variety, but<br />
different from the norm for the variety (Otto 1985). In soybean, natural mutation<br />
can cause changes in plant or seed characteristics. Brown <strong>and</strong> black seed coat<br />
mutants are common in yellow seeded soybean; these offtypes should be removed<br />
during purification (Fehr 1978).
SEED PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT OF MUNGBEAN AND SOYBEAN 363<br />
Mungbean <strong>and</strong> soybean are self-pollinated, annual species reproduced by<br />
normal fertilization. In mungbean, natural outcrossing varies from 0.0 to 13%<br />
(Shanmugasundaram <strong>and</strong> Poehlman 1988). A high level of outcrossing can cause<br />
considerable variation in the seed produced. In India, when rnungbean seed was<br />
produced, a 1.5-m border was left unharvested between adjacent varieties (Kernick<br />
1961). Considering the large extent of outcrossing in some genotypes, the isolation<br />
requirement has been increased to 3 m.<br />
Usually, a plant breeder maintains a variety by planting single plant progeny<br />
<strong>and</strong> checking characteristics against the variety's official description. If the rows are<br />
uniform, they are bulked. In soybean, 30-50 kg of pedigree seed normally is reserved.<br />
In rnungbean, .10-15 kg of pedigree seed is reserved. In temperate <strong>and</strong> tropical<br />
countries, seed production rates vary because of the length of growing seasons <strong>and</strong><br />
the yield potential of varieties. Pedigree seed is planted on 0.5-1.5 ha to produce 1-3 t<br />
soybean <strong>and</strong> 0.3-1 t rnungbean basic seed.<br />
Basic seed is used to produce the subsequent categories of seeds (Shanrnugasundaram<br />
1982). At each stage, care is exercised to remove variants. In countries<br />
with official seed certification programs, designated agencies supervise <strong>and</strong> regulate<br />
seed certification.<br />
In India, a parastatal national seed corporation coordinates the production of<br />
certified seed through a series. of state seed farms that are profit-responsible. They<br />
were set up <strong>and</strong> funded by World Bank (Walker 1980). The All-India Coordinated<br />
Research Project on Soybean, in its annual meeting, allocates to each breeder the<br />
quantity of seed to be produced. For example, in 1985-86 breeders produced about<br />
92 t of basic seed of 20 new soybean varieties (P. S. Bhatnagar, pers. comm.).<br />
Factors to consider in seed production<br />
<strong>Seed</strong> production is a specialized activity. Preharvest <strong>and</strong> postharvest factors must be<br />
considered (Nangju et al 1978): field environment, cultural practices, genetic<br />
influence, <strong>and</strong> harvest time (Tekrony et al 1978) <strong>and</strong> biotic <strong>and</strong> abiotic factors<br />
(Roberts 1972b, Sinclair <strong>and</strong> Jackobs 1982).<br />
Basic constraints in seed production can be varietal (genetic characteristics),<br />
environmental, biological, <strong>and</strong> socioeconomic, alone or in combination. Vagaries of<br />
climate <strong>and</strong> soils must not be used as excuses for deficiencies in plant genetics,<br />
selection procedures, isolation distances, good crop management, <strong>and</strong> quality<br />
control (Walker 1980).<br />
Constraints such as photoperiod, temperature, soil properties, <strong>and</strong> rainfall<br />
cannot be controlled by the seed producer (Shanmugasundaram <strong>and</strong> Tsou 1987).<br />
L<strong>and</strong> preparation, organic or inorganic fertilizer applications, pest <strong>and</strong> disease<br />
control, <strong>and</strong> weed control <strong>and</strong> management are factors that can be regulated. A<br />
sufficient knowledge pool is available (for a review see Morton et al 1982, Nangju et<br />
al 1978, Scott <strong>and</strong> Aldrich 1970, Shanmugasundaram 1982, Shanmugasundaram<br />
<strong>and</strong> Tsou 1987, Sinclair <strong>and</strong> Jackobs 1982, Tekrony et al 1978). Although obtaining<br />
a high yield is a consideration, the most important criterion is producing good
36 4 GREEN MANURE IN RICE FARMING<br />
quality seed. Since the price of seed is generally higher than the price of grain, extra<br />
management inputs are justified.<br />
Preharvest factors<br />
<strong>Seed</strong> longevity <strong>and</strong> field weathering. At the Asian <strong>Vegetable</strong> Research <strong>and</strong><br />
Development Center ( AVRDC ) , soybean can be planted in the February, July, <strong>and</strong><br />
Scptonuberseasons. TbcFebruary crop encounters rain at harvest (Fig.|).The July<br />
rainy season crop may be exposed to typhoons. Field weathering of seed is a<br />
common problem in both seasons. Therefore, the seed quality of February <strong>and</strong> July<br />
season crops generally is not dependable. The September season CrOp produces the<br />
best quality seed (Sb0000ugasuoduranuaod Tsou 1987 ) . The seed quality of rainy<br />
season crops, in general, is poor in<br />
'<br />
Indonesia, Thail<strong>and</strong>, Philippines, Sri Lanka, <strong>and</strong><br />
Nigeria(Arulnaudhy 1987, Nau uut al 1978, Potan 1987, Sumarno 1987).<br />
One of the best ways to prolong seed longevity <strong>and</strong> combat field weathering of<br />
soybean is through genetics. At the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture<br />
/llT/\\ <strong>and</strong> at AVRDC, obtaining good seed quality is a key breeding objective.<br />
Varietal differences in seed deterioration in storage a*c was<br />
vo observed ' ino soybean<br />
(Wien <strong>and</strong> Kucocnouo1981). Freshly harvested seeds of /\[}S 2, a pure line from an<br />
Indonesian introduction; [`&/ from India; <strong>and</strong> /\[}S 29 from AVRDC maintained<br />
about 80% germination for about 6 . mo at ambient room temperature in Bangladesh.<br />
Locally grown variety Bragg <strong>and</strong> /\[}S 66 from AVRDC can be stored for only 2-3<br />
mo (Fig. 2). Small-seeded varieties from Indonesia <strong>and</strong> black seed coat varieties<br />
deteriorate more slowly than large-seeded varieties. However, reports on the role of<br />
large <strong>and</strong> small seeds in seed longevity, germination, emergence, <strong>and</strong> yields have<br />
Temperature (OC)<br />
Precipitation (mm)<br />
40 1 1700<br />
600<br />
30<br />
500<br />
20<br />
400<br />
300<br />
10<br />
200<br />
100<br />
0<br />
J F M A M J J A S 0 N D<br />
Month<br />
I. Maximum <strong>and</strong> minimum temperature <strong>and</strong> rainfall pattern at AVR DC in 1984 <strong>and</strong> time of planting <strong>and</strong><br />
harvest.<br />
0
SEED PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT OF MUNGBEAN AND SOYBEAN 365<br />
been contradictory (Edwards <strong>and</strong> Hartwig 1971, Fontes <strong>and</strong> Ohlrogge 1972, Green<br />
et al 1965, Johnson <strong>and</strong> Luedders 1974, Ndunguru <strong>and</strong> Summerfield 1975). Some<br />
changes associated with seed deterioration are reduced protein synthesis, reduced<br />
ability to utilize labeled glucose, reduced respiration, <strong>and</strong> increased respiration<br />
quotient (A. Knapp, pers. comm.). Although small seeds are associated with better<br />
seed longevity, the reasons are not yet understood.<br />
<strong>Seed</strong> vigor is an elusive <strong>and</strong> complex concept.Vigorous seeds are "likely to .. .<br />
perform particularly well in the field, better than others which may be equally<br />
satisfactory in the laboratory test" (Heydecker 1972). Loss of seed vigor due to<br />
weathering precedes loss of seed viability. Assessing seed vigor is problematic for<br />
seedmen (Kuenernan 1982). The concept of seed vigor <strong>and</strong> its importance to seed<br />
production were described by Heydecker (1972) <strong>and</strong> Perry (1978). A modified<br />
accelerated aging <strong>and</strong> hot water stress test were used to screen for seed longevity <strong>and</strong><br />
vigor.<br />
In the accelerated aging stress test, seeds are kept at 42 °C <strong>and</strong> 100% relative<br />
humidity (RH) for 48 h, followed by a laboratory germination test (Byrd <strong>and</strong><br />
Delouche 1971). To distinguish cultivars with good <strong>and</strong> pOOr seed storability, Wien<br />
<strong>and</strong> Kueneman (1981) used a modified accelerated aging stress technique. After pods<br />
dried, they threshed the seeds <strong>and</strong> subjected them to 75% RH at 40 °C for 6 wk,<br />
followed by a laboratory germination test.<br />
Germination (%)<br />
100 -<br />
80<br />
60<br />
40<br />
0 AGS 2<br />
AGS 29<br />
V AGS 66<br />
V AGS 129<br />
0 Pb-l(check)<br />
Bragg (check)<br />
20<br />
1 Jan 1 Mar 1 Apr 1 May 15 May 1 Jun 15 Jun 1 Jul<br />
Date of germination test<br />
2. Germination percentage of 6 soybean varieties evaluated at different intervals after storage at ambient<br />
temperature. Bangladesh, 1985.
m<br />
366 GREEN MANURE IN RICE FARMING<br />
Hot water pregermination stress includes soaking seeds for 70 s in 75 'C water<br />
<strong>and</strong> rinsing in tap water prior to determining germination or emergence (Kueneman<br />
( g 82).<br />
Kueocooan(] q 83 ) evaluated the F I seeds of reciprocal crosses between soybean<br />
genotypes with good <strong>and</strong> poor seed longevity using the accelerated aging method.<br />
He found significant reciprocal differences, <strong>and</strong> suggested the possible influence of<br />
the maternal plant genome on seed longevity. The pooled F 2 variances were larger<br />
than pooled parental variances, which indicated the influence of the genotypes.<br />
Differences between reciprocals of the F 2<br />
seed, although relatively small compared<br />
to those between F, reciprocals, were significant, indicating that cytoplasmic gene<br />
action for seed longevity may also be involved, but its effects are probably small.<br />
Because of the influence of the maternal plant, expression of segregation is delayed<br />
one geoeratioo(Koeoeouau 1983). `<br />
Dassou <strong>and</strong> Kueneman (1984 ) subjected physiologically mature pods to a<br />
weathering technique in an incubator a{30 °C <strong>and</strong> 90-95 % relative humidity ( RH )<br />
for 10 d. They identified several genotypes resistant to both seed weathering <strong>and</strong><br />
deterioration in storage ( Table 3 ) . Paschal <strong>and</strong> Ellis ( 1978 ) reported that genotypes<br />
PI 205912, P1 205907, [»[ 341249, PI 279088, <strong>and</strong> {/1 219653 could be used for<br />
breeding soybean with resistance to field weathering <strong>and</strong> to seed deterioration in<br />
storage.<br />
An early-maturing variety can be used to avoid weathering damage. In Taiwan,<br />
for example, spring soybean is planted in February-March <strong>and</strong> harvested in roid-<br />
May.Hovvovez `<br />
early maturity is not a dependable alternative. In some years, rains<br />
may come early <strong>and</strong> spoil the crop.<br />
Manipulating the cropping pattern also can be used to avoid field weathering in<br />
the rainy season. In Pakistan, soybean for seed is planted July-August <strong>and</strong> harvested<br />
October-November (Beg 1987). In East Java, Indonesia, lowl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> upl<strong>and</strong><br />
soybeans are planted year-round. <strong>Seed</strong> for the lowl<strong>and</strong> rainy season <strong>and</strong> dry season<br />
Table 3. Genotypes resistant to seed weathering <strong>and</strong> to deterioration in storage.<br />
Genotype<br />
Origin<br />
1 00'noed <strong>Seed</strong><br />
wt (g) color<br />
Hard After incubator After ambient<br />
seed a weathering storageb<br />
I NDO 153 Indonesia<br />
IPA DO 131 Indonesia<br />
I P4 DO 243P Indonesia<br />
1 WOD226 Indonesia<br />
104 DO 255 Indonesia<br />
INDO 173A Indonesia<br />
Fort Lamy USA<br />
Lee A<br />
USA<br />
Biloxi 3 China<br />
AVRDC 8457 Taiwan<br />
9.7 Black 36.0 54.2 87<br />
10.2 Black 24.6 35.4 92<br />
8.9 Black 17.2 42.9 90<br />
9.3 Black 27.2 46.2 80<br />
10.1 Black 30.6 32.6 91<br />
1 0.8 Black 52.6 32.9 81<br />
10.5 Black 46.6 56.2 80<br />
9.0 Black 62.0 58.5 88<br />
10.5 Black 37.2 50.4 71<br />
6.1 Black 64.0 58.7 77<br />
Source: O0000uond Kueneman 1984.<br />
Nonimbibino seed after 1 h soaking in water.<br />
humidity.<br />
Stored forO mo at 25 0 C <strong>and</strong> 50 to 95% relative
SEED PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT OF MUNGBEAN AND SOYBEAN 367<br />
crops comes from the second upl<strong>and</strong> dry season crop. <strong>Seed</strong> for the second dry season<br />
crop comes from the first dry season crop. Only the grain of the rainy season crop is<br />
used ( Fig. 3). Similar seed production strategies are used in other countries ( Potan<br />
1987,Sncnarno 1987).<br />
Water management. Water management is closely associated with field<br />
weathering in both soybean <strong>and</strong> rnungbcaooeed production ( Huck <strong>and</strong> Davis 1976,<br />
Morton et al 1982). Soybean that undergoes alternate wetting <strong>and</strong> drying in the field<br />
has poor seed quality caused by rapid differential absorption of water by localized<br />
tissues in the seed coat<br />
(Moore 1971, 1972). Plasmolysis <strong>and</strong> deplummoo\ysia at<br />
different stages of seed development can result in external <strong>and</strong> internal seed injuries<br />
(Min / 1957). Damage caused by on-<strong>and</strong>-off i<br />
` z*<br />
excess moisture also has been observed in<br />
rouogbeao(it C. Imrie, pers. comm. ) . Overhead sprinkler irrigation <strong>and</strong> rain at<br />
harvest can cause wetting <strong>and</strong> drying of pods. Therefore, from the R 5<br />
growth stage<br />
on, either flood or furrow irrigation is suggested to obtain good quality seeds.<br />
During the dry season, when good quality seeds can be produced, adequate soil<br />
moisture at flowering (IR | <strong>and</strong> R 2 ) <strong>and</strong> seed filling ( R 5 <strong>and</strong> R6) ( Fehr <strong>and</strong> Caviness<br />
1977 ) is essential.<br />
Location. Some locations are more suitable for good quality seed production<br />
than others. Low relative humidity <strong>and</strong> cooler temperatures are the two key factors<br />
to consider in selecting a location for soybean seed production ( Harrington 1963 ) .<br />
Moogbeunis a hot weather crop, but humidity <strong>and</strong> rainfall should be low for good<br />
quality seed production (Morton et al 1982 ) . Locations with a cool, dry season are<br />
excellent for soybean seed production. In Pakistan, the cooler foothills of Hazara,<br />
Swat, <strong>and</strong> Parachinar are excellent sites for soybean seed production. <strong>Seed</strong><br />
Local<br />
variety<br />
VMS<br />
Dry season 1 Dry season 2<br />
Local variety<br />
3. Flow of soybean seed between locations in different seasons in East Java, Indonesia ( source: personal<br />
discussions with farmers, extension staff, <strong>and</strong> researchers ) . The arrows show seed flow.
36 8 GREEN MANURE RICE FARMING<br />
produced in those areas is distributed to other areas (Beg 1987). In Indonesia,<br />
soybean seed is produced during the dry season in Sumatra <strong>and</strong> transported to Java<br />
for planting. Distance, mode of transportation, type of packing material, <strong>and</strong><br />
h<strong>and</strong>ling are important considerations in seed quality.<br />
Pest management. Because seed is a high value crop, seed quality is an<br />
important consideration. In seed production, weed, insect, <strong>and</strong> disease control using<br />
recommended management practices is m<strong>and</strong>atory. Weeds can compete with a crop<br />
<strong>and</strong> restrict the use of nutrients, reducing crop quality. Weeds can also harbor insect<br />
vectors that may transmit various virus diseases <strong>and</strong> can serve as hosts for various<br />
fungal <strong>and</strong> bacterial diseases. Many leguminous weeds are hosts for soybean rust<br />
Phakopsora pachyrhizi <strong>and</strong> can serve as a reservoir of initial inoculum to create<br />
epidemics on soybean. If the field is weedy, the seeds can be contaminated with weed<br />
seeds during harvest (Nangju et al 1978).<br />
The stink bug Nezara viridu/a in soybean <strong>and</strong> various pod borers in rnungbe"an<br />
<strong>and</strong> soybean can reduce seed quality (Morton et al 1982, Todd 1982). The beanfly<br />
A/felanagronomyza sp. <strong>and</strong> others can reduce seedling vigor <strong>and</strong> impair seed quality.<br />
It is imperative to monitor insect pest incidence <strong>and</strong> adopt appropriate, timely<br />
control measures.<br />
Christensen (1972) tested thous<strong>and</strong>s of soybean <strong>and</strong> seed samples over 20 yr to<br />
determine storage fungi invasion-of seeds prior to harvest. He concluded that there is<br />
no significant invasion of seeds by storage fungi.<br />
Fungal pathogens that can cause a reduction in seed quality in soybean are pod<br />
<strong>and</strong> stem blight <strong>and</strong> seed decay Phomopsis spp. = Diaporthe phaseolorum var.<br />
sojae; anthracnose Coiletotrichunl dematium var. truncata; <strong>and</strong> purple seed stain<br />
('ercospora kikuchii (Sinclair 1982). In the absence of genetic resistance, chemical<br />
control of these diseases is important.<br />
Among the soybean viruses, soybean mosaic virus (SMV), tobacco ringspot<br />
virus (TRSV), <strong>and</strong> tobacco streak virus (TSV) may be important (Sinclair <strong>and</strong><br />
Shurtleff 1975). In mungbean, yellow mosaic virus (YMV) is the most important<br />
virus disease. Vector control <strong>and</strong> planting resistant varieties are the only means of<br />
controlling virus diseases.<br />
Postharvest factors<br />
A seed begins its existence well before it is harvested. Preharvest conditions can<br />
cause varying amounts of seed deterioration even before harvest (Roberts 1972a).<br />
Harvesting <strong>and</strong> drying<br />
Within a season, the time of harvest can affect seed viability (Roberts 1972a).<br />
Harvesting should be done promptly on maturity. Harvesting seed with excessive<br />
moisture or too low moisture content can also damage quality. If the crop has to be<br />
harvested before full maturity, but after physiological maturity, it should be dried<br />
slowly under moderate temperature. Slow drying prevents shriveling due to rapid<br />
loss of moisture. After physiological maturity, seeds of both soybean <strong>and</strong> mungbean<br />
may begin to sprout during the rainy season while the plants are still in the field.
SEED PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT OF MUNGBEAN AND SOYBEAN 369<br />
Under those circumstances, it is better to harvest at the onset of rain <strong>and</strong> dry the<br />
plants in a well-ventilated area. They can be air-dried slowly to enable threshing<br />
later.<br />
Threshing <strong>and</strong> cleaning<br />
High cylinder speeds of combines or threshers will result in multiple fractures <strong>and</strong><br />
deep-seated bruises, especially in large-seeded soybean or mungbean <strong>and</strong> in seeds<br />
with lower moisture content (Moore 1957, 1972; Roberts 1972a). A 700 rpm cylinder<br />
speed is better than 1155 rpm. Soybean seeds impacted at 12-16% seed moisture<br />
germinated satisfactorily; those impacted at 8-10% <strong>and</strong> 18-20% moisture germinated<br />
poorly (Bunch 1960).<br />
In developing countries, soybean <strong>and</strong> mungbean usually are threshed by h<strong>and</strong>,<br />
either by beating pods inside a bag with sticks or by trampling with animals or small<br />
tractors. Such harsh treatment can result in mutilated seeds. Studies at IITA showed<br />
that combine threshing is inferior to h<strong>and</strong> threshing <strong>and</strong> beating pods inside a bag<br />
(Nangju et al 1978). Possibly the cylinder speed was not set properly or the seed<br />
moisture content at threshing was too low.<br />
After threshing, the seeds should be cleaned to remove plant debris, weed seeds,<br />
dirt, <strong>and</strong> other extraneous materials that favor seed deterioration. The seeds should<br />
be examined for purity <strong>and</strong> variants should be removed. <strong>Seed</strong>s with mottling due to<br />
SMV should be removed.<br />
Testing for viability <strong>and</strong> longevity<br />
A number of factors can influence seed quality <strong>and</strong> viability during production.<br />
Poor seed with low viability will be even poorer after storage. Therefore, seed lots<br />
need to be examined before storage. A good-looking seed may not necessarily be<br />
good quality. <strong>Seed</strong> viability is usually measured when the seed is planted, but it is<br />
also measured for industrial purposes (MacKay 1978). Incubator germination, field<br />
emergence, tetrazolium, seedling growth rates, <strong>and</strong> seed leachates are some of the<br />
tests used to evaluate seed viability (Kueneman 1982, MacKay 1978).<br />
Genotypic differences in seed longevity have been reported (Kueneman 1983,<br />
Paschal <strong>and</strong> Ellis 1978). Within a variety, a number of preharvest <strong>and</strong> postharvest<br />
factors can influence seed longevity. These tests of seed longevity have been<br />
proposed: seed storage (normal aging of seeds), accelerated aging stress, cold stress,<br />
hot water pregermination stress, osmotic stress, thermo stress during germination,<br />
<strong>and</strong> methanol stress (Kueneman 1982). Accelerated aging, pregerrnination, thermo,<br />
<strong>and</strong> methanol stress are recommended for use in breeding for seed longevity.<br />
<strong>Seed</strong> storage<br />
Factors to consider in storing seeds until planting are initial seed moisture content,<br />
genotype, temperature, RH, the container in which the seed is packed, <strong>and</strong> the<br />
method of packing. At AVRDC, seeds are sun- or air-dried to 8% moisture content<br />
for medium-term storage at 2-5 °C <strong>and</strong> 40-45% RH. Under these conditions,<br />
soybean seed can be stored for 20 yr (AVRDC 1985, Cromarty et al 1982). With<br />
8.1-9.4% seed moisture content, soybean seed can be stored at 10 ° C for 10 yr; at 13%
37 0 GREEN MANURE IN RICE FARMING<br />
Table 4, Equilibrium moisture content of soybean at 25 0 C at 30-95% relative<br />
humidity (RH) (Roberts <strong>and</strong> Roberts 1972).<br />
Equilibrium moisture content at given RH<br />
1 0% 30% 45%<br />
60% 75%<br />
95%<br />
4.3 6,5 7.4 9.3 1 3.1 18.8<br />
moisture content, it can be stored for 3 yr. At 20-30 °C, seed with 13-18% moisture<br />
content will remain viable for less than a year (Toole <strong>and</strong> Toole 1946). Under<br />
tropical conditions, high initial quality soybean seeds at 9-9.5% moisture content can<br />
be safely stored 9 mo at 20-25 °C <strong>and</strong> 50-60% RH (Gregg 1982). Most AVRDC<br />
breeding materials with good initial seed quality <strong>and</strong> 9-10% moisture content are<br />
stored at 20-24 °C <strong>and</strong> 55-60% RH. The majority of the entries stored under these<br />
conditions retained more than 80% viability for at least 2 yr. Similar storage<br />
conditions are suitable for mungbean.<br />
If storage conditions have a higher RH, there is no need to dry the seed to less<br />
than equilibrium moisture content. At 45% RH or lower, seed should be dried to<br />
7.4% moisture content or lower. At 60% RH, drying the seed to 9% moisture will<br />
suffice. Soybean seed moisture content at 25 °C with different relative humidity<br />
levels are given in Table 4.<br />
The usual rule of thumb for storage conditions for the short term is percent RH<br />
<strong>and</strong> degrees Fahrenheit totaling 100 or less (James 1961).<br />
The viability of soybean is determined using an age index concept.<br />
Age index (AI) = months in storage X Io'""( X 10<br />
0.06451<br />
Where MC = moisture content (%), T = temperature (°C), <strong>and</strong> months in storage =<br />
Log AI-0.143M C-0.0645T.<br />
Fungi activity during storage below 75% RH is very low; below 62% RH, all<br />
storage fungi are completely inactive (Roberts 1972a). Below 60% RH, storage<br />
insects are inactive. Because rnungbean weevil is a serious storage pest, it is<br />
.important to maintain RH below 60% <strong>and</strong> seed moisture content below 8% (Roberts<br />
1972a).<br />
The minimum germination required for seed certification varies among<br />
countries. For soybean, it is 80% in the US, but many seedmen dem<strong>and</strong> 90%<br />
(Tekrony et al 1978). In India, it is 70%. For mungbean, minimum germination in<br />
India is 75% (Agrawal 1980).<br />
Under ambient conditions, mungbean appears to be storable longer than<br />
soybean (Table 5). Traditional mungbean varieties appear to have a high proportion<br />
of hard seeds, but hard seededness decrease with age in storage. Mungbean seed<br />
loses hard seededness with a year (Pathwardhan 1927).<br />
During domestication, the hard seededness character was selected out. It<br />
appears probable that this trait in mungbean can be used in breeding for good seed<br />
quality (B. C. Irnrie, pers. comm.). Soon after harvest, hard-seeded rnungbean<br />
germination is low, but it improves with storage (Rajasekara Mudaliar <strong>and</strong>
SEED PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT OF MUNGBEAN AND SOYBEAN 371<br />
Table 5. Germination of quality seed tested after different durations in storage at ambient conditions<br />
in Delhi, India (Agra al 1980).<br />
Crop<br />
Germination (%)<br />
0 3 mo 6 mo 12 mo 18 mo 24 mo 36 mo 37 mo<br />
Mungbean cultivar P. S.-16 . 99 99 99 99 98 98<br />
Soybean cultivar Bragg 94 93 81 43 14 0 0 0<br />
Table 6. Germination of soybean seed stored in different containers at amieient<br />
room temperature <strong>and</strong> cold room for different durations in Sri Lanka<br />
(Aruin<strong>and</strong>hy 1987).<br />
Storage period<br />
( mo.)<br />
Storage condition<br />
Gunny bag<br />
Germination (%)<br />
Polyethylene bag<br />
0 Ambient 90 90<br />
Cold 90 90<br />
3 Ambient 80 81<br />
Cold 88 80<br />
6 Ambient- 2 70<br />
Cold 79 81<br />
Sundararaj 1954). Even after 1 1 yr of storage, hard-seeded mungbean had 70%<br />
germination (Sonavene 1928). In soybean, a certain proportion of hard seeds in a<br />
variety seems to improve seed longevity <strong>and</strong> germination (Potts et al 1978).<br />
Because farmers in the tropics do not have sophisticated cold storage facilities,<br />
practical storage methods need to be developed. Harrington (1963) suggested using<br />
steel bins with steel lids, or steel drums with an aluminum foil layer <strong>and</strong> a gasket seal,<br />
sealed tin cans, hermetically sealed glass jars, sealed aluminized polyester pouches,<br />
or sealed high-density polyethylene bags. Metal drums with gasket seals are<br />
common in Taiwan. Sealed polyethylene bags kept in a shaded area can safely store<br />
seed for 6-9 mo (Table 6). Vaporproof packages for storage protect seed from drastic<br />
fluctuations in RH. For a detailed review on this topic, see Delouche et al (1973),<br />
Delouche (1975), <strong>and</strong> Nangju et al (1978).<br />
Although storage facilities, low RH, <strong>and</strong> temperature are known to ward off<br />
mungbean weevil, such facilities are unavailable in developing countries in the<br />
tropics. Asian villagers traditionally have used peanut oil to protect pulse grains<br />
against storage insects. Results at AVRDC suggest that peanut oil or soybean oil at<br />
2-3 ml/ kg of seed can effectively suppress weevil reproduction in stored mungbean<br />
for 3 mo (AVRDC 1976).<br />
In India, treatment with neem oil, activated clay, <strong>and</strong> red earth is common.<br />
Asian farmers also mix seeds with ash to prevent moisture buildup.<br />
If the integrity of the seed is violated before or after harvest, then the seed is<br />
vulnerable to damage by biotic factors. Almond moth Ephestia mute/1a can develop
37 2 GREEN MANURE IN RICE FARMING<br />
on soybean in storage. An intact seed coat is an effective barrier to infestations.<br />
Soybean saponin extracts have been found to inhibit development of mungbeari<br />
.<br />
weevil <strong>and</strong> soybean almond moth. The saponins or their glucosides seem to produce<br />
typical antibiotic symptoms (Sirisingh <strong>and</strong> Kogan 1982).<br />
Future of seed production<br />
Rapid advances in innovative breeding concepts <strong>and</strong> procedures will surely modify<br />
concepts of crop varieties in the future ( Jensen 1 965). In soybean, there are blends,<br />
mixtures of two or more pure lines, multiline varieties, <strong>and</strong> short breeding cycle<br />
varieties ( less uniform )<br />
; there is a potential for hybrids <strong>and</strong> genetically engineered<br />
varieties. Some of these will not conform to the variety norm of purity, homogeneity,<br />
<strong>and</strong> distinctness. <strong>Seed</strong> production <strong>and</strong> certification of these new products will be a<br />
challenge ( Jensen 1965, Lafever 1985). The products will have greater variability for<br />
plant type. The working philosophy of the future will emphasize performance over<br />
uniformity. In such cases, seed certification probably should monitor seed quality<br />
rather than distinctness.<br />
Diagnostic tests for germination should include rapid vigor tests, disease tests,<br />
seed treatment tests, <strong>and</strong> variety identification tests (Voris 1985). A simple,<br />
inexpensive, <strong>and</strong> practical way to efficiently produce, harvest, thresh, clean, <strong>and</strong><br />
store good quality seed for small farmers is needed. The mechanisms involved in<br />
protecting against insects using home remedies such as peanut oil need further<br />
exploration. Research also should focus on the reasons for good seed quality with<br />
small seeds <strong>and</strong> black seeds, with or without hard seededness. The role of the<br />
environment at different stages of seed development <strong>and</strong> its relevance to seed<br />
deterioration deserve further study. Because farmers are interested in storing seed<br />
at most for 6-9 coo, research with that objective should be distinguished from<br />
commercial concerns for longer term storage.<br />
There is growing awareness, even in developing countries, of the need to obtain<br />
quality seed for planting. Farmers consider it an important single investment that is a<br />
prerequisite-if all other management inputs are to pay off. But both government <strong>and</strong><br />
private industry are unable to meet the dem<strong>and</strong> or provide good quality seed. The<br />
price of certified seed is almost double the price of regular seed ( in Thail<strong>and</strong>, regular<br />
seed costs US$1.40/kg; certified seed costs $3.0/k p )(Potao 1987). However, the<br />
government offers subsidies or other means of obtaining quality seed. Governments<br />
also should encourage the private seed industry to meet local dem<strong>and</strong> without<br />
unduly exploiting the farmers.
.<br />
SEED PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT OF MUNGBEAN AND SOYBEAN 373<br />
References cited<br />
Agrawal P K ( 1980) Relative storability of seeds of ten species under ambient conditions. <strong>Seed</strong> Res.<br />
X(2): g 440.<br />
Aru|nundhy V (1987) Soybean research in Sri Lanka. In Soybean varietal improvement. S.<br />
6hunmuguxondx,um ` P. Luxbmoxu.<strong>and</strong> N. Llemit, eds., Asian <strong>Vegetable</strong> Research <strong>and</strong> Development<br />
Center, Taiwan. (in press )<br />
Asian <strong>Vegetable</strong> Research <strong>and</strong> Development Center (1976) K4un8bcun report for 1975. Shanhua,<br />
Taiwan. 72 p.<br />
Asian <strong>Vegetable</strong> Research <strong>and</strong> Development Center (1985) Progress report summaries. AV0}C PuN.<br />
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Notes<br />
Address: S. Shanmugasundaram, Asian <strong>Vegetable</strong> Research <strong>and</strong> Development Center, P.O. Box 42,<br />
Shanhua, Taionn74i gg , Taiwan, China.