The American Society of Mechanical Engineers

Transactions 

of The American Society of M echanical Engineers 

Published on the tenth of every month, except March, June, September, and December 

OFFICERS OI THE SOCIBTY : 

W i l l i a m A. H a n l b y , President 

W. D. E n n i s , Treasurer C. E . D a v i e s , Secretary 

COMMITTBB ON PUBLICATIONS: 

C. B. P e c k , Chairman 

F. L. B r a d l e y A. R. S t e v e n s o n , Jr. 

C. R. SoDERBERG E. J. K a TES 

G e o r g e A. S t e t s o n , Editor 

ADVISORY MEMBERS OF THE COMMITTEE ON PUBLICATIONS: 

W. L. D u d l e y , S e a t t l e , W a s h . N. C. E b a d g h , G a i n e s v i l l b , F l a . O. B. S c h i b r , 2 n d , New Y o r k , N. Y . 

Junior Members 

C . C . K i r b y , N e w Y o r k , N . Y . F r a n k l i n H . F o w l e r , J r . , C a l d w e l l , N . J . 

P u blished m onthly by T h e A m erican Society of M echanical Engineers. Publication office at 20th and N ortham pton Streets, Easton, Pa. T h e editorial 

dep artm en t located at th e headquarters o f the Society, 29 W est T hirty-N inth Street, N ew Y ork, N . Y. Cable address, "D ynam ic,” N ew Y ork. Price $1.50 

a copy, $12.00 a year; to m em bers and affiliates, $1.00 a copy, $7.50 a year. C hanges o f address m ust be received at Society headquarters tw o w eeks before 

they are to be effective on the m ailing list. Please send o ld as w ell as new address___By-Law: T h e Society shall not be responsible for statem ents o r opinions 

advanced in papers o r . . . . printed in its publications (B 13, Par. 4) .... Entered as second-class m atter M arch 2, 1928, at th e Post Office at Easton, Pa., 

under the Act o f A ugust 24, 1912. . . . C opyrighted, 1941, by The A m erican Society of M echanical Engineers.

IN TWO SECTIONS—SECTION TW ^ 

Transactions 

of the 

A.S.M.E. 

SOCIETY RECORDS—PART 1 

William A. Hanley, President of The American Society of 

Mechanical Engineers, 1940-1941 

Portrait and Biography 

Council and Committee Personnel 

RI-5—RI-38 

Officers and Council.................................. 5 Local Sections..................................... .... 15 

Standing Committees................................ 6 Student Branches................................. ___ 23 

Special Committees.................................... 7 Research Committees........................ .... 25 

Special Council Committees.................... 8 Standardization Committees........... .... 27 

A.S.M.E. Representatives on 

Other Activities.................................... 9 

Power Test Codes Committees.. . . .... 33 

Safety Committees............................... .... 35 

Professional Divisions.............................. 10 Boiler Code Committees.................. .... 37 

W om an ’s Auxiliary to the A .S.M .E........... 

H onorary M em bers and P a st-P resid en ts. 

Index to Society Records......................... 

... RI-42 

... RI-43 

FEBRUARY, 1941 

VOL. 63, NO. 2

Transactions 

of The American Society of M echanical Engineers 

Published on the tenth of every month, except March, June, September, and December 

OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY: 

W i l l i a m A. H a n l e y , President 

W. D. E n n i s , Treasurer C. E. D a v i e s , Secretary 

C O M M IT T E E ON P U B L IC A T IO N S : 

C. B . P e c k , Chairman 

F. L. B r a d l e y . A. R. S t e v e n s o n , J r 4 

C. R. SoDERBERG E. J. K a TES 

G e o r g e A. S t e t s o n , Editor 

ADV ISORY M EM BERS OF THE C O M M IT T E E ON P U B L IC A T IO N S : 

W. L. D u d l e y , S e a t t l e , W a s h . N . C. E b a u g h , G a i n e s v i l l e , F l a . O. B. S c h i e r , 2 n d , N e w Y o r k , N. Y. 

Junior Members 

C . C . K i r b y , N e w Y o r k , N. Y . F . H. F o w l e r , J r . , C a l d w e l l , N. J. 

Published m onthly by T h e A m erican Society o f M echanical Engineers. P ublication office at 20th and N ortham pton Streets, Easton, Pa. T he editorial 

departm ent located at the headquarters o f the Society, 29 W est T hirty-N inth Street, N ew Y ork, N. Y. Cable address, “Dynam ic,” New Y ork. Price $ 1.50 

a copy, $12.00 a year; to m em bers and affiliates, $1.00 a copy, $7.50 a year. Changes o f address m ust be received at Society headquarters tw o weeks before 

they are to be effective on the m ailing list. Please send old as w ell as new address___ By-Law: T h e Society shall not be responsible for statem ents o r o p in 

io n s advanced in papers o r . . . . p rinted in its publications (B13, Par. 4 ) . . . . E ntered as second-class m atter M arch 2, 1928, at the Post Office at Easton, Pa., 

u n d er the Act of August 24, 1912. . . . C opyrighted, 1941, by T h e A m erican Society o f M echanical Engineers.

Foreword 

THE Transactions of The American Society of Mechanical Engineers include 

selected technical papers and reports delivered at meetings of the Society, its 

Professional Divisions, and its Local Sections, the Journal of Applied Mechanics 

(contributions of the Applied Mechanics Division), certain records of the Society of 

permanent value, and indexes to its publications. 

In order to secure the advantages of timeliness and greater usefulness in issuing 

these Society Records, the material comprising them is divided into a number of 

parts, each one of which is mailed as a supplement to one of the regular monthly 

issues of the Transactions. For 1941, the first of these, the present issue, contains 

the personnel of the Council and committees for the year. Another, to be issued 

sometime later in the year, will contain memorial notices of deceased members. 

The indexes to miscellaneous publications, Mechanical Engineering, and to the 

Transactions themselves, must, necessarily, be issued in 1942, and will probably be 

mailed as a supplement to the January issue of that year. 

In binding the 1941 Transactions, all of these parts of the Society Records will be 

assembled at the back of the volume as has been customary for several years. To aid 

in locating references in the bound volumes, the page numbers of the sections containing 

the Journal of Applied Mechanics and the Society Records are preceded by 

the letters A and RI, respectively. 

THE COMMITTEE ON PUBLICATIONS

W ILLIAM A. H ANLEY 

P r e s id e n t o f T h e A m e r ic a n S o c ie t y o f M e c h a n ic a l E n g i n e e r s 

1 9 4 0 - 1 9 4 1

W illiam A . H anley 

William Andrew Hanley, mechanical engineer and business executive, of Indianapolis, 

Ind., President of The American Society of Mechanical Engineers for the 

year 1940-1941, was born in Greencastle, Ind., in 1886. He attended St. Joseph's 

College, Rensselaer, Ind., for two years and then matriculated at Purdue University, 

where he received the degree of Bachelor of Science in mechanical engineering in 1911. 

Twenty-six years later, his alma mater bestowed upon him the honorary degree of 

Doctor of Engineering. 

Prior to attending Purdue University, Mr. Hanley worked five years for the Republic 

Steel Corporation and the Broderick Boiler Company, both in Muncie, Ind. 

Immediately after graduation, he entered the employ of Eli Lilly and Company, of 

Indianapolis, manufacturers of medicinal products. Today he is a director of that 

company and head of the engineering division. This division designs and supervises 

all engineering projects, construction, power, maintenance, etc., for the corporation, 

its branches and subsidiaries, and, in addition, operates certain highly mechanized 

production departments. In 1938-1939, Mr. Hanley spent much time in Basingstoke, 

England, building a new manufacturing plant for the British subsidiary of the Lilly 

company. 

Mr. Hanley was elected an Associate-Member of the A.S.M.E. in 1913, promoted 

to full membership in 1920, and made a Fellow in 1936. In 1916, he was one of the 

organizers and the first secretary of the Central Indiana Section. In 1919, the local 

members elected him chairman of the Section. The following year saw the beginning 

of many years of service by him in the activities and affairs of the parent body with 

his acceptance of an appointment as one of the A.S.M.E. representatives on the 

American Engineering Council. During the period from 1922 to 1927, he served on 

the Committee on Local Sections and, from 1933 to 1938, on the Committee on 

Relations With Colleges. In 1927, he was elected to a three-year term as a Manager 

of the Society and, in 1930, to a two-year term as Vice-President. Other A.S.M.E. 

activities in which he has taken a part include the Special Committee on Junior 

Participation, Special Committee on Relationship of Society to Accrediting Program, 

and Committee on Medals. 

Over a long period of years Mr. Hanley has contributed to the technical press a 

number of articles on both engineering and economic subjects. He is a past-president 

of the Indiana Engineering Council, an honorary member of Tau Beta Pi, a member 

of the Newcomen Society of England, and a fellow of the American Association for 

the Advancement of Science. He is also a trustee of Purdue University, of Park 

School of Indianapolis, of the Sigma Phi Epsilon Fraternity (national), and of the 

Associated Catholic Charities of Indianapolis.

The American Society of M echanical Engineers 

HEADQUARTERS: 29 W e s t 39t h S t ., N e w Y o b k , N . Y . 

■MID-WEST OFEICE-. "Ro o m 1617, “205 W e s t W a c k e r Dkiye, C h ic a g o , II I. 

The members of the Council and of its standing and special committees given on the 

following pages are those in office on January 1, 1941, serving for the official year 1940-1 9 4 1 . 

The terms of office of members of other committees are not fixed by the official calendar. 

OFFICERS AND 

P R E S I D E N T 

W i l l ia m A . H a n l e y 

PAST-PRESIDENTS 

Terms expire December 

W i l l ia m L. B a t t (1941) 

J a m e s H . H e r r o n (1942) 

H a rv ey N. D a v is (1943) 

A l e x a n d e r G. C h r i s t i e (1944) 

W a r r e n H . M cB ry d e (1945) 

V ICE-PRESIDENTS 

Terms expire December, 19Jtl 

K e n n e t h H . C o n d it 

F r a n c is H o d g k in s o n 

J e r o m e C. H u n s a k e r 

K il s h a w M . I r w in 

Terms empire December, 1942 

S a m u e l B. E a r l e 

F r a n k H . P r o u ty 

E d w in B. R ic k e t t s 

COUNCIL 

MANAGERS 

Terms expire December, 191/1 

C l a r k e F r e e m a n 

W i l l ia m H . W i n t e k r o w d 

W i l l i s R. W o o l r i c h 

Terms expire December, 19tt2 

J o s e p h W . E s h e l m a n 

L i n n H e l a n d e r 

G u y T . S h o e m a k e r 

Terms expire December, 19JtS 

TREASURER 

W . D . E n n i s 

H u b e r 0 . C roft 

P a u l B . E a t o n 

G eorge E . H u l s e 

SECRETARY 

C. E. D a v ie s 

Finance, J . L. K o pf 

Meetings and Program, W . J . W o h l e n b e r g 

Publications, C. B . P e c k 

Admissions, H. E . MouS 

Professional Divisions, V ic t o r W i c h u m 

Local Sections, H. L. E g g lesto n 

Constitution and By-Laws, S. R . B e it l e r 

Honors and Awards, J . W . R oe 

CHAIRM EN OF STANDING COMMITTEES 

Representatives on Council w ithout vote 

Relations with Colleges, E. W . O ’B r ie n 

Education and Training for the Industries, 

A . R. S t e v e n s o n , J r . 

Library, J o h n B l iz a r d 

Research, E. G. B a il e y 

Standardization, A . L. B a k e r 

Power Test Codes, F r a n c is H o d g k in s o n 

S a f e t y , T. F . H a t c h 

Professional Conduct, E . H. T e n n e y 

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE COUNCIL 

W il l ia m A . H a n l e y , Chairman 

K e n n e t h H . C o n d it , Vice-Chairman 


K il s h a w M. I r w in 

W i l l ia m H . W in t e r r o w d 

Advisory Members: Chairmen of the 

Finance, Local Sections, and Professional 

Divisions Committees 

SECRETARIAL STAFF 

E r n e s t H artford, Assistant Secretary (Sections, Divisions, Student Branches, Membership, 

Meetings, etc.) 

C. B. L eP age, Assistant Secretary (Technical Committees) 

G eorge A. S t e t s o n , Editor 

F r e d e r ic k L a s k , Advertising Manager 

D. C. A. B o s w o r t h , Comptroller 

RI-5

RI-6 A.S.M.E. SO CIETY RECO RD S, PA R T 1 

STANDING COMMITTEES 

FINANCE 

J. L. K o p f, Chairman* (1941) 

K. W. J a p p e , Vice-Chairman (1942) 

G. L. K n ig h t (1943) 

W. I. S l i c h t e b (1944) 

J. J . S w a n (1945) 

Council Representatives 

E . B . R ic k e t t s (1941) 

G. E . I I u l s e (1942) 

A. M . M il l e r (1941) 

Junior Adviser 

M EETINGS AND PROGRAM 

W. J. W o h l en b eim j, Chairman* (1941) 

A. L. K im b a l l (1942) 

N. E. F u n k (1943) 

L . K . S il l c o x (1944) 

F. G. S w it z e r (1945) 

Junior Advisers 

F. M. G ib s o n , J r. (1941; 

R. F. W a r n e r, J r. (1942) 

PUBLICATIONS 

C. B . P e o k , Chairman* (1941) 

F. L. B r a d ley (1942) 

C. R . SoDERBERG (1943) 

A. R. S t e v e n s o n , J r. (1944) 

E . J . K a t e s (1945) 

W. L. D u d l ey 

N. C. E b a u g h 

0. B. S c h ie r , II 

Advisory Members (1941) 


C. C. K ir b y (1941) 

F. H. F o w l e r, J r . (1942) 

(Personnel of Special Committee, p . R I-7 ) 

ADMISSIONS 

H. E. Moli! Chairman* (1941) 

T. M. K n o o p (1942) 

S. H. L ib b y (1943) 

L. R. F ord (1944) 

J . P. J a c k s o n (1945) 

Advisory Member 

R. L. S a c k e t t (1941) 

(Personnel of Advisory Committee, p. RI-8) 

PROFESSIONAL DIVISIONS 

V ic t o r W i c h u m , Chairman* (1941) 

G. B. K a r e l it z (1942) 

W . A. C arter (1943) 

L. H. F ry (1944) 

J. H. S e n g s t a k e n (1945) 


A. E. B l ir e r (1941) 

H. B. F e r n a l d, Jr. (1942) 

(Personnel of Professional Divisions’ Executive 

Committees, p. RI-10) 

* Representative on the Council. 

LOCAL SECTIONS 

H. L. E g g l e s t o n, Chairman* (1941) 

J. N. L a n d is (1942) 

F. L . W i l k i n s o n , Jb. (1943) 

F. W . M a r q u is (1944) 

J. A. K e e t h (1945) 


S id n e y D a v id s o n (1941) 

C. C. K ie b y (1942) 

(Personnel of Local Sections’ Executive 

Committees, p. RI-15) 

CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS 

S. R. B e it l e r , Chairman* (1941) 

A. T. D u p o n t (1942) 

L. H. K e n n e y (1943) 

F. B. O rr (1944) 

R. L. P a r s e l l (1945) 


H. M. B l a c k (1941) 

HONORS AND AWARDS 

J . W. R oe, Chairman* (1941) 

R oy V. W r ig h t (1942) 

D. C. J a c k s o n (1943) 

C. L. B a u s c h (1944) 

L. W . W a l l a c e (1945) 

(Personnel of Special Committee, p. RI-7) 

RELATIONS W ITH COLLEGES 

E. W. O ’B r i e n , Chairman* (1941) 

A. C. C h i o k (1942) 

J. 1. Y e l l o t t (1943) 

H . E. D e g ler (1944) 

G. L. S u l l iv a n (1945) 

J. W. H a n e y 

B. T. M cM i n n 

R. H . P orter 

J. L. H a l l 


Junior Adviser (1941) 

(Student Branches and Officers, p. RI-23) 

EDUCATION AND TRAINING FOR 

THE INDUSTRIES 

A . R. S t e v e n s o n , J r ., Chairman* (1942) 

A . B . W i l l i (1941) 

M. R. B o w e r m a n (1943) 

A. C. H a r p e r (1944) 

R. L . G o e tzen b er g er (1945) 


V . C. A r m s p ig e r 

R. B u r d e t t e D ale 

A . B . G a t e s 

H. A . W r ig h t 

PROFESSIONAL CONDUCT 

E. H. T e n n e y , Chairman* (1941) 

W . H. K e n e r s o n (1942) 

C. E. W addell (1943) 

V. E. A l d e n (1944) 

G. S. A r m s t r o n g (1945) 

RESEARCH t 

E . G. B a il e y , Chairman* (1941) 

W . T h i n k s (1942) 

M. D . H e r s e y (1943) 

J . H . W a l k e r (1944) 

W . R. E l s e y (1945) 

STANDARDIZATION f 

A. L . B a k e r , Chairman* (1941) 

J . E. L ovely (1942) 

L . T. K n o c k e (1943) 

T. E. F r e n c h (1944) 

W . H . H il l (1945) 

POW ER TEST CODES f 

F r a n c is H o d g k in s o n , Chairman* (1944) 

A. G. C h r i s t i e , Vice-Chairman (1941) 

W . W . L a w r e n c e , Junior Observer (1941) 

H . H . M ic h e l s e n , Junior Observer (1942) 

A. G . C h r i s t i e 

P a u l D is e r e n s 

G e o. A. O rrok 

L . A. Q u a y l e 

W . M . W h i t e 

W . A. C arter 

H arte C o oke 

E . R . F i s h 

H . B. O a t l e y 

W . J . W o h l e n b e r g 

L o u i s E l l io t t 

G. A. H o r n e 

H . B . R ey n o ld s 

P . W . S w a in 

E . N . T r u m p 

Term expires 1941 



Term expires 194k 

C. H . B erry 


I). S. J aco bu s 

L . F . M oody 

E . B. R ic k e t t s 


T h eo dore B a u m e is t e r , J r . 

P . H . H a rd ie 

B. V . E. N ordberg 

R . J . S. P ig o tt 

M . C. S t u a r t 

SAFETY t 

T. F. H a t c h , Chairman* (1941) 

A. W . L u c e (1942) 

A. E. W in d l e (1943) 

H . C. H o u g h t o n (1944) 

E. R . G r a n n is s (1945) 

LIBRARY 

J o h n B l iz a r d , Chairman* (1941) 

E. F . C h u r c h , J r . (1943) 

A . R. M u m fo r d (1944) 

The Secretary, C. E . D a v ie s, Ex-Officio 

t Personnel of all Technical Committees, 

pp. RI-25-38.

A.S.M.E. SOCIETY RECO RD S, PA R T 1 

RI-7 

BIOGRAPHY ADVISORY 

(Spccial Committee of Publications 

Committee) 

R oy V . W r ig h t , Chairman 

L . P . A lford 

R . E . F l a n d er s 

G eo. A . O rrok 

J . W . R oe 

W . H . W in t e r r o w d 

BOILER CODE 

D. S. J a co bu s, Chairman 

E . R . F i s h , Vice-Chairman 

C. W . O b e r t, Honorary Secretary 

M . J u r is t , Acting Secretary 

C. A . A d a m s 

H . E . A l d r ic h 

H . C. B o a r d m a n 

P e rry C a ssid y 

R . E . C e c il 

F . S. C l a r k 

A . J . E ly 

V . M . F rost 

C. E . G orton 

A . M . G r e e n e , J r. 

W . ;G. H u m p t o n 

J. O. L e e c h 

I . E . M oultr o p 

C. O. M y ers 

H. B. O a t le y 

J a m e s P a r t in g t o n 

W a l t e r S a m a n s 

S. K . V a r n e s 

A . C. W e ig e l 

W. II. B o e h m 

W. F. D u ra nd 

T. E . D u r b a n 

C. L. H u s t o n 

W . F. K ie s b l . J r. 

M . F . M oore 

H. H. V a u g h a n 

II. L e R oy W h i t n e y 

Honorary Members 

(Personnel of Boiler Code Committees, pp. 

RI-37-38) 

MEDALS 

(Special Committee of Board of Honors 

and Atcards) 

J . W . R oe, Chairman 

H . A. E v erett 

H . A. S. I I o w a r t h 

G eo. A. O rrok 

A l e x a n d e r K l e m in 

E. W . O ’B r ie n 

E. S. P earce 

R oy V . W r ig h t 



C. M. A l l e n 

R . L. D a u g h e r t y 

D. C. J a c k so n 

R. C. M a r s h a l l , J r . 

C. L . B a u s c ii 


L . C. M orrow 

J . M . T odd 



SPECIAL COMMITTEES 

A. D. B a il e y 

J . W . B a r k e r 


L. W . W a l la c e 

MEDALS 

(Continued) 


REGULAR NOMINATING COMMITTEE 

FOR 1941 

I 

II 

I I I 

IV 

V 

A. L . K im b a l l , Chairman 

N . C. E b a u g h , Secretary 

W . F. T h o m p s o n , New Haven, Conn. 

E. S. D e n n is o n , Groton, Conn., 1st 

Alternate 

R. A . N o r t h , Ansonia, Conn., 2nd 

Alternate 

E. J . B i l l in g s , New York, N.Y. 

W . McC. M cK e e, New York, N.Y., 

Alternate 

A. L. K im b a l l , Schenectady, N.Y., 

Ch airman 

C. M . M e r r ic k , Easton, Pa., 1st Al- 

S. T . H a r t, Syracuse, N.Y., 2nd A l 

ternate 

N. C. E b a u g h , Gainesville, Fla., Secretary 

C. E. K e r c h n e r , Greensboro, N.C., 

1st Alternate 

II. S. K e n t , Homewood, Md., 2nd 

Alternate 

H. B. J oyce, Erie, Pa. 

C. J . F r e u n d , D etroit, Mich., A lternate 

V I Pi. E. T u r n e r , Chicago, 111. 

C. C. W il c o x , Notre Dame, Ind., 1st 

Alternate 

C. A. J a c o b so n, Beloit, W is ., 2nd 

Alternate 

V II E a r l M e n d e n h a l l , L o s Angeles, 

Calif. 

H. L . D o o l it t l e, L os A n g e le s , C a lif., 

1st Alternate 

W . H. C l a p p , Pasadena, Calif., 2nd 

Alternate 

V III L . J . L a s s a l l e , University, L a . 

W . H . C a r s o n , Norman, Okla., 1st 

Alternate 

A. L. H il l , Denver, C olo., 2nd A l 

ternate 

LOCAL SECTIONS IN NOMINATING 

COMMITTEE GROUPS 

GROUP I 

B o sto n 

B r idgeport 

G r e e n M o u n t a in 

H artford 

N e w H a v e n 

N o r w ic h 

P ro v id e n c e 

W a t e r b u r y 

W e s t e r n M a s s a c h u s e t t s 

W orcester 

NOMINATING COMMITTEE GROUPS 

(Continued) 

GROUP II 

M e t r o po l it a n (N .Y .) a n d M e m b e r s 

O u t s id e t h e U n it e d S t a t e s 

( E x c e p t O n t a r io S e c t io n M e m b e r s ) 

GROUP III 

A n t h r a c it e -L e h ig h V a l le y 

B u f f a l o 

C e n t r a l P e n n s y l v a n ia 

P h il a d e l p h ia 

P l a in f ie l d 

R o c h e s t e r 

S y r a c u s e 

S u s q u e h a n n a 

W a s h in g t o n 

I t h a c a 

B a l t im o r e 

S c h e n e c t a d y 

gro u p iv 

A t l a n t a 

P ie d m o n t -N o r t h C a r o l in a 

E a s t T e n n e s s e e 

B i r m i n g h a m 

F lo rid a 

G r e e n v il l e 

M e m p h i s 

R a l e ig h 

S a v a n n a h 

V i r g in ia 

A k r o n -C a n t o n 

C i n c i n n a t i 

C l ev e la n d 

C o l u m b u s 

D a y t o n 

D e t r o it 

E r ie 

O n t a r io 

P it t s b u r g h 

P e n in s u l a 

T oledo 

W e s t V i r g in ia 

Y o u n g s t o w n 

C e n t r a l I l l in o is 

C e n t r a l I n d ia n a 

C h ic a g o 

F ort W a y n e 

L o u is v il l e 

M il w a u k e e 

N e b r a s k a 

M in n e s o t a 

R o c k R iv e r V a l l e y 

S t . J o s e p h V a l l e y 

S t . L o u is 

T r j-C i t i e s 

gro u p v 

g ro u p VI 

g r o u p v ii 

I n l a n d E m p ir e 

Los A n q e l e s 

O regon 

S a n F r a n c isc o 

U t a h 

W e s t e r n W a s h in g t o n 

C olorado 

K a n s a s C it y 

M id -C o n t in e n t 

N e w O r l e a n s 

N o r t h T e x a s 

S otrTH T e x a s 

GROUP VIII

RI-8 A.S.M.E. SO CIETY R EC O RD S, PA R T 1 

ADVISORY COMMITTEE TO COM 

M ITTEE ON ADMISSIONS 

H . A . L a r d n e r, Chairman 

R . E . F l a n d e r s 

E. C. H u t c h in s o n 

A lfred I ddles 

J. II. L a w r e n c e 

R oy Y . W r ig h t 

BOARD OF REV IEW 

G. L. K n i g h t , Chairman (1941) 

W . A. S h o u d y (1942) 

P . W . S w a in (1943) 

BOARD ON TECHNOLOGY 

K . II. C o n d it , Chairman 

R. F . G agu 

J. C. litlNSAKER 

W . J. W o h l e n b e r g (Meetings and Program) 

V ic t o r W i c h u m (Professional Divisions) 

F . L . B radley (P u b lic a tio n s ) 

E. G. B a il e y (Research) 

CONSULTING PRACTICE 

S. L ogan K er r, Chairman 

P . L . B a t te y 

M . X. W il b e k d in g 

H. V. Coep 

P . T . N o r t o n, J r. 

DEPRECIATION 

DUES-EXEMPT MEMBERS’ 

CONTRIBUTIONS 

H a r t e C o o k e , Chairman 

G. W. F a r n y 

F. D. H e r b e r t 

S. H . L ib b y 

J. W . R o e 

W . R . W ebster 

W. D. E n n i s , Treasurer 

ECONOMIC STATUS OF THE 

ENGINEER 

C. J. F r e u n d , Chairman 

D. S. K i m b a l l 

C. N. L a u e e 

H. B. O a t l e y 

H. L. W h i t t e m o r e 

W. E. W i c k e n d e n 

SPECIAL COUNCIL COMMITTEES 

(Dates in parentheses denote expiration of terms) 

ECONOMIC STATUS OF THE 

ENGIN EER 

(Continued) 

W . F . C a r h a r t 

W. S. M a g a l h a e s 

W . B . O a k l e y , J r. 

Junior Representatives 

Chairmen of Committees on Local Sections 

and Relations W ith Colleges, Ex-Officio 

EN G IN EERS’ CIVIC RESPO N SI 

B IL IT IE S 

A. R . C u l l im o r e , Chairman 

L i l l ia n M . G il b r e t ii 

W a l t e r K idde 

H . B. O a t l e y 

J . W . R oe 

W . H . W in t e r r o w d 

R o y V. W r ig h t 

D. R obert Y a r n a l l 

Chairmen of Committees on Local Sections 

and Relations W ith Colleges, Ex-Officio 

FREEM AN FUND 

C l a r k e F r e e m a n , Chairman 


G e o. A. O rrok 

LEA D ER SH IP IN PROFESSIONAL 

DIVISIONS 

A lfr ed I d d l es. Chairman 

K . H . C o n d it 

L i n n H e l a n d e r 


W . R. W o o l r ic h 

NATIONAL D EFENSE 

J . L . W a l s h , Chairman 

C. E . D a v ie s, Secretary 

W . L . B att 

G a n o D u n n 

E. A. M u l l e r 

Advisory Members 

Arm y and Navy Members 

A . B . A n d e r s o n (Navy) 

H . K . R u t h e r f o r d (Army) 

C. E . B r in l e y 

H. V. C oes 

K . II. C o n d it 

J . D . C u n n in g h a m 

H. N. D avis 

W . C. D ic k e r m a n 

W . F . D u r a n d 

R . E. F la n d er s 

K . T. K e l l e r 

D avid L a r k in 

F . T L e t c h f ie l d 

T. A. M organ 

R . C. M u ir 

T 15. M u r r a y 

W . I. W e st er v elt 

A. C. W illa r d 

NATIONAL DEFENSE 

(Continued) 

General Committee 

REGISTRATION 

V. M . P a l m e r , Chairman 

S. H. G ra f 

J. A. M cP h e r s o n 

F . H. P ro u ty 

W . K . S im p s o n 

SOCIETY OFFICE OPERATION 

A lfr ed I d d les, Chairman 

W a l la c e C l a r k 

W . H. W in t e r r o w d 

FR ED ERICK W. TAYLOR MEMORIAL 

L. P. A lford 

M. L. C ooke 

H . N. D a v is 

R. T. K e n t 

GEORGE W ESTINGHOUSE BUST 

D . S. K im b a l l , Chairman 

C. E. D a v ie s, Secretary 

K . T. C o m p t o n 

S. W . D u d l e y 

C. N. L a u e e 

W. G. M a r s h a l l 

J. H. M cG r a w 

L . A . O sborne 

C. F . S cott 

J. B. W r ig h t 

R oy V. W r ig h t

A.S.M.E. SO CIETY RECO RD S, PA R T 1 

RI-9 

A.S.M.E. REPRESENTATIVES ON OTHER ACTIVITIES 

See also A.S.M.E. Representatives on Other Research Committees, etc., pages RI-26, SI, SJi, 35, 38 

(Dates in parentheses denote expiration of terms) 

AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE 

ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE 

R. F. G agg 

R. L. S a c k e t t 

SECTION M , ENGINEERING 

AMERICAN STANDARDS 

ASSOCIATION 

A. L. B a k e r (1942) 

A lfred I ddles (1943) 

Alternates 

C. B . L f.P age (1941) 

W. C. M u e l l e r (1941) 

C. E. D a v ie s 

AMERICAN YEAR BOOK 

CORPORATION 

J . B . C h a l m e r s 

CENTER FOR SAFETY 

EDUCATION 

COAL TESTING CODE 

JO IN T COMMITTEE W IT H THE A .I.M .E . 

R . L . R o w a n , Chairman 

J . F . B a r k l e y 

R . A. F o r e s m a n 

R . M . H ardgrove 

T. A. M a r s h 

A . R . M u m fo r d * 

P ercy N ic h o l l s 

R. A. S h e r m a n 

L . A. S h i p m a n 

A. W . T h o r so n 

W a l ter K idde 

THOMAS ALVA EDISON 

FOUNDATION 

THE ENGINEERING FOUNDATION 

K. H. C o n d it (1943) 

A. A. P o tter (1943) 

W. II. F u l w e il e r (1944) 

r e s e a r c h pro c ed u r e c o m m it t e e 

W. H. F u l w e il e r (1941) 

G eo. A . O r r ok 

J . W . R oe 

ENGINEERING HISTORY 

ENGINEERING SOCIETIES LIBRARY 

BOARD 

J o h n B liz a r d 

E . F . C h u r c h 

A . R . M u m fo r d 

Secretary, A.S.M.E., Ex-Officio 

e n g in e e r in g s o c ie t ie s m o n o g r a p h s 

E. J . K a tes 

G. B . K a r e l it z 

c o m m it t e e 

* Also represents Power Test Codes Committee. 

ENGIN EERIN G SOCIETIES PERSON 

N EL SERVICE, INC., 

E r n e s t H artford, N ational Board 

R. D. B r iz z o l a r a , Chicago Board 

C. J. F r e u n d , D etroit Board 

E r n e s t H artford, Chairman, M etropolitan 

Board 

S. R. Dows, San Francisco Board 

EN G IN EERS’ COUNCIL FOR PR O FES 

SIONAL DEVELOPMENT 

H . T. W oolson (1941) 

R. L. S a c k e t t (1942) 

A. R. S t e v e n s o n , J r . (1943) 

EN G IN EERS’ NATIONAL R E L IE F 

FUND 

E r n e s t H artford 

JO H N FR ITZ MEDAL BOARD OF 

AWARD 

J. H. H e r r o n (1941) 

H. N. D a v is (1942) 

A. G. C h r i s t i e (1943) 

W. H. M cB ryd e (1944) 

FU EL VALUES 

JO IN T COMMITTEE W IT H TH E A .I.M .E . 

A. D. B a il e y 

E. H . B a r r y 

F. M . G ib s o n 

H . D r a k e H a r k in s 

J . C. H obbs 

A. L. P e n n i m a n , J r . 

E. B . R ic k e t t s 

E. H . T e n n e y 

GANTT MEDAL BOARD OF AWARD 

L . C. M o rrow (1941) 

L i l l ia n M . G il b r e t h (1942) 

L . P. A lford (1943) 

D ANIEL GUGGENHEIM MEDAL 

FUND, INC. 

E. A. S p e r r y, J r . (1941) 

A l e x . K l e m in (1942) 

R. F. G agg (1943) 

JO SEPH A. HOLMES SAFETY 

ASSOCIATION 

J. F. B a r k l e y 

HOOVER MEDAL BOARD OF AWARD 

W. H. K e n e r s o n (1941) 

S. F. V o o r h e e s (1943) 

W. L. B a t t (1945) 

INTERNATIONAL ELECTROTECH 

NICAL COMMISSION 

U.S. NATIONAL COMMITTEE 

H . N. D a v is 



C. H arold B erry 

G e o. A. O rr ok 

Aternate 

MARSTON AWARD 

NATIONAL BUREAU OF EN G IN EER 

ING REGISTRATION 

V. M. P a l m e r 

NATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENGI 

N EERIN G POSITIONS 

W. F. C a r h a r t 

W. L. ClSLER 

H. B. O a t l e y 

R. L. S a c k e t t 

NATIONAL F IR E WASTE COUNCIL 

J. A. N eale 

NATIONAL MANAGEMENT COUNCIL 

L . C. M orrow (1942)—J. R. B a n g s, A lternate 

L . P. A lford (1943)—C. W. L y t l e , A lternate 

J. M. T a lbot (1944)— H. B . B e r g e n , A l 

ternate 

NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL 

DIVISION OF ENGINEERING AND INDUSTRIAL 

RESEARCH 

W . L. B a t t (1942) 

ALFRED NOBLE PR IZE 

A. M. G r e e n e , J r . 

UNITED EN G IN EERIN G TRUSTEES, 

INC. 

H. A. L a r d n e r (1942) 

W a l t e r K id d e (1943) 

K . H. C o n d it (1944) 

VERM ILYE MEDAL ADVISORY 

COMMITTEE 

R. A. W e n t w o b t h 

W ASHINGTON AWARD COMMISSION 

W. L. A bb o tt (1 9 4 1 ) 

C. B . N o l te (1 9 4 2 )


PROFESSIONAL DIVISIONS 

A r t ic l e B6A, P a r. 16: The Standing; Committee on Professional Divisions shall, under the 

direction of the Council, have supervision of the Professional Divisions of the Society. 

STANDING- COMMITTEE 

V ic t o r W i c i i u m , Chairman (1941) 

G. E. K a r e l it z (1942) 

W . A. C a rter (1943) 

L. H . F ry (1944) 

J . H . S e n g s t a k e n (1945) 


A. E. B l ir e r (1941) 

H. B. F e r n a l d , J r . (1942) 

Aeronautic 

Organized, 1920 

C. H . D o l a n , I I . Chairman 

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 

C. H. D o l a n , II, Chairman 

J. M. C l a r k , Secretary 

E. E. A l d r in 

R. F. G agg 

J. E. Y o u n g e r 

F . II. F o w l e r , J r. 

H e rbert K u n e in 


ADVISORY COMMITTEE 

K a r l A r n s t e in 

C a r l B reer 

E. C. C l a r k e 

H . M . C r a n e 

L o u is D e F lorez 


A . J . G iffo r d 

M . B . G ordon 

W i l l ia m H ovgaard 

J . C. H u n s a k e r 

P. G . J o h n s o n 

C. F . K e t t e r in g 

A l e x . K l e m in 

R. K . L e B lond 

W . B . M ayo 

P. B. M organ 

T. A . M organ 

S. A . M o ss 

E . A . S per r y 

A. R. S t e v e n s o n , Jr. 

J. G. V in c e n t 

T h e o . von K a r m a n 

C. J. W ard 

E. P. W a r n er 

B. M. W oods 

O r v il le W r ig iit 

Ammunition 

(Professional Group) 

Organized, 191/0 

Committee to be appointed 

Applied Mechanics 


J . P . D e n H artog, Chairman, 

EXECUTIV E COMMITTEE 

J . P . D e n H artog, Chairman 

H . L . D r y d e n , Secretary 

J . H . K e e n a n 

J e s s e O rm o n d r o y d 

B . M. W oods 

R u p e n E k s e r q ia n 

J C. H u n s a k e r 

A. L. K im b a l l 

F. M. L e w is 

G. B . P eg ra m 

C. R. SODERBERG 

E. 0. W a ter s 

H . M. W estergaard 

Associates 

Representative on Aviation Liaison Group 

J . C. H u n s a k e r 

J e s s e O r m o n d r o y d 

Research Secretary 

JOURNAL OF A PPLIED MECHANICS 

J. M. L e s s e l l s, Editor 

SPONSORS 

Dynamics, E. L. T h e a r l e 

Elasticity, S t e p h e n T im o s h e n k o 

Fluid Mechanics, H. L. D ry d en 

Lubrication, G. B . K a r e l it z 

Plasticity, A. N a d a i 

Strength of Materials, R. E. P e terso n 

Thermodynamics, J. A. G o ff 

Fuels 


W i l l ia m G. C h r is t y , Chairman 


W il l ia m G. C h r is t y , Chairman 

D. C. W e e k s , Secretary 

0 . F . C a m p b e ll, Representative on A v i a 

tion Liaison Group 

H . F . H e b l e y 

A. R . M u m f o r d 

A. W . T iio r s o n 

J. F . B a r k l e y 

J'. S. B e n n e t t , 3 rd 

M . P . C l e g h o r n 

B . J. C ross 

M . D. E n g l e 

D. S. F r a n k 

E. R . K a is e r 

T . A. M a r s h 

M . A. M a y e r s 

R . L . R o w a n 

J. E. T obey 

D. C. W e e k s 

Associates 

COOPERATION W ITH A.I.M.E. 

J. E. T obey, Chairman 

MODEL SMOKE LAW 

J. F. B a r k l e y , Chairman 

O. F. C a m p b e l l 

A. G. C h r is t ie 

W il l ia m G. C h r is t y 

T. A. M a r s h 

T . E. P u r c e l l 


R. R. T u c k e r 

PROGRAM 

A. W. T iio r s o n , Chairman 

D. S. F r a n k , Assistant Chairman 

E. R. K a is e r , Junior Member 

R EV IEW OF PAPERS 

W i l l ia m G. C h r is t y 

M. D. E n g l e 

A. W . T h o r so n 

D. C. W e e k s 

Graphic Arts 

Organized, 192:1 


T. E. D a l t o n , Secretary 

A. E. G ie g e n g a c k 

F. W . H o o ii 

W . B. L a u g h t o n 

R. G. M a cD onald 

W . M . P a ssa n o 

B. L. S it e s 

B. D. S t e v e n s 

B. L. W e h m i io f f 

Heat Transfer 

(Professional Group) 

Organized, 193 8 

E. D. G r im is o n , Chairman 

W. S. P a t t e r s o n , Group Secretary 


E. D . G r i m i s o n , Chairman 

T. B . D r e w 

L. M. K. B o elter 

R . A. B o w m a n 

H . C. H o ttel 

C. E. L u o k e 

A. K . S cott 

J . H . S e n g s t a k e n 

J . L . M e n s o n 

R . H . W o l in 

Advisory Associates 

Junior Representatives

W. S. P a t terso n 

Heat Transfer 

(Continued) 

COORDINATION 

Liaison Officer for Local Sections 

A. K. S cott 

Representative on Aviation Liaison Group 

L. M. K. B o elter 

Representatives of Other Divisions 

Fuels, B . J. C ro ss 

Hydraulic, J. D. S cov ille 

Iron and Steel, W. T r in k s 

Oil and Gas Power, F. G. H e c h l e r 

Petroleum, J. D. P e terso n 

Power, 0. F . C a m p b e l l 

Process Industries, A rno ld W e is s e l b e r g 

Railroad, L. H. F ry 

T. B. D rew 

L. 51. K. B oelter 

R. II. H e il m a n 

G. L. T uve 


Members at Large 

DIRECT-FIRED FLUID HEATERS 

AND BOILERS 

E . D. G r im is o n , Chairman 

J o h n B liza rd 

D. S. F r a n k 

L. B . S c h u e l l e r 

W . J . W o iil e n b e r g 

INDUSTRIAL FURNACES AND KILNS 

W. T r i n k s , Chairman 

H . C. H ottel 

W. A. T ic k n o r 

PAPERS 

W . L . D e B a u f r e, Chairman 

R. A. B o w m a n 

C. F . K a y a n 

A. K . S cott 


TESTING TECHNIQUE 

H . C. H o t t e l, Chairman 

B . J . C ross 

R . H . J a c k s o n 

J . H . R u s iit o n 

A. K . S cott 

THEORY AND FUNDAMENTAL 

RESEARCH 

L. M . K . B o elter, Chairman 

A. P . C o l b u r n 

T. B . D r e w 

M a x J akob 

D . D . S treid 


THERMO-PHYSICAL PR O PER TIES 

OF MATERIALS 

R. H . N o r r is, Chairman 

O. K e n n e t h B a t e s 

T. H . C h il t o n 

R. C. H. H e c k 

M a x J a k o b 

R. J . S. P ig o tt 

J . F. D o w n ie S m i t h 

S u b c o m m it t e e o n S p e c if ic H e a t of G a s e s 

M a x J a k o b , Chairman 

W. L. D e B a u f r e 

J. A. G o f f 

A. C. G u l l ik s o n 

R. C. H . H e c k 

R. J . S. P ig o tt 

R. L. S w e ig e r t 

UNFIRED HEAT TRANSFER 

EQUIPM ENT 

R. A. B o w m a n , Chairman 

W. E. B e l in e 

A. C. M u e l l e r 

B . E. S h o r t 

T o w n s e n d T i n k e r 

Hydraulic 


E. B. S t r o w g e r, Chairman 


E. B . S tro w g e r, Chairman 

L . J . H ooper, Secretary 

M. P . O ’B r ie n 

J. D . S co v ille 

F. G. S w it z e r 

R . V . T erry 

CAVITATION 

“E. B . S t r o w g e r, Sponsor 

L . F. M oody, Chairman 

R . T. K n a p p 

J. M . M o u s s o n 

W . J . R h e in g a n s 

G. F. W is l ic e n u s 

Representatives of Other Societies 

American Society for Testing M aterials, 

F. N. S p e l l e r 

Engineering Institute of Canada, E r n e s t 

B r o w n 

Institution of Mechanical Engineers, G. S. 

B a k e r 

A . T e n o t 

Representative of France 

HYDRAULIC PR IM E MOVERS 

R . V . T e r r y , Sponsor 

J . F. R o berts, Chairman 

A . A b e r l i 

E. H . C o l l in s 

J . P. G r o w d en 

L. F. H a rz a 

P. L. H e sl o p 

G eorge J e s s u p 

F. S . R ogers 

F. S c h m id t 

S. 0 . S c h o m b e r g e b 

S. H . V a n P a t teb 

PU M PIN G MACHINERY 

F. G. S w it z e r , Sponsor 

R. L . D a u g h e r t y , Chairman 

W ATER HAMMER 

RI-11 

Honorary Chairman, L o ren zo A l l ie v i, 

Rome, Italy 

J . D . S co v il le, Sponsor 

S. L ogan K er r, Chairman 

N. R. G ib s o n 

E u g e n e H a l m o s 


R. S. Q u i c k 

E . B . S tro w g er 

Affiliated Societies and Their 

Representatives 

American Society of Civil Engineers, N. R. 

G ib s o n and F ord K u r t z 

American W ater W orks Association, F . M . 

D a w s o n and L . H . K e s s l e r 

Associate Members, Representing; 

Australia, G eorge H ig g in s 

B r a z il, A. W . K . B il l in g s and F. K n a p p 

Engineering Institute of Canada, R. W. 

A n g u s and F. M. W ood 

France, Louis B e r g ero n and C h a r l e s 

C a m ic h e l 

Germany and V erein deutscher Ingenieure, 

D . T h o m a 

G reat B ritain and Institution of Mechanical 

Engineers, E. B r u c e B a l l and A. H . 

G ib s o n 

Italy, G a u d e n z io F a n t o l i and A l b in o 

P a s i n i 

Switzerland, C h a r l e s J aeger and 0. 

S c iin y d e r 

Machine Shop Practice 


S ol E i n s t e i n , Chairman 


S ol E i n s t e i n , Chairman 

W ar,n e e S e e l y , Secretary 

E . W . E r n e s t 

A. M. J o h n s o n 

E r i k O beeg 

CUTTING METALS 

H a n s E r n s t , Chairman 

FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

J a m e s T h o m s o n , C h a ir m a n 

R. E. K e n n e d y , S e c r e ta r y 

LUBRICATION ENGINEERING 

B. G. T a n g , Chairman 

C. M . L a rso n 

H . J . M a s s o n


Machine Shop Practice 

(Continued) 

MACHINE DESIGN 

E. 0 . W a t e r s, Chairman 

A. E. R . de J o nge 

J . H. M a r c h a n t 

J . M a r in 

GENERAL COMMITTEE 

Associates 

(Continued) 

A j . B o s to n 

D. B. P o eter S. M . M a r s h a l l 

F. E. R a y m o n d B. C. M cF a dden 

J . W . R oe 

J . H . R o m a n s 

E. H. S c h e l l M. D. S t o n e 

E. D . S m i t h R . J . W e a n 

L. W . W a l la c e S. M. W e c k s t e in 

J . E . Y o u n g e r 

T . H . W ic k e n d e n 

W ELDING 

C. W. O b e r t, Chairman 

Management 


H . B . B e r g e n , Chairman 


H . B . B e r g e n , Chairman 

J . R . B a n g s, J r ., Vice-Chairman 

G. M. V arga, Secretary 

L . A . A p p l e y 

J . M. T a lbot 

A r c h ie W i l l ia m s 

Representatives of Local Sections 

A tlanta, S. C. H a l e 

Kansas, A. H . S l u s s 

Louisville, C. D . E ldridge 

Metropolitan, W. P. C a e h a r t 

Milwaukee, B . V . E . N okdberg 

Philadelphia, C. S. G o t w a l s 

Seattle, H . J . M cI n t y r e 

P. R. K i e e n a n 


Representative on Aviation Liaison Croup 

R . E . G il l m o r 

E . H . H e m p e l 




R. M. B a r n e s 

W . L . B a i t 

C. W . B e e s e 

F . B . B e l l 


H . V . C o es 


H ow ard C o o n l e y 

N. E . E l sa s 

S. P . F is h e r 

R. E . F l a n d er s 

W . D . F u l l e r 

W . H . G e s e l l 

L il l ia n M . G il b r e t h 

R. E . G il l m o r 

C. H . H a t c h 

E . II. H e m p e l 

P . E . H o ld en 

W . F . H osford 

J . M . J u r a n 

D . S. K im b a l l 

W . H . K u s h n i c k 

T. S. M oE w a n 


A. I . P e t e r s o n 

COMMITTEE CHAIRMEN 

Administration Organization, L . A . A p p l e y 

Industrial M arketing, J . R. B a n g s, J r . 

M athematical Statistics, A. I. P e t e r s o n 

W orks Standardization, J . M. J u r a n 

DEPRECIATION STUDIES 

H . V . C oes 

P. T. N o r t o n, J e . 

Materials Handling 


G. E . H a g e m a n n , Chairman 


G. E. H a g e m a n n , Chairman 

R . B . R e n n e r , Vice-Chairman 

F. J . S h e p a r d , J e ., Secretary 

C. F. D ie t z 

J . A . J a c k s o n 

M . C. M a x w e l l 

N . W . E l m e e 

H. C. K e l l e e 

R. H. M cL a in 

F . E . M oore 

P . D. O e s t e e l e 

E . D. S m i t h 

J . B . W ebb 

A . J . B u r k e 

C o r n e l iu s C ro w ley 

!E. Z. G a b r ie l 

R. W . G r u n d m a n 

D. D. J o n e s 

P e t e r S h a w 

Associates 

Junior Associates 

Metals Engineering 

(Formerly Iron and Steel) 


Reorganized, 19J/0 

W . R. W e b s t e r , Chairman 


W . R . W e b s t e r, Chairman 

R . A . N o r t h , Secretary 

J. A . C l a u s s 

G. L. F i s k 

J. H . H it c h c o c k 

W . T r i n k s 

Oil and Gas Power 

Organised, 1921 

C. W . G ood, Chairman 


C. W. G ood, Chairman 

L . N. R o w le y , J r . , S e c r e ta r y 

H . E. D egler 

E. S. D e n n is o n 

W. L . H . D oyle 

F . G . H e c h l e r 

R . D . C a m p b e l l 

G. J. D a s h e f s k y 

L . R . F ord 

W . K . G regory 

E . J. K ates 

L . H . M orriso n 

B . V . E . N ordberg 

M . J. R eed 

L e e S c h n e it t e r 

C. K . H o l la n d 


Associates 



Liaison Representatives 

American Society of Naval Architects and 

Marine Engineers, L. R . F ord 

Aviation Liaison Group, H . E. D egler 

H eat Transfer Group, F . G. H e c h l e r 

E . J . K a t es 

E e n e s t N ib b s 

M . J . R eed 

EDITING 

METROPOLITAN SUBCOMMITTEE 

E . J . K a t e s 

L. H . M o r r iso n 

M . J . R eed 

OIL ENGINE POW ER COST 

H . C. M a jo r , Chairman 

H . C. L e n f e s t , Secretary 

B . B . B a c h m a n 

R. P. B olster 

L . T. B e o w n 

R. D . C a m p b e l l 

E. H a l e C odding 

W. J . C u m m i n g

A.S.M.E. SO CIETY RECO RD S, PA R T 1 R I- 

OIL ENGINE POW ER COST 

(Continued) 

E. J. K a t es 

A. B. M organ 

J. I. M oore 

G. D. N o il e s 

M. J . R eed 

R. T om S a w y e r 


P. H. S c h w e it z e r 

H. C. T h u e is k 

C. A. T r im m e r 

S t a n l e y W r ig h t 

OIL AND GAS POW ER CONFERENCES 

191/1 Arrangements Committee 

C. W. G ood, Chairman 

G . C. B o y e r, Chairman, Kansas City A r 

rangements Committee 

H. E. D egi.er 

191/2 Location and Selection Committee 

W. L. H. D o y l e, Chairman 

C. W. G ood 

W. K . G regory 

L. II. M o rrison 

PUBLICITY 

TECHNICAL PROGRAM 

E. S. D e n n is o n , Chairman 

G. C. B oyer 

W . L . II. D oyle 


Petroleum 


Reorganized, 1987 

W . F . H erbert, Chairman 


W . F . H e rbert, Chairman 

W . H . C a r s o n , Secretary 

H . R . A u e r s w a l d 

E . H . B arlow 

H . L. E ggleston 

O o st a v u s A u e r 

P . E. F r a n k 

T. H . H a m il t o n 

J . D . P ete r so n 

V W . S m i t h 


H . A . A u e r s w a l d 

C. J . C oberly 

W . F. H e rbert 

F. J. H olzbaur 

W . H . S t u ev e 

Atlantic Group 

Mid-Continent Group 

Power 


G. C. E a t o n, Chairman 


G . C, E a t o n , Chairman 

L. M. G o l d s m it h , Secretary 

T heo dore B a u m e is t e r , J r., Research Secretary 

O . F . C a m p b e l l 

E . L . H o p p in g 

F . R obert H a e t in 


Process Industries 

Organized, 1931/ 

J . W . H u n t e r , Chairman 


J . W . H u n t e r , Chairman 

T . R . O l iv e , Secretary 

T h eo d o re B a u m e is t e r , J r . 

R ic h a r d O ’M ara 

W i l l ia m R a is c h 

A. F. S p it z g l a s s 

A rno ld W e is s e l b e r g 

W . R . W o o l r ic h 

J . I . Y ello tt 

F. L. Y e r z l e y 

Liaison Officer W ith Standing Committee on 

Professional Divisions 

J . H . S e n g s t a k e n 

G. M. B e is c iie r 

A rno ld W e is s e l b e r g 



Other Liaison Representatives 

Aviation Liaison Group 

Industrial Instrum ents and Regulators 

Committee, E. A . S p e r r y 

Subdivision on Rubber and Plastics 

W . F. B a rtoe, Plastics 

F. L. Y e r z l e y , Rubber 

H eat Transfer Group, A rn o ld W e is s e l b e r g 

Society of Automotive Engineers, F. L. 

Y e r z l e y 


A ir Conditioning, C. F. K a y a n 

Drying, A rno ld W e is s e l b e r g 

Food Processing, G. L. M o n t g o m e r y 

Industrial Instrum ents and Regulators 

E. S. S m i t h , Chairman 

A . F. S p it z g l a s s , Secretary 

J. C. P e t e r s, Acting Secretary 

M anufactured G a s, G. M. B e is c h e r 

Mechanical Separation, R ic h a r d O ’M ara 

Papers, Awards, and Honors, C. E. LuC K E 

Program, J. W . H u n t e r 

Pulp and Paper, A . D. A s b u r y 

Sanitation, W i l l ia m R a is c h 

Sugar, F. M. G ib s o n 

Sulphur, B . E. S h o r t 

Vegetable Oils, R. W. M orton 

Subdivision on Rubber and 

Plastics 


F. L. Y e r z l e y , Chairman 

J . F. D. S m i t h , Vice-Chairman 

G . M. K l i n e , Secretary 

W. F. B artoe 

S. H . H a h n 

L. E. J e b m y 

R . A . N o b t h 

W . A . Z in z o w 

Railroad 


A . I. L ip e t z , Chairman 


A . I . L i p e t z , Chairman 

C. L . C o m b e s, Secretary 

J . G . A d a ir 

D. S. E l l is 

J . R . J a c k so n 

W . M. S h e e h a n 

GENERAL COMMITTEE (RR2) 

A . I. L i p e t z , Chairman 

II. P. A l l s t r a n d 

B. S. Cain 

W. I. C a n t l e y 

J. E. D a v e n p o r t 

L . B. J o n e s 

F. G. L is t e r 

F. E. L y i’OBD 

K . F . N y s t r o m 

A. A. R a y m o n d 

J o h n R o berts 

R . W . S a l is b u r y 

W . C. S a n d e r s 

D e n n is t o u n W ood 

E. G. Y o u n g 

G. A. Y o u n g 

ADVISORY COMMITTEE (RR3) 

L . H. F ry 

G . W . R i n k 

C. T. R i p l e y 

E. C. S c h m id t 

W . H. W in t e r r o w d 

MF1ETINGS AND PA PER S (RR5) 

W. M. S h e e h a n , Chairman 

W . I . C a n t l e y 

J . R . J a c k s o n 

C. T. R ip l e y 

SURVEY (RR6) 

E. G. Y o u n g , Chairman 

B . S. C a in 

K . F . N y s t r o m 

M EM BERSH IP (RR8) 

A. A. R a y m o n d , Chairman 

D . S. E l l is 

W . C. S a n d e r s 

W . M. S h e e h a n 

L . K . S il l c o x

RI-14 A.S.M.E. SOCIETY RECO RD S, PA R T 1 

Textile 

Organized, 1SZ1 

A . D . A s b u r y, Chairman 


A . D. A sbtjby, Chairman 

F . L . B r a d ley, Vice-Chairman 

W . B . H e i n z , Secretary 

R . D eV e r e H o pe 

I I . H . I ler 

J. D. R o bertso n 

E . R . S t a l l 

A. W a d s w o r t h S t o n e 

A. W . B e n o it 

W . S. B r o w n 

W i n n C h a s e 

M. A. G o l r io k , J r . 

A l ber t P a l m e r 

S. B . E a r l e 

Associates 

Southern Representative 

PROGRAM 

W . W . S t a r k e , Chairman and Metropolitan 

Representative 

Wood Industries 


C. B . N o b b is, Chairm&n 


C. B . N o r r is, Chairman 

M . J . M cD o n a ld 

D . R . G ray 

S e r n M a d s e n 

T. D . P e rry 

C. L . B a bc o c k J . S. M a t h e w s o n 

P . H. B il h u b e r 

E . D . M ay 

H. B . C a r p e n t e e R . H. M cC a r t h y 

F . P . C a b t w b ig h t A. D . S m i t h , Je. 

G. E . F r e n c h H. M . S u t t o n 

A. W . K e u f f e l C h a b l e s W h i t e 

A. S. K u r k j i a n 

A. C. F e g el, Metropolitan Representative 


Dimensional Limits and Allowances, S e e n 

M a d s e n 

U s e o f P ly w o o d a s a n E n g in e e rin g M a te 

r i a l , T . D . P e rry 

W o o d F in is h in g , M . J . M a cD onald


RI-15 

LOCAL SECTIONS 

A r t ic l e B6A, P a r. 17: The Standing Committee on Local Sections shall, under the 

direction of the Council, have supervision of the Local Sections of the Society. 

STANDING COMMITTEE ON LOCAL SECTIONS 

H. L. E g g l e st o n. Chairman (1941) 

J. N . L a n d is (1942) F . W . M a r q u is (1944) 

F . L. W i l k i n s o n , Jr. (1943) J. A. K e e t h (1945) 


S id n e y D a v id so n (1941) C. C. K ir b y (1942) 

REGIONAL GROUP DELEGATES TO ANNUAL CONFERENCES 

Terms expire October, 191)1 

A . R. A c h e s o n , Speaker for 19lt0 Conference, Group II I 

L. H . V o n O h l s e n , Secretary, Group I 

O. li. S c i i ie r , IT, Group I I H. M. G a n o , Group V 

A. D. A s b u r y , Group IV B. V . E. N ordberg, Group VI 

W. D. T u r p i n , Group V II 

Terms expire October, 191/2 

A . R. M u m f o r d , Speaker for 191/1 Conference, Group II 

A . D. H u g h e s , Secretary, Group V II 

A. D. A n d r io l a , Group I C. T. O er g e l. Group V 

J. S. M o r e h o u s e , Group I I I R. A . C r o s s, Group VI 

E. (.!. S m i t h , Group IV C. W. C r a w fo r d , Group V III 

AKRON-CANTON 

Organized: 1920 

Territory: Counties of Richland, Ashland, 

Medina, Summit. Portage, Wayne, 

Stark, Holmes, Tuscarawas, Carroll, 

and Coshocton in Ohio 

Place of Meeting: As selected monthly 

Number of Members: 130 

E x e c u t iv e C o m m it t e e 

M. R. BowERMAN, Chairman 

A. G. W a l k e r , Vice-Chairman 

E . D. G eorge, Secretary-Treasurer 

V . R. C a m p 

J a m e s F orrest 

S. H. H a h n 

L. B. H o l m e s 

O. J. H orger 

E. H. K e n d a l l 

A. D. M a c l a c h l a n 

G. C. M cM u l l e n 

G. J. S c h o e s s o w 

A. W . S e e k i n s 

A. E. S u b t l e r 

J. H. V a n c e 

ANTHRACITE-LEHIGH v a l l e y 

Organized: 1920, as Lehigh Valley; reorganized, 

1928, as Anthracite-Lehigh 

Valley 

Territory: Counties of Bradford. Snsquehanna, 

Wayne, Sullivan, Wyoming, 

Lackawanna, Columbia, Luzerne, Monroe, 

Pike, Schuylkill, Carbon, Berks, 

Lehigh, Northampton in Pennsylvania, 

and W arren in New Jersey 

Place of Meeting: One meeting annually at 

Allentown, Bethlehem, Easton, Hazleton, 

Pottsville, Reading, Scranton, and 

Wilkes-Barre 

Local Organization: The Engineers’ Club 

of Lehigh Valley 



R. H. P o rter, Chairman 

F . C. P e t e r s. Vice-Chairman 

J . W . S t e in m e y e r . Vice-Chairman 

D . G. W i l l ia m s , Vice-Chairman 

C. W . M e r r ic k . Secretary 

M . C. S t u a r t . Treasurer 

G. W . F a r n h a m 

J . W . G i s h . J r. 

C. C. H e r te l 

R. E. M oyer 

L . E. M y l t in g 

W . P. S a u n ie r 

W a l t e r T a l lg r en 

R. L . W il l is 

ATLANTA 


Territory: Radius of sixty miles from A t 

lanta. Ga. 

Place of Meeting: A tlanta Athletic Club 

Luncheon meeting every Mondav at 12:30 

p.m. at A tlanta Athletic Club 



F. C. S m i t h . Chai'-man 

A. H. K o c h , Vice-Chairman 

J . M. R it t l e m e y e r , Secretary 

R . N. B e n j a m i n 

R. S. H o w e l l 

W. C. K tr.by 

E. W. K l e i n . J r . 

R. L. SWEIGERT 

BALTIMORE 


Territory: Radius of thirty miles from Baltimore. 

Md. 

Place of Meeting: Engineers Club of Baltimore 

Luncheon meeting every Wednesday at 

12:00 noon at Engineers Club 



G . W . K e e n , Chairman 

S. B . S e x t o n , Secretary-Treasurer 

W . D . B o y n t o n 

L . F. C o f f in 

R . C. D a n n e t t e l 

S id n e y H a u s m a n 

J . W . M o u s s o n 

L . F. W e l a n e t z 

S. M . W h it e l e y 

J u n io r G ro u p 

W. A . H a z l e t t , Chairman 

G. I. C h i n n , Vice-Chairman 

W. B . E l it z , Secretary 

J . F. H a n n a 

D . F. L a n e 

BIRMINGHAM 


Territory: Radius of sixty miles from Birmingham, 

Ala. 

Place of Meeting: Tutwiler Hotel 



H . S. K e n t , Chairman 

J. M. G a l l a l e e, Vice-Chairman 

J. B . B e l l , Secretary-Treasurer 

R. A. P olglaze 

C. F. von H e r r m a n n , Jr. 

BOSTON 


Territory: Radius of thirty miles from Boston, 

Mass. 

Place of Meeting: Mass. Inst, of Technology 

Local Organization: Engineering Societies 

of New England 

Number of Members: 547


BOSTON 

(Continued) 


G . K . S a u r w e in , Chairman 

K err A t k in s o n , Vice-Chairman 

R . A . S p e n c e , Secretary-Treasurer 

H . J . B r o w n 

T. W. H o pper 

J . W. Z e l l e r 

J u n io r G r o u p 

R . N. G il b e r t, Chairman 

A n t o n S a l e c k e r, Vice-Chairman 

S a m u e l C r o w e l l, 3d, Secretary 

R . A . S p e n c e , Treasurer 

E . I . B o w e r 

F . M . M a g ee 

BRIDGEPORT 

Organized: 1917, as a Branch of Connecticut 

Section; reorganized as a Section, 

1923 

T erritory: Fairfield County, Conn. 

Place of Meeting: Stratfield Hotel 

Local Organization: Engineers’ Club of 

Bridgeport 



C. N. H o a g la n d, Chairman 

R u d o l f B e c k , Vice-Chairman 

W . H . S n i f f e n , Secretary 

A. W . H a g a n , Treasurer 

A. H . B e ed e 

C. A. Buss 

I . C. J e n n in g s 

R . C. M oody 

0 . J. R ic h m o n d 

J. W. R oe 

J. D. S k i n n e r 

J. II. V a n Yorx, Jr. 

BUFFALO 


Territory: Radius of th irty miles from 

Buffalo, N.Y. 

Place of Meeting: University Club, Deleware 

Ave. 

Local Organization: Engineering Society of 

Buffalo 

Humber of Members: 184 


W . M . K a u f f m a n , Chairman 

C. B a r n a r d, Vice-Chairman 

M. C. C a s e , Secretary 

C. E . H a r r in g t o n , Treasurer 

J. G. B e n s o n 

P a u l D ubo sclard 

H . M . E varts 

H . F. K e r k e r 

J. L. Y a t e s, Adviser for Juniors 

CENTRAL ILLINOIS 


Territory: All the territory in Central 

Illinois between the following counties 

on the northern boundary: Bureau, 

LaSalle, Knox, Stark, Putnam, M arshall, 

Livingston, Peoria; counties on 

the southern boundary: Pike, Scott, 

Morgan, Sangamon, Macon, P iatt, 

Douglas, and Edgar 

Place of Meeting: Hotel Pere M arquette or 

Caterpillar Show Room 



F. L. M e y e r, Chairman 

R. T . M e e s, Vice-Chairman 

C. O. S m i t h , Vice-Chairman 

F. H . T h o m a s , Vice-Chairman 

L. E . J o h n s o n , Secretary-Treasurer 

R. E. M cC l a in , Assistant Secretary 

M . A. C l e m e n t s 

M . A . C l e m e n t s 


CENTRAL INDIANA 


T erritory: Radius of eighty miles from In 

dianapolis, within Indiana 

Place of Meeting: Place varies 

Local Organization: Indiana Engineering 

Society 



J . A . D r o g u e, Chairman 

H . A . M cA n i n c h , Vice-Chairman 

W. J. C o p e , Secretary-Treasurer 

G . L . F o w l e r 

P. F . H e l m 

H . H . S k a b o 

R. W . W o rley 

CENTRAL PENNSYLVANIA 


T erritory: Radius of approximately sixty 

miles from State College, Pa. 

Place of Meeting: State College and Altoona, 

Pa. 

Number of Members: 75. 


F . C. S t e w a r t , Chairman 

J. O. P. H u m m e l , Secretary-Treasurer 

C. L . A l l e n 

J. S. D o o l it tl e 

W . D . G a r m a n 

G . L . G u il l e t 

A. H . Z e r b a n 

CHICAGO 


T erritory: Radius of fifty miles from Chicago, 

111. 

H eadquarters: Mid-West A.S.M.E. Office, 

Room 1617, 205 W est W acker Drive, 

Chicago, 111. 

Place of Meeting: Civic Opera Bldg., 20 N. 

W acker Dr. 

Luncheon Meeting every Tuesday at 1 2 :1 5 

p.m. at Chicago Engineers’ Club 

Local Organization: W estern Society of Engineers 



L . M . E l l is o n , Chairman 

C. C. A u s t i n , Vice-Chairman 

H . M . B l a c k , Vice-Chairman 

J . R . M ic h e l , Vice-Chairman 

D a n ie l R o e s c h , Vice-Chairman 

F . B . O rr, Secretary-Treasurer 

R . H . B aco n 

J . A . F o l se 

W . P. H o l t z m a n 

A . H . J e n s 

J . S. K o z a c k a 

F . H . L a n e 

J . C. M a r s h a l l 

T . S. M cE w a n 

H. L. N a c h m a n 

C. W . P a r so n s 

V. L. P e i c k i i 

H. S. P h il b r ic k 

J . C. R e id 

K a r l T r a n z e n 

R . E . T u r n e r 

C. L. W a c h s 

J . C. M a r s h a l l 

S. J . T ozer 


CINCINNATI 


Territory: Radius of thirty miles from Cincinnati, 

Ohio 

Place of Meeting: Engineers’ Chib Rooms, 

Ninth & Race Sts. 

Local Organization: Engineers’ Club of Cincinnati 



E . S. S a u r b r u n n , Chairman 

E. H. M i t s c i i, Vice-Chairman 

J . VV. B u n t in g , Secretary-Treasurer 

II. B . B randt 

A. G. B r u c k 

T. B . M o rris 

L. F. N e n n in g e r 

F. P. R h a m e 

H. P. T h o m p s o n 

H. C. U i i i l e i n 

CLEVELAND 


Territory: Counties of Lorain, Cuyahoga 

Lake, Geauga, and Ashtabula in Ohio 

Place of Meeting: Case Club or Cleveland 

Engineering Society Rooms 

Local Organization: Cleveland Engineering 




J. P. D e a r a s a u g h , Chairman 

E . R. M cC a r t h y , Secretary 

F . A. B a r n e s, Treasurer 

A. B . E i n ig 

J. M . M a in 

R. R. S l a y m a k e r 

H . A. S c h w a r t z 

A. G. T r u m b u l l 

COLORADO 


Territory: Entire State of Colorado 

Place of Meeting: Parisienne Rotisserie 

Inn, Denver, Colo. 

Local Organization: Colorado Engineering 

Council (Colorado Society of Engineers) 



R. F. T h r o n e , Chairman 

J. C. R eed, Secretary-Treasurer 

L. D. C r a in 

A. L. H il l 

F. A. L ockw ood 

F. H . P ro u ty 

G. A. R ic h t e r 

J. T. S tra te

COLUMBUS 


Territory: Counties of Union, Delaware, 

Licking, Madison, Franklin, Fayette, 

Pickaway, and Ross in Ohio 

Place of Meeting: Battelle Memorial Institute 

and The Ohio State University 

Local Organization: Engineers’ Club of Columbus 

Luncheon Meeting third Friday of each 

month at 12:00 noon at Engineers’ Club, 

Columbus 



E. M. S a m p s o n , Chairman 

H . R. L i m b a c h e r , Vice-Chairman 

J . G. L o w t h e r , Secretary-Treasurer 

H . M. B l a n k 

A. I. B b o w n 

J . L . P tjedy 

C. P . R oberts 

R . N. T u c k e r 

DAYTON 

Organized: - 1926 

Territory: Counties of Drake, Miami, 

Champaign, Preble, Montgomery, 

Greene, and northern p art of Butler 

and W arren in Ohio 

Place of Meeting: Engineers’ Club of Dayton 


Dayton 



A . R . W e b e e, Chairman 

J . J . H e a l y , Vice-Chairman 

G. W . W e l l s, Secretary 

A. F. P oook, Treasurer 

C. L . B a ije r 

R . K . C o ppo c k 

H . M. G a n o 

P . H . K e m m e b 

B u b s o n T r e a d w e ll 

DETROIT 


Territory: Radius of thirty miles from Detroit, 

Mich. 



D etroit 



T. J e ffo r d s, Chairman 

A . M. S e lv e y, Secretary-Treasurer 

E . J . A bbott 

J . W . A r m o u r 

B . W . B e y e e , J r. 

M. L. Fox 

J . F . J a r n a g in 

D . E . M cjG u ir e 

J e s s e O rm ondroyd 

J . P . SCHECHTER 

R. K. W eldy 


L . W . L e n t z , Chairman 

EAST TENNESSEE 


Territory: All counties in Tennessee east of 

the west boundary of Scott, Morgan, 

Cumberland, White, W arren, Coffee, 


Moore, Franklin; Belle County in Kentucky; 

and Rossville, Dade, W alker, 

Cattasa, Whitfield, Murray, Gordon, 

Chattooga in Georgia 

Place of Meeting: Places varies 

Local Organization: Chattanooga Engineers 

Club and Knoxville Technical 

Club 

Luncheon Meeting every Monday noon at 

Chattanooga Engineers Club 



T . C. E r v in , Chairman 

E . T o b o k, 1st Vice-Chairman 

P. J . F e e e m a n , 2 nd Vice-Chairman 

J o h n H o r n e , S ri Vice-Chairman 

J . M a c k T u c k e b , Secretary-Treasurer 

H orace C a e p e n t e r 

M . B . C o n v is e r 

P. G. J a c k a 

R . W. M o bto n 

W. R. C h a m b e r s , Past-Chairman 

E R IE 


T erritory: Radius of thirty miles from 

Erie, Pa. 

Place of Meeting: Auditorium of Pennsylvania 

Telephone Company 



C. T . O erg el, Chairman 

M cD o n a ld S. R e ed, Vice-Chairman 

E. C. I m s , Secretary-Treasurer 

G. W. B a c h 

F. G. B r in ig 

E . H . H o r s t k o t t e 

H . B . J oyce 

G. F . L in d e 

G. I. R a in e s a l o 

FLORIDA 


Territory: State of Florida 

Place of Meeting: Various Cities in State 

Local Organization: Florida Engineering 

Society, Gainesville. Fla. 



J . H . C l o u s e , Chairman 

V. C. C o u c h m a n , 1st Vice-Chairman 

H . J . B . S o h a r n b e r g , 2nd Vice-Chairman 

W. E . D r e w , Secretary-Treasurer 

J o h n H u n t e r 

D . W. P in k e r t o n 

R . A. T h o m p s o n 

FORT WAYNE 


Territory: Counties of LaGrange, Steuben, 

Noble, DeKalb, W hitley, Allen, W a 

bash, Huntington, Wells, Adams, 

Miami, Blackford and Jay in Indiana; 

Counties of Williams, Defiance, Paulding, 

Van W ert and Mercer in Ohio 

Local Organization: F ort Wayne Engineers’ 




W. L. K a n u s , Chairman 

F. L. R u o f f , Vice-Chairman 

W. H. C o n n o r , Secretary 

F . T. M c I n e r n e y , Jb., Treasurer 

W . X . B u c k 

H . A . E l l is 

C. H . M a t so n 

GREEN MOUNTAIN 

RI-17 


T erritory: E ntire State of Vermont and 

neighboring and closely related communities 

of Claremont and Hanover, 

N.H. 

Place of Meeting: Springfield, Windsor, 

Vt., and Claremont, N.H. 

Local Organization: Vermont Engineering 




M. H. A s m s , Chairman 

C. H. A d a m s, Vice-Chairman 

F. H. C a n a r y , Secretary-Treasurer 

H. L. D a a s c h 

C. J. D e w e l l 

F . T . G ear 

D . T. H a m il t o n 

C. A . R e n f r e w 

GREENVILLE 

Organized: As a Branch, 1923; as a Section, 

1927 

T erritory: Radius of sixty miles from 

Greenville, S.C. 

Place of Meeting: Meetings held at Greenville, 

Clemson College, S.C., Canton, 

Asheville, and Enka, N.C. 



R . H . H u g h e s , Chairman 

J. H . S a m s , Secretary-Treasurer 

A . D . A s b u r y 

C. D . B l a c k w e l d e b 

B. E . F e b n o w 

R . B. F u l l e r 

W . G . W ood 

HARTFORD 

Organized: 1917, as Branch of Conn. Section; 

reorganized, 1923; New B ritain 

Section merged w ith H artford Section, 

July 1, 1940 

T erritory: H artford County except that 

portion served by New B ritain Section 

Place of Meeting: H artford Electric Light 

Company 



H . F . R a m m , Chairman 

F . O. H oagla n d, Vice-Chairman 

L . C. S m i t h , Vice-Chairman 

R . D . K e l l e r , Secretary-Treasurer 

P. W. B a u e r 

S. A . B r a n d e n b u r g 

H . B u r d ic k 

R. F. Dow 

C. N. F lagg 

E. P. H e r r ic k 

B . S. L e w is 

W . E . L o o m is 

H e n r y M ic h e l s e n 

D . K . M org an 

W . S. P a i n e 

C. H . R ic h a r d s o n 

C. C. S t e v e n s 

S. H. S t o n e s 

S. J. T e l l e r 

H. B . v a n Z e l m

RI-18 A.S.M.E. SO CIETY RECO RD S, PA RT 1 

INLAND EM PIRE 


T erritory: East of Columbia River in State 

of Washington, and Counties of Okanogan 

and Benton, and p art of N orthern 

Idaho 

Place of Meeting: Davenport Hotel, Spokane 

Luncheons Wednesdays a t 12:00 noon, 

Davenport Hotel, Spokane 

Local Organization: Associated Engineers 

of Spokane 

Numbers of Members: 28 


E. B. P a r k e r , Chairman 

A l e x L in d s a y , Vice-Chairman 

A. R. K a r l s t e n , Secretary-Treasurer 

H. F. G a u s s 

D. R. G ra y 

H. H. L angdon 

ITHACA 


Territory: Radius of thirty miles from 

Ithaca plus following cities: Binghamton, 

Corning, Endicott, Geneva, Painted 

Post 

Place of Meeting: W illard Straight Hall, 

Cornell Campus, Ithaca, N.Y. 



R. E . K i n s m a n , Chairman 

C. L. W il d e r , Vice-Chairman 

F . S. E r d m a n , Secretary-Treasurer 

F. G. S w it z e r 

M. P. W h i t n e y 

N. R. W ic k e r s h a m 

KANSAS CITY 


Territory: Radius of sixty miles from 

Kansas City, Mo. 

Place of Meeting: University Club 


Kansas City 



H . L. C r a in , Chairman 

J. R. S t o n e , Vice-Chairman 

E. M. B r u z e l iu s , Secretary 

R. V. S u t h e r l a n d , Treasurer 

F. R. A pp l e g a t e 

G. G. B r a u n in g e r 

C. E. B r o w n 

M. A . D u r l a n d 

H arold G r a s s e 

E. D . H ay 

C. Q. W ard 

LOS ANGELES 


Territory: South of southern boundaries of 

following counties: Monterey, Kings, 

Tulares, and Inyo, Calif. 

Place of Meeting: Barker Bros. Store 

Local Organization: Technical Societies of 

Los Angeles 

Luncheon Meetings Thursdays at 12:00 noon 

at Engineers’ Club 



P. L . A r m s t r o n g , Chairman 

E . K. S p r in g e r , Vice-Chairman 

E . M. W a g n e r , Secretary-Treasurer 

J . C. B r o w n 

R. B . E s s e l m a n 

J . S. G a l l a g h e r 

J. D. H a c k s t a f f 

J . R oy H o f f m a n 

D. A . L y o n s 

C. H . S h a t t u c k 

J . A . W h it a k e r 


R . B . E s s e l m a n , Chairman 

LOUISVILLE 



Louisville, Ky. 

Place of Meeting: Engineers and Architects 

Club of Louisville 

Local Organization: Engineers and Architects 

Club 

Number of Me^nbers: 52 


M e l v in S a c k , Chairman 

W. F . L u c a s, Vice-Chairman 

L . L . A m id o n , Secretary 

J . K. M e y e r , Treasurer 

H . H . F e n w ic k 

F . W. H a m p t o n 

L . R . J a c k s o n 

J . H . R o m a n n 

M EM PHIS 



Memphis, Tenn., and eastern half of 

Arkansas including all the territory 

east of a line drawn north and south 

through the western boundary of the 

city of L ittle Rock 



M . D. R u s t , Chairman 

J. A. M o l l in o , Jr., Secretary-Treasurer 

E . J. K u e c k 

W. H. R o berts 

METROPOLITAN 


T erritory: Metropolitan D istrict, New 

York and New Jersey 

Place of Meeting: Engineering Societies 

Building, 29 W est 39th Street, New 

York, N.Y. 

Number of Members: 3,253 


A. R. M u m f o r d , Chairman 

F. D. C a r v in , Secretary 

E. J. B il l in g s , Treasurer 

W. H. L a r k in , Chairman of Meetings and 

Program Committee 

T. B . A lla r d ic e 

W. G . B l a k e 

P. E. F r a n k 

W . S. G l e e so n 

W. M cC . M cK e e 

C. B . P e c k 

J u n io r G roup 

W . W . L a w r e n c e , Chairman 

C. K . H o l la n d, Vice-Chairman 

R. F. W a r n e r, J r ., Secretary 

A. E. B l ir er 

C. C. K ir b y 

A. G. O l iv e r , J r. 

D. E. Z e l if f 

MID-CONTINENT 


Territory: E ntire State of Oklahoma; territory 

in Arkansas not included in Memphis 

Section; p art of Louisiana; and 

territory in Texas north of the southern 

boundaries of the counties of Gaines, 

Dawson, Bordon, Scurry, Fisher, Jones, 

and Shackelford 

Place of Meeting: Usually Mayo Hotel, 

Tulsa, Okla. 

Luncheon Meetings with Engineers Club of 

Tulsa, Mondays a t 12:00 noon 

Local Organization: 

Tulsa 



Engineers Club of 

E . C. B a k e r , Chairman 

A . G. B l a n c h a r d , Vice-Chairman 

J. D . M cF a r l a n d , Vice-Chairman 

G w y n n e R a y m o n d , Vice-Chairman 

C. A. S t e v e n s , Vice-Chairman 

M. R . W i s e , Secretary 

C. O. G l a sg o w , Treasurcr 

E. E. A m b r o s iu s 

H. R . A u e r s w a l d 

R . G. A y e r s 

W . L. D u c k e r 

J. F. E a to n 

T. C. W ebb, Jr. 

MILW AUKEE 


Territory: Radius of fifty miles from Milwaukee, 

Wis. 

Place of Meeting: Wisconsin Club 

Local Organization: Engineers’ Society of 

Milwaukee 

Luncheon Meetings once each month, 3rd 

Wednesday at Wisconsin Club 



T. E s e r k a l n , Chairman 

R. J . S m i t h , Secretary-Treasurer 

J a m e s B r o w er 

H a n s D a h l s t r a n d 

F . H . D o r n e r , S r. 

M. K . D RE WRY 

W a l t e r F e r r i s 

O. A. K is a 

R. C. N e w h o u s e 

W . T. S a v e la n d, J r . 


W . T. S a v e l a n d, Chairman 

R. C. S t r a s s m a n , Secretary 

W a l t e r B u n d y 

J . L. M a r t in 

R. H. M il l e r 

G. V. M in n ib e r g e r 

R. J . S m i t h

MINNESOTA 

Organized: Minneapolis, 1913; St. Paul, 

1913: the two Sections merged, 1934 

Territory: Entire State of Minnesota 

Place of Meeting: Minnesota Union, Univ. 

of Minnesota 

Local Organization: Minneapolis Engineers’ 

Club, Minnesota Federation of Architectural 

and Engineering Societies 



L. G. S t r a u b, Chairman 

M. S. W u n d e r l ic h , Vice-Chairman 

N . J . S t e r n a l, Secretary-Treasurer 

W . H . E r s k in e 

C. F. Snoop 

J . C. Y a n s e l o w 

NEBRASKA 


T erritory: State of Nebraska, and Council 

Bluffs, Iowa 

Place of Meeting: Lincoln and Omaha 

Local Organization: Engineers’ Club of Lincoln 

and Omaha 

Luncheon Meeting every Wednesday noon at 

the Omaha Engineers’ Club—4th Monday 

Evening at Lincoln 



A. A. L u e b s, Chairman 

J . H . C o l so n , Vice-Chairman 

G. A. R ogers, Secretary-Treasurer 

G. G. B a c h m a n 

J . W . H a n e y 

J . L. W h it e 

N EW HAVEN 

Organized: 1912, reorganized, 1923 

Territory: Portions of New Haven and 

Middlesex Counties, Conn. 

Place of Meeting: Mason Laboratory, Yale 

University 



W. F. T h o m p s o n , Chairman 

L. H. V o n O h l s e n , Vice-Chairman 

F. C. R i c h a r d s o n , Secretary-Treasurer 

A. L. BRECKEN RIDGE 

C. A. H e m p s t e a d 

I . T . H ook 

L. C. L ic h t y 

W . L . T a n n 

NEW ORLEANS 


Territory: All of Louisiana except the 

northern p art allotted to Mid-Continent 

Section 

Place of Meeting: Room 422, St. Charles 

Hotel 

Local Organization: Louisiana Engineering 




L . J . L a s s a l l e, Chairman 

G. R . H a m m e t t , Vice-Chairman 

L . J . C ucut.lt:, Secretary-Treasurer 

T. E. C ro ssa n 

A. M. H il l 

K. P. K a m m e r 

W. S. N e l s o n 

D . W . S t e w a r t 

A.S.M.E. SOCIETY R EC O RD S, PA R T 1 


W. S. N e l s o n , Chairman 

J. R . R o m b a c h , Jr., Vice-Chairman 

C. C. B u r k e , Jr., Secretary 

NORW ICH 


Territory: Counties of Tolland, Windham, 

and New London in Connecticut, and 

W esterly D istrict in Rhode Island 

Place of Meeting: Arcanum Club, 150 Main 

St., Norwich 



W . E. B e a n e y , Chairman 

R obert W o s a k , Secretary-Treasurer 

A. D. A n d r io l a 

E . S. D e n n is o n 

W . L . E del 

F . S. E n g l is h 

J . S. L eonard 

H a n s L u e iir s 

NORTH TEXAS 


Territory: All of Texas north of an approximately 

straight line through Del 

Rio, Fredericksburg, Georgetown, Cameron, 

Nacogdoches, and center, including 

the cities mentioned, and south of 

north boundaries of the counties of 

Parm er, Castro, Swisher, Briscoe, 

Hall, and Childress. Also the City of 

Texarkana, Ark. 

Place of Meeting: Dallas Power & Light 

Co. Bldg. Auditorium 

Local Organization: Technical Club of 

Dallas 



R . M . M a t s o n , Chairman 

F. C. J u s t ic e , Vice-Chairman 

J. K. C h a t t e y , Secretary-Treasurer 

L eo n a rd C ole 

J. A . N oyes 

D. C. P f e if f e r 

N. G. H ardy, Ex-Officio 

ONTARIO 


T erritory: Province of Ontario. Canada 

Place of Meeting: H art House, University 

of Toronto 



S. G. C l a r k e , Chairman 

G . E . E l l s w o r t h , Secretary-Treasurer 

O. H. A n d e h so n 

H. H. A n g u s 

W . S. B a l l 

A . C. B l u e 

D . F. C o r n is h 

C. R . D a v is 

W . G. M cI n t o s h 

W . E . M ic k l e t h w a it e 

R . L . R u d e 

W. D . S h e l d o n 

F r e d e r ic k T r u m a n 


F r e d e r ic k T r u m a n , Chairman 

M . F . C a r r ie r e, Secretary-Treasurer 

J . H. M il l e r 

W. R . T r u s l e r 

OREGON 

RI-19 


T erritory: State of Oregon and that te rritory 

in W ashington within a radius of 

thirty miles from Portland, Ore. 

Place of Meeting: Usually Public Service 

Bldg., Portland, Ore. 

Local Organization: Oregon Society of Engineers 



A. D. H u g h e s , Chairman 

A. A. O s ip o v ic h . Vice-Chairman 

G. C. T u p l in g , Secretary-Treasurer 

E . N . B a t e s 

P . L . H e sl o p 

J . C. O t h u s 

T o m P erry 

PENINSULA 


Territory: W est of the east boundaries of 

the following counties: Emmet, Charlevoix, 

Antrim, Kalkaska, Missaukee, 

Clare, Isabell, G ratiot, Clinton, Eaton, 

Calhoun, and Branch, Mich. 

Place of Meeting: Grand Rapids, Mich. 

Luncheon Meeting F ifth Thursday noon 

each month 


Grand Rapids 



C. A. H a m il t o n , Chairman 

R. E. K l is e , Secretary-Treasurer 

C. G. L o h m a n n 

E. E. N o r m a n 

B. E . P orter 

PH ILA D ELPH IA 


Territory: Counties of Bucks, Montgomery, 

Chester, Philadelphia, Delaware, Pa., 

and the State of Delaware 

riace of Meeting: Philadelphia Engineers’ 

Club, 1317 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, 

Pa. 

Local Organization: Philadelphia Engineers’ 

Club 

Luncheon Meeting every Thursday noon at 

12:30 p.m. at Philadelphia Engineers’ 

Club 



L . P . H y n e s , Chairman 

J. S. M o r e h o u s e , Vice-Chairman 

C . S. G o t w a l s, Secretary-Treasurer 

L. N. G u l ic k 


I'. W. M il l e r 


T. M . P o m e r o y , Jr., Chairman 

J. D. P e t e r s o n , Vice-Chairman 

E l m e r G r is c o m , Secretary 

W i l l ia m P e g r a m , Treasurer 

J. P . C l a r k 

L . N. G u l ic ic 

R . K . K n i p e 

G. G. M a r t in s o n 

R ic h a r d S q u ir e s 

Z. T. WOBENSMITH


PIEDMONT—NORTH CAROLINA 

Organized: As a Branch, 1923; as a Section 

1927; name changed from Charlotte 

Section to Piedmont—N orth Carolina, 

July 1, 1940 

Territory: Radius of seventy-five miles 

from Charlotte, N.C. 

Luncheon Meeting every Monday at 1:00 

p.m. at Efirds Departm ent Store Dining 

Room 

Local Organization: Charlotte Engineers 

Club 



R . P. R e e c e, Chairman 

T . 0 . S il l s , Vice-Chairman 

M. D. T h o m a s o n , Secretary-Treasurer 

J . H . E r s k in e 

A sa H o s m e r 

W . W . L eroy 

W. E . M c D o w e ll 

E . D . P o w e l l 

E. E. W i l l ia m s 

PITTSBURGH 


Territory: Counties bounded by and including 

Beaver. Butler, Venango, Forest, 

Jefferson, Indiana, Somerset, Fayette, 

Greene, and Washington, Pa. 

Place of Meeting: Engineers’ Society of 

W estern Pennsylvania, W illiam Penn 

Hotel 

Local Organization: Engineers’ Society of 

W estern Pennsylvania 



M . M . M cC o n n e l l , Chairman 

J . A . H u n t e r , Secretary 

K . F . T r e s c h o w , Treasurer 

A l fr ed B u t c h e r 

S. B . E l y 

B . C. M cF adden 

PLA IN FIELD 


T erritory: Plainfield and territory included 

between Elizabeth, Bound Brook, 

Metuchen, and Watchung, N .J. 

Place of Meeting: Elizabeth C arteret 

Hotel, Elizabeth, and Plainfield Masonic 

Temple, Plainfield 

Local Organization: Plainfield Engineers 

Club, Singer Engineering Society 



G. E. L e a v it t, J r., Chairman 

R. C. H e c k , J r ., Vice-Chairman 

F. C. S p e n c e r , J r ., Secretary 

C. G. H o l m b e r g, J r ., Treasurer 

D . H. C h a s o n 

C. A. D a w l e y 

PROVIDENCE 



Providence, R.I. 

Place of Meeting: Providence Engineering 

Society Building, 195 Angell St., Providence, 

R.I. 

Local Organization: Providence Engineering 




A . W. C a ld er, J r., Chairman 

E . W. F r e e m a n , Vice-Chairman 

R . M . S co tt, Secretary-Treasurer 

S. J . B erard 

C. D . B il l m e y e r 

E . Ii. B r a d ley 

J . D . E ldert 

C h e s t e r H a c k in g 

P . V . M il l e r 

F . A . S a w y e r 

H . S. S iz e r 

RALEIGH 


1927 


Raleigh, N.C. 

Place of Meeting: N.C. State College, 

Raleigh, N.C. 

Local Organization: N.C. Engineering 

Council, Raleigh Engineers Club 



C. E. K e r c iin e r , Chairman 

R . B . R ic e , Vice-Chairman 

R . G . C h a p m a n , Secretary-Treasurer 

V . L. K e n y a n , J r . 

F . J . R eed 

L . L . V a u g h a n 

R . S. W il b u r 

ROCHESTER 



Rochester, N.Y. 

Place of Meeting: Rochester Engineering 

Society Rooms, Sagamore Hotel 

Local Organization: Rochester Engineering 

Society, Sagamore Hotel 

Luncheon Meeting every Tuesday at 12:15 

p.m. at Sagamore Hotel 



J . H . S n y d e r, Chairman 

I . S. B r a d ley, Vice-Chairman 

I . G . M cC h e s n e y , Secretary-Treasurer 

J . W . G a v e tt 

K . H . H u bbard 

F . D . P u n n e t t 

W . D . W ood 


I . S. B r a d ley, Chairman 

F . D . P u n n e t t 

W . D . W ood 

ROCK R IV ER VALLEY 



Rockford, 111., plus members in Madison, 

Wis. 

Meeting Place: Place varies 

Local Organization: Rockford Engineering 




C. L. A v e r y, Chairman 

C. A . J a c o b so n, Vice-Chairman 

F . J . Z ir c h e r , Secretary Treasurer 

E . L . D a h l u n d 

G . L . L a r so n 

A . H . L y o n 

L . A . W il s o n 

ST. JO SEPH VALLEY 


Territory: Counties of La Porte, Starke, 

Pulaski, St. Joseph, Marshall, Fulton, 

Elkhart, and Kosciusko in Indiana, and 

Cass and Berrien Counties in Michigan 

Place of Meeting: Morningside Hotel, 

South Bend, Ind. 

Local Organization: St. Joseph Valley Engineers’ 

Club 



C. C. W il c o x , Chairman 

C. R. A d a m s, Vice-Chairman 

K . W . K n o r r, Secretary 

ST. LOUIS 


Territory: Radius of thirty miles from St. 

Louis, Mo. 


Local Organization: Engineers’ Club of St. 

Louis 



A l ber t V ig n e , Chairman 

R. W. M e r k l e , Vice-Chairman 

C. B . B r is c o e, Secretary-Treasurer 

D . E . D ic k e y 

A . L. H e in t z e 

R. C. T i iu m s e r 

SAN FRANCISCO 


Territory: All territory north of the northern 

boundaries of the counties of San 

Luis Obispo, Kern, and San Bernardino 

Place of Meeting: Engineers’ Club, 206 

Sansome St. 

Luncheon Meetings, Tuesdays, California 

Hotel, Oakland; Thursdays, Engineers’ 

Club, San Francisco 

Local Organization: San Francisco Engineers’ 

Club 



V. F. E s tc o u r t, Chairman 

H. T. A v e r y, Vice-Chairman 

E . H. C a m e r o n , Secretary-Treasurer 

H. J. B erg 

E. C. F loyd 

L . M . M a r t in 

G. H. R a it t , Ex-Officio 


B. S. T r u e t t , Chairman 

W . C. C h e a l 

P . E . D a w s o n 

C h a r l e s L i p p m a n 

C. L. T h o r p e 

G . L. W oodfield 

SAVANNAH 


T erritory: Radius of 125 miles from Savannah 

in Georgia 

Place of Meeting: Savannah Hotel 

Local Organization: Engineers’ Council of 

Savannah Chamber of Commerce 

Number of Members: 19

SAVANNAH 

(Continued) 


W . L . M in g l e d o r f f, J r., Chairman 

J . G. C r o w l e y, Vice-Chairman 

C. 0 . J o h n s o n 

A. P . K e is k e r 

S. D. W il l s 

SCHENECTADY 


1927 

Territory: Radius o£ thirty miles from 

Schenectady, N.Y. 

Place of Meeting: Rice Hall 



R. H. N o r r is, Chairman 

R. S. N e b l e t t, Vice-Chairman 

C a bl S c h a b t a c h , Vice-Chairman 

O. L . W ood, J r ., Vice-Chairman 

S. L . J a m e s o n , Secretary 

S t a n fo rd N e a l, Treasurer 

E. W . D. B u n k e 

W. R. F oote 

A. R. S t e v e n s o n , J r. 

SOUTH TEXAS 


Territory: South Texas and the northern 

p art of the State not included in the 

North Texas Section territory 

Place of Meeting: Electric Bldg., Houston, 

Tex. 



C. W . C r a w fo rd, Chairman 

C. L . O rr, Vice-Chairman 

H . E . M oller, Secretary-Treasurer 

D . D . A lto n 

J . W . B e retta 

H . E . D egler 

C. A . H all 

H . G . H ie b e l e r 

J . J . K in o 

E . W . M cC a r t h y 

G. E . N e v il l e 

J . G. H . T h o m p s o n 

M . W . W i l l ia m s 


G. F . F e r m ie r , Chairman 

J . H . H o w a r d, Vice-Chairman 

G. W . K l in e , Secretary 

SUSQUEHANNA 


Territory: Counties of Cumberland, Dauphine, 

Lebanon, Adams, York, and Lancaster 

Place of Meeting: Engineering Society of 

York, and at Lancaster Twice a Year 


York and Engineers’ Society of Pennsylvania, 

Harrisburg, Pa. 


A.S.M.E. SO CIETY R EC O RD S PA R T 1 


W . E. B e l in e , Chairman 

0. E. W e b e r, Vice-Chairman 

E. T . P. N e u b a u e r , Secretary 

E. E. A u g h e n b a u g h 

T . K . B reda 

M . G. L e e s o n 

H . B . M a r t in 

A n d r e w S a w y e r 

G. L . S m i t h 

S. P. S o iin g 

SYRACUSE 



Syracuse, N.Y. 

Place of meeting: Ball Room of the Onondaga 

Hotel 

Local Organization: The Technology Club 

of Syracuse 



M . B. M o y er, Chairman 

D . V . S h e t l a n d , Vice-Chairman 

E . A. F a il m e z g e r , Secretary-Treasurer 

J . W . L in f o r d 

W . E . R e n n e r 

E . K . R h o d e s 

G. I . V in c e n t 

TOLEDO 



Toledo, Ohio 

Place of Meeting: University Club, Toledo, 

Ohio 

Local Organization: Affiliated Technical 

Societies of Toledo 



H . R. S c h u t z , Chairman 

R. F . H i l l , Vice-Chairman 

H . E. H a p p e l , Secretary-Treasurer 

J . W. D e a n 

P. L. F u l l e r 

P. P. H ale 

W. C. L a n g 

G . L u f k i n 

R. H . M a r k e r 

W. R. M o ra n 

R. J . M u g fo r 

J o s e p h S e a m a n 

H . H . V ogel 

I . F . Z a r o b sk y 

TRI-CITIES 



Moline, 111. 

Place of Meeting: Rock Island, 111., Moline, 

111., and Davenport, Iowa 

Luncheon Meeting every Wednesday, Davenport 

Hotel, 12:00 noon 



R. A. C r o ss, Chairman 

C. D. S t . C l a ir , Vice-Chairman 

C. A. C a r l s o n, Secretary-Treasurer 

R. M. B a r n e s 

E . G . E r ic k s o n 

H. A. K l e i n m a n 

UTAH 

RI-21 


T erritory: State of Utah 

Place of Meeting: University Club, Salt 

Lake City „ 

Local Organization: U tah Society of Engineers 



W . D . T u r p i n , Chairman 

G . W . C a r t e r, Vice-Chairman 

R. D . B a k e r , Secretary-Treasurer 

C. B . B o w m a n 

F . A. H a r r is 

V IR G IN IA 


Territory: State of Virginia 

Place of Meeting: Richmond, Norfolk, 

Charlottesville, Roanoke, University, 

Petersburg 

Local Organization: Central Virginia Engineers 

Club 



G . C. M o l l e s o n , Chairman 

J . B . J o n e s, Vice-Chairman 

F . S. R o op, J r ., Secretary 

R . M . J o h n s t o n , Treasurer 

G . L. B a s c o m e 

L. R . G a r d n er 

II. C. H e s s e 

D . G. M o orhead 

S. B . R o berts 

W . E . S eg l 

WASHINGTON, D.C. 


T erritory: D istrict of Columbia 

Place of Meeting: Auditorium, Potomac 

Electric Power Co., 10th & E Sts., 

Washington, D.C. 



G . F . J e n k s , Chairman 

W. B. E n s in g e r , Vice-Chairman 

M . A M a s o n , Secretary-Treasurer 

G . W. H a s k in s 

J . W. H u c k e r t 

C. E M il l e r 

H. G. T h ie l s c h e r 


J . W. H u c k e r t , Chairmain 

W A T E R B U R Y 

Organized: 1917, as a Branch; reorganized 

as a Section, 1923 

T erritory: Litchfield County and a portion 

of New Haven County 

Place of Meeting: Elton Hotel 



W . C. S c h n e id e r , Chairman 

R . W . S h o e m a k e r , Vice-Chairman 

H. C. A s h l e y , Secretary-Treasurer 

A . L. A l v es 

C. W . C h il d s 

A . J . G e r m a n


WATERBURY 

(Continued) 


G. II. H a t c h , Ohairman 

H. J . D il l o n , Secretary 

R. W. S im p s o n 

W ESTERN MASSACHUSETTS 


Territory: Includes counties of Berkshire, 

Franklin, Hampden, and Hampshire 

Place of Meeting: Highland Hotel, Springfield, 

Mass. 


W estern Massachusetts 



A. E. B e n s o n , Chairman 

C. F. D u p e e , Vice-Chairman 

L. G. C a r l t o n , Secretary-Treasurer 

R. A. P ack a rd 

E. L. S m i t h 

J . L . S c iie r n e r . Ex-Officio 

W ESTERN WASHINGTON 


Territory: State of W ashington west of 

Columbia River w ith exception of te rritory 

included in 30-mile radius of P o rtland, 

Ore. 

Place of Meeting: Engineers' Club, Seattle. 

Wash. 

Local Organization: Seattle Engineers’ 

Club 

Luncheon Meetings daily at noon at Engineers’ 

Club, Seattle 



R . E . J o h n s o n , Chairman 

R . W a l t e r, Vice-Chairman 

J . E . M y l r o ie , Secretary-Treasurer 

H . P. F ord 

H . C. K r e h b ie l , J r . 

H . J . M cI n t y r e 

W EST V IR G IN IA 


T erritory: State of W est Virginia, South 

of Parallel 39 

Place of Meeting: Charleston, W.Va. 



M . S. B l o o m s e u r g , Chairman 

A. H . C a n n o n , Vice-Chairman 

H . B . H i c k m a n , Secretary-Treasurer 

C. B . C o c h r a n , Assistant Secretary 

G . J. H u b e r , Jr. 

E . L. H u d s o n 

C. L . J o h n s o n 

W. C. N orton 

F . L eR oy S c h a e f e r 

W ORCESTER 



W orcester, Mass. 

Place of Meeting: Sanford Riley Hall, 

W orcester Poly. Inst. 

Local Organization: Worcester Engineering 




R. P. K o lb, Chairman 

H. P. C r a n e , Vice-Chairman 

E . K . A l l e n , J r ., Secrctary-Trcasurer 

E . W . A r m str o n g 

L. R. B all 

F. R. J o n e s 

G. H. M a cC u l l o u g h 

C. M . M cM a h o n 

F. A . N a u o h t o n , J r. 

W . M . W il c o x 

YOUNGSTOWN 


Territory: Counties of Trumbull, Mahoning, 

and Columbiana in Ohio, and 

Mercer and Lawrence in Pennsylvania 

Place of Meeting': Republic Rubber Co. 

Club Rooms, Albert St., Youngstown, 

Ohio 


E x e c u t iv e C o m m itt e e 

H. W. S m i t h , Chairman 

L. A. K l i n e , Vice-Chairman 

C. W. F oard, Secretary-Treasurer 

F . J . B o w e r s 

W. B . J e n k i n s 

H. E . M e l in 

E . O. O y e n

A.S.M.E. SOCIETY RECO RD S, PA R T 1 

RI- 

STUDENT BRANCHES 

A r t ic l e B6A, P a r. 20: The Standing Committee on Relations W ith Colleges shall, undeithe 

direction of the Council, have supervision of the Student Branches of the Society and of 

such work of the Society as aims to further the education of engineers through the colleges 

and schools of accepted standing. 

STANDING COMMITTEE, RELATIONS W ITH COLLEGES 

E. W. O’B r i e n , Chairman (1941) 

A. C. C h i c k (1942) 

J . I. Y e llo tt (1943) 

H. E. D egler (1944) 

G. L. S u l l iv a n (1945) 

J . L . H a l l, Junior Adviser (1941) 

Communicate with Student Branch through Honorary Chairman 

J . W. H a n e y "| Advisory 

B. T. M c M in n S-Memhers 

R. H . P o r t e r J (1941) 

Year No. of 

Author- Mem- 

N a m e a n d L o c a tio n ized b e rs f C h a ir m a n S e c r e ta r y H o n o r a r y C h a irm a 

A k ro n , U n iv . of, A k ro n , O hio 1924 40 L . G . H addock J o h n B e z b a t c h e n k o F . S . G r i f f in 

A la b a m a P o ly te c h n ic In s t., A u b u rn . A la . 1920 34 T . R . L oder W . A . C h a p m a n C. R . H ix o n 

A la b a m a , U n iv . o f. U n iv e rs ity , A la . 1931 22 L eonard M a n d e l l D . A . R . N e l s o n J . M . G a l la l ee 

A riz o n a , U n iv . of. T ucson, A riz . 1937 30 C. E . C h a p m a n J . D . C aretto M . L. T h o r n b u r g 

A rk a n s a s , U n iv . of, F a y e tte v ille , A rk . 1910 19 H o w ard J e k k i n s H . H . C l a y t o n L . C. P r ice 

B r itis h C o lu m b ia , U n iv . of, V a n c o u v e r, B .C ., C an . 1938 28 C. W . P a r k er G . S. W ade H . M . M cI lroy 

B ro w n U n iv ., P ro v id e n c e . R .I . 1923 20 R . 0 . L ove G . P . C o n r a d, I I S. J . B erard 

B u c k n e ll U n iv ., L e w is b u rg , P a . 1916 27 R . F . S t o n e R . W . D o n e h o w e r W . D . G a r m a n 

C a lifo rn ia I n s t, of T ech ., P a s a d e n a , C a lif. 1914 50 N e w e l l P a r t c h G . K . W oods R . L . D a u g h e r t y 

C a lifo rn ia . U n iv . of, B e rk e le y , C a lif. 1912 130 D . J . G r a h a m H o m e r C ro o k s C. F . G arla n d 

C a rn e g ie I n s t, of T ech ., P i t ts b u r g h . P a . 1913 75 J . R . S c h ie t in g e r R ic h a r d C l e m e n t D . C. S aylor 

C ase S chool of A p p lie d S cien ce, C le v e la n d . O h io 1913 66 G . R . G r a h a m E . J . R . H u d e c F . H . V ose 

Catholic Univ. of America, Washington, D.C. 1922 55 L . S. B r o w n , J r . P i i i l l i p p G oi.d m a n n M . E . W e s c iil e r 

Cincinnati, Univ. of, Cincinnati, Ohio 1909 113 J . H . T a r k in g t o n B r u c e G e ig e r C. A. J OERGER 

Clarkson College of Tech., Potsdam, N .Y . 1930 53 R . C. W ard A . W . H ogle J. H . D a v is 

Clemson A .& M . College. Clemson College. S.C. 1921 37 W . E . C l in e W . L . R ic iib o u r g B . E . F e r n o w 

C o lo ra d o S ta te C ollege of A .& M . A r ts , F o r t 

Collins, Colo. 1914 27 R . S . W il s o n W . 0 . S n e d d o n J . H . S c o field 

Colorado, U n iv . of, Boulder, Colo. 1914 39 J. R . R o s e n k r a n s J a m e s E n g l u n d W . S . B e a t t ie 

Colorado School of Mines Division, Golden ---- 19 H . W . H i c k s , J r . D . E . H o l l a r d J. C. R eed 

Columbia Univ., New York, N.Y. 1909 

Management Division ----- 11 W . J . J a f f e H . C. Q u a r l e s F red D u t c h e r 

* W a l ter R a u t e n - 

STRAUCH 

M e c h a n ic a l D iv is io n ---- 34 E . V . D e W it t R . T . B a u m F red D u t c iie r 

Cooper Union, New York, N.Y. 1920 

I n s t, o f T ech . ---- 50 A r t h u r S w e n s o n M u r r a y S a c k s o n W . A . V opa t 

Night School of Engineering ---- 92 J . L . A l pe r t J a m e s D o yle E . A. S a l m a 

C o rn e ll U n iv ., I th a c a , N .Y . 1908 95 R . C. R o s s R . E . O h a u s P . H . B l a c k 

Delaware, Univ. of, Newark, Del. 1929 39 L e w is P a r k er A. H . G r e e n W . F.. L in d e l l 

D e tr o it, U n iv . o f, D e tr o it, M ich . 1930 74 H . W . S co t t, J r . M. M. C alca ter ra F . J . L in s e n m e y e r 

D re x e l I n s t, of T ech., P h ila d e lp h ia , P a . 1920 62 C onrad C ook J . S . H u n t e r W . J . S t e v e n s 

D u k e U n iv ., D u rh a m , N .C . 1935 41 H . R . P h i l i i p s H u l m e P a t t in s o n F . J . R eed 

F lo r id a , U n iv . of, G a in e s v ille , F la . 1926 30 B . A . C l u b b s R . A. R oberts R . A. T h o m p s o n 

George Washington Univ., Washington, D .C . 1924 20 R obert B u t t e r w o r t h J o h n G o f f A. F . J o h n s o n 

Georgia School of Tech., A tlanta, Ga. 1915 47 W . P . M cG u ir e G. N. M a c k e n z ie R . S. H o w e l l 

Id a h o , Univ. of, M oscow , Id a h o 1925 51 E d g a r B u t t s J a m e s G ra l o w H . F . G a u s s 

Illinois Inst, of Tech., Chicago, 111. 1940 210 J . E . S a u v a g e T h a d d e u s W ie c z o r e k D a n ie l R o e sc ii 

Illinois, Univ. of, Urbana, 111. 1909 150 T . L . J a c k s o n E . J . H oagland D . G. R y a n 

Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa 1919 49 P . D . M e t z l e r R . A. R u s k R . E . R o u d e b u s h 

Io w a , S t a t e U n iv . o f, Io w a C ity , Io w a 1913 34 E . F . K n o t t R . B . S y k e s I. T. W e t z e l 

Johns Hopkins Univ., Baltimore, M d. 1917 46 P. G. O l s o n G. D . D obler M . F . SPOTTS 

Kansas State College, Manhattan, Kan. 1914 56 V. G. M e l l q u is t A l b er t S c h w e r in W . A . T r ip p 

Kansas, Univ. of, Lawrence, Kan. 1909 31 S . E . B u n n W. W. S t a r c k e H . J . H e n r y 

Kentucky, Univ. of, Lexington, Ky. 1911 22 J . V . K alb D . W . D e n n y C. C. J e t t 

Lafayette College, Easton, Pa. 1919 40 J . H . S t e e l e J . W . B o w m a n w . G. M cL e a n 

Lehigh Univ., Bethlehem, P a . 1911 72 R obert C a e m m e r e r J . H . D u d l ey T. E. J a c k so n 

Louisiana State Univ., University, La. 1916 61 J . P . G regor F . B . H a r r is G. F . M a t t h e s 

Louisville, Univ. of, Louisville, K y . 1928 25 R obert G ray J . R . S t r o t h e r H . H . F e n w ic k 

Maine, Univ. of, Orono, Maine 1910 55 H . L . B a n t o n S . G . W e b ster I . H . P r a g e m a n 

M arquette Univ., Milwaukee, W is. 1923 31 C a r l T ie r n e y R a y m o n d S z e d z ie w s k i R . J . S m i t h 

Maryland, Univ. of, College P a r k , Md. 1937 33 L . L . W il s o n C h a r l e s B e a u m o n t w . P . G r e e n 

Massachusetts Inst, of Tech., Cambridge, Mass. 1909 116 M . P . M oody W . L . T h r e a d g il l A l v in S lo a n e 

Michigan College of Min. & Tech., Houghton 1930 63 G. E . D a k e S . G . M o n roe H. W . R is t e e n 

Michigan State College, E . Lansing, Mich. 1917 59 W . J . K in g s c o t t R . W . H o w o r t h C. N . R i x 

Michigan, Univ. of, Ann A r b o r , Mich. 1914 74 P . A . J o h n s o n J . M . H a l l is s y E . T. V in c e n t 

Minnesota, Univ. of, Minneapolis, Minn. 1913 117 G ordon E rsted K arl B e h r e n s C. A . K o e pk e 

Mississippi State College, State College, Miss. 1926 40 J . B . B u e s c h e r R . T . S t a t o n , J r . H . P . N ea l 

Missouri School of Mines & Metallurgy, Rolla, Mo. 1930 43 A l l a n S u m m e r s R . E . F ie l d s R . O. J a c k so n 

Missouri, Univ. of, Columbia, M o. 1909 51 G . L. H ib b e l e r A . A . S c h m u d d e E . S. G ray 

t As of January 1, 1941. 

* Faculty Adviser.


N a m e a n d L o c a tio n 

Y e a r 

A u th o r- 

iz e d 

N o . of 

M em 

b e r s f C h a irm a n S e c re ta ry H o n o r a r y C h a irm a n 

M o n ta n a S ta te C o lleg e, B o z e m a n , M o n t. 1920 39 W . R . J e f f r ie s T h a y e r L a n d e s R . T . C h a l l e n d e r 

N e b ra s k a , U n iv . o f, L in c o ln , N e b . 1909 51 W . W . P a s c h k e H o u s t o n J o n e s J . K . L u d w ic k s o n 

N e v a d a , U n iv . o f, R e n o , N e v . 1928 18 W i l l ia m M it c h e l l H a rry D a w s o n W . H . D avidson 

N e w a rk C o lleg e of E n g in e e rin g , N e w a r k , N .J . 1924 132 G . N . H odge D . H . M a n g n a ll F . J . B u r n s 

N e w H a m p s h ir e , U n iv . o f, D u rh a m , N .H . 1926 36 W . A . G ard n er E . P . N y e E . T . D onovan 

N e w M ex ic o S ta te C o lleg e o f A .& M . A r ts , S ta te 

C ollege, N e w M ex . 1938 18 C a e l t o n M cG regor W i l l ia m F r ic k M . T . L e w e l i.e n 

N e w M ex ic o , U n iv . o f, A lb u q u e rq u e , N e w M ex . 1935 14 P h i l i p W h it e n e r A l ber t F ord, J r . M . E . F a r r is 

N e w Y o rk , C o lleg e o f th e C ity o f, N e w Y o rk , N .Y . 1922 62 E l i S c iie f e r J u l ia n D e l m o n t e S. J . T racy 

N e w Y o r k U n iv e r s ity , N e w Y o rk , N .Y . 

1909 

A e r o n a u tic D iv is io n 

39 P . W . O ’M ea ea D . C. W a t so n J . M . L abberton 

M e c h a n ic a l D iv is io n 41 H . H . H aglctnd A u r e l io P e l l in o 

* F . K . T e ic h m a n n 

J . M . L abberton 

N e w Y o rk U n iv . E v e n in g S ch o o l, N e w Y o rk , N .Y . 1933 51 A . J . D e M atteo M . W . G etler J . M . L abberton 

N o r th C a r o lin a S ta te C ollege, R a le ig h , N .C . 1920 42 W . A . D i c k in s o n J . R . H u n t l e y R . B . R ic e 

N o r th D a k o ta A g r ic u ltu r a l C o lleg e, F a rg o , N .D . 1929 16 H arry S h e l d o n S t e w a r t B a k k e n A . W . A n d erso n 

N o r th D a k o ta , U n iv . o f, G r a n d F o r k s , N .D . 1923 20 S t a n l e y V o a k R obert C h a p m a n A . J . D ia k o f f 

N o r th e a s te r n U n iv ., B o sto n , M ass. 

F i r s t D iv is io n 

1922 92 

R . W . I r e la n d E a e l F in k l e A . J . F e r r e t t i 

S e co n d D iv is io n •---- H . J . F e r g u s o n R ic h a r d M cM a n u s A . J . F e r r e t t i 

N o r th w e s te r n U n iv ., E v a n s to n , 111. 1935 35 W . M . R o h s e n o w L . V . S l o m a E . F . O bert 

N o tr e D a m e, U n iv . o f, N o tr e D a m e , I n d . 1929 30 R obert O d e n b a c h F r a n k C ross C . C . W ilc o x 

O h io N o r th e r n U n iv ., A d a , O h io 1922 19 J o h n G e r tz M e r l in S h a r e r J . A . N eedy 

O h io S ta te U n iv ., C o lu m b u s, O h io 1911 45 W . H . K u h n W . R . C a m p b e l l P a u l B u o h e r 

O k la h o m a A .& M . C ollege, S tillw a te r , O k la . 1921 28 J o h n S t e w a e t G eorge G r a f f, J r . V . L . M aleev 

O k la h o m a , U n iv . o f, N o rm a n , O k la . 1917 95 J . D . T aylor C. P . B ro o k s D . O. N ic h o l s 

O re g o n S t a t e A g r ic u ltu r a l C o lleg e, C o rv a llis , O re . 1909 30 D . L . D r a k e D . F . D eV i n e A . D . H u g h e s 

P e n n s y lv a n ia S t a t e C o lleg e, S t a t e C o lleg e, P a . 1909 76 R . W . D a v is C . L . M cG aer C. L . A l l e n 

P e n n s y lv a n ia , U n iv . o f, P h ila d e lp h ia , P a . 1925 33 J . C. T h o m p s o n R . T . V ogdes, J r . L . N . G u l ic k 

P i t ts b u r g h , U n iv . o f, P it ts b u r g h , P a . 1917 58 H . G . S k i n n e r J o h n P eo v en G . P . M a n if o l d 

P o ly te c h n ic I n s t, o f B ro o k ly n , B ro o k ly n , N .Y . 1909 

D a y D iv is io n 

46 J . A . L a w e e n c e H . B . N e l s o n A . T . K n i f f e n 

E v e n in g D iv is io n ---- 11 H . P . N o r t h r u p F r a n k H a m b r e c h t A . T . K n i f f e n 

P r a t t I n s t., B ro o k ly n , N .Y . 1923 78 F . D . A l l m a n V . F . C l a r k J . W . H u n t e r 

P r in c e to n U n iv . P r in c e to n , N .J . 1926 25 F . I . W a l s h , J r . W il l ia m C a l lery L . F . R a h m 

P u e r to R ic o , U n iv . o f, M a y a g u e z , P .R . 1923 25 P . H . R ozas E . T . A c h a L . A . S t e f a n i 

P u r d u e U n iv ., W . L a f a y e tte , I n d . 1909 138 T . P . P e p p l e e C. H . R ock w ood W . J . C ope 

R e n s s e la e r P o ly te c h n ic I n s t., T ro y , N .Y . 1910 73 C. L . M a r t in e z W . C. O sb o r n e H . A . W il s o n 

R h o d e I s la n d S ta te C o lleg e, K in g s to n , R .I . 1930 34 R . R . A f f l ic k E . J . F e e l e y , J r . C. D . B il l m y e r 

R ic e I n s t., H o u s to n , T e x . 1926 30 V . B . M e y e r H . H . O r e c h A . H . B urr 

R o se P o ly te c h n ic I n s t., T e r r e H a u te , I n d . 1926 31 J . A . J o n e s J . A . L o h r C arl W is c h m e y e r 

R u tg e r s U n iv ., N e w B ru n s w ic k , N .J . 1920 35 A . M . L i p s k y N . B . B agger N . P . B a il e y 

S a n ta C la ra , U n iv . o f, S a n ta C la r a , C a lif. 1925 19 E u g e n e S t e p h e n s E dw ard M c F adden R . A . S kban 

S o u th D a k o ta S t a t e C ollege, B ro o k in g s , S .D . 1935 19 G ale H o u se D o n W a l in R . E . G ib b s 

S o u th e r n C a lif o r n ia , U n iv . o f, L o s A n g e le s , C a lif. 1929 51 R obert H o f f m a n C h a r l e s H urd W il l ia m S h a l l e n - 

S o u th e r n M e th o d is t U n iv ., D a lla s , T e x . 1933 18 W . 0 . R a m s e y D ic k T u e n e e 

berger 

C. H . S h u m a k e r 

S ta n f o r d U n iv ., S ta n f o r d U n iv e r s ity , C a lif. 1909 31 W . H . C il k e r R . P . J a c k s o n A . L . L o n don 

S te v e n s I n s t , o f T e c h ., H o b o k e n , N .J . 1908 74 H . R . R o o m e C . G . H e b e n s t e e it E . H . F e z a n d ie 

S w a r th m o r e C ollege, S w a r th m o r e , P a . 1921 16 L . H . W olfe C. W . B e c k C. G . T h a t c h e r 

S y ra c u s e U n iv ., S y ra c u s e , N .Y . 1912 36 H ow ard H o k e T heo d o ee F o ste e S . T . H art 

T e n n e sse e , U n iv . o f, K n o x v ille , T e n n . 1923 25 T . C. S ea r l e H u g h e s H a l l R . W . M orton 

T e x a s, A .& M . C o llege o f, C o llege S ta tio n , T e x . 1921 179 J . J . W a l k e r E . R . C l a r k V . M . F a ir e s 

T e x a s T e c h n o lo g ic a l C o lleg e, L u b b o c k , T e x . 1930 41 W . E . B a u m a n G . G . F a ir l e y H . L . K i p p 

T e x a s , U n iv . o f, A u s tin , T e x . 1921 82 A . D . P a y n e A u s t i n L e a c h M . L . B e g e m a n 

T o ro n to , U n iv . o f, T o r o n to , O n t., C a n . 1933 51 J . R . D oyle F . M . B ond R . C. W lREN 

T u f ts C ollege, T u f ts C o lleg e, M a s s. 1917 39 W i l l ia m L y n c h J . R . P e t e r s o n E dgar M acN a u g h t o n 

T u la n e U n iv . o f L o u is ia n a , N e w O rle a n s , L a . 1933 34 B . L . L evy A r t h u r G r a n t , J r . E . R . S t e p h a n 

U .S . N a v a l A c a d e m y , P o s tg r a d u a te S c hool, 

A n n a p o lis , M d . 1925 P . J . K ie f e r 

U ta h , U n iv . o f, S a lt L a k e C ity , U t a h 1923 25 D . A . B erg B e n S haveb; M . B . H ogan 

V a n d e r b ilt U n iv ., N a s h v ille , T e n n . 1928 21 H . B . T o m l i n , J r . C. K . D il l in g h a m , J r . S. H . A ck e r 

V e rm o n t, U n iv . o f, B u r lin g to n , V t. 1922 9 E . M . C reed R . G . R a m s d e l l , J r . H . L . D a a sc h 

V illa n o v a C o lleg e, V illa n o v a , P a . 1925 30 F . A . B e r g n e r V . J . A . G ordon W . J . B arber 

V ir g in ia P o ly te c h n ic I n s t., B la c k s b u rg , V a . 1915 65 J . Q. P e e p l e s E . W . C h r is t F . S. R oop, J r . 

V ir g in ia , U n iv . o f, U n iv e r s ity , V a . 1923 W . A . G r e e n M . L . B r o w n A . G. M a c c o n o c h ie 

W a s h in g to n , S t a t e C o lleg e o f, P u llm a n , W a s h . 1920 37 H . E . H u n t C. W . P e ters F . W . C a n d e e 

W a s h in g to n U n iv ., S t. L o u is, M o. 1911 25 C. A . F e ic h t in g e e E . E . W a lla c e H e rbert K u e n z e l 

W a s h in g to n , U n iv . o f, S e a ttle , W a s h . 1917 53 H e e b e r t C h a t t e r t o n C l a y t o n N ic h o l s R . W . C r a in 

W e s t V ir g in i a U n iv ., M o rg a n to w n , W . V a . 1922 23 J . L . H a w l e y G . M . F r is c h L . D . H ay es 

Wisconsin, Univ. of, Madison, Wis. 1909 109 R . V . W r i g h t W . F . Z u n k e E . T . H a n s e n 

W orcester Polytechnic Inst., Worcester, Mass. 1914 50 G eorge K n a u f f C h a n d l e r W a l k e r E . W . A r m str o n g 

W y o m in g , U n iv . o f, L a r a m ie , W y o . 1925 31 W a y n e L e e k S t a n l e y A b r a m s o n R . S. S i n k 

Yale Univ., New Haven, Conn. 1910 19 J o h n M a e k e l l , J e . P . N . S tro bell S. W . D ud l ey 

f A s of J a n u a r y 1, 1941. ‘ F a c u lty A d v is e r .


RI-25 

STANDING COMMITTEE 

E. G. B a il e y , Chairman (1941) 

W . T r i n k s (1942) 

M. D. H e r sey (1943) 

J. H . W a l k e r (1944) 

W. R. E l s e y (1945) 

L U B R IC A T IO N 

Appointed October, 1915, to investigate the 

fundamental problems of lubrication, to 

formulate results of investigations previously 

made, and to keep in touch with 

contemporary research in this field 

(Reorganized May, 1936) 

G . B . K a r e l it z, Chairman 

S. J. N eed s, Secretary 

A. L. B e a ll 

O scar B r id g e m a n 

W . E. C a m p b e l l 

H . A . E v erett 

A . E . F l o w er s 

J. C. G e n ie s s e 

R a y m o n d H a s k e l l 

M. D. H e r sey 

B. F. H u n t e r 

C. M. L arson 

F . C. L i n n 

G. L. N e e l y 

B. L. N e w k ir k 

E . S. P earce 

E r n e s t W ooler 

FLUID METERS 

Appointed 1916 to develop the theory of 

fluid meters of all kinds and to report on the 

best methods for their installation and use 

(Reorganized July, 1926) 

R . J. S. P ig o tt, Chairman 

J. R . C a rlto n, Secretary 

H . S. B e a n 

S. R. B e it l e r 

E . 0 . B e n n e t t 

R. K. B l a n ch a r d 

B . 0 . B u o k l a n d 

L o u is G e ss 

A . J. K err 

T. II. K err 

M. P . O ’B r ie n 

W . S. P aedoe 

L . K . S p i n k 

R. E . S p r e n k l e 

E . C. M. S t a iil 

T. R. W e y m o u t h 

M. J. Z u c r o w 

RESEARCH COMMITTEES 

A r t ic l e B 6 A , P a r. 24: The Standing Committee on Research shall, under the direction of 

the Council, have supervision of the research activities of the Society. 

THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM 

Appointed in December, 19%1, to direct research 

on the thermal properties of watervapor 

and steam from 0 C to the upper 

limits of temperature and pressure 

(Reorganized April, 1929) 

W . L. A bbott, Vice-Chairman 

H. N . D a v is 

H. C. D ic k in s o n 

The first Standing Committee on Research was organized in 1909. 

A . M . G r e e n e , J r . 

R . C. H . H e c k 

D . S. J aco bus 

M a x J a kob 

J . H . K e e n a n 

F . G . K e y e s 

L. S. M a r k s 

G. A . O rrok 

R . J . S. P ig o tt 

H . V . R a s m u s s e n 

E . L. R o b in s o n 

STRENGTH OF GEAR TEETH 

Appointed in December, 1921. Is investigating 

factors affecting the strength and life of 

gear teeth 

R. E . F l a n d e r s, Chairman 

C. H . L o g u e, Secretary 

E a e l e B u c k in g h a m 

A. M . G r e e n e , J e . 

C. W . H a m 

F . E. M cM u l l e n 

E . W . M il l e r 

E r n e s t W il d h a b e b 

CUTTING OF METALS 

Appointed in September, 1923. Is studying 

the problems of metal cutting, including tool 

materials, tool design, lubrication, cooling, 

and speeds and feeds 

M. F. J u d k i n s , Chairman 

L . N. G u l ic k , Secretary 


0 . W . B o sto n 

R . C. D e a le 

A . L . D eL e e u w 

C. M. T h o m p s o n , J r . 

MECHANICAL SPRINGS 

Appointed May, 1924, to determine the 

status of the mechanieal-spring art, to promote 

and conduct necessary and adequate 

research, and to develop the art to the point 

of standardization 

J . R . T o w n s e n d , Chairman 

C. T . E d g e r t o n, Secretary 

C. E . B arba 

R . W. C ook 

W. T . D o n k i n 

R u p e n E k s e r g ia n 

G. E . H a n s e n 

B e n j a m i n L ie b o w it z 

D avid L o fts 

(R . D . B r iz zo l a r a, Alternate) 

D . J . M cA d a m , J r . 

R . E . P e t e r s o n 

J. W . R o c k e f e l l e r , Jr. 

B . W . S t . C l a ir 

M . F . S ayre 

T . R. W e ber 

K e it h W i l l ia m s 

J . K . W ood 

F . P . Z i m m e r l i 

0 . B . Z i m m e r m a n 

ELEVATORS 

Appointed June, 1924, o subcommittee of 

the Sectional Committee on Safety Code for 

Elevators, to study the function and operation 

of elevator safeties and buffers and 

their associated mechanisms and to develop 

methods of test for the approval of elevator 

safety devices 

(Reorganized August, 1940) 

D . J . P u r in t o n , Chairman 

D . L . L in d q u is t , Vice-Chairman 

G . H . R e p p e r t (A lternate) 

J . A . D i c k i n s o n , Secretary 

M . G. L loyd (Alternate) 

E. M . B otiton 

E. B. D a w s o n (A lternate) 

K. A. CoLAHAN 

G . P . K e o g h 

F . P a v l ic e k (Alternate) 

J . J . M a t so n 

M . B . M cL a u t h l i n 

C. R. C a l l a w a y (Alternate) 

W. S. P a in e 

J . L . K e a n e (Alternate) 

C. A . P e t e r s, J e . 

E FFEC T OF TEM PERATURE ON THE 

PR O PER TIES OF METALS 

Appointed December, 1924, as a joint research 

committee of the A.S.T.M. and the 

A.S.M.E. to encourage the investigation 

and accumulation of data on the properties 

of m,etals used in the mechanic arts at 

extremely high and low temperatures 

N. L . M o c h e l , Chairman 

H. J. K e b e , Vice-Chairman 

J . W . B o l t o n , Secretary 

R . H. A bo b n 

W . H . A r m a c o s t 

A . B . B agsar 

A . D. B a il e y 

F . E. B a s h 

C. L . C l a r k 

E. S. D ix o n 

F . B . F o l ey 

J . R . F r e e m a n , J r . 

H . J . F r e n c h 

H . W . G i l i.e t t 

A . J . H e r z ig 

G . F . J e n k s 

J . J . K a n t e r 

C. E. M aoQ u ig g 

P . E. M cK i n n e y 

E. L. R o b in s o n 

A . E. W h i t e 

D irector, N ational Bureau of Standards, 

U.S. Departm ent of Commerce 

Representative of Bureau of Ships, U.S. 

Navy Department 

BOILER FEED W A TER STUDIES 

Appointed March, 1925, as a Joint Research 

Committee of the American Boiler Manufacturers 

Association, American Railway 

Engineering Association, American Water 

W orks Association, Edison Electric Institute, 

the American Society for Testing Materials, 

and the A.S.M.E. to study methods 

of analysis and treatment of boiler feedwater 

for stationary and railroad practice


BOILER FEED W A TER STUDIES 

(Continued) 

E x e c u t iv e C o m m it t e e (Total personnel 41) 

C. H. F e l l o w s, Chairman 

R . C. B ard w e l l , Vice-Chairman 

J . B . R o m e r , Secretary 

A . G. C h r i s t i e * 

R . E . C o u g iil in 

B. W. D e G e er 

M a x H e c h t 

H . E . J ordan 

P . B . P lace 

S. T. P o w e l l 

F. N. S p e l l e r 

M. F. S t a c k 

E . H . T e n n e y 

A . E . W h i t e * 

CONDENSER TUBES 

Appointed May, 1925, to investigate and 

report on the causes of failure of tubes used 

in steam condensers and similar heat interchange 

apparatus 

A . E . W h i t e , Chairman 

D . C. W e e k s , Vice-Chairman 

P . A . B a n c e l l 

H. Y. B a s s e t t 

R . A . B o w m a n 

D . K . C r a m p t o n 

C. A. C raw fo rd 

H . M . C u s h i n g 

R . E . D il l o n 

J . R . F r e e m a n , J r . 

Y . M . F rost 

C. F . I I abw ood 

G . C. H older 

W. C'. H o l m e s 

W. B. P r ic e 

M. F. S t a c k 

H . A . S t a p l e s 

W. R. W e b s t e r 

Director, Bureau of Ships, U.S. Navy Departm 

ent 

WORM GEARS 

Appointed May, 1927, to investigate certain 

problems in connection w ith the action of 

worm gear drives and to recommend improvements 

in their design, manufacture, 

and use 

E a r l b B u c k in g h a m , Chairman 

G . I I . A c k e r 

L. R. B u c k e n d a l e 

D . L . L in d q u is t 

A. A. Ross 

B . F . W a t e r m a n 

Representative of Bureau of Ships, U.S. 

Navy Department 

* Official A.S.M.E. representatives serving 

on this committee. 

. MEASURES OF MANAGEMENT 

Appointed March, 1928, to attem pt the 

reconciliation of certain economic laws 

affecting production, to develop formulas 

for management, and to collect and report 

information on management research 

W . E. F r e e l a n d , Chairman 

F . E. R a y m o n d , Secretary 

J . H. B a rber 

T. H. B r o w n 

R. C. D a v is 

G. E. I I a g e m a n n 

STRENGTH OF VESSELS UNDER 

EXTERNAL PRESSURE 

Appointed June, 1929, to develop reliable 

design data on the strength of cylindrical 

and spherical surfaces under external pressure, 

particularly with reference to jacketed 

vessels 

W . D . H a l s e y , Chairman 

F. V. H a r t m a n 

M . B. H ig g in s 

A. W . L i m o n t , J r . 

II. E. S a u n d e r s 

E. E. S h a n o r 

D . B. W e sstro m 

F. S. G . W il l ia m s 

D . F. W in d e n b u r g 

W IR E ROPE 

Appointed April, 1930, to investigate existing 

rope so that it may be better understood 

and more effectively used 

W. H. F u l w e il e r , Chairman 

H. LeR. B r i n k 

D. L . L in d q u is t 

G . W . M a r t in 

A. H . M cD o u g a ll 

B. V. E. N ordberg 

W . S. P a in e 

W . J . R y a n 

G eorge S im p s o n 

L . E. Y o u n g 

CRITICAL PRESSU RE STEAM 

BOILERS 

Appointed June, 1931, to study the characteristics 

of high-pressure forced-circulation 

steam-generating units 

H. L . S olberg, Chairman 

W . H. A rm a c o st 

A . D. B a il e y 

E. G. B a il e y 

F . S. C l a r k 

C. II. F e l l o w s 

H . J. K err 

G. A. O rr ok 

E. C. P e t r ie 

E. L. R o b in s o n 

P . W . T h o m p s o n 

ROLLING OF STEEL (PLASTICITY) 

Appointed October, 1938, to study plasticity 

in the particular field of rolling of steel 

A. N a d a i, Chairman 

E . C. B a in 

C. L. E k s e r g ia n 

J . H . H it c h c o c k 

G . B . K a r e l it z 

C. W . M acG regor 

M o r r is S t o n e 

W. T r i n k s 


Other Research Committees 

See also A.S.M.E. Representatives on Other 

Activities, page RI-9 

AMERICAN COORDINATING COMMIT 

TEE ON CORROSION 

American Society for Testing Materials 

S. L. K erb 

(C. H. F e l l o w s, Alternate) 

CORROSION COMMITTEE 

American Society of Refrigerating 

Engineers 

(To be appointed) 

FATIGUE PHENOMENA OF METALS 


C. T. E dgerton 

HEAT-TREATMENT OF ROCK DRILL 

STEELS 

Advisory Board of the National Bureau of 

Standards and Bureau of Mines 


METALLURGICAL RESEARCH 

Advisory Committee to the National Bureau 

of Standards 

C. H. B ie r b a u m 

PR O PER TIES OF REFRACTORY 

MATERIALS 

A dvisory Committee to the National Bureau 

of Standards 

E . B . P o w e ll 

W ATER FOR INDUSTRIAL USES 


J . H. W a l k e r 

COTTONSEED PROCESSING 

Appointed December, 1932, to study the 

mechanical problems involved in storing, 

conditioning, and cooking cottonseed meats 

W . R. W o o l r ic h , Chairman 

H o m e r B a r n e s 

C. E. G a r n e r 

J. F . L e a h y 

R. W . M orton 

B . J. S a m s 

R. B . T aylor


RI-27 


A. L. B aker, Chairman (1941) 

J. E. L ovely (1942) 

L. T. K n o c k e (1943) 

T. E. F r e n c h (1944) 

W H. H ill (1945) 

STANDARDIZATION COMMITTEES 

A r t ic l e BOA. P ar. 23: The Standing Committee on Standardization shall advise the 

Council on the dimensional standardization work of the Society, including relations with the 

American Standards Association. 

STANDARDIZATION AND U N IFICA 

TION OF SCREW THREADS (B l) 

* Joint sponsorship with the Society of 

Automotive Engineers. Sectional Committee 

originally organized in June, 1921. Reorganized 

in February, 1929 

A.S.M.E. Members (Total personnel, 35) 

R . E . F la n d er s, Chairman t 

E arle B u c k in g h a m , Secretary 

E . J . B r y a n t 

G. S. C ase 

T. G. C raw ford 

A . M. H o u se r t 

H . C. E . M ey er 

P . V . M il l e r t 

W. C. M u e ller 

R . H . P erry 

0 . B . Z im m e r m a n 

s u b c o m m it t e e c h a ir m e n 

No. 1 on Scope, Arrangement, and Editing 

of American National Standard, R. 

E. F l a n d er s 

No. 2 on Terminology and Thread Specifications, 

Except Gages, C. W. B e t t c h e r 

No. 3 on Special Threads and Twelve Pitch 

Series, Except Gages (to be appointed) 

No. 4 on Acme and Other Similar Threads, 

Except Gages, E a r l e B u c k in g h a m 

No. 5 on Screw Thread Gages and Inspection, 

G. S. C ase 

No. 7 on Wood Screws, A r t h u r B oor 

Special Subcommittee on Revision of American 

Standard, P . Y . M il l e r 

P IP E THREADS (B2) 

* Joint sponsorship with the American Gas 

Association, Sectional Committee originally 

organized in 1913. Reorganized May, 1927 


A . S. M il l e r , Chairman 

C. B . L e P age, Acting Secretary 

A . F . B r e it e n s t e in y 


C. S. C ole 

E . S. C o r n e l l, J r . 

J . J . C rotty 

A . P. D e n t o n 

J . J . H a r m a n 

A . M . H o u s e r f 

A . H . J a r e c k i 

P. V . M il l e r f 

F . H . M o reh ea d 

W. C. M o rris 

* Note: All of these standards committees 

for which the Society is sponsor or joint 

sponsor, or on which it has representation, 

are organized under the procedure of the 


f Official A.S.M.E. representative serving 


The first Standing Committee on Standardization was organized in April, 1911 

S. F . N e w m a n 

L . N . S h a n n o n 

F r a n k T h o r n t o n , J r . 

J . H . W il l ia m s 


No. 1 on Editing and Gaging, A. M . H o u se r 

No. 2 on Taper Pipe Threads, S. B . T erry 

No. 3 on Straight Pipe Threads, A. S. 

M il l e r 

No. 4 on Plumbers’ Threads, A. F. B r e it e n 

s t e in 

No. 5 on Screw Threads for Rigid Steel 

Conduit, J a m e s B a r to n 

No. 6 on Special Threads for Thin Tubes, 

C. C. W in t e r 

Special Subcommittee on Tolerances on 

Thread Elements, E. J. B r y a n t 

Special Editing Subcommittee on Taper 

Pipe Threads, S. B . T erry 

Special Editing Subcommittee on Straight 

Pipe Threads, P a u l M il l e r 

Special Subcommittee on Truncation, E. J. 

B r y a n t 

BALL AND ROLLER BEARINGS (B3) 

* Joint sponsorship w ith the Society of 


organized December, 1920 


W . P . K e n n e d y . Vice-Chairman f 

D . E . B ate sole t 

L . A. C u m m i n g s 

O scar H . D orer 

F . G. H u g h e s 

G. E . H u l s e f 

L. F . N e n n in g e r 

S. M. W e o k s t e in f 


ALLOWANCES AND TOLERANCES 

FOR CYLINDRICAL PARTS AND 

LIM IT GAGES (B4) 

* Sole sponsorship. Sectional Committee 

originally organized in June, 1920. Reorganized 

in September, 1930 


J. E. L o v e ly, Chairman f 

F . E. B a n f ie l d , Jr. 

F . S . B l a c k a l l , J r . 


E arle B u c k in g h a m t 

F . H . C o l v in f 

T . G. C ra w fo rd 

R. E . W . H a r r is o n 

F . O. H oagland 

N . E . J aco bi 

H. C. E. M e y er 

P . Y . M il l e r 

W. C. M u e l l e r 

E. C. P e c k t 

R. H . P erry 

W. C. SCHOENFELDT 


0 . B . Z i m m e r m a n 

s u b c o m m it t e e c h a ir m a n 

No. 1 on Tolerance Systems, R. E. W. 

H a r r i s o n 

SMALL TOOLS AND MACHINE TOOL 

ELEM ENTS (B5) 

* Joint sponsorship w ith the National Machine 

Tool Builders Association and the Society 

of Automotive Engineers. Sectional 

Committee organized September, 1922 


W . C. M u e l l e r , Chairman t 

F . 0 . H oagla n d, Vice-Chairman 

J. B . A r m it a g e 

0 . W . B o sto n 

E . J. B r y a n t 

E a r l e B u c k in g h a m 

F. H. C o l v in t 

S. A. E i n s t e in 

H . E . H a r r is t 

J o h n H a y d o c k 

J . P. L a u x f 

J. E. L ovely 

A. F. M u r r a y t 

E r i k O berg 


T e c h n ic a l C o m m it t e e s 



W . C. M u l l e r , Chairman t 

P. 0 . H o a g la n d, Vice-Chairman 

H. E. H arris t 

No. 1 o n T -slo ts 


E r i k O berg, Chairman f 

J. B. A r m it a g e 

H a rr y C a d w a l l a d er, jR .f 

S. A . E i n s t e in 

F . O. H oa g la n d f 

N o . 2 o n T ool P o s t s a n d T ool S h a n k s 


O. W . B o s t o n , Chairman 

F . S. B l a c k w a l l , J r . 

G r a n g er D a v e n po r t t 

M. E. L a n g e 

N o. 3 o n M a c h in e T a p e r s 


E. J. B r y a n t , Chairman f 

C. B. L e P a g e, Acting Secretary 


F. S. B l a c k a l l , J r . 

E arle B u c k in g h a m f 

F . H. C o l v in 

J. B. D ill a r d 

(T. F. G i t h e n s , Alternate) 

B. P. G ra v es 

H . E. H a r r is 

F . O. H oagland f 

J. H . H o r ig a n 

A. H . L y o n 

L . F . N e n n in g e r 

s u b g r o u p c h a ir m e n 

Steep Tapers Series, S. M cM u l l a n 

Revision of Slow Taper Standard, E. J. 

B r y a n t


SMALL TOOLS AND MACHINE TOOL 

ELEMENTS (B5) 

(Continued) 

N o. 4 o n S p in d l e N o s e s a n d C o l l e t s f o r 

M a c h i n e T o o l s 


J . E . L o v ely, Chairman f 

L . F. N e n n in g e r , Secretary 

J . B . A b m it a g e 

B. P . G rav es 

F. 0 . H o a gland f 

A . M . J o h n s o n 

M . E . L a n g e 

J. H. M a n s f ie l d 

L . D . S p e n c e 

SUBGROUP CHAIRM EN 

No. 1 on Milling Machines, Small and Medium, 

J. B. A b m it a g e 

No. 2 on Large Milling Machines, F. B. 

K a m p m e ie r 

No. 3 on Grinding Machine Spindles, H. J. 

G r if f in g 

No. 5 on Drilling Machines and Horizontal 

Boring Machines, S. M cM u l l a n 

No. 6 on Turning Machines, Including 

Automatic Screw Machines, Lathes, 

Automatic Lathes, T urret Lathes, 

and Automatic Chucking Machines, 

J. E. L ovely 

No. 8 on Correlation of Counter Proposals 

for Spindle Noses, J. E. L ovely 

No. 5 o n M il l in g C u t t e r s 



A . N . G oddard t 

J. H . H o r ig a n 

G. L . M a r k l a n d , Jk. 

E. K . M organ 

E r i k O berg t 

E . D. V a n c il 


No. 1 on Profile Cutters, E . D . V a n c il 

No. 2 on Kevways, J. B. A r m it a g e 

No. 3 on Nomenclature, A . C. D a n e k in d 

No. 4 on Limits, J. H . H o r ig a n 

No. 5 on Formed Cutters, H . C. H u n g e r - 

ford 

No. 6 on Hobs, G. L. M a r k l a n d , J r. 

No. 7 on Inserted Tooth Cutters, J. B. 

A r m it a g e 

No. 6 o n D e s ig n a t io n s a n d W o r k in g 

R a n g e s op M a c h in e T ools 


J o h n H a y d o c k, Chairman 


T . II. D o a n , J r . 

B . P. G ra v es t 

J . J . M cB r id e 

E . R. S m i t h 

No. 7 o n T w i s t D r i l l S iz e s 


W . C. M u e l l e r , Chairman f 

J . H . H o r ig a n + 

No. 8 o n J ig B u s h i n g s 

A.S.M.E. Member (Total personnel, 8) 

J . H . H o r ig a n t 

N o. 9 o n P u n c h P r e ss T ools 


D . H . C h a s o n 

N. W. D o r m a n 

H . E. H a r r is + 

D. M. P a l m e r 

N o. 10 o n F o r m in g T ools a n d H olders 


W. C. M u e l l e r , Chairman + 

W i l l ia m H a r t m a n + 

L. D. S p e n c e 

N o. 11 o n C h u c k s a n d C h u c k J a w s 

A.S.M.E. Member (Total personnel, 10) 

J . E . L o v ely, Chairman f 


No. 1 on M aster Chuck Jaws, J. E. L ovely 

No. 2 on Adapters for A ir Cylinders, J. E. 

L ovely 

No. 12 o n C u t a n d G r o u n d T h r e a d T a p s 

(Total personnel, 7) 

No. 13 o n S p l i n e s a n d S p l in e d S h a f t s 


J . B . A r m it a g e f 

R. E. W . H a r r is o n 

F . O. H oagland 

J. E. L ov ely t 

B . F . W a t e r m a n 

No. 17 o n N o m e n c l a t u r e f o r S m a l l T ools 

a n d M a c h in e T ool E l e m e n t s 


0. W. B o s t o n , Chairman and Secretary 

F. S. B l a c k a l l , J r . 

F. H . C o l v in t 

H . E. H a r r is 

F. O. H oagland 

A. N. G oddard 

W. C. M u e l l e r f 

Ex-Officio Members 

N o . 19 o n S in g l e -P o in t C u t t in g T ools 


F. H. C o l v in , Chairman + 

0. W. B o s t o n , Secretary 

N o. 20 o n R e a m e r s 


F. H . C o l v in 

T. F. G lT H E N S f 

J . H . H o r ig a n t 

H . E. W e l l s 

SUBGROUP CHAIRMAN 

No. 1 on Reamer Proposal, C. M. P ond 

N o . 21 o n T ool-L i f e T e s t s fo r S in g l e - 

P o in t T ools 

A.S.M.E. Members (Total Personnel, 11) 

0. W. B o s t o n , Chairman 

M. F. J u d k in s 

N o . 22 S t a n d a r d s of A c c u racy for 

E n g in e s L a t h e s 

Note.— Sectional Committee B s recognised 

the Committee on Standards of the Lathe 

Group of The National Machine Tool Builders’ 

Association as the personnel of this 

technical committee. 

GEARS (B6) 

* Joint sponsorship with the American Gear 

Manufacturers Association. Sectional Comm 

ittee organized June, 1921 


B . F. W a t e r m a n , Chairman 

E a r l e B u c k in g h a m , Vice-Chairman t 

C. B . L eP age, Acting Secretary 

G. II. A c k e r 

U . S. E berhardt 

L . H . F ry 

C. B. H a m il t o n , J r . 

D. T. H a m il t o n 

M . R . H a n n a 

0 . A . LEUTW ILERf 

G. L . M a r k l a n d , J r . 

C a r l e to n R e y n e l l 

SUBCOMMITTEE CHAIRMEN 

Executive Committee, B . F. W a t e r m a n 

No. 1 on Program, B . F. W a t e r m a n 

No. 2 on Editing Reports, B . F. W a t e r m a n 

No. 3 on Nomenclature, D. T. H a m il t o n 

No. 4 on Tooth Form (Spur Gears), U. S. 

E b e r iia r d t 

No. 5 on Helical Gears, W . P. S c h m it t e r 

No. 6 on Worm Gears, T. R. R id eo u t 

No. 7 on Bevel Gears, F. L . K n o w l e s 

No. 8 on M aterials, C. B . H a m il t o n , J r . 

No. 9 on Inspection, J . P. B reu e r 

No. 10 on Horsepower Rating, E arle B u c k 

in g h a m 

P IP E FLANGES AND FITTINGS (B16) 

* Joint sponsorship ivith the Heating, Piping, 

and A ir Conditioning Contractors National 

Association and the Manufacturers 

Standardization Society of the Valve and 

Fittings Industry. Sectional Committee organized 

October, 1921 


C. P. B l is s , Chairman f 

J . J . H a r m a n , Secretary 

L . W . B e n o it f 

A . L . B r o w n 

S a b in C rocker 

F e r d in a n d F i n k 

H . E. H a ller 

J . S. H e s s 

H . A . H o f f e r t 

E. L . H o p p in g 

A . M. H ousf.r 

D. S . J aco bus 

C. A . K e l t in g t 

J . R . K r u s e ( J o h n B l iz a r d , Alternate) 

M . B . M acN e il l e 

F . H . M o reh ea d 

L . S. M orse 

L u d w ig S kog 

J . R . T a n n e r f 

J . H . T aylor 

H . L . U n d e r h il l 

G. W . W a t t s 

J . H . W il l ia m s 


Executive Committee, C. P. B l is s f 

No. 1 on Cast Iron Flanges and Flanged 

Fittings, A . M . H ouser 

No. 2 on Screwed Fittings, F. H . M orehead 

No. 3 on Steel Flanges and Flanged F ittings, 

C. P. B l is s

P IP E FLANGES AND FITTINGS (B16) 

(Continued) 

No. 4 on M aterials and Stresses, A. M. 

H o u se r 

No. 5 on Face to Face Dimensions of F errous 

Flanged Valves, J. R. T a n n e r 

No. 6 on Malleable Iron or Steel Brass 

Seat Unions (to be appointed) 

No. 7 on Rating of Pipe Fittings (to be 

appointed) 

No. 8 on Marking of Pipe Fittings, F. H. 

M oreland 

No. 9 on Port Openings, W. W. H ubbard 

SHAFTING (B17) 

* Sole sponsorship. Organized October, 1918 


C. M . C h a p m a n , Chairman f 

C. B . L e P a g e, Secretary 

H . C. E M eyf.r 


J . M . S h im e r 

G. N . V a n D e r h o e f t 

L. W . W il l ia m s + 

BOLT. NUT, AND RIV ET PROPOR 

TIONS (B18) 



organized March, 1922 


H . E . A l d r ic h 

F. C. B il l in g s 

B . G. B r a in e 

G. S. C ase 

T. G. C raw ford 

H . P. F rear 

A . M . H ouser f 

H e r m a n K oester 

S. F . N e w m a n 

R. J . W h e l a n 

E. M . W h it in g 

V . R. W il l o u g h b y 

( J . J . M cB r id e, Alternate) 


s u b c o m m it t e e c h a i r m e n 

No. 1 on Large and Small Rivets (to be 

appointed) 

No. 2 on Wrench-Head Bolts and Nuts, W. 

K . M e n d e n h a l l , J r . 

No. 3 on Slotted Head Proportions (to be 

appointed) 

No. 4 on Track Bolts and Nuts (to be appointed) 

No. 5 on Round Unslotted H e a d Bolts 

(Carriage Bolts), M. C. H o r in e 

No. 6 on Plow Bolts, 0. B. Z i m m e r m a n 

No. 7 on Body Dimensions and M aterials 

(to be appointed) 

No. 8 on Nomenclature, G. S. C a se 

No. 9 on Socket Head Cap and Set Screws, 

H e r m a n K oester 

PLAIN AND LOCK WASHERS (B27) 



organized August, 19S5 

A.S.M.S. Members (Total personnel, 37) 

E u g e n e C a l d w e l l 

T . G. C raw ford 

B . S. L e w is t 

C. H . L o u trel 

J . J . M cB rid e 

H. C. E . M ey er 

W . C. M u e l l e r t 

E . M . W h i t i n g t 




No. 1 on Plain W ashers, W. L . B a r t h 

No. 2 on Spring Washers, E. C o w l in 

TRANSMISSION CHAINS AND 

SPROCKETS (B29) 


Automotive Engineers and the American 

Gear Manufacturers Association. Sectional 

Committee organized September, 1917. Reorganized 

December, 1926 


W . J . B e l c h e r 

C. B. J a h n k e f 

J o s e p h J oy 

L . V . L u d y t 

D. B . P erry 

C. R . W e is s 

G. A . Y o u n g 



No. 1 on Roller Chain Standardization (to 

be appointed) 

No. 2 on Silent Chain Standardization, G. 

A . Y o u n g 

CODE FOR PRESSURE P IP IN G (B31) 

* Sole sponsorship. Sectional Committee organized 

March, 1926. Reorganized December, 

19S7 


E. B . R ic k e t t s , Chairman 

R . E. B r y a n t 

C. S. C ole 

H . C. C ooper 

D. H. C orey 

S a b in C ro c k er 

H. D. E dw ards 

E . R . F i s h 

C h a r l e s F itzg er a ld 


T. W. G r e e n e 

H . E . H a ller 

W. D. H a l se y 

J . S. H a ug 

H . A. H o ffer 

G . G . H o l l in s 


A . M . H o u se r + 

A l fr ed I d dles + 

D. S. J acobus 

T. M . J a sper 

C. A . K e l t in g 

G . S. L a r se n 



H . C . E . M ey er 

J . W . M oore 

( J . D. C a p r o n , Alternate) 

F. H . M o reh ea d 

(W . W . C r a w f o r d , A lternate) 

( J . J . H a r m a n , Alternate) 

H. H. M organ 

L . S . M orse 

A . W . M oulder 

E . W. N o r r is 

C. W. O bert 

G. A . O rrok 

A . L . P e n n i m a n , J r . 

C. S. R o b in s o n f 

J . H . R o m a n n 

D. B . R o s s h e im 

G . W . S a a t h o f f 

G . K . S a u r w e in 

L u d w ig S kog 

H . S. S m i t h 

(H. H. Moss, Alternate) 

J. R. T a n n e r 

J. H. T aylor 

J. H. V a n c e 

H. L. W iiit t e m o r e 

J. H. W il l ia m s 

T . F. W o l fe 


RI-29 

No. 1 on Plan, Scope, and Editing, S a b in 

C ro c k er 

No. 2 on Power Piping, A l fr ed I ddle 3 

No. 4 on Gas and A ir Piping, J. S. H a u g 

No. 5 on Refrigeration Piping, A . B. S t ic k - 

NEY 

No. 6 on Oil Piping, A. D. S a n d e r so n 

No. 7 on Piping M aterials and Identification, 

F. H. M o r e h e a d 

No. 8 on Fabrication Details, L u d w ig S kog 

No. 9 on D istrict Heating Piping, G. K . 

S a u r w e in 

W IR E AND SHEET METAL GAGES 

(B32) 



organized November, 1938. Reorganized 

November, 1939 


A . P. C o ttle 

J. F. H o w e t 

F. G. W il s o n t 

s u b c o m m it t e e c h a ir m a n 

W ire and Sheet Metal Gages, H . W. T e n n e y 

SCREW THREADS FOR HOSE 

COUPLINGS (B33) 


organized August, 1928 


A . L. B r o w n , Secretary 

A . F. B r e it e n s t e in f 

J . J. G rotty 

W . L . C u r t is s 

W . E . D u n h a m f 

J. J. H a r m a n 

(F. C. E r n s t , Alternate) 

A . M . H o u se r 

H . C. E. M e y e b 

J . H . W i l l ia m s 


No. 1 to D raft Recommended Specifications 


No. 2 on Basic Thread Dimensions, D. R. 

M il l e r 

WROUGHT IRON AND WROUGHT 

STEEL P IP E AND TUBING 

(B36) 

* Joint sponsorship w ith the American Society 

for Testing Materials. Sectional Comm 

ittee organized April, 1928 


H . H . M org a n, Chairman 

S a b in C r o c k e r, Secretary 

J. S. A d e l s o n 

H . E. A l d r ic h 

E. L. H o p p in g 

(A . B. M org a n, Alternate) 

A . M . H o u se r t 

D. S. J a co bu s f 

( F . S. C l a r k , Alternate) + 

J. J. K a n t e r

PJ-30 A.S.M.E. SO CIETY RECO RD S, PA R T 1 

WROUGHT IRON AND WROUGHT 

STEEL P IP E AND TUBING 

(B36) 

H. C. E. M ey er 

E. H. M o r e h e a d 

H. B. O a t l e y t 

L u d w ig S kog t 

E. N. S p e l l e r 

J. R. T a n n e r 

A. E. W h i t e 

(Continued) 


No. 1 on Plan, Scope, and Editing, H. H. 

M organ 

N o . 2 o n P ip e a n d T u b in g f o r L o w T e m 

p e r a tu r e S e rv ic e , J . J . S h u m a n 

N o. 3 o n P ip e a n d T u b in g f o r H ig h T e m 

p e r a t u r e S e rv ic e , J . R . T a n n e r 

N o. 4 on M a te r ia ls , F . H . M o reh e a d 

PRESSU RE AND VACUUM GAGES 

(B40) 


organized July, 1930 


M . D . E n g l e , Chairman 

A. W. L e n d e r o t h , Secretary t 


J . P . C a v a n a u g h f 


C. H . G ra e sser 

W. F. J o n e s 

R. J. K e h l 

J . C. M c C u n e t 

A. H . M organ 

H . B . R e y n o l d s 

W. C. SCHOENFELDT 

SUBCOMMITTEE c h a i r m e n 

No. 1 on Plan and Scope, M. D. E n g l e 

No. 2 on Definitions, C. F. ScHW EP 

No. 3 on Gage Sizes and Mounting Dimensions, 

H . B . R e y n o l d s 

No. 4 on Accuracy and Test Methods, 0. J. 

H odge 

STOCK SIZES, SHAPES AND LENGTHS 

FOR HOT AND COLD FIN ISH ED 

IRON AND STEEL BARS (B41) 


organized June, 1930 


F. H. D e c h a n t 

H. D . T a n n e r 

L . W . W i l l ia m s t 

G. H. W oodroffe 

0. B. Z i m m e r m a n 


No. 1 o n H o t Rolled Steel, H e n r y W ysor 

No. 2 o n Cold F in is h e d S te e ls , L. E. 

C r e ig h t o n 

No. 3 on Hot Rolled Iron (to be appointed) 

SPECIFICATIONS FOR LEATHER 

BELTING (B42) 


organized February, 1931 


H. T. C o ates 

R . W . D r a k e t 

K in g H a t h a w a y 

J. E. R h o a d s 

G. A. SCIIIEREN 

O. B . Z i m m e r m a n 

SUBCOMMITTEE CHAIRM EN 

No. I on Standard Specifications, R. C. 

B o w k e r 

No. 2 on Recommendations for Selection, 

Care, and Installation, G. A. 

S c h ie r e n 

MACHINE PIN S (B43) 


Automotive Engineers, Sectional Committee 

organized March, 1926 


E. J. B r y a n t t 

J. J. M cB rid e 

H. C. E. M e y er 

O. B . Z im m e r m a n 

SUBCOMMITTEES 

No. 1 on Straight, Taper, and Dowel Pins 


No. 2 on Split Pins (to be appointed) 

CLASSIFICATION AND DESIGNATION 

OF SURFACE QUALITIES (B 4 6 ) 

* Joint sponsorship icith the Society of 


organized May, 1932 


E . J . A bbott 


T . G . C ra w fo rd 

R. C. D e a l e + 

U. S. E berh a r d t 


R. F. G agg 

W. W. G il b e r t 

J . J . H a r m a n 

R. E . W. H a r r is o n t 

F. V. H a r t m a n 

F. O. H oagland 

H . J . H o l t z c l a w 

R. T . K e n t 

H. F. K u r t z 

A . H. L y o n 

M. W . P e t r ie 

F. C. S p e n c e r 


J . S . T a w r e s e y 

S t e w a r t W ay 

C. H. W h it a k e r 


J o h n W u l f f 


Executive Committee (to be appointed) 

No. 2 on Surfaces Produced by Molds, Dies, 

Rolls, or Any Other Means of Deforming 

M aterials (to be appointed) 

No. 3 on Coated Surfaces, G. B . H ogaboom 

No. 4 on Symbols for Indicating Surface 

Quality on Drawings, T . G. C ra w fo rd 

No. 5 on Ways, Means, and Apparatus for 

Measuring Quality of Surface (to be 

appointed) 

No. 7 on Standards for Appearance of Surfaces 


COMBUSTION SPACE FOR SOLID 

FUELS (B50) 


organized June, 1933 


C. E. B r o n so n , Chairman 

W . G. C h r is t y 

J o h n H u n t e r 

A . J . J o h n s o n 

V . G . L e a c h t 

J . P . M agos 

J . F. M c I n t i r e 

F . L . M e y e r 

C. A . R eed 

J o h n V a n B r u n t f 


No. 1 on Purpose and Scope, C. E. B r o n so n 

No. 2 on Combustion and Design, B . M. 

G u t ii r i e 

No. 3 on W arm Air Furnaces, J . H. M a n n y 

No. 4 on Steel Heating Boilers, W . B. R u s 

s e l l 

No. 5. on Cast I r o n Boilers, J . F. M c I n t ir e 

SCHEME FOR IDENTIFICATION OF 

P IP IN G SYSTEMS (A13) 

* Joint sponsorship with the National 

Safety Council. Sectional Committee organized 

June, 1922 

A.S.M.E Members (Total personnel, 33) 

E. E. A s h l e y 

W . L. B u n k e r 

C r osby F ie l d 

E. L. H o p p in g 

H . L. M in e r 




Identification by Colors (to be appointed) 

Classification, C rosby F ield 

Identification Markings Other Than Color 


Executive Committee, A. S. H e bble 

Editing Subcommittee, A. S. H ebble 

MINIM UM REQUIREM ENTS FOR 

PLUM BING AND STANDARDIZA 

TION OF PLUM BING EQUIPMENT 

(A40) 


organized August, 1928 


C. B . L eP age, Acting Secretary 

J . F . C a r n e y 

C. S. C ole 

A . M . H o u se r 


(A . H . M org a n, Alternate) 

W . K . M cA f e e 

W . R . W e b ster f 


N o. 1 on Minimum Requirements for 

Plumbing (to be appointed) 

No. 2 on Staple Vitreous China Plumbing 

Fixtures, H. R. V a n S civer 

No. 3 on Staple Porcelain (All Clay) 

Plumbing Equipment, H. R. V a n 

S civ e r 

No. 4 on Enameled Sanitary W are, A. H. 

C l i n e , J r. 

No. 5 on Traps, A. R. M cG o n e g a l 

No. 6 on Brass Plumbing Products, J. L. 

M u r p h y

MINIMUM REQUIREM ENTS FOR 

PLUMBING AND STANDARDIZA 

TION OF PLUMBING EQUIPM ENT 

(A40) 

(Continued) 

No. 7 on Brass Fittings for Flared Copper 

Tubes, F. L. R ig g in 

No. 8 on Cast Iron Soil Pipe and Fittings 


No. 9 on Gasoline, Oil, and Grease Separators 


No. 11 on Soldered Fittings for Tubing, A. 

M . H o u se r 

N o. 12 on M in im u m A ir G a p s in P lu m b in g 

S y ste m s, W . K . M cA f e e 

Joint Committee on Threaded Cast Iron 

P ip e , F. H. M o reh ea d 

ELECTRIC MOTOR FRAME 

DIMENSIONS (C28) 

* Joint Sponsorship ivith the National Electrical 

Manufacturers Association. Sectional 

Committee organized November, 1927 




E . W E ly 

F . S. E n g l is h 

W . F . J o n e s 

A. G. T r u m b u l l f 

ROLLED THREADS FOR SCREW 

SHELLS OF ELECTRIC SOCKETS 

AND LAMP BASES (C44) 

* Joint sponsorship u'ith the National Electrical 

Manufacturers Association. Sectional 

Committee organized March, 1929 


E . J . B r y a n t f 


A. B. M organ 

E . S. S anderso n t 

LETTER SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIA 

TIONS FOR SCIENCE AND EN G I 

NEERING (Z10) 

* Joint sponsorship with the American A s 

sociation for the Advancement of Science, 

American Institute of Electrical Engineers, 

American Society of Civil Engineers, and 

the Society for the Promotion of Engineering 

Education. Sectional Committee organized 

January, 1926. Reorganized October, 

19S5 


S. A. Moss, Vice-Chairman f 


R. J. S. P ig o tt f 

(S . R . B e it l e r , Alternate) f 

F r a n k T h o r n t o n , J r. 


Executive Committee, S. A. Moss, Vice- 

Chairman 

No. 1 on L etter Symbols and Signs for 

Mathematics, A. A. B e n n e t t 

No. 2 on Symbols for Hydraulics, J. C. 

S t e v e n s 

No. 3 on Symbols for Mechanics, R. E. 

P e t e r s o n 

No. 4 on Symbols for Structural Analysis, 

A l b e r t H a e r t l e in 

No. 5 on Symbols for H eat and Thermodynamics, 

S. A. Moss 

No. 6 on Symbols for Photometry, E. C. 

C r it t e n d e n 

A.S.M.E. SO CIETY R EC O RD S, PA R T 1 

No. 7 on Aeronautical Symbols, G. W. 

L e w is 

No. 8 on Symbols for Electric and Magnetic 

Quantities, J. F . M e y e r 

No. 9 on Symbols for Radio, H . M . T u r n e r 

No. 10 on Symbols for Physics, H . K . 

H u g h e s 

No. 11 on Abbreviations for Engineering 

and Scientific Terms, G. A. S t e t s o n 

Steering Committee, J. F . M e y e r 

DRAWINGS AND DRAFTING ROOM 

PRACTICE (Z14) 

* Joint sponsorship w ith the Society for the 

Promotion of Engineering Education. Sectional 

Committee organized July, 1926 


T . E . F r e n c h , Chairman 

C. W . K e u f f e l , Secretary 

T. G. C raw fo rd 

H . P . F rear 

A. C. H a r per 

E . R . H il l 

A . M . H o u s e r 

A l fr ed I ddles 

S a m u e l K e t c h u m t 

F. R . L a n e y 

H . B . L a n g il l e 

R u d o l p h M ic h e l 

F. W. M in g 

W . C. M u e l l e r 

E. B. N e il 

J. W. O w e n s 

F . C. P a n u s k a 

E . S. S m i t h t 

GRAPHIC PRESENTATION (Z15) 


organized November, 1926 


G. E . H a q e m a n n , Secretary t 

C. M . B ig e l o w 


T. E . F r e n c h 

D. B. P orter t 


No. 1 on Plan and Scope (to be appointed) 

No. 2 on Terminology (to be appointed) 

No. 3 on Preferred Practice for Time 

Series Charts, A . H . R ic h a r d s o n 

No. 4 on Engineering and Scientific Graphs, 

W. A. S iie w h a r t 

SPEEDS OF M ACHINERY (Z18) 


organized May, 1928 


C. M. B ig e l o w t 

J . F. D aggett 

R . C. D e a l e + 


F. S. E n g l is h 

D . C. J a c k s o n 

J o h n R e id 

P . G. R h o a d s 

F. C. S p e n c e r 

0 . B . Z i m m e r m a n 


No. 1 on Plan and Scope, A. E. H a l l 

No. 2 on Questionnaire and Canvass to Industry, 

F. S. E n g l is h 

No. 3—Special Reviewing Committee (to be 

appointed) 

RI-31 

GRAPHICAL SYMBOLS AND ABBRE 

VIATIONS FOR USE IN 

DRAWINGS (Z32) 

* Joint sponsorship with American Institute 

of Electrical Engineers. Sectional Committee 

organized April, 19S6 


E. E. A s h l e y 

J . M. B a r n e s 

T. E. F r e n c h f 

G. F . H a b a c ii 

D. T. H a m il t o n 

A . M. H o u se r 

(J. J. H a r m a n , Alternate) 

W. C. M u e l l e r 

L. L. M u n ie r 

J. W. O w e n s 

F . C. P a n u s k a f 

T . R. T h o m a s 


No. 1 on Symbols for Use in Mechanical 

Engineering, T. E. F r e n c h 

No. 2 on Symbols for Use in Electrical Engineering, 

H. W. S a m s o n 

DEVELOPMENT OF STATISTICAL A P 

PLICATIONS IN ENGINEERING 

AND MANUFACTURING 

Joint Sponsorship w ith the American M athematical 

Society, American Society for 

Testing Materials, American Statistical A s 

sociation, Institute of Mathematical Statistics. 

Appointed in December, 1929 


A. G. A sh c r o f t 

W . H . F u l w e il e r 

L. K . S il l c o x + 

J. S. T a w k e s e y f 

A. S. M. E. Representatives on 

Miscellaneous Standardization 

Committees 


Activities, page RI-9 

ACOUSTICAL MEASUREMENTS AND 

TERMINOLOGY 

* Sponsor body: Acoustical Society of 

America 

P . H . B i l iiu b e r 

W. B . W h i t e 

(R. V. P a r s o n s, Alternate) 

(J. S. P a r k in s o n , Alternate) 

AERONAUTICS 

* Sponsor body: Society of Automotive 

Engineers 

E. A. S p e r r y , J r . 

APPROVAL AND INSTALLATION R E 

QUIREMENTS FOR GAS BURNING 

APPLIANCES 

* Sponsor body: American Gas Association 

0. F. C a m p b e l l 

BUILDING CODE REQUIREM ENTS 

FOR LIGHT AND VENTILATION 

* Sponsor bodies: Federal Housing Administration 

and U.S. Public Health Service 

F . R. S c h e r e r

RI-32 

COAL AND COKE 

Committee of American Society for Testing 

Materials 

R. M . H ardgrove 

D EFIN ITIO N S OF ELECTRICAL 

TERMS 

* Sponsor body: American Institute of 

Electrical Engineers 

C. H . B erry 

DRAINAGE OF COAL M INES 

* Sponsor body: American Mining Congress 

0 . M . P r u it t 

ELECTRIC W ELD IN G APPARATUS 

* Sponsor bodies: American Institute of 

Electrical Engineers and the National Electrical 

Manufacturers Association 

R. E. K in k e a d 

FOREST F IR E PROTECTION 

Committee of National Fire Protection 

Association 

C. B. W h i t e 

GEAR LUBRICANTS 

Committee of American dear Manufacturers 

Association 

G. B. K a r e l it z 

LOADING PLATFORMS AT FR EIG H T 

TERMINALS AND W AREHOUSES 

* Sponsor body: American Trucking 

Association 

M . C. M a x w e l l 

MANHOLE FRAM ES AND COVERS 

* Sponsor bodies: A.S.A. Telephone Group 

and American Society of Civil Engineers 

A n t o n H a n s e n 

H o m e r R u pa r d 

A.S.M.E. SO CIETY R EC O RD S, PA R T X 

MECHANICAL STANDARDS 

COMMITTEE 

American Standards Association Committee 

A e fr ed I d d l es, Chairman 

(A . L. B a k e r , Alternate) 

F. 0 . H oagland 

F. H . M oreh e a d 

(A. M. H o u s e r , Alternate) 

I I . H . M org an 

E d w in B . R ic k e t t s 

F r a n k 0 . H oagland 

(J. C. F it t s , Alternate) 

(H . L. W iiit t e m o r e , Alternate) 

Executive Committee, A lfr ed I ddles 

METHODS OF TESTING WOOD 

* Sponsor bodies: U.S. Forest Service and 

the American Society for Testing Materials 

C. M . B ig e l o w 

MISCELLANEOUS OUTSIDE COAL- 

HANDLING EQUIPM ENT 



PETROLEUM PRODUCTS AND 

LUBRICANTS 

* Sponsor body: American Society for 

Testing Materials 

R. G. N. E v a n s 

G. B. K a r e l it z 

(II. J. M a s s o n , A lternate) 

(S. J. N e e d s, Alternate) 

PR EFE R R ED NUMBERS 

* Special Committee of A.S.A. 


RATING OF RIV ERS 

* Sponsor body: U.S. Geological Survey 

D. W. M ead 

ROTATING ELECTRICAL MACHINERY 


Electrical Engineers and National Electrical 

Manufacturers Association 

C o n s t a n t in e R ic k 

(C. A. B o o t h , Alternate) 

SPECIFICATIONS FOR CAST IRON 

P IP E AND SPECIAL CASTINGS 

* Sponsor bodies: American Gas Association., 

American Society for Testing Materials, 

American W ater Works Association, 

and the New England Water Works 

Association 

J. E . G ib s o n 

L. R . H o w s o n 

SPECIFICATIONS FOR CLEAN 

BITUMINOUS COAL 

* Sponsor body: American Institute of Mining 

and Metallurgical Engineers 

R . A. S h e r m a n 

(E. L . L in d s e t H, Alternate) 

SPECIFICATIONS FOR FIR E TESTS 

OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 

AND MATERIALS 

* Sponsor bodies: A.S.A. Fire Protection 

Group, National Bureau of Standards, and 

the American Society for Testing Materials 

R . C. P a rlett 

SPECIFICATIONS FOR SIEVES FOR 

TESTING PURPOSES 

* Sponsor bodies: American Society for 

Testing Materials and National Bureau of 

Standards 

R . M . H ardgrove 

THERMAL INSULATING MATERIALS 

Committee of American Society for Testing 

Materials 

R . H . H e il m a n 

U.S. INTERDEPARTM ENTAL COM 

M ITTEE ON SCREW THREADS 

E a r l e B u c k in g h a m 

A. M. H o u se r 

VOLUME WATER HEATING 

Committee of American Gas Association 

M a r k R f.s e k 

W IR E ROPE FOR MINES 


J. L. H a r r in g t o n


RI-33 


F r a n c is H o d g k in s o n , Chairman (1944) 

A. G. C h r is t ie , Vice-Chairman (1941) 

W . W . L a w r e n c e , Junior Observer (1941) 

H . H . M ic h e l s o n , Junior Observer (1942) 



G eo. A. O rr o k 

L. A. Q u a y l e 

W . M . W h i t e 

W . A. C arter 

H arte C ooke 

E. R . F i s h 

H . B. Oatley 

W . J . WOIILENBERG 

Term expires 191/1 


Term expires 194S 

Louis E l lio t t 

G. A. H orn e 

H . B . R e y n o ld s 


E . N . T r u m p 

• 


C. H . B erry 


D . S. J acobus 


E . B . R ic k e t t s 


T heodore B a u m e is t e r , J r . 

P . H . H ardie 

B . Y . E . N ordberg 

R . J . S. P igott 

M . C. S t u a rt 

(1) GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 

Appointed December, 1918 

Reorganized, 19S9 

T heodore B a u m e is t e r , J r ., Chairman 


H e n r y K r e is in g e r 

A. R. M u m fo r d 

R. H . S n y d e r 

C. R. S oderberg 

M . C. S t u a r t 


(2) D EFINITIONS AND VALUES 


Reorganised, 1936 

R . J. S. P ig o t t, Chairman 

L. J. B riggs 

W . F. D a v id so n 

A. L. K im b a l l 

L. S. M a r k s 

F. G . P h il o 

J. C. S m a ll w o o d 


A. C. W ood 

POWER TEST CODES COMMITTEES 

A r t ic l e B6A, P a r. 27: The Standing Committee on Power Test Codes shall, under the 

direction of the Council, have supervision of all the activities of the Society in connection 

with the A.S.M.E. Power Test Codes, including the interpretation of such codes. 

The first Standing Committee on Power Test Codes was organized in December, 1918, to 

revise and extend the Power Test Codes which had been formulated by various technical committees 

appointed to develop particular codes. This work began in 1884. 

(3) FUELS 


W . J . W o h l e n b e r g , Chairman 

E. G . B a il e y 

B . L. B oye 

H . W . B ro o k s 

S . B . F lagg 

D . M . M y e r s 

F . G . P h il o 

G . S. P ope 

E. B . R ic k e t t s 

F . M . R ogers 

E. X. S c h m id t 

N ic h o l a s S t a h l 

E. N . T r u m p 

(4) STATIONARY STEAM-GENERAT 

ING UNITS 


E. R. F i s h , Chairman 

A . D . B a il e y 

M . W . B e n j a m i n 

B . J . C ross 

M a r t in F r is c h 


R. M . H ardgrove 

A l f r e d I ddles 

E. L . L in d s e t h 

E. L . M c D onald 

E. B . P o w e l l 

R. S h e l l e n b e r g e r 

R. L . S p e n c e r 

(5) RECIPROCATING STEAM 

ENGINES 



A. G . C h r i s t i e , Chairman 

H arte C ooke 

K . S . M . D a v id so n 

H e n r i k G reger 

J . A. H u n t e r 

H . G . M u e l l e r 

B . V. E. N ordberg 

A. V. S a h a r o f f 

A. G . W it t in g 

(6) STEAM TURBINES 


C. H . B e r r y, Chairman 

I. E. M o u l t r o p, Secretary 

O. D . H . B e n t l e y 

W . E. C a l d w e l l 

C. B . C a m p b e l l 

A. G . C h r is t ie 

H . P . D a h l s t r a n d 

V. M . F rost 

A. E. G r u n e r t 


S. A. Moss 

R. 0. M u l l e r 

T. E. P u r c e l l 

G . B . W a r r e n 

(7) RECIPROCATING STEAM-DRIVEN 

DISPLACEMENT PUMPS 


R . D . H a l l , Chairman 

E. H . B r o w n 

J . N . C h e s t e r 

J . E. G ib s o n 

G . L . K ollberg 


D . W . M ead 

L. A . Q u a y l e 

(8) CENTRIFUGAL AND ROTARY 

PUMPS 



M . B . M acN e il l e , Chairman 

H . E. B e c k w i t h 

R . L . D a u g h e r t y 

R . G . F o l so m 

R . C. G l a zebro o k 

W . B. G regory 

R . T. K n a p p 

J . B. L in c o l n 


A rvid P e t e r s o n 

F . H . R ogers 

W . C . R udd 

M a x S p il l m a n 

F . G . S w it z e r 

W . M . W h i t e 

I . A . W in t e r 

(9) DISPLACEM ENT COMPRESSORS 

AND BLOWERS 


Reorganized 1935 

P a u l D is e r e n s , Chairman 

G . T . F e l b e c k 

C. R. H o u g h t o n 

J . F . H u v a n e 

R. M . J o h n s o n 

J . F . D . S m i t h 

(10) CENTRIFUGAL AND TURBO 

COMPRESSORS AND BLOWERS 



A . T . B r o w n , Chairman 

E. L. A n d e r s o n 

T h eo dore B a u m e is t e r , J r . 

C. A . B o o t h 

W . H . C a r r ie r 

T h o m a s C h e s t e r 

L . E. D ay 

Z . G . D e u t s c ii 

S. H . D o w n s 

P . E. G ood 

J . J . G rob 

H . F . H a g e n 

P a u l H o f f m a n 

H . D. K e l s e y 

A . L. K im b a l l 

R . D. M a d is o n 

L. S . M a r k s 

A rvid P e t e r s o n 

H . F . S c h m id t 

M . C . S t u a r t


(12) CONDENSERS, W ATER HEAT 

ING, AND COOLING EQUIPM ENT 

Appointed D ecem b er, 1918 

G eo. A. O r r o k, C h a irm a n 

P . H . H a r d ie, Secretary 

C. H . B a k e r , J r . 

R . N . E h r h a r t 

J . F . G race 

D. W. R . M organ 

H. B. R e y n o l d s 

P , E . R e y n o l d s 

(13) R EFRIG ERA TIN G SYSTEMS 


Reorganized May, 1939 

B . H. J e n n in g s , Chairman + 

A. C . B u e n s o d 

(R . W . W a t e r f il l , Alternate) 

J . C. C o n s l e y 

(H. B . P o w n a l l , Alternate) 

R . J . E w e r f 

W alter J o n e s f 

A. W . O a k l e y 

C. L. S v e n s o n 

F r a n k Z u m b r o + 

(14) EVAPORATING APPARATUS 


E . N . T r u m p , Chairman 

B . N . B u m p 

E . A. N e w h a l l 

H. L. P akr 

L. C. R ogers 

(15) STEAM LOCOMOTIVES 


E. C. S c h m id t , Chairman 

W . F . K ie s e l , J r . 

H . B . O a t ley 

G . E. R h o a d s 

L. K . S il l c o x 

W . E. W oodard 

C. D. S m i t h 

(16) GAS PRODUCERS 


(17) INTERNAL-COMBUSTION 

ENGINES 


Reorganized, 19 39 

L e e S c h n e it t e r , Chairman 

F . H . D u t c iie r , Secretary 

J . C. B a r n a b y 

G. C. B oyer 

H a rte C o oke 

f Official A.S.M.E. representatives serving 


H. E. D egler 

W . L. H. D oyle 

L. B . J a c k s o n 

E. J . K ates 

E. C . M agdeburger 

B . V. E. N ordberg 

R u s s e l l P y l e s 

M. J . R eed 

0 . D . T k e ib er 

(18) HYDRAULIC PR IM E MOVERS 



S. L. K err, Chairman 

C. M. A l l e n 

L. M. D a v is 

H . L . D o o l it tle 


N . R . G ib s o n 

J . P . G r o w d o n 

T . H . H ogg 

L . J . H ooper 

C . W . H ubbard 


D . J . M c C o r m a c k 


W . J . R h e in g a n s 

E. B . S t row ger 

R . V. T erry 

W . M . W h i t e 

(19) INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS 


W . A . C arter, Chairman 

C . M . A l l e n 

W . C. A n d r a e 

E. G . B a il e y 

H . S . B e a n 

L . J . B rig g s 

J. D . D a v is 

K . J . D e J u h a s z 

R . E. D il l o n 

F . M . F a r m e r 

J . B. G r u m b e in 

W . W . J o h n s o n 

W . H . K e n e r s o n 

E. S . L ee 

E. L . L in d s e t h 

O s b o r n M o n n e t t 

S . A . Moss 

R . J. S . P ig o tt 

E. B. R ic k e t t s 

W . A . S l o a n 

R . B. S m i t h 

1. M . S t e in 

(20) SPEED, TEM PERATURE AND 

PRESSU RE RESPONSIVE 

GOVERNORS 


Reorganized February, 1940 

C. R . S oderberg, Chairman 

R . J . C a u g h e y 

H a rte C o oke 

W. L . H . D oyle 

S. L . K err 

A. F . S c h w e n d n e r 

R. B . S m i t h 

(21) DUST SEPARATING APPARATUS 

Appointed October, 193)t 

M . D . E n g l e, Chairman 

O l l is o n C r a ig , Secretary 

A. D . B a il e y 

H . H . B u ba r 

W . G. C h r is t y 

H . 0 . C roft 

J . M . D a l laV a l le 

H . 0 . D a n z 

H . C. D o h r m a n n 

P h i l i p D r in k e r 

J . W . F e h n e l 

H . F . H a g e n 


C . W . H edberg 

J . H . L e e c h 

H . E . M a co m ber 

H . B . M e ller 

H . C . M u r p iiy 

B . F . T il l s o n 


Other Technical Committees 


Activities, page R I-9 

DEVELOPMENT OF D EFINITIONS FOR 

THE NET CALORIFIC VALUE 

AND GROSS CALORIFIC 

VALUE OF FUELS 

Sponsor body: American Society for 


W . J . W o h l en b er g 

COMMITTEE ON RED EFIN IN G SO- 

CALLED STANDARD TON OF 

REFRIGERATION 

Sponsor body: American Society of 

Refrigerating Engineers 

G. B . B r ig h t 

COMMITTEE ON GASEOUS FUELS 

Sponsor body: American Society for 


E. X. S c h m id t 

COAL TESTING CODE COMMITTEE 

Joint sponsorship w ith the American 

Institute of Mining and 

Metallurgical Engineers 

A. R. M u m fo r d


R.T-35 


T. F. H a t c h , Chairman (1941) 

A. W. Luce (1942) 

A. E. W in d l e (1943) 

H . C. H o u g h t o n (1944) 

E. R. G r a n n is s (1945) 

SAFETY CODE FOR ELEVATORS (A17) 

* Joint Sponsorship with the American 

Institute of Architects and the National 

Bureau of Standards. Sectional Committee 

organized November, 1922 

Reorganized July, 19-10 


0 . P. C u m m i n g s , Vice-Chairman 

C. R. C a l la w a y 

D. L . H olbrook f 

D. L . L in d q u is t 

N . 0 . L in d s t b o m f 

M . B. M cL a u t h l in 

W . S. P a in e 


Emergency Elevator Rules, D. J. P u r in t o n 

Executive Committee, D. J. P u r in t o n 

Existing Elevators, I). J. P u r in t o n 

Inspectors’ Manual, K. A. C o l a h a n 

Mechanical Safety Equipment, D. L . L i n d 

q u is t 

Ways and Means, J . J . M a t so n 

Wire Rope, D . J. P u r in t o n 

Working (to be appointed) 

SAFETY CODE FOR MECHANICAL 

POWER-TRANSMISSION A PPA 

RATUS (B15) 

* Joint sponsorship with the International 

Association of Industrial Accident Boards 

and Commissions and the National Conservation 

Bureau. Sectional Committee organized 

February, 1921 


G. M . N aylob, Chairman + 

P . G. R h o a d s, Secretary 

D . C. W r ig h t f 

(G. N . V a n D e r iio e f, Alternate) f 

s u b c o m m it t e e c h a i r m e n 

No. 1 on Detail Classification of Belts (to 

be appointed) 

No. 2 on Modification of Rule 223 for Cone 

Pulley Belts (to be appointed) 

No. 3 on Mechanical P o w e r Control, W. S. 

P a in e 

No. 4 on Use of ASA Code Versus State 

Codes (to be appointed) 

No. 5 on Statistics on Place of Occurrence 

of Accidents (to be appointed) 

No. 6 on V-Belt Drives, D. C. W r ig h t 

* N ote: All of the safety committees 

for which the Society is sponsor or joint 

sponsor, or on which it has representation, 

are organized under the procedure of the 


t Official A.S.M.E. representative serving 


SAFETY COMMITTEES 

A r t ic l e B 6 A , P a r. 25: The Standing Committee on Safety shall advise the Council on the 

activities of the Society having to do with engineering and industrial safety, except the 

activities of the Boiler Code Committee, for which special provision is made. 

The first Standing Committee on Safety was appointed in October, 1921. 

SAFETY CODE ON COMPRESSED 

A IR MACHINERY AND EQ U IP 

MENT (B19) 

* Joint sponsorship w ith the American Society 

of Safety Engineers— Engineering Section, 

National Safety Council. Sectional 

Committee organized May, 1923 


D. L. R o y e r, Chairman 

H. D. E d w a r d s 

W . J. G raves 

SAFETY CODE FOR CONVEYORS AND 

CONVEYING MACHINERY (B20) 

* Joint Sponsorship with the National Conservation 

Bureau. Sectional Committee organized 

November, 1925, Reorganized, April 

1937 


D. L . R o y er, Chairman 

C. T. C o l le y 

W . J. G rav es 

M. A. K e n d a l l f 

(N. W . E l m e r , Alternate) + 

P . T. O n d e r d o n k 

C. G . P f e if f e r 

R . B. R e n n e r 

F. J. S h e p a r d , Jr. 

J. G. W h e a t l e y 


No. 1 on All Types of Chain Conveyors, 

Belt Conveyors, Belt Elevators In 

cluding Steel Belt, and Screw, Track 

or Scraper Conveyors, C. G. P f e if f e r 

No. 2 on Gravity Conveyors and Chutes, 

Live Roll Conveyors, H . G. D a l to n 

No. 3 on Cable-Operated and Cable Flight 

Conveyors and Cableways, R. McA. 

K e OWN 

No. 4 on Air, Steam, or Liquid Conveyors, 

J. J. M cN ulta 

No. 5 on Tiering, Piling, and Stacking Conveyors, 

J. G. W h e a t l e y 

SAFETY CODE FOR CRANES, D ER 

RICKS, AND HOISTS (B30) 

* Joint sponsorship with U.S. Navy Department, 

Bureau of Yards and Docks. Sectional 

Committee organized November, 1926 


L e w is P r ic e f 

F. H. S c h w e r in 

R . H. W h i t e t 

H. L . W h it t e m o r e 


Executive Committee, J. C. W h e a t 

No. 1 on Overhead and Gantry Cranes, R. 

H. W h i t e 

No. 2 on Locomotive and Tractor Cranes, 

H . H. V e r n o n 

No. 3 on Derricks and Hoists, L e w is P r ic e 

No. 4 on Miscellaneous Equipment for 

Cranes and Hoists, L. W. H o p k in s 

No. 5 on Jacks, E. W. C a r u t h e r s 

Editing Committee, M. G. F loyd 


Other Safety Committees 


Activities, page RT-9 

SAFETY CODE FOR ABRASIVE 

W H EELS 

* Sponsor bodies: Grinding Wheel Manufacturers 

Association of United States and 

Canada,and International Association of In 

dustrial Accident Boards and Commissions 

J. B. C h a l m e r s 

SAFETY CODE FOR CONSTRUCTION 

WORK 


Architects and National Safety Council 

C. II. O ’N e il 

COOPERATION WTTH OTHER ENGI 

NEERING SOCIETIES 

Committee of American Society of Safety 

Engineers— Engineering Section, National 

Safety Council 

H. L. M in e r 

ASA SAFETY CODE CORRELATING 

COMMITTEE 

A. W. L u c e 

(A. E. W i n d l e , A lternate) 

SAFETY CODE FOR EXHAUST 

SYSTEMS 

* Sponsor body: International Association 

of Industrial Accident Boards and Comm 

issions 

T. F. H a t c h 

SAFETY CODE FOR FLOOR AND 

WALL OPENINGS, RAILINGS, 

AND TOE BOARDS 

* Sponsor body: National Safety Council 

A. E. W in d l e 

SAFETY CODE FOR FORGING AND 

HOT METAL STAMPING 

* Sponsor bodies: American Drop Forging 

Institute and National Safety Council 

C. F. P a r k 

SAFETY CODE ON COLORS FOR 

ID EN TIFICA TIO N OF GAS 

MASK CANISTERS 


L . C. L ic h t y 

SAFETY CODE FOR LADDERS 

* Sponsor body: American Society of Safety 

Engineers— Engineering Section, National 


H . C. H o u g h t o n


SAFETY CODE FOR LAUNDRY 

MACHINERY AND 

OPERATION 


Laundering, International Association of 

Governmental Labor Officials, and National 

Association of Mutual Casualty Companies 

E. J. C a rroll 

SAFETY CODE FOR LIGHTING FAC 

TORIES, MILLS, AND OTHER 

WORK PLACES 

* Sponsor body: Illum inating Engineering 


A. W. L u c e 

LOW VOLTAGE ELECTRICAL 

HAZARDS 

Special Committee of the American Society 

of Safety Engineers— Engineering Section, 

National Safety Council 

J. P . J a c k s o n 

SAFETY CODE FOR MECHANICAL 

REFRIG ERA TIO N 

* Sponsor body: American Society of 

Refrigerating Engineers 

0 . A . A n d e r s o n 

C rosby F ie l d 

E. W. G a l l e n k a m p 

W . F . J o n e s 

(A . W. O a k l e y , Alternate to all A.S.M.E. 

Representatives) 

SAFETY CODE FOR PA PER AND 

PU LP MILLS 


R. L. W eld o n 

SAFETY CODE FOR PO W ER PRESSES, 

AND FOOT AND HAND PRESSES 


J . B . C h a l m e r s 

SAFETY CODE FOR PREVENTION 

OF DUST EXPLOSIONS 

* Sponsor bodies: National Fire Protection 

Association and U.S. Department of Agriculture 

R. M. F e rry 

SAFETY CObE FOR PROTECTION OF 

HEADS, EYES, AND R ESPIR A 

TORY ORGANS OF INDUS 

TRIAL W ORKERS 

* Sponsor body: National Bureau of 

Standards 

T. A. W a l s h , J r . 

(T. F. H a t c h , Alternate) 

SAFETY CODE FOR PROTECTION OF 

INDUSTRIAL W ORKERS IN 

FOUNDRIES 

* Sponsor bodies: American Foundrymen’s 

Association and National Founders Association 

H. M. L a n e 

SAFETY IN QUARRY OPERATIONS 


R e d fie l d P roctor 

(H. A. C o l l in , Alternate) 

SPECIFICATIONS AND METHOD OF 

TEST FOR SAFETY GLASS 

* Sponsor bodies: National Conservation 

Bureau and National Bureau of Standards 

T. A. W a l s h , J r. 

SAFETY CODE FOR TEXTILES 


M. A. G o l r ic k , J r. 

SAFETY CODE FOR VENTILATION 

* Sponsor body: American Society of Heating 

and Ventilating Engineers 

T. F. H a t c h 

SAFETY CODE FOR WALKWAY 

SURFACES 


Architects and American Society of Safety 

Engineers—Engineering Section, National 


G. K. P alsgrove 

SAFETY CODE FOR WORK IN 

COMPRESSED AIR 

* Sponsor body: International Association 

of Industrial Accident Boards and Commissions 

L. J . E ib s e n 

SAFETY CODE FOR RUBBER 

MACHINERY 

* Sponsor bodies: National Safety Council 

and International Association of Industrial 

Accident Boards and Commissions 

E. S. A u l t


RI-37 

BOILER CODE COMMITTEES 

A r t ic l e B6A, P a r. 26: The Special Committee on Boiler Code shall, under the direction 

of the Council, have supervision of all the activities of the Society in connection with the 

A.S.M.E. Codes for Pressure Vessels, including the interpretations of these codes. 

The first Special Committee on Boiler Code was organised in September, 1911, 

SPECIAL COMMITTEE 

D. S. J a c o b u s, Chairman 

E . P . F i s h , Vice-Chairman 

C. W . O bert, Honorary Secretary 

M . J u r is t , Acting Secretary 


II. E . A l d r ic h 


P erry C a ssid y 

P . E . C e c il 

F . S. C lark; 

A . J . E ly 



A . M . G r e e n e , J r. 

W. G. H u m p t o n 

J . 0 . L e e c h 

I. E . M oultrop 

C. 0 . M yers 

H . B . O atley 


W alter S a m a n s 

S. K . V a r n es 


W . H . B o e h m 

W . F . D ura n d 

T. E . D u r b a n 

C. L. H u s t o n 

W . F . K ie s e l , J r . 

M . F . M oore 

H. H. V a u g h a n 

H. L eR oy W h i t n e y 

Honorary Members 

CONFERENCE COMMITTEE 

W. E. A l l e n , S t. Louis, Mo. 

T. R. A rc h er, Delaware 

L . M. B a rrin g er, Seattle, Wash. 

J. G. B ollock, S t. Joseph, Mo. 

B. M. B ook, Pennsylvania 

H . S. B r u n s o n , Minnesota 

E. S. C a r p e n t e r, Rhode Island 

L . M. C ave, Maryland 

S. C h e r r in g t o n , Ohio 

C it y B o iler I n s p e c t o r, Parkersburg, 

W. Va. 

D. J. C ody, Kansas City, Mo. 

A. L. C olby, Louisiana 

A . J . C o n w a y, Indiana 

M . A . E dgar, Wisconsin 

C. W. F oster, Omaha, Neb. 

M . R. F r a n c is, W est Virginia 

W. H . F u b m a n , New York 

F . D. G a r v in, Houston, Tex. 

G erald G e a ron, Chicago, 111. 

C . H . G r a m , Oregon 

B . G r e t z k e, Washington 

F . A . H e c k in g e r, Memphis, Tenn. 

H . K . K u g el, District of Columbia 

J o e K u n s o h i k , Texas 

P. N. L e h o o z k y, Ohio 

G . A. L u c k , Massachusetts 

C. E. M cG i n n i s , Los Angeles, C a lif. 

H . H . M il l s , Detroit, Mich. 

J . D. N e w c o m b, Jr., Arkansas 

W. L . N e w t o n , Oklahoma 

F. A . P age, California 

L. C. P e a l, Nashville, Tenn. 

E. K . S a w y e r, Maine 

A. H . S o h l e m a n , Tampa, Fla. 

J. F . S cott, New Jersey 

J . N . S e ig e r , E v a n s to n , 111. 

J . A. S t r a it , Tulsa, Okla. 

C. I. S m i t h , Utah 

W m . E. S m i t h , H awaiian Islands 

J o h n H. T h o r p e , M ic h ig a n 

C. E. W ard, North Carolina 


D . S. J a c o b u s, Chairman 

H . E . A l d r ic h , Vice-Chairman 

E . R . F i s h 



C. W . O bert 


SUBCOMMITTEES 

B o il e r s o f L o c o m o t iv e s 

J a m e s P a r t in g t o n , Chairman 

F . H . C l a r k 

J . M . H a l l 

H . B . O a t l e y 

C a r e of S t e a m B o il e r s a n d O t h e r 

P r e s s u r e V e s s e l s i n S e r v ic e 

F . M . G ib s o n , Chairman 

D . C. C a r m ic h a e l 


J. R . G il l 

F r a n k H e n r y 

J. A. H u n t e r 

H . J. K err 

P . B . P l a c e 

S. T . P o w e l l 

C. W . R ic e 

J . B . R o m e r 

W . C. SCHROEDER 

N ic h o l a s S t a h l 

F . G . S t r a u b 

F e r r o u s M a t e r ia l s 

D . B . R o s s h e i m , Chairman 

A. B . B a gsar 

E . C. C h a p m a n 

A. J . E ly 

H . J . F r e n c h 

W . R . G b u n o w 

M . B. H ig g in s 

W . G . H u m p t o n 

A . H u r t g e n 

T . M cL e a n J a s p e r 

J . J . K a n t e r 

H . J . K err 

A . B. K i n z e l 

L. J . M a so n 

P . E . M cK in n e y 

N . L. M o c h e l 

E . L. R o b in s o n 

S. K . V a r n e s 

A. E . W h i t e 

R . W il s o n 

H e a t in g B o il e r s 

C. E . G o r to n, Acting Chairman 

C. E . B r o n so n 

J. A. D a rts 

W m . F e r g u s o n 

L. N . H u n t e r 

W . E. S t a r k 

J. W . T u r n e r 

M a t e r ia l S p e c if ic a t io n s 

P e rry C a s s id y , Chairman 

A . M . G r e e n e , J r . 

W . G. H u m p t o n 

J . 0 . L e e c h 

P . J . S m i t h 

A. C. W e ig e l 

M in ia t u r e B o il e r s 

C. E. G o r t o n , Chairman 

WT. H . F u r m a n 

G . A . L u c k 

C. W . O bert 

N o n f e r r o u s M a t e r ia l s 

H . B . O a t l e y , Chairman 

J. J. A u l l 

W . F . B u r c h f ie l d 

D . K. C r a m p t o n 

J . R . F r e e m a n , J r. 

A . M . H o u s e r 

E. F . M il l e r 

J o s e p h P r ic e 

R . L . T e m p l i n 

P o w e r B o il e r s 

H . E. A l d r ic h , Chairman 

P e r r y C a s s id y 

E. R . F i s h 


D . L . R oyer 


R u l e s fo r I n s p e c t io n 

(This subcommittee is being reorganized) 

S p e c ia l D e s ig n 

D . B . W e s s t r o m , Chairman 


R . E. C e c il 

T . W . G r e e n e 

D . B . R o s s h e im 

E. O. W a t e r s 

F . S. G . W i l l ia m s 

U n f ir e d P r e s s u r e V e s s e l s 

E. R . F i s h , Chairman 


C. E. B r o n so n 

R . E. C e c il 



D . B . W e sst r o m 

W e l d in g 

Members of A.S.M.E. Boiler Code 

Committee 

J a m e s P a r t in g t o n , Chairman 

E. C. C h a p m a n 

J. H . D e p p e l e r 

W . D . H a l s e y 

J. C. H odge 

R . K. H o p k in s 

J . T . P h i l l i p s 

L . A . S h e l d o n


Members of Conference Committee of 

American Welding Society 

C. W . O b e r t, Chairman 





SPECIAL COMMITTEES 

A ppr o v a l o f N e w M a t e r ia l s 

C. A . A d a m s, Chairman 

C lad V e s s e l s 

S. K. V a r n e s, Chairman 

S p e c ia l C o m m it t e e o n C o o r d in a t io n 

V . M . F rost, Chairman 

E x t e n s io n o f F u s io n W e l d in g 

R e q u ir e m e n t s 

H . E . A l d r ic h , Chairman 

F e e d w a t e r 

C. W . R ic e , Chairman 

I s s u a n c e o f C ode S y m b o l S t a m p s 

C. 0 . M y e r s, Chairman 

R a d io g r a p h ic E x a m in a t io n of W elded 

J o in t s 

C. A . A d a m s , Chairman 

R e v is io n of S e c t io n V III o f t h e A.S.M.E. 

B o il e r C ode 

E . R . F i s h , Chairman 

R u l e s f o r B olted F l a n g ed C o n n e c t io n s 

D . B . W e s s t r o m , Chairman 

R u l e s fo r D is h e d H ea d s , 

H . C. B o a r d m a n , Chairman 

R u l e s for O p e n in g s 

T . D . T i f f t , Chairman 

S a f e t y V alve R e q u ir e m e n t s 

I I . B . O a t l e y , Chairman 

W o r k o f B o iler C ode C o m m it t e e 

H. E . A l d r ic h . Chairman 

API-ASME COMMITTEE ON UNFIRED 

PRESSURE VESSELS 

W a l t e r S a m a n s , Chairman 

A.S.M.E. Representatives 

R. E. C e c il 

E. R. F i s h 

D. S. J aco bus 

T . M cL e a n J a s p e r 


A.P.I. Representatives 

A. J . E l y 

K . V. K in g 

(P. D. M oE l f i s i i, Alternate) 

R. C. P o w e l l 


T . D. T i f f t 

THE WOMAN'S AUXILIARY TO THE A.S.M.E. 

The Woman’s Auxiliary to the A.S.M.E. was organized on May 10, 1923, and its Constitution 

and By-Laws was approved by the Council of the A.S.M.E. on October 27, 1924. The 

objects of the Auxiliary are to render service to all th at pertains to the interest of the profession 

of mechanical engineering; to cooperate w ith any committees of the A.S.M.E.; and 

to assist the sons and daughters of the members of the Society or worthy students of 

mechanical engineering in obtaining scholarships; and to promote any other objects consistent 

w ith the aims or objects of the A.S.M.E. 

OFFICERS 

President, M r s . F. M . G ib s o n 

F irst Vice-President, M r s . E. C. M . S t a h l 

Second Vice-President, M r s . A. R. C u l l im o r e 

Third Vice-President, M r s . C rosby F ie l d 

Fourth Vice-President, M r s . J. P age H a r b eso n 

Fifth Vice-President, M r s . J. H . H e r r o n 

Recording Secretary, M r s. C. H . Y o u n g 

Corresponding Secretary, M r s. C. H . F ay 

Treasurer, M r s . A. H. M organ 

STANDING COMMITTEE CHAIRMEN 

E d u c a tio n , M r s . R oy V. W r ig h t 

M e m b e rs h ip , M r s . G . E . H a g e m a n n 

P u b lic ity , M r s . A. R . C u l l im o r e 

C u s to d ia n , M is s B u r t ie H aar 

COUNCIL REPRESENTATIV ES 


J. H . H erron 

OFFICERS OF LOCAL SECTIONS 

B a l t im o r e 

Chairman, M r s . D . E. D o n o v a n 

Vice-Chairman, M r s . A. G. C h r is t ie 

Secretary, M r s . J: H. B e r r y m a n 

Treasurer, M r s . L . F. C o f f in 

C lev ela n d 

Chairman, M r s. T. F. G it h e n s 

Vice-Chairman, M r s. J. H . H erron 

Secretary, M r s . E r n e s t H a v illo n 

Treasurer, M r s. W a l ter B aggaley 

Los A n g e le s 

Chairman, M r s. S. S. H a n s e n 

Secretary, M r s . J. C. S c u l l in 

Treasurer, M r s . B e rnard T o ben 

M e t r o po l it a n 

Chairman, M r s. E . C. M . S t a h l 

F irst Vice-President, M r s. J. N oble L a n d is 

Second Vice-President, M r s. R. B . P urd y 

Third Vice-President, M r s. W e b ster T a l lm a d g e 

Recording Secretary, M r s. C. H . Y o u n g 

Corresponding Secretary, M r s. A . C. C oonradt 

T r e a s u r e r , M r s. C. E . G u s 

P h il a d e l p h ia 

Chairman, M r s . J. P age H a r b eso n, J r . 

Vice-Chairman, M r s. E. F. Z e in e r 

Recording Secretary, M r s. J. J . M cC a r t h y 

Corresponding Secretary, M r s. F. E. W a s h b u r n 

Treasurer, M r s. W . F. G l im m

A.S.M.E. SO CIETY R EC O RD S, PA R T 1 

RI-39 

AWARDS 

The following paragraphs deal with the medals, awards, scholarships, 

and loan funds which come within the jurisdiction of the 

A.S.M.E. Other awards available to Student Members are listed 

in Mechanical Engineering, February, 1938, page 183. The Society 

also participates with other engineering societies in a number of 

joint awards. Further details concerning all the awards will be 

found in a series of articles beginning in the October, 1938, issue 

of Mechanical Engineering. 

Honorary Membership, to which persons of acknowledged professional 

eminence are elected by unanimous vote of Council under the 

provisions of the By-Laws and Rules. A list of honorary members 

is given on page RI-42. 

Life Membership, which may be conferred by the Council for 

distinguished service to the Society; or secured by a member by 

payment for an annuity in accordance with the provisions of the 

By-Laws. 

A.S.M.E. Medal, established by the Society in 1920 to be presented, 

together with an engraved certificate, for distinguished 

service in engineering and science. May be awarded for general 

scrvice in science having possible application in engineering. 

Holley Medal, instituted and endowed in 1924 by George I. Rockwood, 

Past Vice-President of the Society, to be bestowed, together 

with an engraved certificate, for some great and unique act of 

genius of engineering nature th at has accomplished a great and 

timely public benefit. 

Worcester Reed Warner Medal, provision for which was made 

in the will of Worcester Reed W arner, Honorary Member of the 

Society, is a gold medal to be bestowed, together with an engraved 

certificate, on the author of the most worthy paper received, 

dealing with progressive ideas in mechanical engineering or efficiency 

in management. 

Melville Medal, established in 1914 by the bequest of Rear- 

Admiral George W. Melville, Honorary Member and Past-President 

of the Society, to be presented, together w ith an engraved 

certificate, for an original paper or thesis of exceptional merit, 

presented to the Society for discussion and publication, to encourage 

excellence in papers. The medal may be presented annually. 

Spirit of St. Louis Medal, established by an . endowment fund 

created in 1929 by citizens of St. Louis, Mo., to be awarded for 

meritorious service in the advancement of aeronautics. This medal 

will be awarded at the discretion of the Council of the Society at 

approximately three-year periods upon the recommendation of its 

Board of Honors and Awards. 

Pi Tau Sigma Medal Award, established in 1938, endowed by 

Pi Tau Sigma, the national honorary mechanical engineering 

fraternity, to be presented annually, together with an engraved 

certificate, to the young mechanical engineer for outstanding 

achievement in his profession within the ten years after graduation 

from a regular four-year mechanical engineering course of a 

recognized American college or university. Any mechanical engineering 

graduate, not more than thirty-five years of age, whose 

achievement has been all or in p art in any field including industrial, 

educational, political, research, civic, etc., is eligible. 

Junior Award, annual cash award of $50, established in 1914, 

from a fund created by Henry Hess, P ast Vice-President of the 

Society, to be presented, together with an engraved certificate, for 

the best paper or thesis submitted by a Junior Member. 

Charles T. Main Award, annual cash award of $150, established 

in 1919 from a fund created by Charles T. Main, Past-President 

of the Society, to be awarded, together w ith an engraved certificate, 

to a Student Member of the Society, for the best paper within 

the general subject of the influence of the profession upon public 

life. The exact subject is assigned by the Board of Honors and 

Awards, subject to the approval of the Council, and is announced 

each year through the Honorary Chairman of the Student 

Branches. 

Student Awards, two annual cash awards of $25 each, established 

in 1914, from a fund created by Henry Hess, P ast Vice-President 

of the Society, to be presented, together with engraved certificates, 

for the best papers or theses submitted by Student Members. The 

awards for 1932 and subsequent years have been given, one for 

undergraduate and the other for postgraduate work. 

SCHOLARSHIPS AND LOAN FUNDS 

Max Toltz: Loan Fund of $15,000 established by M ajor Max 

Toltz, former member of the Council of the Society, the income to 

be used for assistance to Student Members. 

John R . Freeman: Fund of $25,000 established in 1926 by John 

R. Freeman, Past-President of the Society, the income to be used 

for travel scholarships and research. 

Woman’s Auxiliary: Scholarship or Fellowship offered by the 

Woman’s Auxiliary to the Society to assist sons and daughters of 

members or worthy students of mechanical engineering. 

R EC IPIEN TS OF AWARDS 

The names of the recipients of the different awards to date are 

given in the following lists, together w ith the dates of presentation, 

and the services or papers for which the awards were made. 

There were no awards for the years not listed. 

A.S.M.E. M edal 

1921 H ja l m a r G o t fb ie d C a r l s o n , in recognition of the services 

rendered the Government because of his invention and part 

in the production of 20,000,000 M ark I I I drawn steel booster 

casings used principally as a component of 75-mm high 

explosive shells, but also used extensively in gas shells and 

bombs 

1922 F r e d e r ic k A r t h u r H a l s e y , for his paper describing the 

premium system of wage payments presented before the 

Society at the Providence Meeting in 1891, as the adoption 

of the methods there proposed has had a profound effect 

toward harmonizing the relations of worker and employer 

1923 J o h n R ip l e y F r e e m a n , for his eminent service in engineering 

and manufacturing by his meritorious work in fire 

prevention and the preservation of property 

1926 R. A. M i l l i k a n , in recognition of his contributions to 

science and engineering 

1927 W il f r e d L e w i s , for his contributions to the design and construction 

of gear teeth 

1928 J u l ia n K e n n e d y , for his services and contributions to the 

iron and steel industry 

1929 W i l l ia m L e R oy E m m e t , for his contributions in the development 

of the steam turbine, electric propulsion of ships, 

and other power-generating apparatus 

1931 A lber t K in g s b u r y , for his research and development work 

in the field of lubrication 

1933 A m b r o se S w a s e y , for his contributions to the advancement 

of the engineering profession and for his p art in the development 

of the tu rret lathe and the astronomical telescope 

1934 W i l l is H. C a r r ie r, in recognition of his research and development 

work in air-conditioning 

1935 C h a r l e s T. M a i n , for distinguished achievements in the 

textile and other industries, in engineering education, and 

for eminent service to the engineering profession 

1936 E dw ard B a u s c h , for meritorious mechanical developments 

in the field of optics 

1937 E dw ard P . B u l l a r d, for outstanding leadership in the development 

of station-type machine tools 

1938 S t e p h e n J . P ig o t t, for outstanding leadership in marine 

propulsion and construction 

1939 J a m e s E. G l e a s o n , for service to the cause of safer and 

better transportation 

1940 C h a r l e s F. K e t t e r in g , for outstanding inventions and 

research. 

H o l ley M edal 

1924 H ja l m a r G o t fr ie d C a r l s o n , for his inventions and processes 

which made possible the timely production of drawn 

steel booster casings for artillery ammunition, thereby aiding 

victory in the W orld W ar (diploma in recognition of 

achievements presented in 1921) 

1927 E l m e r A m b r o se S p e r r y , for achievements and inventions 

th at have advanced the naval arts, including the gyroscope 

th at has freed navigation from the dangers of the fluctuating 

magnetic compass 

1929 B a b o n C h u z a b u r o S h i b a , for his contributions to knowledge 

through fundamental research, including the field of 

aerodynamics, by the development of ultra-rapid kinematographic 

methods.


1934 

1936 

1937 

1938 

1939 

1940 

1933 

1934 

1935 

1936 

1937 

1938 

1939 

1940 

1927 

1929 

1930 

1931 

1932 

1933 

1935 

1936 

1937 

1938 

1939 

1940 

1929 

1932 

1935 

1938 

I r v in g L a n g m u ir , for his contributions to science and engineering, 

including the development of gas-filled incandescent 

lamps, thoriated filament for thermionic emission, atomic 

hydrogen welding, phase control operation of the thyratron 

tube, and fundamental research in oil films 

H e n r y F ord, for revolutionary influence through invention 

and practice on transportation and on mass production 

methods in manufacturing 

F r e d e r ic k G. C o t tr el l, for preeminent public service—the 

invention of electric precipitation—advancement of the science 

of gas liquefaction—gifts for engineering research 

F r a n c is H o d g k in s o n , for meritorious services in the development 

of the steam turbine 

C a rl E . J o h a n s s o n , in recognition of his pioneer work in 

the development of basic measuring gages 

E d w in H ow ard A r m s t r o n g , for his leadership in the field 

of radio communication. 

W o r c ester R eed W a r n e r M edal 

D e x t e r S. K im b a l l , for his contributions to efficiency in 

management as exemplified by his recently revised “P rinciples 

of Industrial Organization” and by his many articles, 

engineering society papers, and public addresses 

R a l p h E. F l a n d e r s, for his contributions to a better understanding 

of the relationship of the engineer to economic 

problems and social trends as exemplified by the many 

papers which he has presented 

S t e p h e n T i m o s h e n k o , for his contributions to the theory 

of the design of elastic structures and the treatm ent of 

dynamics of moving machinery 

C h a r l e s M. A l l e n , for his early and continued hydraulic 

laboratory work and for the permanent value of the papers 

on his development of methods of testing large hydraulic 

turbine installations 

C l a r e n c e F. H ir s h f e l d , for his research and contributions 

to the theory and practice of heat-power engineering as 

exemplified by books and papers 

L a w fo r d H . F r y, f o r c o n tr ib u tio n s r e la tin g to im p ro v e d 

lo c o m o tiv e b o ile r d e s ig n a n d u tiliz a tio n o f b e t t e r m a te r ia ls 

in r a ilw a y e q u ip m e n t 

R u p e n E k s e r g ia n , for influential papers of permanent value 

in A.S.M.E. Transactions 

W i l l ia m B e n j a m i n G regory, for distinguished work in 

hydraulic engineering, which has been the basis for many 

engineering papers. 

M e l v il l e M edal 

L e o n P . A lford, “Laws of M anufacturing Management” 

J o s e p h W . R oe, “Principles of Jig and Fixture Practice” 

H e r m a n D ie d e r ic h s and W i l l ia m D. P o m e r o y, “The Occurrence 

and Elimination of Surge or Oscillating Pressure 

in Discharge Lines From Reciprocating Pumps” 

A r t h u r E. G r u n e r t , “Comparative Performance of a Pulverized-Coal-Fired 

Boiler Using Bin System and U nit System 

of Firing” 

A l e x e y J. S t e p a n o f f , “Leakage Loss and Axial Thrust in 

Centrifugal Pumps” 

W il l ia m E. C a l d w e l l, “Characteristics of Large Hell Gate 

Direct-Fired Boiler U nits” 

O scar R. W ik a n d e r , “Draft-Gear Action in Long Trains” 

H . A . S t e v e n s H o w a r t h , “The Loading and Friction of 

Thrust and Journal Bearings W ith Perfect Lubrication” 

A lfr ed J. B i'cm , “Supercharging of Internal-Combustion 

Engines W ith Blowers Driven by Exhaust-Gas Turbines” 

A l p h o n s e I. L ip e t z , “A ir Resistance of Railroad Equipment” 

L e s t e r M. G o l d s m it h , for his paper, “High-Pressure High- 

Temperature Turbine-Electric Steamship J. W . Van Dyke" 

C a rl A. W. B r a n d t, for his paper, “The Locomotive Boiler.” 

S p ir it o f S a in t L o u is M edal 

D a n ie l G u g g e n h e im , founder of the Guggenheim Fund for 

the Promotion of Aeronautics 

P a u l L i t c h f i e l d , for his work in encouraging and sponsoring 

airship design and construction in this country 

W i l l R o g e r s , for his splendid, constructive, and unselfish 

work in the achievement of aviation, and the building up of 

public confidence in aviation through his articles in the press, 

over the radio, and from the speaker’s platform 

J a m e s H. D o o l i t t l e , for meritorious service in the advancement 

of aeronautics. 

P i T a u S ig m a M edal 

1938 W il f r id E. J o h n s o n , for his development work in the field 

of refrigeration 

1939 J o h n I. Y e l l o t t, J r ., in recognition of significant achievements 

in steam-flow research and engineering education; also 

contributions on “Supersaturated Steam” and “Condensation 

of Flowing Steam in Diverging Nozzles” 

1940 G eorge A. H a w k i n s , for significant achievements in highpressure 

steam research and engineering education. 

J u n io r A w ard 

1915 E r n e s t 0. H i c k s t e i n , “Flow of Air Through Thin Plate 

Orifices” 

1916 L . M . M cM i l l a n , “The H eat Insulating Properties of Commercial 

Steam-Pipe Coverings” 

1919 E . D . W h a l e n , “Properties of Airplane Fabrics” 

1921 S . L o g a n K e rr, “Moody Ejector Turbine” 

1922 R. H . H e il m a n , “H eat Losses From Bare and Covered 

W rought-Iron Pipe at Temperatures up to 800 Degrees 

Fahrenheit” 

F. L. K a l l a m , “Prelim inary Report on the Investigation of 

the Thermal Conductivity of Liquids” 

1923 S. S. S a n fo r d and S. C r o c k er, “The Elasticity of Pipe 

Bends” 

1924 R. H . H e il m a n , “H eat Losses Through Insulating M aterial” 

1925 G il b e r t S. S c h a l l e r, “An Investigation of Seattle as a 

Location for a Synthetic Foundry Industry” 

1927 W i l l ia m M . F r a m e , “Stresses Occurring in the Walls of an 

Elliptical Tank Subjected to Low Internal Pressure” 

1928 M. D . A i s e n s t e i n , “ A New Method of Separating the Hydraulic 

Losses in a Centrifugal Pump” 

1929 A r t h u r M. W a h l , “Stresses in Heavy, Closely Coiled 

Helical Springs” 

1930 E d S i n c l a ir S m i t h , “Quantity-Rate Fluid Meters” 

1931 M . K . D r e w r y , “Radiant-Superheater Developments” 

1932 E d m o n d M . W a g n e r, “Frictional Resistance of a Cylinder 

Rotating in a Viscous Fluid W ithin a Coaxial Cylinder” 

1933 T o w n s e n d T i n k e r , “Surface Condenser Design and Operating 

Characteristics” 

1934 J o h n I. Y e l l o t t, J r ., “Supersaturated Steam” 

1935 S t a n l e y J. M i k i n a , “Effect of Skewing and Pole Spacing 

on Magnetic Noise in Electrical Machinery” 

1936 H arw ood F. M u l l i k a n , J r ., “Evaluation of Effective Radiant 

Heating Surface and Application of the Stefan-Boltzman 

Law to H eat Absorption in Boiler Furnaces” 

1937 L e s l ie J. H ooper, “American Hydraulic-Laboratory Practice” 

1938 A r t h u r C. S t e r n , “Separation and Emission of Cinders and 

Fly A s h ” 

1940 R obert E. N e w t o n , for his paper, “A Photoelastic Study 

of Stresses in Rotary Disks.” 

C h a r l e s T . M a in A w ard 

1925 C l e m e n t R. B r o w n , Catholic University of America. Subject: 

“The Influence of the Locomotive on the Unity of 

the United States” 

1926 W. C. S a y lo r, Johns Hopkins University. Subject: “The 

Effect of the Cotton Gin Upon the History of the United 

States During Its F irst Seventy Years” 

1927 No Award. Subject: “Scientific Management and Its Effect 

Upon the Industries” 

1928 R obert M. M e y e r , Newark College of Engineering. Subject: 

“Scientific Management and Its Effect Upon Manufacturing” 

1929 No Award. Subject: “The Influence of Engineering on Farm 

Production” 

1930 J u i.e s P o d n o s s o f f, Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn. Subject: 

“The Value of the Safety Movement in the Industries” 

1931 R obert E. K l is e , University of Michigan. Subject: “Interchangeability—Its 

Development and Significance in Industry 

” 

1932 M a r s h a l l A n d e r s o n , University of Michigan. Subject: 

“Apprenticeship and Vocational Training” 

1933 G eorge D . W i l k i n s o n , J r ., Newark College of Engineering 

Subject: “Progress in the Prevention of Smoke and Atmospheric 

Pollution” 

1934 P h i l i p P . S e l f , Colorado State College. Subject: “A ir Conditioning—Its 

Practicability and Relation to Public Welfare”


RI-41 

1935 

1936 

1937 

1938 

1939 

1940 

1916 

1917 

1919 

1920 

1921 

1923 

1924 

1925 

1926 

1927 

G. L o w e l l W i l l ia m s , Lafayette College. Subject: “Coordinated 

Transportation—An Economic Comparison of 

Railroad, Bus, Truck, W ater, and A ir Transportation for 

Long and Short H aul” 

No Award. Subject: “Development in the Generation and 

D istribution of Power and Their Effect Upon the Consumer” 

A l l a n P. S t e e n , Case School of Applied Science. Subject: 

“The Influence of the Introduction of Labor Saving Machinery 

Upon Employment in the United States” 

E dw ard W. C o n n o l l y , University of D etroit, Subject: 

“Economic Limitations in Engineering Design, W ith Concrete 

Examples” 

J a m e s R. B r ig h t , Lehigh LTniversity. Subject: “The Economics 

of Investment in New M anufacturing Equipment— 

W ith Concrete Cases” 

F r a n k D e P o uld, Case School of Applied Science. Subject: 

“W hat Has Been the Effect of Technological Advance on 

Employment” 

S t u d e n t A w a rd 

B o y n t o n M. G r e e n , Stanford University, “Bearing Lubrication” 

H ow ard E. S t e v e n s, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, “An 

Investigation of the Dynamic Pressure on Submerged Flat 

Plates” 

M. A d a m , Louisiana State University, “The A daptability 

of the Internal Combustion Engine to Sugar Factories and 

Estates” 

H . R. H a m m o n d and C. W. H o l m b e r g , The Pennsylvania 

State College, “Study of Surface Resistance W ith Glass as 

the Transmission Medium” 

C. F. L e h and F. G. H a m p t o n , Stanford University, “An 

Experimental Investigation of Steel Belting” 

W. E. H e l m ic k , Stanford University, “An Experimental 

Investigation of Steel Belting” 

H oward G. A l l e n , Cornell University, “W ire Stitching 

Through Paper” 

K arl H. W h i t e , University of Kansas, “Forces in Rotary 

Motors” 

R ic h a r d H . M o r r is and A l b er t J. R . H o u s t o n , University 

of California, “A Report Upon an Investigation of the Herschel 

Type of Improved W eir” 

C h a r l e s F . O l m s t e a d , University of Minnesota, “Oil Burning 

for Domestic H eating” 

H. E. D o o l it tle, University of California, “The Integrating 

Gate: A. Device for Gaging in Open Channels” 

G eorge S t u a r t C l a r k , Stanford University, “Two Methods 

Used for the Determination of the Gasoline Content of Absorption 

Oils in Absorption Plants” 

L. J. F r a n k l in and C h a r l e s H. S m i t h , Stanford University, 

“The Effect of Inaccuracy of Spacing on the Strength 

of Gear Teeth” 

H arry P e a se C ox, J r ., Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 

“A Study of the Effect of End Shape on the Towing Resistance 

of a Barge Model” 

W. S. M o n t g o m e r y , J r ., and E . R ay E n d e r s, J r ., Pennsylvania 

State College, “Some Attempts to Measure the Drawing 

Properties of Metals” 

R. E. P e t e r s o n , University of Illinois, “An Investigation of 

Stress Concentration by Means of Plaster of P aris Specimens” 

C e c il G. H eard, University of Toronto, “Pressure Distribution 

Over U.S.A. 27 Aerofoil W ith Square Wing Tips— 

Model Tests” 

A l fr ed H . M a r s h a l l , Princeton University, “Evaporative 

Cooling” 

R oger I r w in E b y, University of Washington, “Measurement 

of the Angular Displacement of Flywheels” 

1928 C l a r e n c e C. F r a n c k , Johns Hopkins University, “Condition 

Curves and Reheat Factors for Steam Turbines” . 

1929 F r a n k V e r n o n B is t r o m , University of Washington, “An 

Investigation of a Rotary Pump” 

W i l l ia m W a l l a c e W h i t e , University of Washington, “An 

Investigation of a Rotary Pump” 

1930 G erard E d e n C l a u s s e n , Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn, 

“High-Temperature Oxidation of Steel” 

H arold L. A d a m s and R ic h a r d L. S t i t h , University of 

Washington, “ A W ind Tunnel for Undergraduate Laboratory 

Experim ents” 

1931 J u l e s P o d n o s s o f f, Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn, “Pressure 

and Energy D istribution in Multi-Stage Steam Turbines 

Operating Under Varying Conditions” 

1932 H. E. F o ste r; Jr., University of Tennessee, “Factors Affecting 

Spray Pond Design” (Undergraduate Award) 

W i l l ia m A. M a s o n , Stanford University, “An Experimental 

Investigation of the Flame Propagation in Internal- 

Combustion Engines” (Postgraduate Award) 

1933 H ugo V. C o r d ia n o, Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn, 

“Thermal Analysis of Lithium-Magnesium System of Alloys” 

(Undergraduate Award) 

. J a m e s A. O s t r a n d , J r ., Princeton University, “Sudden Enlargement 

in the Open Channel” (Postgraduate Award) 

1934 H . R e y n o l d s H u d s o n , Georgia School of Technology, “Dynamic 

Balance and Functional U tility Applied to Automotive 

Design” (Undergraduate Award) 

1935 C h a r l e s P. B a c h a , Rutgers University, “The Behavior 

of Metals Subjected to Combined Stress” (Postgraduate 

Award) 

R obert W. B e a l, Oregon State College, “Do Lubricating 

Oils W ear Out” (Undergraduate Award) 

1936 L e o n B. S t in s o n , Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical 

College, “Polymerized Motor Fuels; Their Economic Significance” 

(Undergraduate Award) 

D e W it t D . B a r l o w , J r ., Princeton University, “The C ritical 

Speeds of Lateral V ibrations of Shafts with Gyroscopic 

Effects” (Postgraduate Award) 

1937 G in o J. M a r in e l l i, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, “In 

vestigation of the Towing Resistance of a Model Submarine 

H ull” (Undergraduate Award) 

1938 M a r s h a l l C. L o n g , Princeton University, “An Investigation 

Into the Angular Characteristics of an Adjustable 

Blade Current M eter” (Postgraduate Award) 

D o n a ld C. M c S o r l e y, Michigan State College, “Humidity 

Insulation” (Undergraduate Award) 

1939 D avid T. J a m e s , Michigan State College, “Bells— Concerning 

Their Tones” (Undergraduate Award) 

1940 G eorge W. S h e p h e r d , J r ., Princeton University, “An Automatic 

Mechanical Control for Synchronizing Prime Movers” 

(Postgraduate Award) 

E dw ard D . R o w a n , Oregon State College, “Powder Metallurgy 

(Undergraduate A w ard). 

1927 H e r b e r t N. E a t o n 

1928 B l a k e R . V a n L e er 

1929 R obert T . K n a p p 

1931 R e g in a l d W h it a k e r 

1932 G . R o ss L ord 

1933 'i „ T _ 

1934 ) H - J ' CaSEY 

1°36 ICT0R S t r eeter 

FSEe m a n T ravel S c h o l a r s h ip


HONORARY MEMBERS IN 

PERPETU ITY 

A l e x a n d e r L y m a n H o l l e y , F o u n d e r of the 

Society. Died 1882. 

J o h n E d so n S w e e t , F o u n d e r o f the S o 

ciety. Died 1916. 

H e n r y R o s s it e r W o r t h in g t o n , F o u n d e r of 

the Society. Died 1880. 

DECEASED HONORARY MEMBERS 

ELECTED d ie d 

H o r a tio A l l e n ............................ 1880 1889 

S i b W i l l ia m A r r o l.................... 1905 1913 

S i r J o h n A u d l e y F r e d e r ic k 

A s p in a l l ...................................... 1911 1937 

W i l l ia m W a llace 

A t t e r b u r y ................................. 1925 1935 

S ib B e n j a m i n B a k e r ............... 1886 1907 

J o h a n n B a u s c h in g e r .......... 1884 1893 

S i b H e n r y B e s s e m e r ............... 1891 1898 

S ib F b e d e r ic k J o s e p h B r a m - 

w e l l ................................................ 1884 1903 

J o h n A lfr ed B r a s h e a r .......... 1908 1920 

G u s t a v e C a n e t ............................ 1900 1908 

A n d r e w C a r n e g ie .................... 1907 1919 

D a n ie l K in n e a r C l a b k . . . . 1882 1896 

R u d o l p h J u l iu s E m m a n u e l 

C l a u s iu s ...................................... 1882 1888 

S ir J o h n G o ode............................ 1889 1892 

P e ter C oopeb ................................. 1882 1883 

C h a b l e s de F r e m in v il l e .... 1919 1936 

C arl G u s t a f P a t r ic k de 

L aval ............................................. 1912 1913 

R u d o l p h D ie s e l ......................... 1912 1913 

J a m e s D redge .............................. 1886 1906 

V ic t o r D w e l s h a u v e r s-D e b y . 1886 1913 

T h o m a s A lva E d is o n ............... 1904 1931 

A l e x a n d r e G u s t a v e E i f f e l . . 1889 1923 

M a b s h a l F e r d in a n d F o c h 1921 1929 

HONORARY MEMBERS 

e l e c t e d 

d ie d 

S ib C h a b l e s D o u g la s F o x . . 1900 1921 

J o h n R ip l e y F r e e m a n .......... 1932 1932 

J o h n F r i t z ...................................... 1900 1913 

M a jo r -G e n e r a l G eobge 

W a s h in g t o n G o e t h a l s .. 1917 1928 

F r a n z G r a s h o f ......................... 1884 1893 

R e a b-A d m ib a l R obebt S t a n - 

is l a u G r i f f i n ......................... 1920 1933 

O tto H a l l a u e r ............................ 1882 1883 

C h a r l e s H a y n e s H a s w e l l . . 1905 1907 

N a t h a n a e l G b e e n e H e b e e s- 

h o f f ................................................ 1921 1938 

F r ie d r ic h G u s t a v H e r r m a n n 1884 1907 

G u s t a v A d o l p h H i r n ............... 1882 1890 

J o s e p h H ib s c h ............................ 1889 1901 

I ra N . H o l l is ................................. 1928 1930 

R obert W o o lsto n H u n t .... 1920 1923 

B e n j a m i n F r a n k l in I s h e b - 

w ood ................................................ 1894 1915 

H e n r i L e a u t iS ............................... 1891 1916 

E r a s m u s D a b w in L e a v it t . . 1915 1916 

H e n b i L e C h a t e l ie r .................. 1927 1936 

A n a t o l e M a l l e t ......................... 1912 1919 

C h a r l e s H . M a n n i n g . . 1913 1919 

R e a r-A d m ir a l G eorge W a l 

la ce M e l v il l e ......................... 1910 1912 

T h e H o n o r a ble S ir C h a r l e s 

A l g e r n o n P a r s o n s ............. 1920 1931 

C h a r l e s T a lbot P o b t e b.......... 1890 1910 

A u g u s t e C . E . R a t e a u ............. 1919 1930 

S ib E dw ard J . R e e d .................. 1882 1906 

F r a n z R e u l e a u x ....................... 1882 1905 

C a l v in W in s o b R i c e ............... 1931 1934 

P a l m e b C . R ic k e t t s .................. 1931 1934 

H e n r i A d o l p h e -E u g e n e 

S c h n e id e b ................................... 1882 1898 

C h a r l e s M . S c h w a b .................. 1918 1939 

C. W il l ia m S i e m a n s ............... 1882 1883 

V is c o u n t E i -i c h i S h ib u s a w a 1929 1931 

A m b r o se S w a s e y ....................... 1916 1937 

elected 

died 

E l i h u T h o m s o n ......................... 1930 1937 

H e n b y R o b in s o n T o w n e ___ 1921 1924 

H e n b i T resca .............................. 1882 1885 

W il l ia m Ca w t h o r n e U n w i n 1898 1933 

S a m u e l M a t t h e w s V a u c l a in 1920 1940 

O s k a r von M i l l e r ...................... 1912 1934 

F r a n c is A . W a l k e r .................. 1886 1897 

W o rcester R eed W a r n e r . . . 1925 1929 

G eobge W e s t in g h o u s e .......... 1897 1914 

S ib W il l ia m H e n r y W h i t e . 1900 1913 

S ir A lfr ed F e r n a n d e z Y arro 

w .................................................. 1914 1932 

L I V I N G H O N O R A R Y M E M B E R S 

elected 

W il l ia m L a m o n t A b b o t t.......................1940 

L o ren zo A l l ie v i ...........................................1937 

R obert W . A n g u s .......................................1940 

E d m u n d B b u c e B a l l ................................1939 

H u t c h in s o n I . C o n e ................................1936 

M o r t im e r E l w y n C o o l e y ......................1928 

A l e x D o w ......................................................1936 

W il l ia m F r e d e r ic k D u r a n d ...............1934 

A r t h u r M . G b e e n e , J r ...........................1940 

H erbert C l a b k H oover...........................1925 

D avid S c h e n c k J a c o b u s...................... ..1934 

M a s a w o K a m o .............................................1929 

D e x t e r S im p s o n K im b a l l .......................1939 

A l ber t K in g s b u r y ......................................1940 

C h a r l e s T h o m a s M a i n ............................1939 

G eorge A . O r r o k ...........................................1936 

G bande U f f ic ia l e I n g . P io P e rbone 1920 

E d w in J a y P r in d l e ...................................1939 

J a m e s A . S e y m o u r ......................................1940 

W il l ia m H . T s c h a p p a t ...........................1938 

H e n b y H a g u e V a u g h a n ...................... ..1939 

R ig h t H onobable L ord W e i r . ..... 1920 

O r v il le W r ig h t ...........................................1918 

PAST-PRESIDENTS 

A list of past vice-presidents, managers, treasurers, and secretaries will be found in the 

1930 Record and Index, pages 10-12. Dates in parentheses denote year of death. 

A l e x a n d e r L y m a n H o l l e y , Chairman of the Preliminary Meeting 

for Organization of The American Society of Mechanical Engineers 

(1882) 

1880-1882 R obert H e n r y T h u r s t o n (1903) 

1883 E r a s m u s D a r w in L e a v it t (1916) 

1884 J o h n E d so n S w e e t (1916) 

1885 J o s e p h u s F l a v iu s H o l lo w a y (1896) 

1886 C o l e m a n S e l l e r s (1 9 0 7 ) 

1887 G eorge H . B a bc o c k (1 8 9 3 ) 

1888 H orace S ee (1 9 0 9 ) 

1889 H e n r y R o b in s o n T o w n e (1924) 

1890 O b e r l in S m i t h (1 9 2 6 ) 

1891 R obert W oolsto n H u n t (1923) 

1892 C h a r l e s H a r d in g L o r in g (1907) 

1893-1 8 9 4 E c k l e y B r in t o n C o x e (1 8 9 5 ) - 

1895 E dw ard F . C . D a v is (1 8 9 5 ) 

1895 C h a r l e s E t h a n B il l in g s (1 9 2 0 ) 

1896 J o h n F r it z (1913) 

1897 W o rc ester R eed W a r n e r (1929) 

1898 C h a r l e s W a l la c e H u n t (1911) 

1899 G eobge W a l la c e M e l v il l e (1912) 

1900 C h a r l e s H i l l M o rg an (1 9 1 1 ) 

1901 S a m u e l T . W e l l m a n (1919) 

1902 E d w in R e y n o l d s (1909) 

1903 J a m e s M a p e s D odge (1915) 

1904 A m b b o se S w a s e y (1937) 

1905 J o h n R ip l e y F b e e m a n (1 9 3 2 ) 

1906 F r e d e r ic k W in s l o w T a y lor (1915) 

1907 F r e d e r ic k R e m s e n H u t t o n (1918) 

1908 M in a r d L a fev er H o l m a n (1925) 

1909 J e s s e M e b r ic k S m i t h (1927) 

1910 G eorge W e s t in g h o u s e (1914) 

1911 E d w ard D a n ie l M e ie r (1914) 

1912 A l e x a n d e r C r o m b ie H u m p h r e y s (1927) 

1913 W i l l ia m F r e e m a n M y r ic k G oss (1928) 

1914 J a m e s H a r t n e s s (1934) 

1915 J o h n A l fr e d B r a s h e a r (1920) 

1916 D avid S c h e n c k J a co bus 

1917 I r a N e l s o n H o l l is (1930) 

1918 C h a r l e s T h o m a s M a in 

1919 M o r t im e r E l w y n C ooley 

1920 F red J . M il l e r (1939) 

1921 E d w in S . C a r m a n 

1922 D e x t e r S im p s o n K im b a l l 

1923 J o h n L y l e H a r r in g t o n 

1924 F r e d e r ic k R o l l in s L o w (1936) 

1925 W i l l ia m F r e d e r ic k D u r a n d 

1926 W i l l ia m L a m o n t A bbott 

1927 C h a r l e s M . S c h w a b (1939) 

1928 A l e x D o w 

1929 E l m e r A m b r o se S p e b b y (1930) 

1930 C h a b l e s P ie z (1933) 

1931 R oy V . W b ig h t 

1932 C onbad N . L a u e b 

1933 A . A . P otter 

1934 P a u l D oty (1938) 

1935 R a l p h E . F l a n d e r s 

1936 W i l l ia m L . B att 

1937 J a m e s H . H erron 

1938 H arvey N . D a v is 

1939 A l e x a n d e r G . C h r is t ie 

1940 W a r r e n H . M cB ryde

Index to Society Records, Part 1 

The page numbers in this section are preceded by the letters “ R I,” which are om itted in the following index. 

A bbreviations and Symbols, G raphical, C om m . 31 

A bbreviations and Symbols, L etter, C o m m ... 31 

A brasive W heels, Rep. on Safety C om m . . . . 35 

A coustical M easurem ents, Reps, on C o m m .... 31 

A dm inistration O rganization, C om m ................... 12 

A dm issions Comm. 

S pecial ..................................................................... 8 

Standing ................................................................. 6 

A dvertising M anager, A .S.M .E ............................... 5 

A eronautic Div., C om m s........................................... 10 

A eronautics, Rep. on S tandardization Com m . . 31 

A ir C onditioning, C om m ........................................... 13 

A lfred Noble P rize, A.S.M .E. R e p ........................ 9 

Allowances and Tolerances, Gages, C o m m .. 27 

A m erican A ssociation for th e A dvancem ent of 

Science, A.S.M .E. R ep s........................... 9 

A m erican Standards A ssociation, A.S.M .E. 

R eps.................................................................... 9 

A m erican Year Book C orporation, A.S.M .E. 

R ep..................................................................... 9 

A m m unition Group ..................................................... 10 

A pplied M echanics Div., C om m s.......................... 10 

A.S.M .E. Medal 

R ecipients .............................................................. 39 

Statem ent about ................................................ 39 

A ssistant Secretaries, A .S.M .E ............................... 5 

A w ards, A.S.M.E. 

Recipients .............................................................. 39 

S tatem ents about ................................................ 39 

A wards Comm. See H onors and A w ards Comm. 

B all and Roller B earings, C om m ........................ 27 

B iography Advisory C om m ......................................... 7 

Board of R eview ............................................................ 8 

Board on Technology.................................................. 8 

Boiler Code 

Comm. W ork ....................................................... 38 

Comm., Special .......................... ........... . . . 7, 37 

Conference Comm................................................. 37 

Exec. Comm............................................................ 37 

Revision of Section V III, Special C om m . 38 

Subcomm8.................................................................. 37 

Boiler F eedw ater Studies, C om m ........................ 25 

Boilers, Openings, C om m ........................................... 38 

Boilers, Pow er .............................................................. 37 

Boilers, R ules for Inspection of, C om m ............ 37 

Boilers, Special D esign of, C om m ...................... 37 

Bolted Flanged Connections, R ules for, Comm. 38 

Bolt, N ut, and R ivet P roportions, C o m m .... 29 

B uilding Code for L ig h t and V entilation, Rep. 

on Comm.......................................................... 31 

Cast Iron P ipes, Reps, on C om m ...................... 

C avitation, Com m ........................................................... 

32 

1 1 

Center for Safety E ducation, A.S.M .E. R e p .. 9 

Charles T. M ain A ward 

R ecipients .............................................................. 40 

Statem ent ab o u t ................................................ 39 

Chucks and Chuck Jaw s, C om m ........................... 28 

Coal and Coke, Rep. on C om m ............................... 32 

Coal, Clean B itum inous, Rep. on C o m m ... 32 

C oal-H andling E quipm ent, Rep. on C o m m .. 32 

Coal Mines, D rainage, Rep. on C om m ............ 32 

Coal Testing Code, Reps, on C om m ............... 9, 34 

Colleges, Relations W ith, C om m ...................... 6 ,2 3 

Compressed A ir, W ork in, Rep. on Safety 

Comm................................................................ 36 

Compressed A ir M achinery and Equipm ent, 

Safety Comm................................................. 35 

Compressors and Blowers 

C entrifugal and Turbo, C om m ...................... 33 

D isplacem ent, Comm........................................... 

C om ptroller, A.S.M .E.................................................... 

33 

5 

Condensers, W ater H eating, and Cooling 

E quipm ent, Comm....................................... 34 

Condenser Tubes, C om m .............................................. 26 

C onstitution and By-Laws C om m ........................... 6 

C onstruction W ork, Rep. on Safety C o m m ... 35 

C onsulting P ractice, C om m .................................... 8 

Conveyors and Conveying M achinery, Safety 

Comm................................................................ 35 

C oordinating Comm. (C orrosion), Rep. o n . . . 26 

C oordination Comm. (B oiler C o d e)...................... 38 

C oordination Comm. (H eat T ra n sfe r)................. 1 1 

C orrelatin g Comm. A.S.A. Safety Code, Rep. 

on Comm......................................................... 35 

Corrosion, C oordinating Comm., Rep. o n . . . . 26 

Corrosion, Rep. on C om m ......................................... 26 

Cottonseed P rocessing, C om m .................................. 26 

Council, A.S.M .E. 

Exec. Com m ............................................................ 5 

M embers of ......................................................... 5 

Special Comms....................................................... 8 

Cranes, D erricks, and H oists, Safety C o m m .. 35 

C ut and Ground T hread Taps, C om m ................. 28 

C u ttin g of M etals, Research C om m ...................... 25 

C utting M etals, Mach. Shop P rac. C om m .......... 11 

C u ttin g Tools, S ingle-Point, C om m ...................... 28 

D aniel Guggenheim Medal F u n d , Inc., A.S.M .E. 

R eps.................................................................... 9 

D efinitions and V alues, Pow er Test Codes, 

Comm................................................................ 33 

D epreciation .................................................................... 8 

D epreciation Studies, C om m .................................... 12 

D im ensional L im its and A llow ances, C o m m ... 14 

D irect-F ired F lu id H eaters and Boilers, C om m . 11 

D ished H eads, C om m ................................................... 38 

D isplacem ent P um ps, R eciprocating Steam- 

D riven, Com m ............................................... 33 

D raw ings and D raftin g Room P ractice, Comm. 31 

D rying, Com m .................................................................. 13 

D ues-Exem pt M embers’ C ontributions, Com m . . 8 

D ust Explosions, Rep. on Safety C om m ............... 36 

D ust S ep aratin g A pparatus, C om m .................... 34 

Econom ic S tatus of th e E ngineer C om m ............... 8 

Edison F oundation, A.S.M .E. R e p ........................... 9 

E d ito r, A .S.M .E............................................................... 5 

E ducation and T ra in in g for th e In d ustries 

Com m ................................................................. 6 

E lectrical D efinitions, R ep. on C om m ................. 32 

E lectric M otor F ram es, C om m ............................. 31 

E lectric Sockets and L am p Bases, C o m m .... 31 

E lectric W elding A pparatus, Rep. on C o m m .. 32 

E levators, Com m ............................................................. 25 

E levators, Safety Code, C om m .................................. 35 

E ngineering F oundation, A-S.M .E. R ep s............ 9 

E ngineering H isto ry Comm ., A .S.M .E. R eps. 9 

E n gineering R eg istratio n , N ational B ur. of, 

A.S.M .E. R ep................................................. 9 

E ngineering Societies, C ooperation in Safety 

W ork, R ep. on C om m ................................ 35 

E ngineering Societies L ib rary B oard, A.S.M .E. 

R eps.................................................................... 9 

E n gineering Societies M onographs Comm., 

A .S.M .E. R eps............................................... 9 

E n gineering Societies P ersonnel Service, Inc., 

A .S.M .E. R eps............................................... 9 

E ngineers’ Civic R esponsibilities, Com m ......... 8 

E ngineers’ Council for P rofessional Developm 

ent, A .S.M .E. R ep s.................................. 9 

E ngineers’ N ational R elief F und, A .S.M .E. 

R ep...................................................................... 9 

E ngine L athes, C om m ................................................ 28 

E v aporatin g A pparatus, C om m ................................ 34 

E x h aust System s, Rep. on Safety C om m .......... 35 

F eedw ater, B oiler Code C om m .................................. 38 

Feedw ater Studies, B oiler, C om m ........................... 25 

F errous M aterials, C om m ......................................... 37 

F inance Com m ................................................................... 6 

F ire Tests, B uilding C onstruction and M a 

te ria ls, R ep. on C om m ........................... 32 

F loor and W all O penings, R ailin g s, and Toe 

Boards, Safety C om m ............................. 35 

F lu id M eters, C om m ..................................................... 25 

Food Processing, C om m .............................................. 13 

F o rest F ire P ro tectio n , R ep. on C om m ............... 32 

F org in g and H ot M etal S tam ping, Rep. on 

S afety Com m ................................................. 35 

F oundry P ractice, C om m ............................................ 11 

F rederick W. T aylor M em orial C om m ............... 8 

F reem an F und, C om m ................................................. 8 

F reem an Scholarships. See John R . F reem an 

T ravel S cholarships 

F ritz M edal B oard of A w ard, A .S.M .E. Reps. 9 

F uels, Calorific V alues, Rep. on C om m ............ 34 

Fuels, Pow er T est Code C om m ............................. 33 

F uels D iv., C om m s........................................................ 10 

F uel V alues, A.S.M .E. R e p s....................................... 9 

F uel V alues, Calorific, A .S.M .E. R e p .................... 34 

F usion W elding R eq u irem en ts................................ 38 

Gages, P ressure and V acuum , C om m ................. 30 

G an tt M edal B oard of A w ard, A.S.M .E. Reps. 9 

Gas B urning A ppliances, Rep. on C om m ............ 31 

Gas M ask C anisters, Rep. on Safety C om m . . . . 35 

Gas P roducers, C om m ................................................ 34 

Gaseous F uels, Rep. on C om m .................................. 34 

G ear L ubricants, Rep. on C om m ........................ 32 

G ears, Com m ............... ..................................................... 28 

G ear Teeth, S tren g th of, C om m ........................... 25 

George W estinghouse B ust C om m ........................... 8 

Glass, S afety, Rep. on C om m ........................ .. 36 

G raphic A rts D iv., C om m s....................................... 10 

G raphic P resen ta tio n C om m ..................................... 31 

G uggenheim Medal F und, A.S.M .E. R e p s ... 9 

H eatin g Boilers, C om m .............................................. 37 

H eat T ransfer Professional G roup, C o m m s .... 10 

H olley Medal 

R ecipients ............................................................... 39 


H olm es Safety A ssociation, A .S.M .E. R e p . . . . 9 

H onorary M embers, L ist o f ....................................... 42 

H onorary M em bership, S tatem ent a b o u t............... 39 

H onors an d A w ards C om m ......................................... 6 

Honors and A wards, Special Comm, of B oard of 7 

H oover M edal B oard of A ward, A .S.M .E. Reps. 9 

Hose Couplings, Screw Threads, C om m ............ 29 

H y d rau lic D iv., C om m s.............................................. 11 

H ydrau lic P rim e Movers 

H yd. Div. C om m ................................................... 11 

Pow er Test Codes C om m .................................... 34 

In d u stria l F urnaces and K ilns, C om m ............... 11 

RI-43 

In d u stria l In stru m e n ts and R egulators, Comm. 13 

In d u s tria l M arketing, C om m .................................. 12 

In d u stria l W orkers, Foundries, P ro tectio n of, 

Rep. on Safety C o m m ............................. 36 

In d u stria l W orkers, P ro tectio n of, Rep. on 

Safety Com m ................................................. 3(3 

In d u stries, E ducation and T rain in g for, Comm. 6 

In stru m e n ts and A pparatus, Pow er Test Codes, 

Com m ................................................................. 34 

Internal-C om bustion Engines, C om m ................. 34 

In te rn atio n a l E lectrochem ical Com m ission, 

A.S.M .E. R eps............................................... 9 

Iro n and Steel B ars, C om m ....................................... 30 

Iron and Steel Div. See M etals E n g in eerin 

g Div. 

J ig B ushings, C om m ................................................... 28 

Jo h n F ritz Medal B oard of A w ard, A.S.M .E. 

R eps.................................................................... 9 

Jo h n R. F reem an Travel Scholarships 

R ecipients ............................................................... 41 

S tatem ent ab o u t ................................................ 39 

Joseph A. H olm es Safety A ssociation, A.S.M .E. 

R ep...................................................................... 9 

Jo u rn al of A pplied M echanics, E d ito r............... 10 

Ju n io r A ward 

R ecipients ............................................................... 40 

S tatem ent ab o u t ................................................... 39 

L adders, Rep. on Safety C om m ............................. 35 

L aundry M achinery, Rep. on Safety C o m m .. 36 

L eath er B elting, C om m .............................................. 30 

L ib rary Com m .................................................................. 6 

Life M em bership, S tatem ent a b o u t...................... 39 

L ig h tin g F actories, M ills, Rep. on Safety 

Com m ................................................................. 36 

L oading P latfo rm s, Rep. on C om m ...................... 32 

Local Sections 

Exec. Com m s........................................................... 15 

N om inating Com m ., G roups o f ...................... 7 

R egional G roup D elegates to A nnual Conferences 

.......................................................... 15 

S tan d in g Com m ..................................................... 6 ,1 5 

Locom otives, Boilers of, C om m ............................. 37 

Low V oltage E lectrical H azards, Rep. on Safety 

C om m ................................................................. 36 

L u b ricatio n , Com m ........................................................ 25 

L ubricatio n E ngineering, C om m ........................... 11 

M achine Design, C om m .............................................. 12 

M achine P in s, C om m ................................................... 30 

M achinery, Speeds of, C om m .................................. 31 

M achine Shop P ractic e D iv., C om m s................. 11 

M achine T apers, C om m .............................................. 27 

M achine Tool Elem ents, C om m ................................ 27 

M achine Tools, D esignations and W orking 

R anges, C om m .............................................. 28 

M ain A w ard. See C harles T. M ain A ward 

M anagem ent D iv., C om m s....................................... 12 

M anagem ent, M easures of, C om m ........................... 26 

M anhole F ram es and Covers, Reps, on Comm. 32 

M anufactured Gas, C om m ......................................... 13 

M arston A w ard, A .S.M .E. R e p ................................ 9 

M aterials H an d lin g D iv., C om m s........................... 12 

M aterials, New, B oiler Code C om m ...................... 38 

M aterial Specifications, C om m ............................... 37 

M athem atical S tatistic s, C om m ............................. 12 

Max T oltz Loan F und, S tatem ent a b o u t.......... 39 

M easures of M anagem ent, C om m ............................. 26 

M echanical P ow er-T ransm ission A pparatus, 

Safety Com m ................................................. 35 

M echanical R efrig eratio n , Reps, on Safety 

Com m ................................................................. 36 

M echanical S eparation, C om m .................................. 13 

M echanical Springs, C om m ....................................... 25 

M echanical S tandards, Reps, on C om m ............... 32 

M edals, Com m .................................................................. 7 

M eetings and P ro g ram C om m .................................. 6 

M em bership Comm. See A dm issions Comm. 

M elville Medal 

R ecipients ............................................................... 40 

S tatem ent a b o u t ................................................... 39 

M etallu rg ical R esearch, Rep. on C om m ............ 26 

M etals C u ttin g , C om m ................................................ 11 

M etals, C u ttin g of, C om m ......................................... 25 

M etals, E ffect of T em perature on, Com m . . . . 25 

M etals E ngin eerin g D iv., C om m s........................ 12 

M etals, F atig u e Phenom ena of, Rep. on Comm. 26 

M id-W est Office, Location o f .................................. 5 

M illing C u tters, C om m ................................................ 28 

M iniature B oilers, C om m ......................................... 37 

Model Smoke Law, C om m ......................................... 10 

M onographs Com m ., A .S.M .E. R ep s...................... 9 

N ational B ureau of E ngin eerin g R egistratio n , 

A.S.M .E. R ep ................................................. 9 

N atio n al Conference of E n gineering Positions, 

A .S.M .E. R eps............................................... 9 

N atio n al Defense C om m ........................................... 8 

N ational F ire W aste Council, A.S.M .E. Rep. 9 

N ational M anagem ent Council, A.S.M .E. Reps. 9 

N atio n al R esearch C ouncil, A.S.M .E. R e p . . . . 9 

Noble P rize, A.S.M .E. R e p ....................................... 9 

N om enclature, M achine Tools, C om m ................. 28

xtJL-4* A.S.M.E. SO CIETY RECO RD S, PA R T 1 

N om inating Comm ., 1 9 4 1 ......................................... 7 

Nonferrous M aterials, C om m .................................... 37 

Officers, A .S.M .E., for 1940-1941........................... 5 

O il and Gas P ow er D iv., C om m s........................... 12 

O penings, R ules for, B oiler Code C o m m .... 38 

P ap er and P u lp M ills, Rep. on Safety C om m . . 36 

Papers, A w ards and H onors, Process In dustries 

D iv., Com m .................................................... 13 

P ast-P residents, L ist o f .............................................. 42 

P etroleum D iv., C om m s.............................................. 13 

P etroleum P roducts and L ubricants, Reps, on 

Com m ................................................................. 32 

P ipe and T ubing, C om m ......................................... 29 

P ip e Flanges and F ittin g s, C om m ...................... 28 

P ip e T hreads, C om m ................................................... 27 

P ip in g Systems, Identification, Cornin............ 30 

P i Tau Sigm a A w ard 

R ecipients ............................................................... 40 


P lu m b in g E quipm ent, C om m .................................... 30 

Plyw ood, Use as E n gineering M aterial, Comm. 14 

Pow er Boilers, C om m ................................................... 37 

Pow er D iv., C om m s........................................................ 13 

Pow er Test Codes Comm ., S ta n d in g ...............6 ,3 3 

Pow er T est Codes Comms., T e ch n ica l................. 33 

Pow er Test Codes, G eneral In stru ctio n s, Comm. 33 

P referred N um bers, Rep. on C om m ........................ 32 

Presses, Rep. on Safety C om m .................................. 36 

P ressure P ip in g , Code for, C om m ........................ 29 

P ressure Vessels in Service, Care of, C o m m .. 37 

P ressure Vessels, U nfired 

A .P.I.-A .S.M .E . Com m ....................................... 38 

A.S.M .E. Com m ..................................................... 37 

P rim e Movers 

H yd. Div. C om m ................................................... 11 

Pow er Test Codes C om m .................................. 34 

Process In d u stries D iv., C om m s........................... 13 

P rofessional C onduct C om m .................................... 6 

P rofessional Divs. Com m ., S ta n d in g ................. 6 ,1 0 

P rofessional Divs. Exec. C om m s........................... 10 

P rofessional D ivisions, Leadership in, C o m m .. 8 

P ublications Comm. 

Special .................................................................... 7 

S tanding ................................................................. 6 

P u lp and P aper, C om m .............................................. 13 

P um ping M achinery, C om m .................................... 11 

Pum ps, C entrifugal and R otary, C om m ............ 33 

Pum ps, R ec iprocating S team -D riven D isplacem 

ent, Com m ................................................... 33 

P unch P ress Tools, C om m ......................................... 28 

Q uarry O perations, Rep. on Safety C o m m .... 36 

R ailroad Div., C om m s................................................ 13 

R atin g of R ivers, Rep. on C om m ............................. 32 

Ream ers, Com m ............................................................... 28 

R efractory M aterials, P roperties of, R ep. on 

Com m ................................................................. 26 

R efrig eratin g System s, C om m .................................. 34 

R eg istratio n Com m ........................................................ 8 

R elations W ith Colleges C om m ............................. 6, 23 

R epresentatives on O ther A ctivities 

A .S.M .E....................................................................... 9 

B oiler Code .......................................................... 38 

Pow er Test C odes................................................ 34 

R esearch ................................................................. 26 

Safety ...................................................................... 35 

S tandardization ................................................... 31 

Research Comm ., S ta n d in g .......................................6 ,2 5 

Research Comms., T e ch n ica l.................................... 25 

Research Procedure Comm, of E ngineering 

F oundation, A.S.M .E. R e p ................... 9 

Research Secretaries 

A pplied M echanics ........................................... 10 

H eat T ransfer ..................................................... 11 

M anagem ent .......................................................... 12 

Oil and Gas P o w er........................................... 12 

Pow er ...................................................................... 13 

Process In d u stries .............................................. 13 

Rock D rill Steels, Ile at-T re atm en t of, Rep. on 

Com m ............................... ................................. 26 

R olling of Steel (P la s tic ity ), C om m ................. 26 

R o ta tin g E lectrical M achinery. Rep. on Comm. 32 

R ubber and P lastics, S ubdivision........................ 13 

R ubber M achinery, Rep. on Safety C o m m .... 36 

Safety Com m ., S ta n d in g ........................................... 6 ,3 5 

Safety Com m s., T e ch n ical......................................... 35 

Safety E ducation, C enter for, A.S.M .E. R ep. . 9 

Safety V alve R equirem ents, C om m ........................ 38 

St. Louis M edal. See S p irit of St. Louis Medal 

S an itatio n , Com m ........................................................... 13 

Scholarships and Loan F unds, S tatem ent ab o u t 39 

Screw T hreads for Hose C ouplings, C om m . . . . 29 

Screw T hreads, S tan d ard izatio n , C om m ............ 27 

Screw T hreads, U. S. Comm ., Reps, o n ............... 32 

S ecretarial Staff, A .S .M .E ......................................... 5 

S hafting, Com m ............................................................... 29 

Sieves for T esting Purposes, Rep. on C om m . 32 

S ingle-P oint C u ttin g Tools, C om m ...................... 28 

S ingle-P oint Tool-Life T ests, C om m ...................... 28 

Sm all Tools, C om m ..................................................... 27 

Society Office O peration Com m ................................. 8 

Solid Fuels, Com bustion Space for, C o m m ... 30 

Specific H eat of Gases, C om m ................................ 11 

Speed, T em perature and P ressure Responsive 

Governors, Com m ......................................... 34 

Speeds of M achinery, C om m .................................... 31 

Spindle Noses and Collets, C om m ...................... 28 

S p irit of St. Louis Medal 

R ecipients ............................................................... 40 


Splines and Splined S hafts, C om m ...................... 28 

Springs, M echanical, C om m .................................... 25 

S tan d ard izatio n Com m ., S ta n d in g ........................ 0 ,2 7 

S tan d ard izatio n Com m s., T e ch n ical...................... 27 

S tan d ard Ton of R efrig eratio n , Rep. on Comm. 34 

S tanding C om m s.............................................................. 6 

S tatistic s in E n gineering and M anufacturing, 

Com m ................................................................. 31 

Steam B oilers, C ritica l P ressure, C om m ............ 26 

S team B oilers in Service, Care of, C o m m .... 37 

Steam E ngines, R eciprocating, C om m ............ 33 

S team -G enerating U nits, S tatio n ary , C o m m ... 33 

Steam L ocom otives, C o m m ....................................... 34 

Steam , T herm al P ro p erties of, C om m ................. 25 

Steam T urbines, C om m .............................................. 33 

Steel, R olling of (P la s tic ity ), C om m ................. 26 

S tre n g th of G ear T e e th .............................................. 25 

S tren g th of Vessels, C om m ....................................... 26 

Stu d en t Awards 

R ecipients ............................................................... 41 


Stu d en t B ranches, L ist o f ....................................... 23 

Sugar, Com m .................................................................... 13 

S ulphur, Com m ................................................................ 13 

Surface Q ualities, C om m ............................................ 30 

Symbols and A bbreviations 

G raphical, Com m .................................................. 31 

L etter, Com m ......................................................... 31 

Symbol Stam ps, Boiler Code, C om m ................. 38 

Taylor M em orial, C om m ........................................... 8 

Technical Com m ittees 

B oiler Code ......................................................... 37 

Pow er Test C odes................................................ 33 

Research ................................................................ 25 

Safety ..................................................................... 35 

S tandardization .................................................. 27 

Technical Com m ittees, S tan d in g ............................. 6 

Technology, Board o n ................................................ 8 

T esting Technique C om m ......................................... 11 

T esting Wood, Rep. on C om m ............................... 32 

T extile Div., C om m s.................................................... 14 

T extiles, Rep. on Safety C om m ............................... 36 

Theory and F undam ental Research, C o m m ... 11 

T herm al In su latin g M aterials, Rep. on Com m . . 32 

T herm al P ro p erties of S team .................................... 25 

T herm o-P hysical P ro p erties of M aterials, 

Com m ................................................................ 11 

Thom as A lva Edison F oundation, A.S.M. E. Rep. 9 

Toltz Fund. See Max Toltz Loan F und 

Tool H olders, C om m .................................................... 28 

Tool Posts and Shanks, C om m .......................... 27 

Transm ission Chains and Sprockets, C o n n n .. 29 

T-Slots, Com m ................................................................. 27 

T w ist D rill Sizes, C om m ........................................... 28 

U nfired H eat T ransfer E quipm ent, C om m ......... 11 

U nfired P ressure Vessels 

A .P.I.-A .S.M .E . Com m ........................................ 38 

A.S.M .E. Com m ..................................................... 37 

U nited E ngineering Trustees, Inc., A.S.M.E. 

R eps.................................................................... 9 

V egetable Oils, C om m ................................................ 13 

V entilation, Rep. on Safety C om m ................... 36 

V erm ilye Medal A dvisory Comm., A.S.M .E. 

R ep..................................................................... 9 

Vessels, Clad, C om m .................................................. 38 

Vessels, S tren g th U nder E x tern al P ressure, 

Com m ................................................................ 26 

W alkw ay Surfaces, Rep. on Safety C o m m .... 36 

W arner M edal. See W orcester Reed W arner 

Medal 

W ashers, P la in and Lock, C om m ........................ 29 

W ashington A w ard Com m ission, A.S.M .E. Reps. 9 

W ater for In d u stria l Uses, Rep. on C o m m .... 26 

W ater H am m er, C om m ................................................ 11 

W ater H eating, Volume, Rep. on Com m . . . . 32 

W elded Jo in ts, R adiographic E xam ination of, 

Com m ................................................................ 38 

W elding 

B oiler Code C om m ............................................. 37 

M achine Shop P ractice C om m ........................ 12 

W elding A pparatus, E lectric, Rep. on Comm. . 32 

W estinghouse B ust C om m ........................................ 8 

W ire and Sheet M etal Gages, C o m m ............. 2!) 

W ire Rope, C om m ......................................................... 26 

W ire Rope for M ines, Rep. on C om m ............ 32 

W om an’s A uxiliary, Officers o f ............................. 38 

W om an’s A uxiliary S ch o larsh ip ............................. 39 

Wood F in ish in g , C om m ............................................. 14 

Wood In d u stries D iv., C om m s............................. 14 

W orcester Reed W arner Medal 

R ecipients of ....................................................... 40 


W orks S tandardization, C om m ............................... 12 

W orm G ears, C om m .................................................. 26

The T ren d of A ir T ran sp o rtatio n 

By E D M U N D T. A LLEN , 1 SEA TTLE, WASH. 

The year 1925 m arked th e b eginning o f air transportation 

as an industry. Since th en it h as advanced th rou gh su c 

cessive stages o f grow th and developm ent u n til today as 

the author believes air transport is in th e state o f tra n sition 

betw een th e pioneering period and th a t o f m ature 

growth. Airway m ileage by scheduled air transports in 

the U nited S tates has increased from a to ta l o f 2,000,000 

m iles flown in 1926 to 90,000,000 in 1939. Air passengerm 

iles in 1938 aggregated 600,000,000. In th is paper th e 

author reviews th e tech n ical develop m ents in aircraft and 

im provem ents in airway operation w hich have m ade p ossible 

th is phenom enal grow th. Every phase o f th is d e 

velopm ent w hich has played a part in th e su ccessfu l and 

safe operation o f th e airw ay system s o f th e present day is 

treated com prehensively in order th a t an understanding 

may be gained o f th e futu re possib ilities o f air transport 

and th e lin es along w hich it w ill advance. 

AIR TRA N SPORTATIO N has arrived a t its present state of 

commercial success in the space of a very few years. So 

^sudden has been its development th a t the public has 

hardly been able to keep pace w ith it, or to understand it, or to 

accept it fully, although certainly patronage of this mode of 

travel is steadily becoming more and more general. 

To the outsider, who catches only the high lights and does not 

see the effort and meticulous research th a t make possible the 

spectacular developments, the advance of aviation and of air 

transportation has been one series of sensations after another. 

No sooner has the news of one innovation cooled than another 

startling announcement supersedes it. In other words, it is an 

industry which, because there has been so much to be accomplished, 

has been moving ahead not a t a walk but at a forced run, 

just as fast as engineers could make it move and as fast as air 

traffic could pay for it. 

Air transportation as an industry started scarcely fourteen 

years ago, with a long, long way to go. Scarcely stopping to 

consider what the ultim ate goal m ight be, those responsible for its 

being proceeded on their course with the idea of finding out more 

about th at goal along the way. Literally, they looked to the sky 

as the limit. 

How far has air transportation progressed along its course 

What are its present status and its future prospects M ost new 

industries, th a t are sound, first go through a period of growth and 

then arrive a t a state of m aturity. The first stage is one of rapid 

change and development, merging into the second, which is one of 

refinement and the perfection of detail. In which stage does air 

transportation find itself today Or is it at the merging point 

between the two periods 

The engineer likes to make graphs and study curves. When 

they begin to flatten out, he feels th a t some sort of limit or goal is 

being approached, be it tem porary or perm anent. He knows 

1Director, Aerodynamics and Flight Research, Boeing Aircraft Co. 

Prepared for presentation at the Transatlantic-Airplane Session at 

the canceled Fall Meeting of T h e A m e r ic a n S o c ie t y o f M e c h a n i 

cal E n g in e e r s which was to have been held jointly with The Institution 

of Mechanical Engineers of Great Britain, New York, N. Y., 

September 4-8, 1939. Presented at a Meeting of the A .S .M .E ., Los 

Aneeles Section, July 11, 1940, Los Angeles, Calif. 

N o t e : Statements and opinions advanced in papers are to be 

understood as individual expressions of their authors, and not those of 

the Society. 

th a t the effort m ust be greater for further accomplishment and 

gain. Is the curve of efficiency in airplane performance flattening 

out How about the curve of airplane reliability 

A study of the records of the last fifteen years and of the present 

trends of the industry gives some enlightenm ent on those 

questions. The author believes such a study will show that, 

parallel to the developm ent of other forms of transportation, air 

transport has reached the transition between the pioneering 

period and the period of m ature growth. I t will also show th at 

the optimum airplane is closer a t hand; th at, having reached a 

certain leveling out in performance and size of aircraft, the 

industry is concentrating now more definitely upon the finer 

problems of perfection in safety, comfort, and reliability. 

R e v i e w o f R e c e n t A i r - T r a n s p o r t D e v e l o p m e n t s 

One of the best ways to judge the future trends of any industry 

or to see the present direction of its developm ent is to look back a 

short distance into the past of th a t industry. In such a review, 

it is necessary to go back far enough to get beyond the seasonal or 

short-swing tendencies. Fortunately, in the air-transportation 

industry, it is possible, in the space of a few years (1925 to 1940), 

to view the entire history of a m ajor development, its early faltering 

steps, its seasonal ups and downs, even its decline in a major 

economic depression and its partial recovery tow ard a normal 

level. 

1 

Fio. 1 

P a s s e n q e r - M il e s a n d T o n -M il e s F l o w n o n U n it e d 

S t a t e s D o m e s t ic A i r L in e s 

To look back over the record of the past through the eyes of the 

traffic m an is most inspiring, especially when it is considered th a t 

the figures are merely an indication of w hat m ay be expected of 

the future. Air passenger-miles in the U nited States have risen 

from 120,000,000 in 1932, fairly steadily except for regular seasonal 

w inter declines, to a total of 600,000,000 in 1938. There 

was a slight dip in the rising trend when in 1934 the num ber of 

passengers carried actually decreased as compared with the num 

ber in the preceding year, b u t this was due prim arily to the depression. 

Cargo transportation by air, principally in the form of 

air mail, has similarly increased in ton-miles flown. The rate of 

this increase has been approximately 50 per cent per year, Fig. 1. 

In some other transportation fields, it is true, the growth has 

been equally rapid. Rail transportation grew more rapidly than 

air transportation during its early boom, and bus transportation

2 TRANSACTIONS OF T H E A.S.M.E. JANUARY, 1941 

has also had its period of tremendbus expansion. B ut neither of 

these had to overcome such a serious reluctance on the part of the 

public to accept a mode of travel so new and different—one th at 

took them out of their accustomed element and into the air. 

Both of these other modes of transportation had heavy indirect 

subsidies, such as land grants and highway construction. Aircraft 

transportation has had similar assistance of federal and 

municipal funds in airway and airport construction. Beaconlighted 

routes have been built, forming a network over the entire 

country for night flying, and radio-range routes now perm it the 

radio navigation of any aircraft with a radio receiver. 

The subsequent drop is definite evidence of the increase in size of 

the aircraft unit, which factor in itself would cause a decrease in 

the number of such units landing per day a t an air terminal. 

T e c h n i c a l A d v a n c e o f T r a n s p o r t A i r p l a n e s 

As in air traffic, so in the transport airplane itself, the progress 

of fourteen years has been tremendous. D uring the period from 

1925 to 1939, the transport plane has changed from a small 

single-engined biplane, carrying 2 passengers in addition to the 

pilot, weighing 1 ton gross, and costing less than $10,000, to a 

large monoplane with either 2 or 4 engines, carrying 30 to 70 

F i g . 2 

A n n u a l A ir w a y M il e a g e a n d M i l e a g e F l o w n D a i l y o n 

U n it e d S t a t e s D o m e s t ic A i r L i n e s 

--- — ----- I 1 3 0 0 1 3 0 0 

F i g . 4 G r o s s W e i g h t a n d U s e f u l L o a d , U n i t e d S t a t e s T r a n s 

p o r t A i r p l a n e b 

F i g . 3 N u m b e r o f A ir p o r t s i n U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d S c h e d u l e d 

A i r - L in e L a n d in g s p e e D a y a t T y p ic a l A i r T e r m in a l 

Airway mileage in the U nited States has grown from an annual 

total of 2,000,000 miles flown by scheduled air transports in 1926 

to 10,000,000 in 1928; 30,000,000 in 1930; 50,000,000 in 1933; 

and 90,000,000 in 1939. The year 1934 shows a characteristic 

depression dip in the curve. The curve for mean daily air-miles 

flown closely parallels th a t for the gross annual mileage, as shown 

in Fig. 2. 

The increase in the number of airports has been an im portant 

trend, perhaps not closely related to long-distance, scheduled, air 

transport, but an indication of the growing interest in and use of 

aircraft by private owners, which occurred principally between 

1926 and 1932. The 500 airports of 1926 had increased to 2100 

in 1932. I t would be expected th a t eventually there would occur 

a leveling out in the increase of the number of airports. This 

has definitely occurred during the last four years. 

The number of landings per day of scheduled air-line transports 

at a typical air term inal may also be used as an index of the trend. 

A curve of landings, Fig. 3, based on studies made a t the Chicago 

air terminal, rises sharply from ten in 1928 to 34 in 1931 and then 

drops with the depression, rising again in 1936 to a peak of 44. 

F ig . 5 U n it C o s t o f T y p ic a l A ir T r a n s p o r t an d I n v e s t m e n t in 

T r a n s p o r t P l a n e s , U n it e d S t a t e s D o m e s t ic A ir L in e s 

F i g . 6 

P a s s e n g e r C a p a c i t y a n d L a n d i n g S p e e d , U n i t e d S t a t ic s 

T r a n s p o r t A i r p l a n e s

ALLEN —T R E N D OF A IR TR A N SPO R TA TIO N 3 

passengers plus a crew of 4 to 11, weighing not 1 ton b u t from 20 

to 40 tons gross, and costing $250,000 to more th an $500,000 each, 

Figs. 4, 5, and 6. The increase in size has been very gradual and 

has been dependent a t alm ost every step upon parallel technical 

development. Each forward step has been based on the successful 

performance of the preceding one. Each small advance required 

a successful experimental and design venture in order to 

obtain the necessary continued influx of working capital to finance 

the expansion. 

Domestic air lines had a total investm ent of less than $2,000,000 

in transport airplanes in 1927. This grew to $12,000,000 in two 

years, sank for five years during the depression, but recovered 

quickly and rose to $23,000,000 in 1938. T he u n it cost of a 

typical transport airplane in 1927 was $23,000. T he curve of 

F io . 7 C r u is in g a n d M a x im u m S p e e d s ; T y p ic a l A l t it u d e a n d 

C r u is in g H o r s e p o w e r p e r A ir p l a n e , U n it e d S t a t e s D o m e s t ic 

A ir L in e s 

F i g . 8 C o s t a n d T im e o f D e v e l o p in g a N e w A i r -L i n e T r a n s p o r t 

increasing u n it cost, Fig. 5, shows a gradual increase up to 

$110,000 in 1936 and then a large and sudden increase as the 4- 

engine air transports were developed. Cost per pound of useful 

load shows the effect of th e dem and for luxury of travel. In 

1928-1929, $12 per lb represented the cost; in 1939 it is $22 per lb. 

The average transport airplane of 1924 had a cruising speed of 

100 mph, using from 200 to 300 hp and flying a t a cruising altitude 

of less th an 1000 ft. The 1940 airplane, equipped w ith a pressurized 

cabin, cruises a t 200 mph, using cruising horsepowers of 1200 

to 2000 a t altitudes ranging from 12,000 to 20,000 ft, Fig. 7. 

These changes have not been uniform or gradual, b u t have occurred 

in sudden spurts, as new engines, new techniques, and new 

design tendencies were developed. 

One of the m ost interesting trends in this connection is th a t of 

the enormously increasing cost of developing a new air-liner design. 

Jn 1927 this averaged $40,000, while today costs as great as 

$1,500,000 are not uncommon. I t now requires not six months 

as it did in 1926, b u t two years to produce th e first airplane of 

a new m ajor type, Fig. 8. 

The trend of air-transport design tow ard larger size and higher 

power output has a very interesting parallel in the trend toward 

increasing wing loadings and decreasing power loadings. The 

average 1924 transport airplane had a power loading of 16 lb per 

hp and a wing loading of 11 lb per sq ft. W ing loading, going up 

from a low value, and power loading, going down from a high 

value, crossed in 1935 a t approxim ately 13 lb each. By 1939 the 

average power loading of landplanes had gone down to 10 and the 

wing loading of landplanes up to 30. The combined loading has 

thus through the years shown a gradual increase from 27 in 1924 

to 35 in 1935, and to 40 in 1939. W ing loading is going up faster 

th an power loading is coming down. This indicates the increasing 

efficiency of modern design. Seaplane wing loadings are 

definitely on the increase and will probably pass the 50 m ark 

soon. 

I t would be expected th a t landing speeds would show a very 

large increase parallel to the increased wing loadings, and this is 

true to a certain extent. H igher lift devices, however, have 

made it possible for designers to increase gradually the weight 

carried per square foot of wing area w ithout greatly increasing 

the landing speed, Fig. 9. Wing loadings of long-range aircraft 

no longer are an indication of landing speed, because now such 

aircraft are not landed w ith the take-off wing loading. Provisional 

gross weight on take-off is reducible by dum ping extra fuel 

in case a landing is required soon after take-off, before this fuel has 

been consumed in flight. T hus 70 m ph is required for landing a t 

standard gross weight, but take-offs m ay be made with greatly 

increased loads. Landing speeds of 55 m ph were typical in 1924 

to 1927, while landing speeds of 70 mph have become fairly well 

standardized a t the present. There is evidence however th a t 

they will soon be on the rise again w ith the advent of stable landing 

gears and sm ooth runways. 

Governm ent regulations have for years lim ited wing loadings 

of seaplanes as well as landplanes to the point where 70-mph 

alighting was possible. T he perfectly apparent safety, however, 

of much higher speeds on touching the w ater or land w ith aircraft 

of 40 tons gross weight, and the great increase in economy and 

range available by increasing the wing loadings, indicate th a t 

such an extreme lim itation is no longer essential. 

Fio. 9 

P o w e r L o a d in g a n d W in g L o a d in g , U n i t e d S t a t e s 

T r a n s p o r t A i r p l a n e s 

D e v e l o p m e n t o f S a f e t y F e a t u r e s 

Im provem ent of the airplane, its equipm ent, and its operation 

from the standpoint of safety has been the m ost wholesome and 

m ost reassuring trend of all. M uch has been accomplished already, 

and much more is now being done. 

The addition of proved safety devices has been a very gradual 

process. O utstanding among these have been blind-flying in


strum ents and equipment. The gyroscopic turn indicator was 

the first standard equipm ent to be developed, but technique in its 

use was not required by government regulations until twelve 

years after the instrum ent was adopted. Im proved aperiodic 

compasses, directional gyroscopes, and radio communication were 

necessary before extensive blind flying could be safely carried out 

as a scheduled operation. The autom atic pilot, which still further 

aids blind flight, is not perm itted on tests for pilot perfection 

in the technique of blind flying, orientation, and navigation, all of 

which m ust be done w ith only the compass, bank-and-turn indicator, 

and radio range. 

Blind-landing systems, long considered by pilot and managem 

ent alike as a hazard rather than a means of promoting safety, 

are now regarded almost uniformly as one of the last remaining 

steps to be taken in order to achieve safety from all th a t class of 

hazards deriving from unpredictable weather. Severe wing icing,, 

excessive propeller icing, and extreme static of radio disturbances 

still remain prim ary problems which are now receiving the greatest 

attention of engineers and research staffs. 

F ia . 10 P a s s e n g e r -M il e s F l o w n p e r F a t a l it y o n U n it e d 

S t a t e s D o m e s t ic A i r L i n e s ; S e m ia n n u a l T o ta ls 

The governmental requirem ent for multiengined passenger airplanes 

placed a restriction upon the use of single-engine aircraft 

and focused the attention of designers upon the problems of flight 

characteristics after an engine failure. Early multiengined airplanes 

were incapable of continued flight w ith full load after an 

engine failure. On later designs, it was specified th a t there must 

be no point in the flight range a t which the airplane will become 

dangerous should any engine fail. This called for new criteria 

for control and stability, new research in wind-tunnel and aerodynamic 

theory. I t has resulted in greatly increasing aircraft 

safety by virtually eliminating accidents caused by a failure of the 

power plant. I t has of course increased the cost of aircraft and 

somewhat decreased the economy of operation because of the 

requirement for a greater excess of power available per passenger 

carried. 

In operating practices, the trend through the years of airtransportation 

development is both interesting and significant, 

particularly with respect to a noticeable change in pilot attitude 

and management policies. There has been a m aturing soberness 

in the gradual elimination of piloting exhibitionism, and the development 

of sound safety policies in the conduct of transport air 

lines. The curbing of the desire to stunt airplanes was not very 

evident until 1931, when both management and piloting personnel 

became acutely aware of the economic necessity of eliminating 

the spectacular from the lures offered to the public to travel by air. 

The air lines which first made air passengers realize th at there are 

no sensations to air travel, th a t there is never any excitement and 

th at the pilots are not daredevils, were the first to build up 

passenger business. The multimotored airplanes of 1928 started 

off the acceleration toward conservatism, but as late as 1931, 

loads of passengers were occasionally stunted in airplanes. In 

some South American countries, this evidence of the infancy of an 

industry still exists. 

This trend points to a m aturing of both management and pilots. 

The older management policy of chance taking in combatting bad 

weather was typical of a passing stage of development. “The 

mail m ust go” slogan cost the lives of 4 out of 48 air-line pilots 

each year before passenger flying dictated a sounder policy. 

W ithout blind-flying instrum ents and w ithout radio, the airtransportation 

industry was born and struggled through its early 

developmental stages. D uring those stages, the courage of the 

pioneers did much to build toward a scientifically sounder future 

but th a t future has no place for the early type of pioneer airmen. 

The air line which encouraged chance taking in 1929 has, if it 

survived at all, become the acme of safety in operation in 1939, 

Fig. 10. 

L i g h t e n i n g t h e P e r s o n n e l B u r d e n 

To follow up this change in piloting attitude and policy, in the 

interest of further safety, some little scrutiny has been directed 

toward the question of the relationship of the human mechanism 

at the controls of the aircraft to the tasks it was being called upon 

to perform. Analyses of human reactions, under conditions of 

stress such as fear and fatigue, indicated th at frequently a breakdown 

occurred simply because the tasks were too many and 

difficult to perform under such a combined loading. Physiological 

and psychological tests indicated a vast differential between 

pilots as to their performance under these conditions. 

New techniques of careful control of the engine and equipment 

operation, the great increase in the number of controls and instruments, 

the introduction of radio and its resultant radionavigation 

problems, all of these new additions to the already 

overloaded human mechanisms required a new envisagement of 

the personnel problem. Could the tasks be lightened Could 

the general physiological and training level be very greatly raised 

Could testing techniques be developed to determine accurately 

the rating of a pilot required to perform such varied and multitudinous 

tasks under difficult conditions Work along these 

lines resulted during the years 1930 to 1939 in a gradual annual 

improvement in personnel and in a slight improvement in the 

_stability and ease of control of the aircraft. Selection of personnel 

changed from the older notion of choosing only the man with 

m any years’ experience to one of training the man along standards 

designed by the air line. Once the personnel is selected, training 

continued not only in the sensorimotor coordinations, but 

also in theoretical study of aerodynamics and engineering. Health 

was cared for methodically and psychological analyses were periodically 

made to determine whether any factors of worry or 

of m ental stress were being introduced to weaken the pilot’s 

preparation for his task. 

Copilots a t the same tim e changed in status to one of almost 

equal importance w ith the pilot. In fact, as the tendency has 

been to train first pilots via the copilot route, leaving the oldtimers 

who could not compete mentally with their younger 

brothers in the captain’s position, a situation arose in which the 

young copilot was frequently found to be more capable than the 

captain. I t was a question of specialized training versus trialand-error 

experience. 

Accident analyses frequently have led to the conclusion that, 

in an emergency when several things went wrong simultaneously, 

the plan of action broke down, especially where the captain tried 

to handle all decisions and frequently all controls alone. This 

possibility has led to the plan of drilling the crew as a unit for 

emergencies, and through such drilling to foresee any possible 

combination of emergencies for which a solution has not been 

worked out. When this is done thoroughly, emergencies cease

ALLEN—TREND OF AIR TRANSPORTATION 5 

to exist; they are relegated to the routine for which there is a 

ready solution. 

D e v e l o p m e n t o f C r u i s i n g C o n t r o l 

The most striking change in technique of air-line operation, 

from the standpoint of its economics and likewise from its effect 

on safety, has been the development of the theory and practice of 

cruising control. Prior to 1934 most aircraft operation was done 

at low altitude, and cruising-power output was approximated for 

sea-level conditions. The result was that very little was known 

by the pilot as to the optimum cruising operation of his engines. 

Most flying was done at absurdly low power with occasional high 

output operation at sea level where damage was done which 

caused engine failure or increased maintenance costs. The automatic 

power-and-mixture control on one air line and, on another, 

the development of cruising guidance charts rather suddenly 

changed all this, increased the scheduled cruising speeds of air 

transports some 20 mph, raised the cruising altitude, and, at the 

same time, virtually eliminated the dangerously damaging operation 

which had been making engine maintenance costs so high. 

The advent of the controllable propeller made this operation possible 

by permitting a change of pitch from the take-off condition, 

where high power output was necessary at low altitudes, to the 

cruising range, where low power output was necessary at moderate 

revolutions at high altitude. Optimum cruising from the engineairplane 

viewpoint was at high altitude at exactly desired cruising 

brake mean effective pressure. The utilization of the conception 

of optimum cruising altitude and the whole technique of optimum 

flight path followed closely upon this development. Cruising 

control at exact mixture conditions then became a reality. 

These technological developments occasioned the rather sudden 

increases in cruising speeds of 1934 to 1936 and ushered in the 

conception of substratosphere cruising in pressurized cabins 

where passengers and crew alike can breathe comfortably and not 

become fatigued at high altitudes. 

Today exact control of all engine operation is now regarded as 

requisite on all air lines. Contact flying near the ground is now 

restricted to the end of the optimum flight path. Meteorological 

and radio improvements have assisted in making this most desirable 

technique possible. 

P r e s e n t R e q u ir e m e n t s i n T r a n s p o r t A ir c r a f t 

The record of the past—of the increase in air-traffic volume, the 

radical improvement of the transport airplane, the progress in 

safety and in operating practices—is quite clear. What then are 

the present requirements of the transport plane, and what are the 

trends of present development The question covers a great deal 

of territory—size and range, speed and general performance, 

comfort and safety provisions, reliability. An analysis of each of 

these is necessary to clarify the important question as to what the 

air-line operator—and the public—requires and expects of the 

modern transport plane, and how and to what extent these expectations 

are being realized. 

The special problems of the air-transport industry arise largely 

from the economical demands for services. These demands have 

frequently been dictated or guided by government regulations. 

They are largely affected by the popular appeal and are quite 

sensitive to the injurious effects upon the industry of aircraft 

fatalities. In general the primary demand is for through-service 

with relatively few stops. There is at present practically no 

demand for limited and local services, largely because the competing 

rail and highway services very nearly equal in speed and 

comfort whatever the air lines can offer, after getting passengers 

out to an airport and in from an airport at the two terminals of a 

short-distance trip. 

The designer’s problem in meeting the demand for these 

through-express services with large pay loads is to provide the 

range plus the pay load plus the passenger and express capacity 

required for the route to be covered. Since 1932 virtually all 

transport airplanes have had a fuel capacity far in excess of that 

which could be filled if a full pay load were also carried. To a 

greater and greater extent, since then, airplanes have been designed 

to carry either of two possible useful loads; a large pay load 

for a short range with most of the fuel tanks empty, or a relatively 

small pay load for a long range. 

The practice on the air lines in loading at terminals has been to 

refuel only after the pay load was known and then only up to an 

amount which gave the maximum allowable gross weight, which 

ordinarily meant that the fuel tanks were from one half to two 

thirds full. This amount of fuel must of course equal the minimum 

required by considerations of safety for the trip contemplated. 

The type of aircraft which could be used economically on 

either long trips or over long stretches of impossible landing 

weather, or else on short trips with a very heavy pay load, gave 

great flexibility to the operation. 

The demands of operators continue to require such flexibility in 

ever-increasing degrees. As an example it is desirable to have an 

aircraft capable of carrying 30 to 40 passengers from New York 

to Washington in 1 hr and then to be able to take off with 20 

passengers for Miami, with ample fuel for a 2000-mile flight in 

case of emergency. 

For overseas routes, the demand is now crystallizing around a 

large flying boat of from 30 to 100 passengers capable of nonstop 

flights of 3000 miles. Longer range than this proves to be unnecessarily 

costly because of the excessive fuel loads required and 

the resulting increase in power required and in cost of operation. 

The trend has definitely established the 20- to 40-ton-aircraft size 

for overseas service, whether of the seaplane or the landplane type. 

Because of the virtual elimination of forced landings in multiengined 

aircraft, landplanes of multiengined varieties are being 

considered very seriously for overseas routes because of th« 

greater economy of flight due to drag reduction. 

For overland services, there is appearing a stronger demand for 

a smaller landplane in addition to the type now being developed 

in the 30- to 50-passenger class. Cost of operation remains almost 

constant for any given scheduled service whether the passenger 

seats are filled or not. Thus it becomes economically unwise 

for the route on which density of traffic is light to equip with 

aircraft costing $1 to $2 per mile to operate, when such a route 

can be equipped with small aircraft costing 30 to 60 cents per 

mile. The cost of operation remains the same for full as for empty 

passenger planes. 

There is no consistent demand for cargo carriers. From time 

to time, air freighters have been developed and cargo services inaugurated 

but these have not lasted long. The laws of the land 

have been built upon the indirect subsidy and encouragement of 

combined passenger and mail and cargo transport to such an extent 

that a service for cargo only cannot survive against competition 

offering cargo plus passengers. This fact has led designers 

away from cargo-only types and toward a flexible unit capable of 

transporting economically a wide variety of loads but definitely 

having seats for enough passengers to pay for the service in case 

other forms of cargo fail to materialize. Most domestic air lines 

depend upon their air-mail contracts in addition to passengerand-express 

revenue in order to break even. The effect upon 

design criteria of requiring such a variety of cargo capacity for a 

given fixed useful load indicates the probable increasing utility of 

large landplanes for both overseas and overland routes. 

The determination of the possible economical use of a new aircraft 

is a very complicated procedure. Other things being equal, 

the percentage of useful load to gross weight would be a determining 

factor in estimating economy of operation. This percentage


of useful load to gross weight increased rapidly from the early 

stages of aircraft construction in 1910, until approximately the 

time of the birth of air transportation as an industry in 1925. At 

th at time it had reached approximately 50 per cent; th a t is, half 

the gross weight of the airplane was structure and power plant 

and the remaining half useful load. Since then, the demands for 

increasing comfort, increasing safety, increasing speed, and increasing 

general utility, have far outweighed the improvements in 

structural efficiency and also the improvements in aerodynamic 

efficiency. Luxury features have become so im portant th a t the 

percentage of useful load has now dropped to approximately 33 

per cent from the 50 per cent figure of 1925. 

T h e T r e n d i n S p e e d 

Requirements for increasing speed in transport aircraft have 

been decreasing during the last few years. Cruising speed a t a 

given cruising altitude is, of course, not the speed which can be 

scheduled for any operation. Point-to-point speeds or, as they 

are called in this country, “block-to-block” speeds, are the speeds 

which interest the operator. These are very much lower than 

cruising speeds because of the tim e required to maneuver for a 

take-off, climb to cruising altitude, descend from cruising altitude 

(a positive gain), maneuver for landing, and taxi after landing. 

Block-to-block speeds are less than cruising speeds by an amount 

depending primarily upon trip length; for very long flights they 

approach equality, but for short flights they m ay vary as much 

as 20 per cent. Thus a 200-mile flight between airports made in 

an aircraft capable of cruising a t 12,000 feet altitude a t 200 mph 

would require not 1 hr, but approximately IV 2 hr (50 per cent 

more) because of the loss of time required for climbing up to the 

cruising altitude and the tim e used in take-off and landing. On a 

600-mile flight the scheduled speed can come within approxim 

ately 10 per cent of the cruising speed. 

Although any further increase in speed is beneficial, speeds have 

already reached the point where they require less emphasis; and 

more emphasis is currently being given to the m atters of comfort, 

safety, and economy of operation. However, in forecasting the 

possible future demands for aircraft speeds, it is of interest to note 

th at the primary consideration has now become the possibility of 

“saving a business day.” This is particularly im portant on 

routes having heavy traffic density where convenience, in the 

sense of frequent schedules, and availability to businessmen 

mean money saved. 

Ordinarily it would be thought th a t transcontinental routes 

across the United States would be the only ones where such a 

saving would be possible. An examination of the air schedules in 

m any parts of the United States reveals, however, th at this possibility 

of saving a business day can be realized on some relatively 

short trips as well as long ones. There are many north-to-south 

routes and many diagonal trips, involving connections between 

two air lines, which become of great importance in this m atter of 

saving time. 

Now th a t air-line transportation has reached the 200-mph 

cruising stage, a very large increase in speed would be required in 

order to expect a saving of a business day on any given trip. 

Strangely enough, the coast-to-coast route, westbound, against 

the prevailing wind, is now being made overnight; whereas the 

eastbound trip with the prevailing wind requires the better part 

of a business day in addition to the overnight time. This paradox 

is explained by a 6-hr daylight differential between the eastwest 

and the west-east trips in crossing three “tim e” zones. A 

typical west-east schedule leaves the west coast a t 5:00 p.m. and 

arrives on the east coast a t 12:00 m. To save a business day 

would in this case require arrival at 9:00 a.m., with 3 hr less flying 

time. To accomplish this would require an increase in block-toblock 

speed from 173 to 216 mph, or approximately a 25 per cent 

increase, assuming th at the same number of landings would be 

made en route. 

The most obvious way of increasing speed of air carriers is to 

increase their cruising power. This is also the most expensive 

way, since an increase of approximately 3 per cent in power is 

required for a 1 per cent increase in speed. 

This increase in power involves tremendous increases in fuel 

capacity, fuel weight, and, of course, fuel cost. It involves also 

large increases in the weight of the power plant and in structural 

weights required to carry these additional weights. 

A much more economical means for increasing cruising speed is 

an increase in cruising altitude, whereby drag is reduced because 

of the decreased density of the air. Ten years ago, however, 

transports had already reached altitudes as high as passenger 

comfort would allow. It has only been within the last year that 

designs have become available perm itting higher cruising altitudes 

w ithout passenger discomfort. The trend in this direction, 

for long routes, seems to point toward still higher cruising altitudes 

up to 20,000 ft or even a possible 25,000 ft for transcontinental 

service. 

F i g . 11 H o r s e p o w e r - H o u r s p e r T o n - M i l e o f P a y L o a d a n d 

C o s t p e r T o n - M i l e a t C r u i s i n g S p e e d , U n i t e d S t a t e s T r a n s p o r t 

A i r p l a n e s 

Speed increase by means of parasitic-drag reduction has been 

the stand-by of all the airplane improvers for many years. This 

possibility has been much overworked especially for the layman. 

D rag reduction is very difficult indeed to achieve and is very 

costly in structural design. I t is safe to say th at there has been 

no easy road as yet found, despite recent press releases, for appreciable 

reductions in aircraft drag. 

I t is of great interest to note th a t the curve of horsepower-hours 

per ton-mile of pay load a t cruising speed has been gradually 

flattening out for United States transport aircraft during the last 

four years, and it seems very unlikely th at there will be any appreciable 

decrease in the am ount of work required to transport a 

given cargo by air a t a given speed for the next ten years, Fig. 11. 

M uch of the subject of airplane speed and performance and, for 

th at m atter, airplane reliability as well, is concerned with the 

power plant. W hat are the status and the trend in this im portant 

phase of the transport airplane 

D e v e l o p m e n t s i n A i r c r a f t E n g i n e s 

American aircraft engines have only recently begun to utilize 

piston speeds near 3000 fpm for maximum-power operation. 

British practice has considerably exceeded American values in the 

past, although their engines have not been operated at brake 

mean effective pressures as high as is the practice here. The net 

effect of these differences has not been large when measured in 

terms of power output per unit of size. However, the higher 

pressures used in this country have required a very sturdy engine 

structure, which has been quite readily adapted to the increased 

rotative and piston speeds now being utilized. This change has

ALLEN—T R E N D OF A IR TRA N SPORTATIO N 7 

been accomplished with only moderate increases in the weights of 

engine components, and a small net reduction in weight per horsepower 

has fortunately been achieved. Some engines are now 

available which develop 1 hp for about 1.1 lb, including propellerdrive 

reduction gearing. It seems unlikely th at this figure will be 

much improved for current basic types of engines w ithout a prohibitive 

sacrifice in reliability. 

The widespread use of gasoline having a high-knock rating has 

been a primary factor in recent steps toward improvement of the 

aircraft engine. The first improvements, achieved by careful 

choice of the base crude oil, selective fractionation, and addition of 

tetraethyl lead as a knock suppressor, provided a foundation for 

major advances in the engine-power ratings. The gains thus 

initially achieved have stim ulated the study of properties of a 

wide variety of synthetic fuels. This work has now resulted in 

the use of blends of natural gasoline having strictly controlled 

properties and synthetic hydrocarbons having a high order of resistance 

to detonation. This practice has removed some technical 

barriers to still higher engine performance and there is ample 

indication th at the limit of such improvements is still in the future. 

The m utual adaptation of engines and fuels has been materially 

advanced in this country by cooperative research in 

which all interested agencies actively participate. 

Use of fuels of high-octane value has not only perm itted large 

increases in maximum-power rating for take-off, but it has had an 

im portant and favorable effect upon engine durability and upon 

cruising-power output, largely by eliminating detonation hazards 

at normal cruising powers with the leanest practicable fuel-air 

mixtures. 

W ith the current trend to higher flying speeds in transport 

operation, there has been much concern for the drag of the large 

radial engines. Conventional values for cooling drag can be 

reduced drastically by air-flow controls which proportion the 

pressure head and the am ount of air flowing over the cylinders to 

the existing need for cooling at any particular operating condition. 

The power used for cooling of cylinders may be held within limits 

heretofore thought practicable only for liquid-cooled engines. 

For extremely high speeds, however, the liquid-cooled engine appears 

to have a definite advantage over its competitors, largely 

because of more favorable shape and proportions. Speeds used in 

air-transport operations scarcely can be expected to rise in the 

near future to values where the low-drag shapes, associated with 

liquid cooling, will bear sufficient premium to offset the operating 

advantages of direct air cooling. 

There appears to be a trend in aircraft engines toward the 

development of two principal variations of basic engine types.. 

One of these variations provides a maximum of power output for 

high-performance aircraft a t some sacrifice of reliability and fuel 

consumption. The other variation is constructed to provide a 

minimum fuel consumption for long-range operation with a 

slightly reduced maximum-power capacity. This trend is highly 

significant to air transportation because of effects on the economics 

of long-range operations. 

Since the utility of an air transport (particularly for long-range 

service) is primarily dependent upon its pay-load capacity, every 

other weight involved in the airplane structure can be evaluated 

in terms of dollars per pound. The gross weight chargeable to 

the whole propulsion system consists of the engine, the propeller, 

structural supports, cowling, accessories, plumbing, etc., plus fuel 

and oil required for the schedule. A study of pertinent data 

shows th at fuel and oil weights are a predominant influence in this 

figure for nonstop flights of more than a few hundred miles. A 

typical air-transport engine will consume a quantity of fuel and 

oil about equivalent to its own weight in 4 or 5 hr of operation at 

the maximum power required for cruising. Thus for a 20-hr 

flight, weight savings on the fuel consumed are about four times as 

im portant in term s of pay load as are items of fixed weight, such 

as the basic engine. For the same reason, any items affecting 

the propeller efficiency at cruising power are extremely im portant. 

In the selection of engines for long-range transports, engine 

factors which are conducive to a maximum of safety and reliability 

are, of course, of prim ary importance. Ease of m aintenance, 

accessibility in flight, and proper adaptation to service requirements 

are much more im portant factors than in the case of 

other aircraft types. A premium is placed upon experience accumulated 

in previous operations of a similar type. I t is essential 

th a t the aircraft shall have serviceability characteristics 

which will eliminate need for extensive attention between 

scheduled flights. As aircraft become larger, this is a factor of 

increasing importance because of the larger investm ent and 

consequent overhead charges. 

These factors emphasize the necessity for a degree of reliability 

in the long-range-aircraft power plant which approaches th at 

provided in marine practice. I t seems probable th a t the future 

will show an increasing emphasis on durability and reductic)n in 

fuel and oil consumption a t moderate power-output levels. I t is 

fortunate th at all concerned have come to realize th at these 

qualities cannot be obtained without moderate sacrifices in the 

high performance qualities associated with other classes of aircraft 

service. 

P r o v i s i o n s f o e C o m f o r t o f P a s s e n g e r s 

The progress of air transportation depends in very large measure 

upon passenger comfort and passenger satisfaction. Volume 

of traffic is very sensitive to improvements in these two factors. 

The air lines in the United States have been very responsive to 

these demands on the part of the traveling public and, in turn, 

they have demanded of the aircraft designer more space per passenger, 

less crowding, better seat and berth design, larger dressing 

rooms, better ventilation and tem perature control, air-conditioning, 

and, now, air-pressure control for high altitudes and to minimize 

the effect of rapid changes in altitude. In addition to these 

demands, improved food service aloft is now required, such th at 

appetizing meals can be served attractively and expeditiously. 

Improved lighting for passengers’ accommodation in reading and 

writing has become such a serious problem th a t in some cases 

auxiliary power plants have been required to supply the current 

demands for luxury items as well as mechanical necessities. The 

weight of these luxury items has increased on the average from 10 

lb per passenger in 1930 to approximately 180 lb per passenger in 

1939. Floor area has increased from approximately 5 sq ft per 

passenger in 1932 to 20 sq ft per passenger in 1939, and cabin 

volume from 25 cu ft in 1931 to 120 cu ft in 1939. This increase 

in roominess is in itself a prim ary comfort feature, Fig. 12. 

Soundproofing has changed from a luxury item, only a few 

years ago, to a prim ary requirem ent today in crew and passenger 

quarters alike. 

The increased effort to cater to passenger satisfaction has led 

F ig . 1 2 

C a b i n V o l u m e a n d F l o o r A r e a p e r P a s s e n g e r , U n i t e d 

S t a t e s T r a n s p o r t A i r p l a n e s


F i o . 13 

W e i g h t o f S a f e t y E q u i p m e n t a n d F u r n i s h i n g s p e r 

P a s s e n g e r , U n it e d S t a t e s T r a n s p o r t A ir p l a n e s 

F i g . 14 W e i g h t o f S a f e t y E q u i p m e n t a n d P a s s e n g e r F u r n i s h 

i n g s , U n i t e d S t a t e s T r a n s p o r t A i r p l a n e s 

designers to develop many new devices and facilities. The desire 

to make the passenger wholly comfortable has also directed attention 

to the smoothness of the flight path as a vitally im portant 

factor in the pilot’s technique, as well as in the designers’ repertoire. 

Modern aircraft flies very much more smoothly than 

th at of ten years ago, partially because of the greater altitudes for 

cruising, partially because of the increased stability of the airplanes, 

and partially because the pilots are endeavoring every 

moment to eliminate any flight irregularity which would cause 

passenger discomfort. The fact th a t a large num ber of transport 

schedules are now arranged for sleeping passengers has accelerated 

this development of smoothness of the flight and has tended to 

reduce the number of stops for fuel. 

G reat care is now taken to change altitude slowly because some 

of the passengers may be distressed by rapid altitude changes. 

The trend in this direction points definitely for nonstop services 

for most of the sleepers. This tendency will require larger fuel 

loads, greater weights of luxury equipment, and definitely higher 

costs per passenger-mile. 

D e m a n d f o r S a f e t y 

There has definitely been a radical change in the attitude of airtransport 

lines tow ard the importance of safety during the last 

few years. I t is now considered an intim ate part of the specifications 

for new aircraft. The fact th at a single accident results in a 

great decrease in passenger revenue, far outweighing any gain in 

economy which could be obtained by om itting safety features, has 

resulted in the demand for safety on a scale never before realized. 

Governmental regulations and requirements have built up this 

interest in safety to such a degree th a t no possible source of 

trouble should be overlooked, and no structural or equipm ent 

features should be considered negligible, if they can decrease in 

the slightest measure the possibility of an accident. How far the 

industry has gone in this direction can be visualized by a glance at 

the increasing weights of such safety equipment during the last 

few years. In 1931 the average seaplane in the United States 

had approximately 50 lb of safety equipment, whereas today the 

average seaplane has 850 lb of such equipment. In weight per 

passenger of safety equipment, the increase has been equally rapid 

for our seaplanes, rising from 10 lb per passenger in 1932 to 40 lb 

per passenger in 1939. On landplanes the increase has been 300 

per cent in the last seven years, Figs. 13 and 14. 

In listing the requirements for an air-transport airplane in a 

highly competitive field, various factors have assumed, from time 

to time, the leading place. Safety, as such a feature, is sometimes 

assumed to be in the “of course” category. In other words, it has 

been assumed th at the airplane m ust be safe. Grammarians may 

quibble over whether safety is a relative term ; aircraft operators 

know it definitely as a feature which must be weighed carefully 

against other features. Conceivably, an airplane might be 

loaded with safety equipment until it could not get off the ground, 

or a t least until it could not carry any pay load. Those who make 

a realistic and rational approach to the problem will recognize 

th at there are certain hazards to flying operations, just as there 

are in any other form of transportation, and th at we can only hope 

to decrease these hazards gradually during the advance in technological 

development. 

Any such advance is made at the cost of economy; the fourengine 

airplane for instance is definitely less economical than the 

two-engine airplane but, if it is capable of continued flight after 

any two engines have failed, it is some 27 times more reliable than 

the two-engine airplane, based on actual probabilities of one 

engine failing. It is not safe, however, to consider a hazard as 

being reduced 50 per cent merely because the system involved is 

duplicated. There are certain types of failure of an engine, for 

instance, which will cause an accident regardless of the number of 

engines, unless the potentialities of safety involved in this duplication 

are fully realized by making each unit duplicated merely an 

incidental factor for continued flight. 

There is a continual argum ent among engineers regarding such 

duplication of vulnerable parts versus improvements to reduce 

vulnerability. Both trends will probably continue side by side in 

aircraft development. 

One of the most persistent problems of aircraft design is the 

element of human error of the operator of the aircraft. As with 

vehicles of land and sea, this problem can be solved by simultaneous 

attacks in two directions: (a) Improvement in the quality 

and condition of the operators to reduce to a minimum the mistakes 

they will make; and (6) design of controls and the aircraft’s 

response and stability in such a manner th at mistakes, delays, or 

other errors will have a very minor effect upon the operation. 

Examples of this kind are to be seen in all modern aircraft design. 

Landing gears are now designed so th at they absorb energy without 

bouncing the aircraft into the air again when an error in 

judging distance from the ground results in contacting the ground 

with a considerable vertical velocity or with an angular velocity 

such th a t the wing’s angle of attack is increasing. Groundlooping 

was a serious problem requiring skillful handling before 

the design improvements recently made resulted in elimination of 

this hazard. 

The most serious errors in flight technique frequently result 

from forgetting or omitting some essential adjustm ent prior to 

take-off. The complexity of large aircraft can be visualized after 

examination of the pilot’s “check-off” list where from 10 to 20 

items are specifically to be checked, (1) prior to take-off, (2) prior 

to landing, or (3) before any change in operating regime. The 

failure to check off this list has resulted in accidents simply because 

it is impossible for the human mechanism of the pilot to 

retain a t the focus of attention the number of items necessary.

ALLEN—TREND OF AIR TRANSPORTATION 9 

Sooner or later, in repeated operations, especially when the pilot 

has been under strain for a long period, some essential item will be 

forgotten. Designers are now bending all their efforts toward 

(1) making such omissions of minor importance to the safety of the 

aircraft and (2) providing automatic devices to make the omissions 

impossible. 

Although large aircraft utilize a crew of from three to seven 

men, great effort has been expended in retaining complete control 

of the aircraft under one man. Such a one-man control is necessary 

only in emergencies where the time required to coordinate 

the efforts of the crew members may not be available. 

A u t o m a t ic C o n t r o l s P r o m o t e S a f e t y 

The trend toward automatic devices continues to point to the 

errorproof control. One direction in which this type of design 

has developed is a light signaling system which permits one man 

to check all items requiring his attention by a momentary glance 

at a bank of red and green lights. Prior to take-off he presses the 

take-off button, whereupon any condition of the airplane, unsuitable 

for take-off, at once causes a red light to flash on his warning 

board. Each regime of operation has its corresponding pushbutton, 

which automatically flashes the red or green stop-and-go 

lights, proper to that regime. Such automatic warnings of pilot 

errors have been in use for many years, but they have frequently 

failed to prevent the error, sometimes calling attention to omissions 

after it is too late. The more recent developments in this 

field are promising. 

In this country, there is an almost universal use of automatic 

pilots to relieve the pilot of the strain of attending to the actual 

mechanism of flight. Pilot fatigue has been studied under many 

conditions of flight, particularly those involving mental and emotional 

strain. Any relief from fatigue improves the pilot’s judgment. 

On aircraft where the power-plant control is in the hands of the 

pilot, a large part of his attention is required to maintain optimum 

conditions of power and mixture and revolutions for the flight 

regime in which he is operating. Automatic-mixture controls 

for carburetors are now considered a “must” on air lines. Automatic 

power control is rapidly coming under this category. Icefree 

carburetion has virtually eliminated the need for control of 

carburetor-air temperature. Automatic control of propeller 

pitch or engine speed is now standard on all air lines. There is 

some indication that detonation indicators will soon be perfected 

in response to the demand for a positive indication of this damaging 

phenomenon on engines in which the cooling is so excellent 

that it is no longer a guide to detonation. Some operators feel 

that the trend toward automatic devices has gone too far, and the 

statement is frequently heard that an extra man is required in the 

crew to see that all the automatic devices work. Those of us, 

however, who have followed these same developments in rail 

transportation, will note a great similarity both in the trend 

toward automatic devices and the resistance to them. 

The problems of air-line operators as related to the characteristics 

of aircraft, during take-off and landing, have occasionally 

conflicted with the ideals of the government regulating bodies. 

In general, however, government regulation has definitely acted 

as a steadying influence to prevent the sporadic introduction of 

seemingly attractive aircraft having questionable safety. Since 

the government furnished the airports, in most cases, and also the 

airway aids to flying, it was of course quite logical to expect 

governmental regulation in establishing minimum take-off and 

landing performance. 

Take-off run in itself, or what is sometimes called unsticking 

distance, has been established for many years as 1000 ft. Obstacle 

clearing is now recognized as a far more important criterion of 

safety in take-off than the unsticking distance itself. Either of 

these criteria, when established as minimum requirements, virtually 

determines the power-weight ratio of the aircraft design. It 

is very interesting to note in this connection that, although all 

transport aircraft must demonstrate their ability to unstick 

within the required 1000 ft, such a take-off is never used in air-line 

operations. The technique of operation on air lines requires that 

the airplane be held on the ground until it reaches a certain airspeed 

exceeding by a definite margin the minimum speed for 

take-off. In some cases this requirement is considered as a sort of 

safety factor to prevent inadvertent stalling after take-off. In 

the case of multiengine aircraft, it has another specific usefulness, 

namely, to make certain that, in case any engine fails during takeoff, 

the airplane will be under good control. Until recently, the 

speed for minimum control with one engine inoperative, has been 

considerably in excess of the speed for minimum control under 

symmetrical ■conditions of power. The gap between stalling 

speed and minimum speed for control under the worst unsymmetrical 

power condition, was accepted as the hazard which must 

accompany the advantages of multiengine operation. However, 

recent improvements in aircraft design have resulted in a narrowing 

of this gap to the point where no aircraft in operation will ever 

run the risk of having an engine failure on take-off throw it out of 

control. 

The landing-speed requirement virtually establishes the wingloading 

of modern aircraft used for passenger transportation. 

Maximum-lift coefficients of acceptable wing-flap arrangements 

are virtually all the same, for modem wing designs. A standard 

of 70 mph is now established in this country as the landing speed 

of aircraft above 20,000 lb gross weight. With wing-loading and 

power-loading thus determined by governmental regulation and 

also by the acceptance standards of the major air lines, transport 

aircraft are tending toward greater and greater identity of general 

design. 

Flight characteristics, after a failure of part of the power plant 

during take-off, are of vital concern for the safety of air-line operation. 

The take-off has generally been considered a less dangerous 

or critical part of the flight, than the landing. It is now being 

recognized as a much more critical part. Even though an airplane 

can be demonstrated to have control with the worst unsymmetrical 

power condition, at a speed close to a stall for this power 

condition, it has been found in practice that frequently the pilot 

has been unable to handle the emergency of an engine failure 

during take-off. Possibly the delay in the application of corrective 

measures resulted in allowing the airplane to begin a turn, 

and in this turn the airplane was uncontrollable by reason of a 

yaw in the “wrong” direction. At any rate, the critical conditions 

of flight in this emergency made any failure of the pilot at 

any one of a number of important points too serious to overcome. 

The margins for safety at this point must thus be larger than at 

any other point during flight. 

Major improvements in stability are still being sought by aircraft 

builders. Longitudinal stability is at present required only 

to the extent of a damping of dynamic oscillations. Increased 

static stability is very desirable, both from a safety standpoint 

and also for comfort and freedom from pilot fatigue. Improvements 

in yaw-and-roll‘stability are proceeding in the direction of 

attaining the proper coordination between the slopes of the yawing- 

and rolling-moment curves. The designer’s problem of obtaining 

satisfactory yaw stability at small angles of yaw is still a 

major one. Spiral stability, although not ordinarily required, is a 

desirable flight characteristic. On large aircraft, it assumes an 

entirely different aspect than it ever had on small aircraft, where 

the pilot could only detect its presence or absence by a carefully 

conducted test, with controls free. On aircraft above 30,000 lb, 

controlled flight comes to resemble free flight more and more. 

On such an aircraft, in which spiral stability was determined to be

10 TRANSACTIONS OF THE A.S.M.E. JANUARY, 1941 

negative, it would be clearly evident to the pilot in making a turn, 

such as an approach to a landing, that the forces required to prevent 

the airplane from tightening up in the spiral were higher 

than they should be for both comfort and safety. 

A ib c r a f t M a in t e n a n c e P r o b l e m s 

The air-line problems of maintenance have demanded and obtained 

such highly competent technicians during the last few 

years, that the entire subject of air-line engineering has achieved a 

new importance. One of the most interesting comments upon 

this development is the change in the relationship between piloting 

personnel and maintenance personnel. At first the maintenance 

personnel was the key to the problem of reducing mechanical 

failures. Very soon, as this reduction in failures proceeded, 

it became evident that certain pilots were very hard on equipment 

and certain other pilots, who apparently had maintained 

just as good schedules, never had any mechanical failures. 

Analysis of the operating technique disclosed what practices were 

causing most of the failures, and what types of operating procedure 

resulted in trouble-free running. 

Maintenance personnel is interested primarily in insuring 

safety from mechanical failure, rather than in the repairs or deterioration 

of equipment. The parallelism may be noted here 

between preventive versus corrective measures in this field and 

in medicine. The most successful maintenance man is the one 

who never has to maintain anything. Aircraft inspection practices 

have now reached a very highly perfected state on most air 

lines. Airplane major and minor inspections and overhaul are 

now done primarily by checking an outlined form. Engine inspection 

and overhaul proceed along a similar routine path, each 

valve, each piston ring, each aileron, and each inner tube has its 

individual record of hours of operation and date for next replacement. 

The maintenance of safety devices has become a very important 

feature of the overhaul shop; a safety device is of course not a 

safety device if it is not maintained properly. All equipment 

such as radio, for example, receives its separate maintenance procedure 

and replacement quite regardless of the fact that it may be 

functioning perfectly at the time of removal. Instruments are 

now checked in air-conditioned and well-equipped laboratories. 

Flaps and airplane controls all receive separate and special attention, 

each with its individual trip check and routine time checks 

after a certain period found by experience to be best for each 

individual item. Deicer boots have been a very serious problem 

for maintenance engineers, until some means was devised to prevent 

their deterioration and static punctures. They still remain 

a rather costly item for maintenance in winter. 

There has been in the past a great deal of competition between 

air-line maintenance engineers; secrets found by one group were 

carefully guarded to prevent another group from equaling their 

record of maintenance perfection. Some years ago, however, the 

air lines realizing the enormous importance of bringing all services 

up to the standard of the best, joined their forces and pooled their 

information in a series of semiannual conferences, at which they 

discussed freely all problems relating to air-line-engineering practices. 

These conferences resulted immediately in a marked reduction 

in mechanical failures throughout the entire United 

States. All air lines benefited from them, even the best ones 

receiving a stimulation to greater effort by the contact with the 

poorer services. 

T h e O u t l o o k 

The trends of the present period show two distinct and quite 

opposite tendencies in the development of air transportation. 

One group of factors, such as size of airplanes, speed (at sea level) 

and economy of operation, shows a tendency to level out, as if a 

kind of limit were being approached. In the case of flying speeds 

it must be noted, however, that further increases are being obtained 

by virtue of operation at higher altitudes with pressureized 

cabins. Aircraft size has reached its leveling-off stage because 

of economic considerations. Technological development 

is at the stage where airplanes twice as large as any flying today 

could be built, but such airplanes could not meet the economic 

problem of making a profit in air-line use with any type of service 

demanded today. In regard to the other leveling-out tendencies, 

such as sea-level speed and economy, a great deal of effort bent on 

improvement along these lines yields relatively little further gain. 

It may well be that some new development will suddenly reverse 

the trend and shoot us all into high gear again along these lines, 

but the chances are that the next ten years will show no more increase 

in these factors of speed and economy than the last five 

years. In this category come also factors such as landing speed 

and work done at cruising speed per ton-mile of pay load, thus 

indicating a leveling out in airplane efficiency. 

The second group of factors shows the opposite tendency. 

These curves are not tending to level out but rather to increase in 

slope. The industry’s efforts, responsive to this divergence in 

tendencies have recently been directed from the less promising to 

the more promising trends. We are now accelerating the development 

of safety and reliability, of comfort and convenience of 

travel, with cost of airplanes on the upswing. Altitudes of flight 

are pointed upward, with pressurized cabins almost certain to 

dominate the field within the next few years. This means in itself 

greater comfort for the passengers, greater safety above the 

weather, greater range to eliminate intermediate refueling stops, 

greater reliability of schedules, and greater flying speeds. 

Where the graphs do not in some cases bear out the conclusions, 

the reasons may lie in the fact that the points plotted were so 

scattered that, especially at the 1940 end of the curves, the trends 

were left up to the judgment of the plotter who could have varied 

the lines up or down a great deal with equal justification from the 

available data. The curves show averages, but averages do not 

always show trends. Another factor which may need elucidation 

at this point is the confusion which results from trying to average 

the 1938 airplanes of the twin-engined 20,000-lb variety, and the 

1940 airplanes just now entering the field with four engines and 

40,000 to 60,000 lb gross weight. These latter represent 1940 

more truly than the smaller airplanes, even though in 1940 there 

will still be many more of the smaller ones in use than the larger 

ones. The curves in many cases average between these two, 

whereas the true story might have been told more clearly with 

broken lines leveling off at the 1940 stage. 

The first trend toward leveling out occurs in those factors 

always present in the initial stages of an industry and incident to 

its greatest period of growth. That we are approaching limits 

here, even though temporary ones, indicates the coming of the age 

of air transportation. The second trend, because it occurs in such 

factors as safety and comfort items is also confirmation of the 

maturity, the end of spectacular pioneering, and the application of 

sound economics to the problems of broadening the foundation 

of the industry. 

Discussion 

E. F. B u r t o n .’ The writer has had ten months of fast-moving 

aviation development as an advantage in discussing Mr. Allen’s 

paper. Viewed at the time of preparation Mr. Allen gave considerable 

advance thinking; viewed today he is found partly right 

and partly wrong due both to domestic and international events 

of importance definitely influencing otherwise normal development. 

2 Chief designer and assistant chief engineer, Douglas Aircraft 

Co., Inc., Santa Monica, Calif.

It is difficult to agree with Mr. Allen on two major contentions: 

First, that his curves and conclusions drawn therefrom on gross 

weight plotted against time are indicative that 60,000-lb aircraft 

will supplant the lighter types, and second that “there is no consistent 

demand for cargo carriers.” Majority opinion is now confident 

that the larger-capacity aircraft will merely complement 

existing equipment for the more heavily used routes and that only 

a very large increase in passenger traffic will render obsolete the 

aircraft in the twenty-five to thirty-five thousand pound grossweight 

class. This is not anticipated for many years. 

Mr. Allen has proved by his own statistics that safety and 

passenger comfort provisions have required the loss of many 

valuable pounds of pay load as well as increased costs. It follows 

that these two vital fundamentals raise the cost of transporting 

goods to a point where such carriage require lower initial and 

operating investments and special handling of aircraft freight. 

The term “aircraft freight” is used necessarily since aircraft can 

never compete with railroad mass transportation. 

Aside from these two arguments Mr. All%i should be congratulated 

for his clear analysis of existing conditions, the developments 

leading up to the present time, and the glimpse given us on 

things to come. 

J. P. V a n Z a n d t . 3 Referring to the curve of Fig. 11 which 

shows the cost per ton-mile at cruising speed for United States 

transport airplanes, will the author explain his method of computing 

the values The average cost per capacity pay load tonmile 

of the domestic air-mail carriers was about 50 cents for the 

fiscal year, ending June 30, 1935, whereas, the curve of Fig. 11 

indicates that the lower limit of 20 to 25 cents had been approached 

by that year. 

Another question which arises is whether or not Fig. 12 refers 

to seaplanes only The curves shown seem excessive for Douglas 

planes or for the Boeing 307. 

Also referring to Fig. 12, does the author really mean that “the 

cabin-volume curve represents landplane practice” His figure 

for cabin volume per passenger for 1939, on a steadily rising 

trend, is about 120 cu ft. The writer’s understanding, however, 

is that the cabin volume per passenger in the Boeing 307 is between 

50 and 55 cu ft and approximately the same in the DC-3. 

This fact appears to be borne out in a recent paper by Bonnalie 

ALLEN— TREND OF AIR TRANSPORTATION 11 

of the United Air Lines.4 The writer has always assumed that 

50 to 60 cu ft per passenger was ample cabin volume for landplanes 

rather than 125 cu ft, as the curve in question evidently 

predicts. 

The figure of 28 cents per pay load ton-mile capacity for the 

DC-3, based on a 1200-mile range, is of interest, but further information 

on the method of computation used should be given. 

The operating cost of any type of plane depends to a large extent 

upon how it is used. The number of miles flown per plane 

per year, for example, directly affects all the costs related in any 

way to the utilization factor. If in one instance the overhead 

and administrative costs are $50,000 a year and in another instance 

$250,000 a year, for the same number of total ton-miles 

flown, then the overhead costs per ton-mile in the latter instance 

are 5 times that of the former. But this relation would no longer 

hold if the number of miles flown per plane per year were different 

in the two cases. 

A u t h o r ’s C l o s u r e 

Referring to the question concerning Fig. 11, of the paper; the 

author believes that the discrepancy between his figures of cost 

per capacity pay load ton-mile of the domestic air-mail carriers 

and the figures cited by Mr. Van Zandt may be due to the “range” 

for which the capacity pay load is computed. The author’s calculations 

were based on a minimum range and maximum pay load 

condition. It would be logical to find these figures doubled, if 

based upon a maximum range condition. A figure of 28 cents per 

pay-load ton-mile has been attained for the DC-3, based upon a 

1200-mile range. The author would appreciate further data on 

this matter if it is available from sources at command of the discussers. 

Fig. 12 represents something of a compromise between seaplanes 

and landplanes. Admittedly the justification for presenting 

the case in this manner is slight, because of the appreciable 

differences between the two classes of aircraft. Unquestionably, 

separate curves would have been more desirable. The cabinvolume 

curve represents landplane practice rather than seaplane 

practice. The floor-area curve at the 1939 point approaches seaplane 

usage. If landplane practice concerning floor aiea had 

been consistently followed, the curve would have tapered off to a 

value 20 per cent lower than the one shown. 

* Technical Consultant, Civil Aeronautics Authority, Washington, 4 “Toward Economic Air-Line Equipment,” by A. F. Bonnalie, 

D. C. Trans. A.S.M.E., vol. 62, Jan., 1940, Fig. 2, p. 3.

A n Improved Technique for Centrifugal- 

Pump-Efficiency M easurements 

A d u p lic a te w ater-su p p ly sy stem h a s b een re c e n tly 

c o n stru c te d by th e C ity o f T o ro n to , C an ad a a n d , in c o n 

n e c tio n th e re w ith , a n extensive p u m p in g s ta tio n w as 

b u ilt a t V ictoria P ark . T h is s ta tio n c o n ta in s eleven 

c e n trifu g a l p u m p s, driven by in d u c tio n a n d sy n ch ro n o u s 

m o to rs, th e capacities o f th e p u m p s ra n g in g fro m 6,000,000 

gal per day to 60,000,000 gal p er day, a n d th e h e a d s ra n g in g 

from 54 ft to 270 ft. All o f th e p u m p s a re g u a ra n te e d for 

very high over-all efficiencies, som e o f th e m to over 86 

per cent, a n d th e p e n a ltie s for failu re to m e e t th e g u a ra n 

tees are very h ig h . T he te s ts o n th e m , th e re fo re , h a d to 

be m ade w ith u n u s u a l accu racy . T h e p a p e r describes 

th e m eth o d s a d o p ted a n d th e p h o to g ra p h ic record in g o f 

th e observations, to g e th e r w ith re s u lts o f som e o f th e 

tests. 

T 

H E C ity of Toronto, situated on the north shore of Lake 

Ontario, has always drawn its w ater supply from the 

lake. Two intakes have long been in use for delivering 

water into wells on Toronto Island, from which it is pumped to 

the filtration plants. The filtered w ater then passes through a 

tunnel under Toronto Bay to the main pumping station in the 

city at the foot of John Street; from this point it is distributed to 

the various sections of the city. To facilitate this distribution, 

auxiliary pumping stations have been installed at strategic locations, 

and reservoirs have also been built. 

A few years ago it was decided to supplement the supply by 

constructing a new intake some miles east of the original location, 

and to provide in connection therewith an independent pumping 

station and filtration plant, together w ith other necessary additions, 

including a new reservoir on St. Clair Avenue. The new 

pumping station is located at Victoria Park on the Lake Shore, 

and contains the pumping machinery w ith which this paper deals. 

At the present time, this station contains eleven pumps, but 

space has been left for the addition of two more at a later date. 

Of the pumps now installed, three are intended to deliver wash 

water to the filters, four others are for the purpose of lifting the 

raw water as received from the intake onto the filtration plant, 

and the remaining four pumps deliver the filtered and treated 

water to the distribution system. However, the St. Clair Avenue 

reservoir floats on the main delivery line so th a t surplus water 

flows into it. The three wash-water pumps have capacities of 

6,000,000 gal, 9,000,000 gal, and 12,000,000 gal, per 24 hr, respectively, 

at a net pressure of 54 ft, while the four raw-water pumps 

are rated, respectively, at 24,000,000 gal, 30,000,000 gal, 48,000,- 

000 gal, and 60,000,000 gal per 24 hr at a net head of 82 ft. Of 

the four filtered-water pumps, two are for 6,000,000 gal each per 

24 hr at 196 ft net head, while each of the other two has a capacity 

of 30,000,000 gal per 24 hr at 270 ft net head. 

Each pump is direct-connected to a General Electric motor, 

'jHead of Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of 

Toronto. Fellow A.S.M.E. 

Contributed. by the Hydraulic Division and presented at the 

Semi-Annual Meeting, Milwaukee, Wis., June 17-20, 1940, of T h e 

A m e r ic a n S o c ie t y o f M e c h a n ic a l E n g i n e e r s . 


understood as individual expressions of their authors and not those 

of the Society. 

By ROBERT W. ANGUS,1 TORONTO, CANADA 

but the switching equipm ent was supplied by the Canadian W estinghouse 

Company. All motors operate on 25-cycle 3-phase 

2300-v current. Induction motors of 75 hp, 100 hp, and 140 hp, 

w ith a rated speed of 730 rpm have been installed on the three 

wash-water pumps. All other pumps are driven by synchronous 

motors, the 48,000,000-gal and the 60,000,000-gal raw-water 

pumps operating at 500 rpm, while the remaining raw-water pump 

and all four of the filtered-water pumps operate at 750 rpm. 

The motors on the raw-water pumps have rated outputs of 425 

hp, 525 hp, 825 hp, and 1025 hp, respectively, while the filteredw 

ater pumps are driven by 250-hp and 1700-hp motors. Synchronous 

motors are supplied by exciters running a t 125 v direct 

current and are designed for 90 per cent power factor. 

13 

A c c e p t a n c e T e s t s o n P u m p I n s t a l l a t i o n 

The principal data for the pumps are given in Table 1. The 

sizes of the suction and discharge pipes were taken as the average 

across the two diameters which term inated in the piezometer 

openings. The efficiencies are the over-all results as between 

horsepower of the electric input to the motor and the horsepower 

in the w ater delivered by the pump, the figures tabulated 

being those guaranteed by the builder in each case. All other 

values in Table 1 are from the specifications. 

The pumps and the piping connected w ith them were built 

and installed by the Dominion Engineering Works, Limited, 

M ontreal, Canada. All are double-suction pumps w ithout guide 

rings; the filtered-water pumps are in reality two single-stage 

pumps, in each case coupled in series by piping. Therefore, all 

of the pumps are of the same type and class. The specific speeds 

are calculated from the formula 

where N is the speed in revolutions per minute, H is the head per 

stage in feet, G the gallons per m inute rated output, and Q is the 

equivalent cubic feet per second. 

The specifications for the pumps were carefully drawn up, giving 

full details regarding the acceptance-test procedure, describing 

the methods of measurement, and the points of attachm ent of 

the gages. In addition, it was stipulated th at sums ranging 

downward from $4450 according to the pump were to be deducted 

for each 1 per cent th a t the over-all efficiency failed to 

attain th a t guaranteed; these large deductions made it necessary 

th a t the greatest accuracy should be m aintained throughout 

every stage of the test. 

When the author was instructed by R. C. Harris, Commissioner 

of Works, Toronto, to carry out the acceptance tests on 

the machinery, the various parts of the installation were in process 

of erection and readily accessible. All of the suction- and 

discharge-nozzle diameters were measured w ith micrometer calipers 

so th a t the proper areas for calculating velocity-head corrections 

might be known; also the upstream and throat diam eters of 

the venturi meters were measured on two diameters, the upstream 

sizes to hundredths of an inch and the throat diam eters to 

thousandths of an inch. The measurements on the throat diameters 

made by the author did not differ in any case more than 3


T A B L E 1 P R IN C IP A L C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S O F P U M P S I N T O R O N T O P U M P IN G S T A T IO N 

C a p a c ity 

------- Specific speed- 

:„ _ o _a: _ - _ Pi _ i _ t> a in m illion S u ctio n - D eliv ery - 

r . 

-P re ssu re s— —n S tages G u ar, B ased B ased 

gal p er pipe 

p ip e Speed S uction, D ischarge, N e t, in ov er-all eff, on gal on 

Service 24 hr d ia m , in. d ia m , in. rp m ft f t ft p u m p p e r ce n t p er m in cfs 

W a sh -w ate r 6 14.91 1 1 .9 3 730 36° 90 54 1 7 7 .9 2365 112 

p u m p s 9 16.6 7 13.9 2 730 36° 90 54 1 7 9 .2 2900 137 

12 1 8 .2 9 15.9 3 730 36° 90 54 1 8 0 .5 3350 158 

R a w -w ater 24 2 4 .5 1 1 9 .9 2 750 9 b 73 82 1 8 4 .5 3545 167 

p u m p s 30 2 6 .5 8 2 1 .9 4 750 9 b 73 82 1 8 5 .1 3970 187 

48 3 3 .3 4 2 7 .7 6 500 9 b 73 82 1 8 6 .0 3340 158 

60 3 8 .6 8 3 3 .9 2 500 9 b 73 82 1 8 6 .3 3740 176 

F ilte re d -w a te r 6 15.0 5 11.91 750 36° 232 196 2 8 1 .4 1556c 73 c 

p u m p s 30 J 2 4 .9 7 /1 9 .9 5 750 36° 306 270 2 8 6 .0 2735* 128c 

\2 4 .8 5 \ 1 9 .90 

° P re ssu re h ea d , ft. 

&S u ctio n lift, ft. 

e P e r stag e. 

parts in 17,100 from those made by the builders and, in most 

cases, the difference was w ithin 0.001 in. This represents a high 

degree of accuracy when it is stated th a t the throat diameters 

varied from 9.53 in. to 27.2 in. 

All those participating in the tests cooperated very earnestly in 

trying to secure precise results. To this end the contractor supplied 

mercury columns so th a t the pressures could be read directly 

in feet of mercury. In all but the raw-water pumps, there was 

sufficient suction pressure to allow the connection of the suction 

side of the pump to the top of the mercury column, while the 

delivery side was connected to the bottom of it. Thus, the 

mercury column read directly the net pressure head produced 

by the pump, autom atically allowing for difference of elevation 

of the connections. For the raw-water pumps, only the discharge 

pressure could be taken on this column, the suction lift being read 

directly in feet of water. G reat care was observed in clearing all 

piping of air and dirt and in adjusting the zeros of the measuring 

tapes; correction was made for the tem perature of the mercury 

column and for the depression of the mercury in the pot corresponding 

to each pressure. 

Four piezometer connections were provided for each pressuremeasuring 

section, the openings being located in a plane surface 

normal to the axis of the nozzle and spaced 90 deg apart. Each 

connection consisted of a brass plug screwed into the nozzle wall 

having a V

ANGUS—IM PRO VED TEC H N IQ U E FO R C EN T R IFU G A L -PU M P-E FFIC IE N C Y M EA SUREM ENTS 15 

other ammeter and in the voltmeter there was a slight parallax 

error which could be corrected for, within the desired accuracy, by 

reading the position of the shadow of the needle as well as of the 

needle itself. 

The position of the film-pack camera was adjusted so as to be 

approximately level w ith the top of the mercury column, and 

therefore parallax effect was insignificant. Furtherm ore, the 

measuring tape photographed w ith the mercury column was beside 

the latter and set out so th at its face was opposite the center of 

the column, which naturally eliminated all errors. The greatest 

difficulty, although it gave little concern, occurred in photographing 

the differentials on the venturi meters as, in some tests, 

the differential was about 100 in., while in others only about 6 

in. To complicate the situation further, the columns oscillated 

greatly, although the differential was fairly constant during a 

test; finally, w ater is not an easy fluid to photograph. The 

latter difficulty, however, was eliminated entirely by placing a 

white paper, w ith heavy black rules, a t 45 deg to the vertical, just 

behind each column; the change in slope of the lines produced by 

the glass making it easy to locate the top of the w ater column. 

In photographing these columns, wooden scales graduated in 

divisions of */s in. were placed beside the columns so th at the plane 

of the scales passed '/s in. behind the center of the glass tubes. 

However, for the large differentials, a correction had to be made 

which will be discussed later. 

With this camera, the operator ingeniously photographed two 

readings side by side on the same plate by covering up one half 

of the plate while exposing the other, a process which saved plates 

but rather increased the time required and at times was somewhat 

trying on the nerves. All exposures were made at 1/100 sec 

with incandescent lamps; the night work proving to be a help in 

th at connection, since the illumination of the room was always 

the same, and the lighting of the apparatus was, therefore, easily 

kept uniform. 

In making the exposures, an operator was placed at each camera, 

men being selected who could respond quickly to a signal. 

The shutter on each camera was set open, and each operator stood 

w ith his finger on the cable release; while a fourth man signaled 

the time. In each case two signals were given, the first 10 sec 

before the exposure, to get ready, and the second one to make 

the exposure. While the three cameras could have been operated 

simultaneously by relays, the method used produced such good 

results th a t it was never possible to detect more than one click 

when the exposures were made, and it would appear th at all three 

exposures were made within '/to sec of one another. 

As the scales photographed w ith the columns were parallel 

to, but some distance away from them, some care was necessary 

in reading the records. Each photograph was set up under a 

microscope of suitable magnification, the degree being carefully 

chosen, since too high or too low a magnification made it impossible 

to read the w ater columns. The microscope was equipped 

w ith a movable table which could be adjusted in two directions 

at right angles to each other. W ith the glass column in the 

microscope set parallel to one direction of motion and w ith a 

cross hair in the microscope normal to this direction, the picture 

was moved till the cross hair was at the top of the column; the 

entire table was then traversed a t right angles to the axis of the 

columns until the reading could be taken on the scale. Fortunately, 

a suitable microscope was available during these experiments, 

although for electrical instrum ents an ordinary microscope 

of rather higher power was used. 

Readings of the photographs were taken by both the author 

and by H. Ulmann, pump designer, acting for the contractor, and 

any difference was a t once adjusted, although in almost every case 

the two readings agreed. 

Samples of the photographs are shown in Figs. 2, 3, and 4, 

Fig. 2 being from the mercury column, Fig. 3 from the venturimeter 

tubes, and Fig. 4 from the electric meters. Unfortunately, 

they do not reproduce very clearly although the films were easy 

to read. 

F io . 1 

S e t u p o f E l e c t r ic a l I n s t r u m e n t s W i t h C a m e r a 

A c c u r a c y o f t h e R e s u l t s 

As far as observations go, the accuracy is beyond question, 

parallax having been avoided w ith the w attm eter and also in the 

mercury pressure column by adjusting the height of the camera in 

each test until it was almost exactly level w ith the surface of the 

mercury, and also by adjusting the plane of the measuring tape 

to suit the column. For the venturi-m eter differential, some correction 

should be made, even though the plane in which the 

scales lay was nearly the same as th a t of the center of the tubes, 

because there was a bending of the light rays due to refraction, as 

illustrated in Fig. 5. This illustration shows a side elevation of 

the setup, and also an enlarged view of the tube and scale for the 

worst case during the runs. 

In the enlarged diagram Fig. 5, the effect of refraction is shown, 

the refractive index for air being taken as N i = 1 ; for pyrex as 

N t = 1.48, a value determined experimentally for the tubes; 

and for w ater as N 3 — 1.33. The greatest value of 6 , was 13° 40' 

and, using the relation N i sin 0i = N t sin 02 = Ara sin S3 the path of 

the ray has been drawn as indicated; the angle $2 is found to be 

9° 25', while 63 = 10° 13'. The surface of the liquid was assumed 

to be spherical for this study and, by constructing the diagram on 

a large scale, the corrections Ci and c2 for the upper and lower 

columns in this extreme case were found to be Ci = 0.024 in. and 

Ci = 0.026 in. or, in other words, the apparent differential was 

0.05 in. greater than the real quantity. This was corrected for 

in the large readings, although it only amounted to 0.05 per cent,


F ig . 2 M e r c u r y C o lu m n f o b P r e s s u r e H e a d o n P u m p ; T w o T e s t s 

(T h e ta p e is fa in tly show n a t th e le ft of th e d a ta card in each case.) 

F io . 3 

D if f e r e n t ia l G a g e o n V e n t u r i M e t e r ; T w o T e s t s

ANGUS—IM PRO VED T EC H N IQ U E FO R C E N T R IFU G A L -PU M P-E FFIC IE N C Y M EA SU R EM EN TS 17 

F ig . 4 E l e c t r i c a l I n s t r u m e n t s U s e d i n T e s t s 

(T he card s ta te s th a t th e te s t w as on filtered -w ater p u m p N o. 4; c a p a c ity (25,000,000 im p gal) 30,000,000 g al p e r 24 h r; p h o to g ra p h ta k e n on n ig h t 

of A ug. 2, an d desig n ated as te s t 4 D . T h e re is no b lu rrin g of th e needles on th e o rig in al film .) 

T A B L E 2 

E X T R A C T S F R O M T W O T Y P IC A L L O G S H E E T S 

R eference 

W a ttm e te r 

P ressu re, 

in. 

S u ctio n 

lift, 

in. 

D ifferen tial 

on 

v e n tu ri m eter, D is c h a n 

no. read in g m e rcu ry w ate r in. w ate r v alv e 

R a w -w a te r pump® 

0 .7 3 8 

6 3 .5 2 6 .0 102.4 

, 0 .7 3 7 6 3 .6 2 6 .0 1 0 2 .5 

1 0 .7 3 0 6 3 .9 2 6 .0 102.8 

w ide 

open 

0 .7 3 5 6 3 .3 2 6 .5 1 0 4 .6 

f 0 .7 3 2 6 7 .5 2 8 .5 9 1 .8 

9 0 .7 4 0 6 7 .6 2 7 .5 9 3 .2 p a rtly 

z 0 .7 3 8 68.0 2 6 .0 9 0 .7 closed 

1 0 .7 3 0 6 7 .1 2 5 .5 9 2 .2 

0 .7 1 8 7 4 .5 1 6 .5 6 9 .3 

q J 0 .7 1 0 7 5 .1 1 5 .8 6 8 .4 p a rtly 

6 1 0 .7 1 0 7 5 .0 1 5 .5 6 7 .5 closed 

[ 0 .7 1 0 7 5 .0 1 5 .0 6 7 .8 

H ig h -p ressu re pum pft 

0 .7 4 3 2 5 2 .1 . . . 6 9 .2 5 

0 .7 3 8 2 5 0 .2 6 8 .7 5 

0 .7 4 8 2 5 2 .0 6 8 .7 2 w ide 

4 0 .7 4 0 2 5 3 .3 68.20 o pen 

0 .7 3 8 251.1 6 8 .5 0 

0 .7 4 0 2 5 1 .7 6 9 .2 5 

0 .7 2 0 2 6 3 .2 5 8 .3 5 

0 .7 2 2 2 6 3 .2 5 7 .8 0 

- 0 .7 2 0 2 6 3 .3 5 8 .7 0 p a rtly 

a 0 .7 2 0 2 6 2 .0 5 7 .9 0 closed 

0 .7 2 5 2 6 3 .5 5 8 .7 3 

0 .7 2 0 2 6 3 .3 5 8 .5 5 

0 .6 5 2 2 8 3 .8 3 6 .6 5 

A 0 .6 5 5 2 8 3 .5 3 7 .0 5 p a rtly 

b 0 .6 5 2 2 8 3 .8 3 6 .9 0 closed 

0 .6 5 4 2 8 3 .7 3 7 .3 0 

° S u ctio n re a d sep ara te ly . 

N e t p ressu re d ire c tly ta k e n .


OVER 

LL 

36 3 8 4 0 4 2 4 4 4 6 4 8 50 52 

M IL LIO N S U.S. G A LLO N S PER 2 4 HOURS 

F i g . 8 E f f i c i e n c y C u r v e s f o r R a w - W a t e r P u m p 

(C a p a c ity 48,000,000 gal p er 24 h r a t 82-ft head an d 500 rpm .) 

F i g . 6 E f f i c i e n c y C u r v e s f o r W a s h - W a t e r P u m p 

(C a p a c ity 12,000,000 gal p e r 24 h r a t 54-ft h ea d a n d 730 rp m .) 

F i g . 7 E f f ic ie n c y C u r v e s f o r R aw -W a t e r P u m p 

(C apacity 24,000,000 gal per 24 hr a t 82-ft head and 750 rpm .) 

while its effect on the calculated discharge is only 0.025 per cent. 

Of much greater importance is the weight of the air column 

balancing the differential; this was corrected for throughout. 

The conditions under which these tests were made were as 

nearly perfect as one could possibly expect in commercial work, 

because the speeds were constant and the levels of the suction 

and discharge wells were uniform during tests, although there may 

have been some vibration in the valve disks, where these were used 

to regulate the discharge. The variations in the several quantities 

observed may be estim ated from the brief extracts from 

typical record sheets, three entries for each test being given, 

Table 2. 

Variations occurred in all quantities, irrespective of the time 

allowed for the pumps to attain uniform conditions. Where the 

discharge valve was wide open, as during best efficiency for the 

pumps, corresponding to Nos. 1 and 4, Table 2, the variations in 

the w atts, pressure, and m eter readings, were very small indeed, 

but with considerable throttling, as in Nos. 3 and 6, the variations 

were greater and the accuracy of the tests was less. In some of 

the tests, records were made over a fairly long tim e w ith results 

of the same nature. These facts are mentioned to show th at 

variations of this kind do exist and are not due, as is often assumed, 

to the personal errors of the observers. Of course, the 

percentage variation in the computed discharge is only one half 

th at in the observed differential. 

The results of the tests m ay be of interest in view of the very 

high efficiencies obtained in the units; the curves for a typical 

unit of each group are given in Figs. 6, 7, 8, and 9. The guarantees 

made cover the over-all efficiencies and only these were 

measured in the tests. The m otor efficiencies were measured at 

the builders’ shops. When these results are applied to the over- 

F ig . 9 E f f ic ie n c y C u r v e s f o r F il t e r e d -W a t e r P u m p 

(C apacity 30,000,000 gal per 24 hr a t 270-ft head, tw o stages, and 750 rpm. 

all efficiencies determined by the pump tests, the pump efficiencies 

are obtained and these are also shown in the illustrations. 

M o d e l T e s t s 

Models were made of the various pumps by the Dominion 

Engineering Works, M ontreal and, through the courtesy of that 

company, the author has been perm itted to give some of the re 

suits of the tests on the models made by the contractors at their 

shops. These results are for models of the pumps, corresponding 

to the efficiency curves of Figs. 6, 7, 8, and 9, i.e., for the 12,000,- 

000-gal wash-water pump, the 24,000,000- and 48,000,000-gal 

raw-water pumps, and the 30,000,000-gal filtered-water pump. 

The models were, of course, made w ith the same specific speeds as 

their respective prototypes and in Table 3, data on the prototype 

and model are given, together w ith the efficiency obtained in eacli 

case; the specific speeds are based on discharges in cubic feet per 

second. 

The laws governing the construction of centrifugal-pump models 

will be briefly reviewed. The specific speed of the model and 

prototype m ust, of course, be the same, and attention must be 

given to the smoothness of finish of the model. The variables in 

the relationship between the model and the prototype may be 

made by the method of dimensionless numbers. 

Let Q, D, N, H be the discharge, impeller diameter, speed, and 

head for the prototype, while p, m,

ANGUS—IM PRO VED TEC H N IQ U E FO R C E N T R IFU G A L -PU M P-E FFIC IE N C Y M EA SU REM EN TS 19 

T A B L E 4 

E F F I C I E N C Y R E L A T I O N B E T W E E N M O D E L A N D P R O T O T Y P E 

P u m p 

c apacity 

, 

m illion 

gal p er ,—Speeds, rp m —>✓---- H ead , f t-----* 

24 h r P u m p M odel P u m p M o d el 

12 730 1200 54 6 7 .0 

24 750 1500 82 9 2 .8 

48 500 1200 82 6 8 .5 

30 750 1200 135 9 1 .8 

C alcu 

la te d 

D 

d 

1 .4 8 

1.88 

2 .6 3 

-Efficiency- 

C alcu - 

H 

M easu red la ted M easu re 

on m odel fo r p u m p on 

h e E p u m p 

0 .81 0 .9 0 0 0 .9 0 8 0 .9 0 2 

0 .88 0 .8 9 6 0 .9 1 0 0 .9 1 5 

1 .20 0 .8 9 6 0 .9 2 0 0 .9 3 0 

1 .47 0 .9 0 7 0 .9 2 4 0 .9 1 8 

Substituting dimensions and using M, L, T for mass, length, and 

time 

Collecting coefficients 

Therefore 

or 

where v is the kinematic viscosity. 

The kinematic viscosity of the w ater used is the same for the 

model and prototype, and experience indicates th a t the term 

ND2 

------ has little effect. Theory of the pump further suggests 

V 

that the first and second term s are connected as a product and, 

further, Q/(NDZ) is proportional to the specific speed and must 

be the same in model and prototype. Therefore, it follows th at 

Since the pump and turbine are exactly similar, it seems reasonable 

to apply Moody’s formula for the efficiency relation between 

model and prototype, and this is 

Applying these principles to the four pumps considered gives 

the results in Table 4. 

For the 12,000,000-gal, 24,000,000-gal, and 30,000,000-gal 

pumps, the calculated efficiency agreed very well w ith the observed 

value, but the 48,000,000-gal pump actually gave 1 

per cent higher efficiency than the model indicated. As this 

efficiency wras unusually high, the tests were repeated and the 

venturi m eter was calibrated, but there appears to be no error in 

the figures given. 

V e n t u r i - M e t e r C o e f f i c i e n t 

Owing to the very high efficiency indicated on the 48,000,000- 

gal pump, the author decided to eliminate all possibilty of error 

by calibrating the venturi meter against definite displacement in 

one of the reservoirs a t the station. Before beginning the calibration, 

and after finishing it, very careful observations were 

made on leakage, and these showed the reservoir to be perfectly 

tight. The volume of the reservoir was computed from measurements 

and the test was continued for 5 hr w ith as nearly constant 

differential on the meter as was possible to keep by a control 

valve which was constantly watched. The depth of w ater delivered 

to the reservoir was 12.88 ft and, as the elevations could 

be measured to about 0.06 in., there should be no error in th at 

measurement; the differentials on the m eter were photographed 

a t 5-min intervals during the entire run. The results were as 

follows: 

Size of m eter............................................... 27.2 X 41 .78 in. 

Coefficient obtained on this test and used............. 0.9545 

Coefficient recommended by Fluid M eters Comm 

ittee........................................................................... 0.9876 

A c k n o w l e d g m e n t 

These pumps have set a very high standard for units of this 

size and duty, and reflect great credit on the Dominion Engineering 

Works, Montreal, and particularly on their chief engineer, 

Mr. H. S. Van P atter, and on their pump designer, Mr. H. 

Ulmann. 

The author’s thanks are due to Mr. R. C. Harris, Commissioner 

of Works, Toronto, for permission to publish these results. The 

rigid specifications drawn up under his direction are undoubtedly 

partly responsible for the splendid showing. Thanks are gladly 

tendered to Mr. A. U. Sanderson and Mr. L. F. Allen, engineers 

of the Works D epartm ent, for their cooperation in all the work; 

particularly Mr. Allen who was present throughout every test 

and was responsible for the operation of the pumps. Mr. L. E. 

Jones assisted w ith photography and showed great skill in the use 

of the cameras and in the lighting, and Mr. Ulmann who was 

present during all of the tests showed the author every courtesy in 

a rather difficult task. 

D iscussion 

L. F. A l l a n . 2 The author gives a comprehensive description 

of the methods used in testing the over-all efficiencies of the 

pumps recently installed at Victoria Park, Toronto. The arrangem 

ent of the measuring sections which, in general, follows the 

recommendations of this Society was described in the specifications 

on which the contract for the supply and installation of the 

pumps was based. A conference of all parties interested in the 

tests decided th a t a high degree of accuracy was required and th at 

water manometers for the venturi meters, mercury gages for 

measuring pressures, and cameras for taking the readings should 

be used. 

The advantages of photography for recording the indications 

of the gages and instrum ents are obvious, and the practicability 

of the method has been demonstrated. Its chief advantage is the 

avoidance of the inherent human errors involved where a num ber 

of observers are employed. W ith cameras, the only hum an elem 

ent entering into the recording of the indications is the operation 

of the camera shutters, and this can be done quite accurately. 

Other advantages are the reduction in the number of persons required 

for the tests and the securing of a perm anent photographic 

record of all indications. 

Although the design and arrangem ent of the apparatus received 

earnest consideration at the outset, the technique developed 

gradually as defects and difficulties appeared. For example, 

the first photographs of the water m anom eter showed 

2 D e p artm en t of W orks, W ater S upply Section, T oronto, C anada.


insufficient contrast between the part of the glass tube containing 

water and that containing air, so that the position of the top of 

the water columns was not easily readable. To increase the contrast, 

it was suggested that dye be placed in the water but the 

idea was discarded because it was thought that, following a fluctuation, 

the dye might stick to the glass tube thus blurring the 

image. A white card with sloping black lines was placed as a 

background behind each glass tube. With this arrangement, 

due to lens effect, there is in the image an abrupt change in the 

slope of the lines at the water surface. 

Another difficulty which presented itself at the outset was the 

glare from the lights reflected from the glass tubes, which made 

the negatives less easy to read. To improve this condition, the 

lights were counterbalanced on a vertical support so that by 

raising or lowering them the reflections did not occur at the water 

surface. The glare was later entirely eliminated by arranging a 

shield in the form of a black cloth tape alongside each glass tube 

of the manometer so that light did not shine on the glass tube but 

did illuminate the background, whence it was reflected through 

the tube to the camera. The same device was applied to the 

mercury tube. In the displacement test for checking the meter 

coefficient, an electric clock was included in the photographs; 

it was found that the clock should be placed near the center line 

of the lens in order to avoid the effects of parallax. The clock 

should previously be checked to insure that the minute hand takes 

the correct position at all points on the dial and it should not be 

entirely relied upon lest it stop due to power failure. Stop 

watches were used to obtain elapsed time of the test, etc. 

In connection with the mercury gage, there was only one 

column to photograph and it was possible to mount the camera 

on a sliding carriage on a pipe standard so that the camera was 

always positioned horizontally opposite the surface of the mercury 

column. Any variation of the location of the image from 

the center of the negative was due to fluctuation of the pressure. 

This method is more accurate and convenient than other 

methods, yet its accuracy and speed can be further increased by 

certain refinements not difficult to arrange. For instance, all 

cameras could be made to operate at the pressing of a single button 

which would have the advantage in that one person could set 

and control all the apparatus connected with taking the pictures. 

The parallax due to the wide angle made with the camera by the 

two water columns at the manometer could be avoided by using 

one camera for each column. These cameras could be synchronized 

mechanically to operate at exactly the same time. The 

light for illuminating the mercury column could be projected 

through a slot behind the glass tube and would reach the camera 

lens only in the portion above the mercury, thus providing 

maximum contrast. A similar arrangement with a suitable background 

could be used for the water manometer. 

An alternative method which would perhaps yield more information 

would include the use of motion-picture cameras, and 

an electric clock in the field of each, all properly synchronized 

to produce simultaneous exposures correctly identified. 

Practically any type of camera having a shutter speed of 1/100 

sec can be used. In these tests, four types were employed, i.e., 

a plate camera, a reflex camera, a film-pack camera, and a 35-mm 

miniature camera; each did its work well. The reflex camera 

has a special advantage in that the focus can be checked at all 

times. The value of this was illustrated in one case when the 

setting of one camera was disturbed and the pictures were 

blurred so that the entire test had to be discarded. The photographic 

method has proved so satisfactory that one would be 

loath to revert to the use of observers. Indeed, under the unsteady 

conditions encountered, it is doubtful if observers would 

be satisfactory. 

The endeavor to insure a high degree of accuracy, by using 

mercury pressure gages, water manometers, and cameras, was 

extended to the erection of the apparatus and the taking of essential 

data necessary for the calculations. Measurements were 

made independently by more than one operator and the author 

invariably checked each one to eliminate any possibility of error. 

C h a r l e s B a b b .* The author’s tests indicate that the prototype 

in this instance showed an increase in efficiency over model 

tests which follows very closely the Moody formula for efficiency 

relation between model and prototype. Three manufacturers of 

pumps have discovered that the expected increase in efficiency 

did not materialize in the case of the pumps for the Colorado 

River Aqueduct. 

Contractors’ models, which were approximately one fifth the 

size of the prototype were built and tested in the hydraulic 

laboratory at the California Institute of Technology. All water 

passages of the model had to be in exact ratio to those of the prototype. 

They were very carefully constructed and were given the 

best finish possible, in order to obtain high efficiencies. They were 

carefully tested with the finest of precision instruments, both in 

the manufacturer’s laboratory and at the institute. 

The prototypes were manufactured with the same care as 

were the models, particularly with respect to finish, polish, and 

paint. They were tested in the field with the same care as were 

the models, and with the best of calibrated precision instruments. 

The Allen salt-velocity method was used to determine the capacity. 

Preliminary results gave lower pump efficiencies than 

were expected. The penstocks were extremely smooth and were 

at quite an incline. The Allen technicians installed turbulators 

ahead of the salt pop valves and more consistent results were 

then obtained. A 10-acre reservoir in the immediate foreground 

of the Iron Mountain plant was carefully surveyed and was used 

as a volumetric calibration. Tests were taken to determine the 

inflow and outflow corrections which should be applied. Tests 

were performed at night to minimize the evaporation loss. The 

results of the calibration showed that the Allen-method values 

were from 0.1 to 0.6 per cent higher than the volumetric measurement, 

varying with the number of pumps in operation. 

The final results of both tests on the Allis-Chalmers pumps 

gave 92.5 per cent maximum efficiency for the model and 91.3 

per cent average efficiency for the prototypes. Similar results 

were obtained on all the different manufacturers’ pumps. We 

are, therefore, of the opinion that not too much faith should be 

placed in obtaining increased efficiency for prototype over model. 

With regard to venturi-meter coefficient, we had some experience 

with the meter results changing in a very short time at 

the laboratory at the institute. The meter coefficient changed 

from 0.3 to 0.4 per cent between calibrations. It is the writer’s 

opinion that all venturi meters should be calibrated, if possible. 

R. L. D a u g h e r t y . 4 The title of the paper appears to be somewhat 

misleading, since there is nothing new in the methods of 

measurement as described. If it were designated as an “Improved 

Technique for Field Tests,” that title would be more appropriate. 

The procedure used by the author is actually a step 

toward bridging the gap which usually exists between the accuracy 

of field tests and laboratory tests. Thus, the quantity of 

water is measured by venturi meters, which is common laboratory 

practice, although not so often encountered in actual installations 

of large pumps. However, only one of these meters 

was calibrated, while the remainder employed the coefficients 

* Design Engineer, Centrifugal Pump'Division, Hydraulic Department, 

Allis-Chalmers Manufacturing Company, Milwaukee, Wis. 

4 Professor of Mechanical Engineering, California Institute of 

Technology, Pasadena, Calif. Fellow A.S.M.E.

A N G U S-IM PR O V E D TEC H N IQ U E FO R C EN TRIFU G A L -PU M P-E FFIC IE N C Y M EA SUREM ENTS 21 

recommended by the A.S.M.E. Fluid M eters Committee. The 

reason given for calibrating this one meter was th a t the recommended 

coefficient gave a pump efficiency of 0.965 per cent. The 

calibration of the m eter yielded a lower coefficient th an the 

recommended value and thus reduced the pump efficiency to 

0.93 per cent. The question therefore arises why all of the venturi 

meters were not then calibrated Although all of the other 

pump efficiencies reported were not unreasonable values, they 

might also have been lowered 2 or 3 per cent by the use of lower 

meter coefficients. Aside from the fact th a t the recommended 

coefficient for this one meter gave too high a pump efficiency, 

was there any other reason why it would appear to require calibration 

more than the others used 

The employment of manometers for the differential gages on 

the venturi meters and mercury manometers for the measurement 

of pressure heads on the pumps is common laboratory practice. 

This is also found in occasional field tests, though of course 

it is not so common there as in laboratories. 

The use of calibrated electrical instrum ents for the measurement 

of input to the electric motors is common practice for good 

field tests. Likewise, the acceptance of motor efficiencies as 

supplied by the motor manufacturers is common, but would not 

be considered good laboratory technique. 

The use of cameras to photograph the readings of the various 

instruments used is good practice and has been much utilized in 

laboratory work, but not very frequently in field tests. 

It is stated th at the frequency of the electric power used is 

maintained at great exactness at 25 cycles and, therefore, the 

pump speeds were not measured in the cases of the synchronous 

motors and only the slip measured for the induction motors. It 

would be interesting to know w hat evidence is available as to the 

exactness of the frequency of the system at Toronto. In Pasadena, 

we find sudden deviations of the order of */« per cent, 

which would produce 3/< per cent variation in horsepower. 

While the local frequency is uniform over a period of tim e, the 

instantaneous variations would interfere seriously w ith precise 

measurements in our hydraulic-machinery laboratory. 

A most interesting part of this paper is the comparison of the 

efficiencies of the pumps tested by the author and of the model 

pumps tested by the manufacturers. The differences between 

model and prototype are just about w hat one should expect. 

Also the agreement of the prototype-test efficiencies w ith the 

values computed from the models by the Moody formula is very 

gratifying. 

L. E. J o n e s .5 Although references to the use of photography 

in scientific and technical work are legion, there does not appear 

to be much available in the literature on the particular method 

employed by the author. Therefore, it would appear to be desirable 

to set forth here a brief account of the photographic details 

involved. The author remarks on the high accuracy obtained 

in the observations, but it m ust be emphasized th a t this 

result is brought about by design rather than by chance. In the 

following discussion there will be considered the various factors, 

peculiar to the particular methods of observation, which affect 

the accuracy of the readings, with indications as to means of 

computing the necessary corrections. This analytical treatm ent 

is given principally to show the prevention rather than the cure, 

as it is generally much safer and certainly much more convenient 

to minimize corrections beforehand by proper arrangem ent of 

the equipment. These corrections, of course, are not the only 

ones required in working up the results, but only those which 

are caused primarily by the use of photography will be considered. 

6 In structor, D ep artm en t of A pplied Physics, U niv ersity of 

Toronto, T oronto, C anada. 

For detailed descriptions of photographic theory and technique, 

the reader is referred to standard works on the subject.* 

P r e l i m i n a r y O p t i c a l C a l c u l a t i o n s 

Before any testing procedure is attem pted, it is essential th at 

the photographic apparatus be arranged to give the best results 

and, while there is no im provem ent on actual trials, much tim e 

can be saved by preliminary calculations. For this purpose, 

certain optical equations are presented herewith, w ith indications 

as to their use. 

The following nomenclature will be used: 

/ = focal length of camera lens7 

U = object distance = distance of object from (entrance node of) 

lens 

V = image distance = distance of image from (exit node of) 

lens 

d = distance from object to image (neglecting internodal distance), 

all measured parallel to optical axis of lens 

y = given dimension of image 

Y = corresponding dimension of object; both measured perpendicular 

to optical axis of lens 

M = linear magnification or scale of image8 

Length of image (measured perpendicular to optical axis) 

Length of corresponding part of object 

According to the “ law of lenses” 

The emulsion resolving power governs the fineness of detail 

which can be distinguished in the photograph, and the magnification 

M m ust be chosen to suit the precision required in the linear 

measurements. As a general rule, the smallest quantity to be 

measured on the photograph should not be less than V«oo in., 

and definitely should be greater if a t all possible, as it will make 

the interpretation much more satisfactory. If Y is the maximum 

length of object (for example, the maximum venturi differential), 

the corresponding size of image is y = MY, and the size of plate 

or film should be chosen to give an adequate margin of safety. 

Once this size and the corresponding lens has been selected, the 

location of the camera m ay be computed from Equation [5], 

6 “The Photographic Process,” by J. E. Mack and M. J. Martin, 

McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, N. Y., 1939. 

“Handbook of Photography,” by K. Henney and B. Dudley, 

Whittlesey House, New York, N. Y., 1939. 

“Photography, Theory and Practice,” by L. P. Clerc, Pitman Publishing 

Company, New York, N. Y., 1937. 

7 On most lenses the value of the focal length will be found engraved 

on the mount. This is the nominal value, which may differ 

slightly from the actual value. Although not generally required, 

the latter may be conveniently determined by measuring M and d 

and solving Equation [4], provided d is large enough to make the 

internodal distance negligible. Other methods of determining / are 

given in the standard works.® 

8 For most classes of work, the value of M will be less than unity.


W ith these preliminary data, it is possible to compute the time 

of exposure required to “stop” adequately the fluctuation of the 

gage column or meter needle. If x is the estim ated velocity of 

fluctuation in inches per second, M the magnification, and T 

the time of exposure in seconds, the image velocity will then be 

M x inches per second, and the image movement during exposure 

M x T inches. Due to the limited resolving power of the 

eye, the blur resulting from this image movement will be satisfactorily 

“sharp,” provided it does not exceed a certain size (for 

example, Vsoo in.) and, by equating this value to the quantity 

M xT, the tim e of exposure m ay be determined. Other considerations, 

such as floor or tripod vibration, m ay necessitate 

shortening this time. W ith this determined, adequate illumination 

m ust be provided to give the required exposure on 

the photographic emulsion. The lens aperture should be fairly 

small (around //8 ) to utilize the best characteristics of the lens 

and to give some depth of field. 

I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e P h o t o g r a p h i c R e c o r d s 

The principal reason for correcting the photographic readings 

lies in the fact th at the camera draws by central projection (perspective) 

rather than by orthographic projection, which is the 

condition autom atically assumed by the visual observer. The 

two types of measurements made in the pump tests are those involving 

fluid manometers and electrical instrum ents, and these 

will be dealt w ith separately. I t is assumed, of course, th at the 

camera objective is of good quality (i.e., corrected for lens aberrations 

and distortion) and adjusted in proper focus. 

1 Fluid Manometers. The remarks here are concerned primarily 

with measurement of the venturi differential, as this involved 

the greater difficulty. The arrangem ent of gage tubes and scale 

is shown in Fig. 3 of the paper and schematically in Fig. 10A 

of this discussion, and the required differential head is the vertical 

distance between similar points on the two menisci. This 

distance is taken between the imaginary horizontals ab, cd, Fig.

A NG US-IM PR O V ED TECHNIQUE FOR CENTRIFUGAL-PUMP-EFFICIENCY MEASUREMENTS 23 

104, tangent respectively to the two menisci, and is read by 

means of a traveling microscope, as explained by the author. If 

this method of reading is to be valid, however, the “rectangle” 

abdc must be reproduced as such in the camera, which requires 

(1) that the scale be located in the same plane as the center 

lines of the tubes, and (2) that the camera back be parallel to this 

plane. Departure from either or both of these conditions results 

in a distortion of the form displayed in Fig. 10B, with obvious 

inaccuracies in the results. (If the conditions producing this 

distortion were in the opposite direction, then side bd, Fig. 10B, 

would be less than oc.) It is generally much simpler to treat 

these conditions separately as follows: 

(а) Focal plane of camera parallel to plane of manometer tubes, 

but scale either in front of or behind this plane. This is the condition 

depicted in Fig. 10C, and gives rise to the obvious relation: 

True differential U' z 

---------------- ------------------------------------ _ --- = J d= — 

Apparent differential (as read from photograph) U U 

where, U‘ = distance from lens to tube axes 

U — distance from lens to scale (which may be greater 

or less than [/') 

z = axial distance between tube axes and scale 

If the venturi differential is very large, it is often impossible or 

unwise to set the camera up midway between the two extremes 

of the differential, and in such circumstances it is necessary to 

raise the lens with respect to the camera back, as shown in Fig. 

10C. Tilting of the entire camera is of course undesirable. If 

needed for the refractive correction mentioned under section (c), 

the partial angles of view, di (top) and di (bottom), may be computed 

from the respective elevations of the lens and the two menisci, 

easily obtained from measurements above floor level. 

(б) Scale in same plane as manometer tubes, but camera back 

not parallel to this plane. While simple enough, by means of a 

spirit level, to make the camera back vertical, it is not so easy to 

eliminate swing in the horizontal direction (i.e., in azimuth). 

If tp is the amount of this swing, and 6i (6i‘ or 6 i) the angular 

elevation of the ray passing through the meniscus, the amount 

of the discrepancy resulting due to these conditions is given, 

in magnitude only, by the expression S sin tan 0i,9 where S is 

the transverse distance between gage tube and scale, Fig. 10A. 

This discrepancy corresponds to distance 66' or dd' (aa' or cc' in 

the opposite condition) shown in Fig. 10B. Representative 

values are given in Table 5 of this discussion for S = 1 in. and, 

since the discrepancies for upper and lower readings are additive, 

the error may easily become appreciable. 

The values of Table 5 are primarily of academic interest, as 

it is usually difficult to determine the amount of swing \p. The 

simplest and best method of correction is to place the scale as 

close as possible to the manometer tubes (preferably between 

them), and to exercise care in aligning and leveling the camera. 

Otherwise two scales should be used, one on either side of the 

manometer and with their zeros accurately adjusted to the same 

level. Thus, whatever the resultant shape of the original 

rectangle, the horizontals ab and cd will be always defined, respectively, 

by like graduations on the two scales; this may, of 

course, involve some additional labor in reading. A word of 

caution should be given regarding linear measurements taken 

from photographs, as the linear magnification will be nonuniform 

from point to point except under strict conditions of parallelism. 

Hence, the necessity, apart from the convenience, of referring the 

measurements to an actual scale incorporated with the manometer. 

(c) Even if the errors considered in sections (a) and (6) are 

• This assumes that the lens axis is normal to the camera back, and 

directed centrally toward the subject. 

T A B LE 5 E R R O R S IN R E C O R D E D P O S IT IO N O F O N E M E N ISC U S 

D U E TO N O N PA R A L L E L IS M O F M A N O M E T E R A N D C A M ERA 

BACK (B O T H V E R T IC A L ) 

(T ransverse distance betw een tu b e and scale 1 in.) 

' -------------------- H orizontal swing \p---------- ■— ——• 

E levation 

of ray fli 5 deg 10 deg 15 deg 

deg in. in. in. 

5 0.008 0.015 0.023 

10 0.015 0.031 0.046 

15 0.023 0.046 0.069 

T A B L E 6 R E F R A C T IV E C O R R E C T IO N S IN V E N T U R I 

M A N O M E T E R 

(Scale assum ed to be in plane of tu b e axes; cam era back parallel to plane of 

m anom eter) 

Angle subtended 

---------- by differential--------- . -------------- Corrections--------------- . 

di t 0ib T op B ottom 

Item 

T otal (top), (bottom ), 

deg deg deg 

m eniscus, 

in. 

meniscus. 

in. 

T otal, 

in. 

1 10 5 5 0.008 0.008 0.016 

2 30 15 15 0.024 0.028 0.052 

3 60 30 30 0.055 0.071 0.126 

3a 

3b 

60 

60 

15 

45 

45 

15 

0.024 

0.115 

0.151 

0.028 

0.175 

0.143 

4 90 45 45 0.115 0.151 0.266 

N o t e : W a ll of tube =» 0 .2 1 in.; bore of tube — 0 . 2 0 in. Refractive 

indexes: Air 1 .0 0 ; Pyrex glass 1 .4 8 ; water 1 .3 3 . 

eliminated, there still remain the corrections due to refraction. 

These have already been discussed by the author, and it will 

suffice here to indicate how the values may be obtained analytically. 

The following equations assume that the scale is in the 

plane of the tube axes, and that the camera back is parallel to this 

plane. In computing these corrections, the value of ffi (9i or 8ib) 

is obtained as suggested under section (a), and the other angles 

follow from Snell’s law of refraction: 

where N is the absolute index of refraction and 0 is the angle 

between the ray and the normal to the refracting surface; subscripts 

refer to the different media. The corrections to the 

meniscus readings are always negative and are as follows: 

For top meniscus 

where W = wall thickness and B = bore of tube. Table 6 of this 

discussion shows representative values for assigned values of 6i. 

The values given considerably exceed those encountered during 

the tests, and are included merely to demonstrate the trend of the 

correction. Items 3, 3a, and 36 of Table 6 show the effect of 

unequal angles above and below the optical axis, while item 4 

shows what might be expected if a “wide-angle” lens were used 

on the camera to permit photographs to be taken in cramped 

quarters. 

Such corrections as those indicated should be quite satisfactory 

if actual conditions were the same as those assumed, but 

this is seldom likely to be the case, as irregularities in the glass 

tubing or slight deviations from the vertical would alter considerably 

the optical characteristics. By far the safest procedure is 

to keep the angular subtense as small as possible by proper arrangement 

of the camera; any correction which may arise will 

then be small, and the calculated value not likely to depart much 

from the proper value. Although the equations appear rather 

formidable, a few values will suffice to plot curves (corrections 

against 0i) adequate to cover any given series of tests. 

With the mercury head gage, the recording is usually much


simpler, as the camera m ay be placed close enough to give a convenient 

value of magnification, and raised or lowered to reduce 

the effects of obliquity. The preceding remarks on manometer 

corrections apply equally well, of course, w ith the exception th at 

there is only one meniscus involved and, thus, corrections (a) 

and (6) may be considered together. W ith suitable technique, it 

should be possible to eliminate the need of corrections almost entirely, 

but it m ust always be borne in mind th at, for any given 

tolerance in the final result, finer readings m ust be made with 

mercury than with water in the manometer. 

For locating the mercury meniscus, it is of considerable value 

to have water above the mercury column, with a diagonal pattern 

behind as previously explained. This water is always present 

when the gage is used as a differential meter, but when used for 

measuring discharge pressure only, the w ater may need to be 

added separately to the top of the column. In the latter case, 

the w ater meniscus gives a convenient check on the mercury 

reading, and may be invaluable if the mercury meniscus should 

be obscured by a m anom eter joint. 

2 Electrical Instruments. W hen the instrum ents are used in 

the horizontal position, the camera m ust be supported w ith the 

lens axis vertical and, to perm it satisfactory definition, the meters 

should be arranged so th at their dials lie a t the same elevation, 

Fig. 1 of the paper. The only observational correction which appears 

to be necessary is th at due to obliquity of the rays and, as 

most meters are provided with a plane mirror for the elimination 

of visual parallax, this happily provides a simple means for 

determining the proper reading. Fig. 10D of this discussion is 

drawn vertically through the perspective center of the camera 

lens normal to both the m eter needle and the plane of its dial, and 

illustrates in exaggerated fashion the conditions encountered 

when photographing a single meter. Due to the obliquity, the 

actual needle B appears to be “opposite” point c on the dial, 

while its reflection B '10 appears to be “opposite” point a on the 

dial; the photographed images of these points lie, respectively, 

a t c ' and a'. The true reading of the needle occurs directly below 

it a t the point 6, and should be recorded in the photograph at 

b'. 

Using the notation of the figure, we m ay show by similar triangles 

th at 

If L, the height of the camera lens above the m eter dial, is great 

with respect to the distances k and k ’, and if the focal plane of the 

camera is parallel to the m eter dial (both of which are generally 

the case), then 

which, when evaluated, permits 

of interpolating the true dial reading from the two recorded approximate 

readings. As a first and usually adequate approximation, 

k ' may be assumed equal to k, and it thus suffices to take 

the arithm etic mean of the dial readings represented by a ' and 

c'. If necessary to refine the process, we m ay proceed thus from 

the figure: 

The angles a 

and /3 are connected by Snell’s law of refraction and, since the 

angles are generally small, we m ay replace the ratio tan

ANGUS—IMPROVED TECHNIQUE FOR CENTRIFUGAL-PUMP-EFFICIENCY MEASUREMENTS 25 

ease in loading and processing, roll film and film pack are excellent, 

but where great accuracy in the photograph is required, 

as with the venturi gage, it is generally necessary to resort to 

plates or cut film, since the more flexible film cannot always be 

held flat enough. With the venturi gage, the length of the differential 

often gives a very small value of the magnification and, 

coupled with the fact that the required readings are in the margins 

of the field, it is necessary to focus the camera very carefully 

and to assure that the photographic emulsion be kept flat and accurately 

positioned in the camera. 

In the interests of accuracy and ease of reading, the photographic 

images should be reasonably large in size, and the cameras 

should be chosen accordingly. If desired to increase the image 

size, it is recommended not to draw closer to the subject and thus 

increase the effects of obliquity, but to use a lens of longer focal 

length, for it is seen by Equation [3] (M = f/[U — /] = f/U, for 

usual cases) that the magnification is directly proportional to the 

focal length. The camera must of course be large enough to 

accommodate the greater image distance and image size. 

Of the cameras employed in the pump tests, that used on the 

venturi gage (J = 16.5 cm) was the least satisfactory, as the recording 

of the 100-in. differentials was sometimes uncomfortably 

close to the limiting resolution of the system; a larger size of 

camera is strongly recommended for differentials of this magnitude. 

Further, the use of plates is extremely tedious, and a considerable 

saving in material, time, and patience can be effected 

by making up a “repeating back” for the camera. This consists 

of a special holder loaded with a single large piece of plate or cut 

film, which may be slid along in guides on the back of the camera 

to give successive partial exposures. Since the image of the 

venturi gage is essentially long and narrow, this would permit 

placing several photographs beside each other on the same plate or 

film, with great economy in handling. 

In ordinary linear measurements, increased precision is usually 

attained by using a more finely divided measuring scale. When 

the scale has to be photographed, however, there is an optimum 

spacing of graduation, dependent upon the magnification and 

type of emulsion; if the divisions are made any finer, it will be 

found impossible to distinguish the detail satisfactorily. A safe 

guide, as mentioned previously, is to have the smallest graduation 

not less than V200 in. in the photograph. Due to the tendency 

of image lines to spread slightly, it is desirable to use scales of the 

“bisection” type (graduation at the imaginary bisector of a line 

of appreciable thickness, used in most cases) rather than of the 

“boundary” type (graduation at the boundary line between differently 

colored spaces of equal width, as in surveyors’ leveling 

rods). The spread of the boundary images tends to give unequal 

widths to the alternate dark and light spacings of the scale. In 

order to photograph well, the scale must further have good contrast 

and preferably a nonglossy surface. 

Further items may be tabulated as follows: 

1 A prime requisite is a sturdy support for the camera, which 

may require the construction of special stands, as illustrated in 

Fig. 1 of the paper. 

2 The cameras should always be focused by visual inspection 

of the image, and the field made large enough to take care of any 

possible fluctuations in position of the subject. 

3 The negative material should be a fast, fine-grain, panchromatic 

emulsion and be processed under fine-grain conditions. 

It will generally be found desirable to keep exposure on the low 

side and to develop to a fairly high contrast to permit easy reading. 

4 Since the exposure times must be fairly short, it is necessary 

to provide good illumination on the meters and gages. This is 

generally best obtained with overvoltage, high-efficiency lamps 

(photoflood type) which are commonly available, but as their life 

is relatively short, some means (“Handbook of Photography,” p. 

282) is necessary for reducing the input voltage except during 

the actual time of exposure. If many lamps are in use, care 

must be taken not to overload the circuits and, in order to reduce 

the number of lamps to a minimum, they should be housed in 

efficient reflectors. The illumination units should be compact 

and easily adjusted in position to concentrate the light where it 

is most needed and placed, of course, to avoid specular reflection 

on the subject and direct illumination on the camera lens. 

N o r m a n G. M c D o n a l d . 11 The photographic method of recording 

test readings as described and illustrated in this paper 

has two distinct advantages (1) thereby, a permanent accurate 

record of the test readings of each instrument is made for future 

reference, and (2) the personal element is almost entirely eliminated 

as photographers are substituted for trained engineering 

observers. 

The pumping equipment tested by the author is a part of the 

$14,000,000 extension to the Toronto Water Works System for 

which the writer’s firm, Gore & Storrie, jointly with H. G. Acres 

& Company are the consulting engineers on the design, construction, 

and operation; the specifications for the pumping equipment 

referred to in this paper were drawn up by them. 

The specifications require that each pump with its motor be 

supplied as a unit with an over-all guaranteed efficiency. The 

value of 1 per cent efficiency was specified for each unit and the 

amounts so ascertained were used in evaluating tenders as well 

as for deductions from the contract payments in case the contractor 

failed to meet the guarantees. As the value of 1 per cent 

efficiency on the largest unit amounted to $4450 or I2V2 per 

cent of the contract sum, it was necessary that the acceptance 

tests be carried out as accurately as possible. 

Another requirement of the specifications was that the equipment 

should operate without objectionable noise. As the specific 

speeds of two of the raw-water pumps were relatively high for the 

9-ft suction lift specified, this caused the engineers considerable 

concern. 

The instruments used in these tests were very reliable. The 

calibrating of meters and instrument transformers, assembled 

and connected in the same way as used in the tests, undoubtedly 

improves their accuracy. The use of a water manometer on the 

venturi-meter tubes and a mercury manometer for reading the 

pressures reduces the calibrations to a minimum. 

The necessity for calibrating venturi tubes under certain conditions 

has been demonstrated in the paper. The writer has found 

that, unless preceded by a straight length of pipe of at least 12 

pipe diam or other means of insuring straight-line flow, the calculated 

venturi-tube coefficients are too high and errors up to 

nearly 10 per cent in the indicated flow have been experienced. 

The present tendency toward the use of tubes with lower differentials 

increases the relative error caused by disturbed flows. 

Another difficulty in securing accurate flow or pressure measurements 

is the oscillation or surges in the manometers, as 

demonstrated by the readings in Table 2 of the paper. Even 

under the most favorable conditions of flow, wave action is always 

present, which causes velocities in the piping to the manometers 

and, due to the inertia of the water, a surge is set up and the 

manometer readings overrun. The fluctuations in the various 

instruments do not synchronize and, while trained observers 

would not record, without comment, the top of a surge on an 

instrument, this is likely to happen in the photographic method 

and the reading would be in error. 

Damping the connecting pipe lines by partially closing valves 

is not very satisfactory but the writer has on several tests inserted 

small orifices in the pipe lines to damp out the surge. 

11 Partner, Gore & Storrie, Consulting Engineers, Toronto, Canada.

26 T R A N S A C T IO N S O F T H E A .S .M .E . JA N U A R Y , 1941 

Electric meters operate more rapidly than the w ater manometers 

but, due to the lightness of the moving parts and the use of 

air or magnetic damping, there is very little overrun. 

The test of the 48,000,000 gal per day unit indicated a pump 

efficiency of 92.7 per cent as calculated from the over-all efficiency 

of 88.5 per cent and a motor efficiency of 95.5 per cent. 

As the venturi tube was carefully calibrated by displacement and 

the tests made w ith precision and in duplicate, this high efficiency 

in the writer’s opinion is accurate. The technique described by 

the author in this paper constitutes a distinct advance in the art 

of testing centrifugal pumps. 

W. S. P a b d o e . 12 The venturi-m eter air differential gage 

might advantageously have been of the pot type, described by the 

writer,13 thus doing away w ith the necessity of reading one of the 

columns and correcting for angularity or parallax. 

The author draws attention “to the smoothness and finish of 

the model,” and then uses Professor M oody’s step-up formula. 

Professor Moody has expressed some doubt concerning the applicability 

of his formula to centrifugal pumps. The use of dimensional 

analysis presupposes a model and prototype of the 

same proportional roughness, in which case, the efficiencies would 

be the same at equal Reynolds’ number. If the model and prototype 

are both smooth and all the losses are frictional, the lost head 

m ay be expressed in term s of Chezy’s formula and Blasius’ expression 

for/, thus 

as 

and 

or 

from which 

Professor Moody makes the exponent of (h/H) = 0.1. The 

prototype is usually rougher than the model and some of the 

losses vary as V2 instead of F 1-"'5, hence the w riter suggests th at 

the exponent of d/D — 0.2; the revised formula would then be 

This should be used only at the point of highest efficiency and, 

a t other discharges, the peak differential should be multiplied 

by the ratio of discharges squared. 

The writer in deriving the coefficients of venturi m eters d2M 

= */» used the expression 

12 Professor of Hydraulic Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, 

Philadelphia, Pa. 

** “Effect of Installation on the Coefficients of Venturi Meters,” 

by W. S. Pardoe, Trans. A.S.M.E., vol. 58, 1936, Fig. 3, p. 678. 

or k = —-----is the coefficient of loss in the upstream cone, hence 

d2°.23 

F 

his suggestion of 0.2 for the Moody formula. 

The author has raised something of a question regarding the 

venturi-m eter coefficients of the A.S.M.E. Fluid Meters Comm 

ittee, in which the writer is not disinterested, by producing a 

coefficient of 0.9545 for a 42 X 27-in. venturi meter instead 

of a normal value of 0.9876. There can be no doubt about the 

accuracy of his work, backed up as it is by the efficiency of the 

prototype stepped up from the model. The only reasonable explanation 

the writer can give for this abnormal coefficient is that 

the 42,000,000 gal per day pump discharges the water with a 

considerable whirl, thus lowering the coefficient. The effect of a 

free vortex14 is shown in a previous paper by the writer, as well as 

the length of pipe in which a minor vortex16 will persist. The 

writer, therefore, suggests th at a traverse be made immediately 

ahead of the m eter to determine if there is a whirl, 

and if so, straightening vanes should be placed in the pipe to 

eliminate it. 

The writer joins with the author in congratulating the designers 

and builders of these pumps for their very high efficiencies, rivaling 

as they do the best of turbine practice, which was thought to 

be quite impossible only a few years ago. 

F. G. S w i t z e r . 16 There are two points in this paper which 

should be emphasized. The first of these deals with the fact 

th a t the manometers under observation during these tests 

were in constant motion, indicating th at there was no damping 

between the pipe line and the manometer. This is a very desirable 

practice because damping can easily introduce appreciable 

error in test results. While this error may not always be very 

large, there are occasions where it may be quite significant. 

When the damping device offers different resistance to flow in 

the in and out directions, definite errors will be produced of unknown 

magnitude. When the damping device is symmetrical 

and offers resistance proportional to the square of the velocity, 

additional errors will be introduced which will be significant only 

if the pressure variations which cause flow in the manometer 

connections are large. The only damping which should ever be 

perm itted is w hat may be called “viscous” damping, in which the 

resistance to flow is proportional to the first power of the velocity. 

In order to secure this type of damping, one m ust of necessity use 

either a very small-bore tube or else large tubes substantially 

packed full of needles or something equivalent thereto; both of 

these arrangements may make it difficult to clear the air out of 

the connections. The author is to be complimented for having 

used no damping. 

Another comment is in connection w ith the venturi-m eter coefficient. 

The fact th a t the coefficient obtained in test is 3.3 per 

cent below th a t recommended by the Fluid M eters Committee 

of the A.S.M.E. is very significant. The writer is of the opinion 

th a t much longer approach pipes should often be used than has 

been customary and th a t straightening vanes in the approach 

pipe m ay be used to reduce this length. As for the meter itself, 

the construction of the throat has considerable importance. If 

the piezometer connections are too close to the inlet cone, the 

m eter coefficient will be smaller than anticipated. The shape of 

the throat passage m ay also be such as to produce the same results. 

Some standardization of throat design should accompany 

the Fluid M eters Committee’s report of coefficients, if this has 

not already been done. 

» Ref. (13), Fig. 32, p. 682. 

“ Ref. (13), Fig. 31, p. 682. 

le Professor of Mechanics and Hydraulic Engineering, Head of 

Department, College of Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, 

N. Y. Mem. A.S.M.E.

ANGUS—IM PROVED TEC H N IQ U E FO R C EN T R IFU G A L -PU M P-E FFIC IE N C Y M EA SUREM ENTS 27 

W. M. W h i t e . 17 The 93 per cent efficiency obtained on one 

of the pumps is not an impossible efficiency. The filtration 

pumps in the City of Milwaukee also showed an efficiency of 93 

per cent when the quantity of water was measured volumetrically. 

A point of interest to the writer is the close adherence of the 

actual performance of stepup to the theoretical performance of 

step up by the Moody formula. In the case of the M etropolitan 

W ater District pumps a stepup similar to th a t at Toronto was 

not secured. We have as yet been unable to find the reason why 

the large pumps on the M etropolitan did not give the high 

efficiency which should have been shown. 

One im portant point not entirely clarified in the paper is the 

fact th at the coefficient of one of the venturi meters was found, 

by volumetric measurement, to be in error by 3 per cent. T hat 

is to say, when the m anufacturer’s coefficient was used, the 

quantity was 3 per cent higher than when the coefficient was 

corrected by means of volumetric measurement. This emphasizes 

the necessity of careful calibration being made on venturi 

meters for im portant centrifugal-pump tests. 

A r t h u r R y n d e r s . 18 The w riter’s experience shows th a t the 

data hardest to obtain accurately in a pump test concern the 

volume of water pumped. 

Some years ago, in testing centrifugal pumping units a t the 

Menomonee Valley Booster Station, the w ater pumped was 

measured volumetrically. A t this station there are no venturi 

meters. The pumping units are used to pump water from a sixmillion-gallon 

welded steel ground storage tank into the distribution 

mains. Field measurements of the tank were determined 

before filling the tank to find as nearly as possible its 

exact size a t a known tem perature. During the test, various 

levels of the water surface were measured by means of a hook 

gage. The volume computed from these measurements was 

corrected for the elastic volume change of the tank and the 

temperature of the tank wall a t the time of test. The results of 

the test were considered to be within satisfactory limits of 

accuracy. 

Recently the pumping units a t the W ater Purification Plant 

were tested. The units tested consist of four 50-mgd and one 

75-mgd low-level pumping units; and two 20-mgd washwater 

pumping units. I t was decided to measure the w ater 

volumetrically even though venturi meters were available in the 

low-level discharge line. The tanks were underground reinforced-concrete 

structures 297 X 372 ft in plan X 22.5 ft deep. 

Hook gages were again used to determine the w ater levels. 

The computed volume was used without any correction. The 

test results obtained were considered to be very accurate. Calculation 

made from these tests and motor tests indicated th at 

some of our pumps have an efficiency slightly exceeding 93 per 

cent. 


In his discussion Mr. Allan suggests that, for large differentials 

on the venturi meters, one camera for each column would have 

some advantage, but the author believes th at there would always 

exist some question as to whether the cameras exactly synchronized. 

The single camera for the two columns gave excellent results 

and there was much less trouble in setting up the apparatus, 

changing films, etc. 

Mr. Allan mentions the use of motion-picture cameras. Much 

thought was given the question, particularly in connection with 

the electrical instruments. However, since the contractors were 

17 Manager and Chief Engineer, Hydraulic Department, Allis- 

Chalmers Manufacturing Company, Milwaukee, Wis. Mem. 

A S.M.E. 

l* Mechanical Engineer, City Engineer’s Office, City of Milwaukee, 

Wis. 

still working on the building and equipment, the facilities at 

hand were far from perfect and precluded some methods which 

might otherwise have been further considered. In work of this 

kind, it is necessary to obtain the results of tests quickly, which 

would scarcely have been possible w ith the motion-picture film. 

In the actual test, films and plates exposed during one night were 

developed and available within about 10 hr, so th a t the result of 

each test was determined promptly. 

The use of the Moody formula in comparing the results on the 

model and prototype has been referred to several times in the discussion. 

The author holds no brief for this formula and fully 

realizes some, if not all, of its defects, although there appears to 

be no reason why it should not apply to pumps as well as to 

turbines. The exponents in the head-and-diam eter relation, as 

given by Professor Pardoe m ay be closer than those given by 

Professor Moody, and it would seem th a t experience alone would 

be the safest guide in this direction. All th at the author can say 

in his defense is th at the formula seemed to be well worth trying 

and it has given quite satisfactory results on these pumps. 

In order to compare the results of Professor Pardoe’s suggested 

exponents for the head-and-diam eter ratios in the step-up 

formula, the author recalculated the results on these pumps 

which are given in Table 7 of this closure. The exponent of H /h 

is 0.1 as suggested by Professor Moody and 0.125 by Professor 

Pardoe, while the exponents of d/D are 0.25 and 0.2, respectively. 

T A B L E 7 

C O M P A R IS O N O F M O O D Y F O R M U L A A N D P A R D O E 

M O D IF IC A T IO N 

P u m p M easu red C a lc u la te d efficiency 

cap a c ity , 

m illion gal 

p e r 24 h r 

m odel ✓------ E of p ro to ty p e ------ n M easu red 

efficiency M oody P a rd o e efficiency 

e fo rm u la m odificatio n on p u m p 

12 0 .9 0 0 0 .9 0 8 0 .9 0 5 0 .9 0 2 

24 0 .8 9 6 0 .9 1 0 0 .9 0 7 0 .9 1 5 

48 0 .8 9 6 0 .9 2 0 0 .9 1 4 0 .9 3 0 

30 0 .9 0 7 0 .9 2 4 0 .9 2 1 0 .9 1 8 

It is seen th a t the two calculations give alm ost the same results 

but, in this case, the maximum ratio D /d was only 2.63. 

Since the values of H /h lie between 0.81 and 1.47 it will make 

slight difference whether the exponent 0.125 or 0.1 is used. 

In the cases quoted by Mr. Babb and D r. W hite the Moody 

formula did not prove satisfactory, which shows th a t it is either 

defective in construction or th at the exponents vary in different 

cases. The scale of the models mentioned by Mr. Babb was 

much smaller than those mentioned in the paper, and there may 

be some little differences due to the method of discharge measurem 

ent used. 

Comments on the venturi-m eter coefficient are interesting, and 

Mr. B abb’s statem ent th at he found differences in the coefficient 

of 0.3 to 0.4 per cent between calibrations is striking and gives 

reason for some concern, assuming, of course, th at the elapsed 

time between the calibrations was not great. The variations 

mentioned by Mr. M cDonald are so large th at one wonders 

whether they are due to setting or to m anufacture or both. The 

author has made a careful examination of Professor Pardoe’s 

laboratory and the methods he has used in calibrating meters 

and believes them to be fully as accurate as claimed. A t the same 

time, the coefficient given by the Fluid M eters Committee, on 

Professor Pardoe’s authority, was undoubtedly in error in the 

meter discussed in the paper. 

W hen opportunity offers, the author will try to follow Professor 

Pardoe’s suggestion of traversing the pipe close to the meter. In 

the meantime the author’s result rather shakes confidence in the 

coefficients, undoubtedly accurate for the circumstances under 

which they were obtained, but uncertain in some field installations. 

Unfortunately, no suggestion is made as to how one is to know 

whether or not the Fluid M eters Committee’s coefficients should 

be corrected. The author primarily introduced this m atter in


the hope that those interested would follow it up. While one 

should always strive toward an ideal layout, as suggested by 

Professor Switzer, he must be governed by practical limitations 

of space and cost. 

Criticism is offered because only one meter was checked, but 

it must be remembered that the paper describes commercial-acceptance 

tests, not laboratory experiments. Since the other 

meters gave no cause for suspicion, they were not checked. The 

efficiencies of the pumps greatly exceeded the guarantees in each 

case, and made a calibration of the meters unnecessary. As a 

matter of fact, there were many difficulties connected with the 

calibration which rather discouraged the author from attempting 

all of the meters. 

Replying to Professor Daugherty, the author admits he should 

have stated that the paper referred to field tests, although it hardly 

seemed necessary. The author’s extensive testing practice evidently 

differs from Professor Daugherty’s, for he has scarcely 

ever found a pump of any size without a venturi meter attached; 

it is certainly quite common practice in the East. It has been 

quite usual in the author’s work to use a differential gage across 

the meter, but mercury is nearly always employed in the gage, 

for practical reasons. However, the cooperation of the contractors 

and City of Toronto made it possible to use water columns 

directly; this alone presented some problems but the solution 

of them brought its own ample reward. 

The employment of a mercury manometer for heads as high 

as 270 ft is also unusual in field tests and the author believes 

that these refinements produced results of an unusually high 

order. The author can scarcely understand using uncalibrated 

electrical instruments, but his calibration on the entire combination 

of transformers and instruments took care of all errors automatically. 

There is no statement in the paper that the author 

accepted the motor efficiencies as given by the manufacturer and 

he has never done so in any of his work where motor performance 

was involved. The paper states that the guarantees in the contract 

were made on the over-all performance of the motor and 

pump in each case and the separate performance of each part was 

not required and was not reported on. For this paper, however, 

the author wished to determine the pump efficiency, and he took 

the official test results obtained on the motors by an independent 

expert, not by the manufacturer; there is no reason whatever to 

question these results. 

There seems to be a suggestion that, because the author employed 

a combination of refinements, each of which had been used 

in laboratories before, there was no improved technique involved, 

which is similar to the contention that a new combination of 

old principles does not constitute a new invention; if such an 

argument is accepted the Patent Office records will be very brief 

and very few inventions will be made. Presumably, if Professor 

Daugherty knew of any other cases where the author’s improved 

technique had been employed in field work, he would have mentioned 

them. The work represents not only an improved technique, 

but an accurate and inexpensive method of testing; the 

cost of assistants and photographs was only about fifteen 

per cent of what it would have been had direct observers been 

used. 

There are momentary variations in the frequency of the power 

used in practically all supply lines, as the author knows to his 

cost in time and patience, but these do not come into the speed 

calculations of the motors, and the measurement of the slip gives 

a far more accurate value of the speed of the induction motors 

than any other practicable method. 

The discussion by Mr. Jones of errors possible in the photographic 

records is very helpful and a good guide as to precautions 

which must be observed in such work; the numerical results are 

enlightening. The errors he mentions were either corrected for 

or eliminated in the tests described. 

The discussion by Dr. White draws attention to the very high 

efficiency of 93 per cent obtained, a result which does not appear 

to have been exceeded and may at present be regarded as the 

maximum obtained. Although the water was measured by venturi 

meter, yet, since the meter had been calibrated volumetrically, 

the measurement was equivalent to a volumetric one. The 

author’s experience is that volumetric measurements of large discharges 

in large reservoirs may easily be subject to serious errors, 

and it was found that unusually great care was necessary in the 

meter calibration. The time taken in making such measurements 

would have made the method difficult, if not impossible, in the 

actual tests. The author’s measurements of discharge are as accurate 

as volumetric measurements and much more easily made.

A T h eo ry of C av itatio n F low in 

C en trifugal-P um p Im pellers 

In th is paper th e p resen t m e th o d s o f d escrib in g p u m p 

ca v ita tio n p erfo rm a n ce are review ed from t h e sta n d p o in t 

o f th e in flu en ce o f eye d esig n c h a r a cte ristic s. F ro m ca v i 

ta tio n p lo ts a g a in st th r e e eye p a ram eters, c a v ita tio n p erfo 

rm a n ce is rela ted t o eye d e sig n a n d th e in flu e n c e o f th e 

a n g le o f a tta c k o f th e vane lea d in g ed g es o n th e flow is 

stu d ied . C o efficien ts are derived for th e p ressu re drop d u e 

to th e vanes a n d sh ro u d s sep a rately . T h e p a ram eter S 

or su c tio n sp ecific sp eed is rela ted to th e th r e e ey e param 

e ters a n d in terp reted a s a d e sig n p a ram eter. C a v ita 

tio n d e sig n ca teg o ries are su g g ested . T h e c a v ita tio n 

p lo ts sh ow th a t th e d isc o n tin u ity in th e p u m p -d isch a rg e 

ch a racteristic curves is d u e t o a “ sta ll” or se p a r a tio n o f 

flow in th e ey e. A c o rrela tio n is fo u n d b e tw e en t h is se p a 

r a tio n a n d th e a n g le o f a tta c k o f th e vane le a d in g ed g es 

an d d esig n in fo r m a tio n is derived. 

N o m e n c l a t u r e 

T H E following nomenclature is used in the paper: 

a 

= Thoma-Moody cavitation param eter 

g = acceleration of gravity 

D = impeller eye diameter as determined a t narrowest 

portion of entrance 

vr = radial component of relative velocity 

v, = tangential component of relative velocity 

k " ' = dimensionless constants in total param eter; 

1Junior Engineer, General Motors Research Laboratory; formerly 

Research Assistant, Hydraulic Machinery Laboratory, California 

Institute of Technology. 

2 Numbers in parentheses refer to the Bibliography at the end of 

the paper. 

Contributed by the Hydraulic Division and presented at the 


A m e r i c a n S o c i e t y o f M e c h a n i c a l E n g i n e e r s . 

N o t e : Statements and opinions advanced in this paper are to be 

understood as individual expressions of the author and not the views 

of the California Institute of Technology staff nor of the Society. 

By CALVIN A. G O N G W ER,1 D E T R O IT , M ICH . 

29 

C3 

= peripheral-flow index 

/ = angle of attack of vane inlet edges 

ai o = vane inlet setting angle 

/3C = complement of angle of flow entry; ( = arc cot k"Ct) 

k" = constant in total param eter; 

Ci 

= angle of entry index; 

K \ — inlet-shroud coefficient of pressure drop 

K t = vane-profile coefficient of pressure drop 

/3c = angle of attack of vane leading edges a t which an 

inferred separation corresponding to a discontinuity 

in characteristic curves occurs 

I n t r o d u c t i o n 

Nature of Cavitation. The development of cavitation in hydraulic 

pumps and turbines has been recognized for many years 

as a m ajor disturbing factor which limits operating ranges, 

causes destructive pitting, and decreases the efficiency of the 

machine. The term cavitation is used loosely to describe the 

formation and violent collapse of vapor or of vapor and gas 

bubbles formed within the liquid, as a consequence of extreme 

reductions in the absolute static pressure. It is supposed that 

this phenomenon influences the head, power, and efficiency of a 

machine through the decrease in effective fluid density, caused 

by the presence of vapor bubbles, and through the shock and 

vibration losses attending the sudden formation and violent 

collapse of the bubbles as they are passed to regions of higher 

static pressure. In addition, cavitation pitting and the erosion 

of passage walls is now widely attributed to the severe mechanical 

hammering and picking action, resulting from this violent collapse 

or implosion of the bubbles adjacent to the passage walls. 

Current Cavitation Parameters. To facilitate description of the 

conditions under which cavitation occurred, the Thoma-M oody 

param eter a was proposed ( l ).2 W ith respect to pumps, sigma 

is defined as the ratio of the absolute inlet head (less the vaporpressure 

head) to the effective output head 

The convenience of this term obtains from the supposition 

that, for a particular value of sigma, the aggregate state of 

cavitation throughout the pump remains essentially constant, 

provided speed and capacity are varied in the same ratio. In a 

sense, sigma is the ratio between the excess pressure available 

for resisting cavitation and the square of the wheel velocities, 

as measured by the net head across the pump. The net head, 

through its relation to wheel velocities, m ay be thought of as 

representing the ability of the blades to tear holes in the liquid, 

whereas, the static portion of the inlet head tends to hold th at 

ability in check. 

If the inlet head is reduced while the speed and capacity are 

held constant, experiments dem onstrate th a t the net head de


creases little or none a t first, but eventually decays rapidly as 

cavitation becomes general (3). Fig. 1 is typical of the relationship 

obtained by reducing the inlet head during a laboratory 

“ cavitation run.” 

The application of sigma is clearly limited to a particular design. 

For example, if it is conceded th a t the prim ary cavitation 

region is close to the impeller eye, where the lowest static pressures 

oppose the underpressures due to acceleration of the 

liquid, as it comes under the influence of the vanes and shrouds, 

T h r e e P a r a m e t e r s o f C a v i t a t i o n 

Assumptions. A logical approach to a basic analysis of the 

cavitation conditions is found by consideration of the general 

case of flow around a submerged streamlined body, such as that 

shown in Fig. 2. From the physical conditions of flow continuity, 

fluid incompressibility, and the conservation of energy 

(Bernoulli’s theorem), streamlines m ay be drawn which give 

information as to the fluid velocities and, therefore, by the application 

of Bernoulli’s theorem, the pressures at any point in the 

flow. In short, for the region adjacent to a curved boundary, 

F i q . 2 

F l o w A r o u n d a S t r e a m l i n e d B o d y 

F i a . 1 C o n v e n t io n a l C a v it a t i o n P l o t f o b C o n s t a n t N a n d Q 

(Hav => to ta l inlet head above vapor pressure; H = n et head across pum p 

a t large inlet head.) 

then for two impellers of the same eye design and a t the same laws stated. These general considerations apply to the flow 

suction head, speed, and capacity, but with different discharge through the impeller and, therefore, definite regions of underpressure 

diameters, values of sigma would no longer be the same, although 

which change their position and magnitude with the 

the extent of cavitation could be supposed sensibly identical. operating conditions m ay be inferred. These regions may be 

In other words, sigma is not independent of the ratio between considered liable to cavitation. 

outside and eye diameters, and is therefore inconvenient for the Im plicit in the foregoing general statem ents there are, in 

comparison of eye designs. 

relation to pumps, certain exclusions and assumptions which 

G. F. Wislicenus, R. M. W atson, and I. J. Karassik (2), recognizing 

should be emphasized before proceeding. 

the need for a more general expression, proposed the 1 I t is assumed th a t the region of the impeller eye is charac 

“suction specific speed” 

terized by the lowest absolute pressures and, hence, is the region 

where critical cavitation conditions are likely to obtain. This 

autom atically excludes consideration of disturbances in the casing, 

a t tongue or diffuser vane tips, or at the trailing edges of the 

impeller vanes. I t thus excludes as well the influence of impeller 

analogous to the familiar specific speed 

but with 

cutting or of changes in the ratio of the discharge to eye diameters 

and, therefore, implies th at the eye flow pattern is not 

the absolute inlet head above vapor pressure substituted for the affected by these factors. 

usual head H, across the pum p; N and Q are the speed and 2 The effects of the dissolved gases or other impurities in the 

capacity, respectively. The suction specific speed thus measures water are ignored. These factors could alter the effective vapor 

the extent of cavitation in different impellers of the same eye 

design, independently of the discharge-to-eye diam eter ratio. 

I t m ay be thought of as equivalent to a sigma corrected to terms 

of impellers with a common ratio between discharge and eye 

diameters. 

In general, if critical cavitation or breakdown values of the 

suction specific speed are obtained for impellers of different eye 

designs, th a t design w ith the largest values of critical suction 

specific speed in a chosen normal specific-speed region would 

permit operation a t the lowest absolute inlet head. In this way, 

values of the critical suction specific speed become an index of 

relative m erit for any particular operating specific speed. 

Need for Definitive Study. In the suction specific speed, 

however, there is no way of characterizing the flow and eye 

design conditions which contribute to cavitation. If universal 

relationships between design and flow conditions can be demonstrated, 

then, w ith empirical corrections, it should be possible 

to use these relationships in interpreting cavitation performance 

of different specific-speed regions in relation to each other and to 

design. 

A detailed investigation of these possibilities is presented in 

this paper in conjunction w ith suggestions for utilizing the relationships 

developed as guides to improved design. 

the streamlines are usually close together, and close spacing of 

the streamlines indicates high velocities and therefore low pressures. 

By increasing the angle of attack of the body in Fig. 2, 

the critical region of closely spaced streamlines and underpressure 

is shifted and increased in magnitude in accordance with the flow 

pressure or the distribution of a cavitation zone in relation both 

to space and to inlet pressure, but their influence on the experimental 

results to be cited later was probably small. 

3 The effects on the velocity distribution within the impeller 

passage of any secondary circulation induced by rotation are 

neglected. 

4 I t is assumed th a t the flow pattern through any impeller 

passage remains the same regardless of the phase angle of the 

passage as the impeller revolves. This is not strictly correct 

because uneven pressure distributions around the impeller circumference, 

under operating conditions other than the design 

point, accelerate or retard the flow as the impeller rotates. However, 

because of the inertia of the fluid in the passages and the 

high frequency of these disturbing pressure changes, the response 

or velocity variation is probably small. 

For convenience in the subsequent analysis, another assumption 

has been made, and may be listed as follows: 

5 The impeller eye diameter is considered to typify, for the 

purpose of defining peripheral velocities, the diameter of the 

imaginary surface of revolution described by the leading edges 

of the impeller vanes. As the diameter of a circular area, it is 

also assumed to define the effective radial entrance area of the 

vane passages. These assumptions are considered justified

GONGW ER—A THEO RY OF CAVITATION FLOW IN C EN T R IFU G A L -PU M P IM PELLER S 31 

because this circular area is very close to the vane inlet edges at 

the eye periphery. Since here the peripheral and relative velocities 

are greatest, this can be considered as the critical cavitation 

region. 

The Through-Flow Index, CV As a corollary to the discussion 

of the general case of flow around streamlined objects, the underpressures 

may be seen to be proportional to the entering velocity 

head. A measure of the pressure available for resisting cavitation 

is the entering pressure head less the vapor pressure. The 

ratio of these two quantities, the entering pressure head less the 

vapor pressure to the entering velocity head, should therefore 

provide a measure, for geometrically similar flow patterns, of 

the proximity of the flow to the cavitation regime. 

The entering velocity is nearly the capacity divided by the eye 

area. The ratio of the heads is therefori 

However, since the total inlet head rather than the pressure head 

is more generally considered in pump practice, we will consider 

only the ratio of the total inlet head to the entering velocity 

head. The two ratios are connected by the equation 

is the dimensionless param eter which it is convenient to retain. 

To signalize its relation to the tangential eye velocity, Cs is called 

the peripheral-flow index. The peripheral-flow index is a companion 

to the through-flow index and describes the proximity of 

the flow regime to a condition of cavitation. 

Angle-oJ-Entry Index. The two cavitation param eters now 

derived are measures of the proximity of the flow regime to a 

condition of cavitation only for geometrically similar flows, for 

only in this case are the velocities proportional in magnitude and 

equal in direction. In other words, the validity of the indexes 

as cavitation criteria holds only for one operating point on the 

pump characteristic curves. In Fig. 3 may be seen a simplified 

velocity vector diagram a t the impeller eye. In accordance with 

the fifth assumption, the relative through-flow or radial velocity 

component is 4Q -s- irD2 and the relative tangential velocity 

component is tN D 60. If the speed is held constant and the 

capacity Q is varied, the resultant relative velocity v, which is 

the vector sum of the through-flow and peripheral velocities, 

changes in direction according to the relationship • 

where k" is again the dimensionless constant, and is 240 -j- 7r2, and 

where k' is introduced to describe the dimensionless constants 

hereinafter disregarded, C1 is the dimensionless param eter, Q is 

the flow in units of volume and time, g is the acceleration of 

gravity, and D is the diameter of the impeller eye. The parameter 

As may be seen from Fig. 3, for a given vane setting a


diameter ratio, the author has found it advisable to refer the 

head loss to the head of twice the eye peripheral velocity (2»,)2 -s- 2g, is 0.5 

per cent 

F i g . 5 

C o m p l e t e E y e C a v it a t io n C h a r a c t e r is t ic s ; Ci V e r s u s Ci 

Presentation of Experimental Data. The utilization of the three 

indexes in describing the complete cavitation characteristics of 

a particular eye design is shown diagrammatically in Figs. 5 and 

6. The two charts, one of Ci against C2 and the other of Cj 

against C2, tell essentially the same story. In plotting the 

charts, the indexes have been evaluated for the complete break- 

F i g . 6 C o m p l e t e E y e C a v i t a t i o n C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ; 

C i V e r s u s C

GONGWER—A THEORY OF CAVITATION FLOW IN CENTRIFUGAL-PUM P IM PELLERS 33 

off and the 0.5 per cent point, here labeled th e line of cavitation 

inception, for a num ber of cavitation runs taken, as described, 

a t different values of C2 over th e pum p range of capacities. From 

measurements of the vane setting, point A has been found to 

correspond to zero angle of attack of the vane leading edges in 

accordance w ith Equation [9], The close spacing of th e tw o 

lines, of cavitation inception and breakoff, a t point A corresponds 

to a very sharp breakoff in the head as the suction head 

is lowered. The discontinuities a t B and C have been found to 

occur for the pumps tested wherever the data have been taken 

over a sufficient range of capacities and will be discussed later. 

In Figs. 7, 8, and 9, actual cavitation data are plotted in this 

form. The first two plots are for several impellers w ith the same 

eye design and widely differing outside diam eters. Since, however, 

the same foundry p attern w as not used for all th e impellers 

and slight differences in vane thickness, setting, and spacing 

unavoidably occurred, there is a slight scatter in the points of 

the breakoff curve. The scatter is seen to become progressively 

greater as the degree of cavitation decreases and the reason for 

this is apparent from Fig. 1 in th e low slope of th e head curve 

at high suction heads. However, careful inspection of these 

points has shown th a t the differences in results among the impellers 

of different outside diam eters is of small order w ith respect 

to the scatter for any one impeller and, therefore, th e plots have 

been considered to represent eye performance only. The importance 

of this fact is emphasized, particularly in th e light of the 

interpretation which is put on point B, Figs. 5 and 6, in the 

discussions which follow. 

From th e nature of th e three cavitation indexes, it is possible 

to represent in the general cavitation plots the complete characteristics 

of the particular eye design, and regardless of eye 

diam eter (scale), speed, or capacity, Ca is the same measure of 

flow sim ilarity and Ci and C3 are th e same m easures of the cavitation 

regime. The general utility of this type of chart is therefore 

great, particularly for th e designer. 

Evaluation of Eye Coefficients From Experimental Data. In 

E quation [9] th e expression for the angle of attack /S was derived 

F i g . 9 

r--&, 

Cz ND’ 

I m p e l l e r C a v it a t io n C h a r a c t e r is t ic s 

0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018 0.020 0.022 0.024 

r - Q 

2 ND3 

F i a . 8 

D i m e n s i o n l e s s C a v i t a t i o n P l o t


by inspection of Fig. 3, in term s of the vane setting a ,0) and C2, 

the angle-of-entry index. By setting (3 equal to zero in this 

equation, it is seen th a t the zero angle-of-attack point can be 

represented by the expression 

where Cm is the value of C2 corresponding to zero angle of attack 

of the vane leading edges. Therefore, if ««o is varied from low 

to high values, by varying the vane setting a t the leading edges, 

CSo will also vary from low to high values and point A in Figs. 

5 and 6 will correspondingly move from left to right. However, 

only by taking separate eyes w ith differing vane settings can this 

variation in Cm be effected. 

In connection w ith operation a t Cm, the pressure drops in the 

eye can be expressed by coefficients pertaining to the particular 

part of the passage in question. For instance, the maximum 

pressure reduction attending the flow around the vane can be 

expressed as a coefficient times the head of the relative velocity, 

v in Fig. 3. To obtain the total maximum underpressure in the 

eye, this vane pressure drop can be added to the pressure drop 

effected by the shrouds in guiding the flow from the axial to the 

radial direction. The latter underpressure, in conventional eyes, 

would logically occur a t the suction-side shroud about a t the 

junction w ith the vane leading edges and, hence, the two underpressures 

are superimposed as a first approximation. 

According to the mechanics of cavitation assumed in the 

development of the param eters Ci and C3, the maximum underpressure 

in the eye equals the pressure of the entering flow at 

the critical cavitation or breakdown point. This can be expressed 

by an equation due to Spannhake and Wislicenus 

and were assumed to vary not too widely in profiles of vanes and 

shrouds so th at the mean constants K \ and Ki could be evaluated. 

This mean curve is shown as curve B in Fig. 10 w ith each point 

representing a particular eye w ith vane setting Cm. The scatter 

is encouragingly small in view of the variety of impellers represented. 

The constants were determined by trial and error until, 

on substitution in Equation [14], curve B obtained. The values 

are 1.4 and 0.085 for K \ and K i, respectively. W ith these values 

E quation [14] m ay be w ritten 

This equation is of practical importance and can be used to 

predict cavitation performance a t Ci0 w ith the precision allowed 

by the scatter on curve B in Fig. 10. The values of K i and Ki 

are considered to be well within the range expected from the 

nature of the flow around these profiles. 

where m and n are the shroud and vane coefficients, respectively, 

applied to their corresponding velocity heads; or by adding the 

through-flow velocity head to both sides and substituting for 

v its value from Fig. 3 

where H „ is the total absolute suction head above the vapor 

pressure, K \ = m + 1 and is the new shroud coefficient, K i = 

n and is the vane coefficient. By dividing by the through-flow 

velocity head, we have 

where k ' and k" are defined in Equations [3] and [7]. The subscript 

zero is applied to C2 to signify the zero angle of attack. 

By inspection of Equation [14], it can be seen th at the cavitation 

performance a t the design point C20, can be calculated from 

the two parameters K i and K i. I t thus is advisable to attem pt 

to evaluate these coefficients by whatever method possible and, 

barring a rigorous evaluation, to use an approximate one. To 

use a rigorous method, it would be necessary to make several 

impellers w ith different vane settings Cm, but w ith identical vane 

and shroud profiles and to adjust the values of K i and K% until the 

cavitation performance of all these eyes could be accurately 

described at the design point by Equation [14]. Since this 

m ethod has not been practicable, the less rigorous procedure was 

followed in striking a mean line through the breakoff points of 

all the impellers tested. These varied widely in vane setting 

F i g . 10 C u r v e s o f Locus o f Ci a n d o f Locus o f M i n i m u m P o i n t s 

f o b B b e a k o f f 

A Theoretical Lim it Function. Although an empirical analysis 

of the cavitation performance at C20 has been effected without 

much difficulty, the determination of the nature of the breakdown 

phenomenon at finite positive or negative angles of attack 

is inherently more difficult because of the interference between 

the vanes. I t is desired to derive some sort of theoretical curve 

to approximate the breakoff curves in Figs. 7,8, and 9. Whereas, 

the breakdown case for all the impellers at zero angle of attack 

has been considered, the breakdown curve for a particular 

impeller a t all angles of attack will now be investigated. Here, 

the interference effects will involve consideration of a theoretical 

lattice of vanes in a flow, which for simplicity sake will be considered 

two-dimensional. 

Before proceeding, it is necessary to postulate a picture of 

breakdown cavitation a t finite angle of attack. Since here the 

head across the pump drops practically to zero, it is reasonable 

to assume th at the vanes exert little or no lift on the fluid. This 

is possible only if the fluid breaks completely away from the 

suction side of the vanes and is accelerated in a free jet which 

proceeds along the pressure face to the discharge into the volute. 

This picture has been assumed by Betz and Petersohn (4) and 

considered analogous to the case of a two-dimensional lattice of 

straight, thin vanes of finite w idth in a rectilinear flow. This 

ideal picture is shown in Fig. 11, where the region on the suction 

side of the vanes contains only vapor a t the corresponding low 

absolute pressure. 

This two-dimensional case has been mathematically analyzed 

(4) by means of conformal mapping and the fundamental equation 

results

GONGW ER—A TH EO R Y OF CAVITATIO N FLOW IN C E N T R IFU G A L -PU M P IM PELLER S 35 

where 0 is the angle of attack, 8 is the angle made by the deflected 

free jets as they emerge from the lattice, w ith the oncoming 

undisturbed flow direction, R = » i/t)2 where t>, and v2 are the 

undisturbed relative approach and free-jet velocities, respectively, 

and 0, is the angle of the oncoming flow w ith th e line joining the 

vane leading edges. These angles can be seen in Fig. 11. 

F io . 11 

B b e a k d o w n C a v it a t io n in a T w o -D im e n s io n a l L a t t ic e 

In order to use Equation [16], a simplifying assumption m ust 

first be made in accordance w ith the large chord-to-gap ratio 

occurring in impellers. I t is necessary to assume th a t for this 

case the free jets of Fig. 11 leave the vanes in a direction parallel 

to the vanes. From the picture it is clear th a t 8 is then equal to 

0 and the left-hand member of Equation [16] is unity. W ith 

this simplification, values of R as a function of 0 m ay be determined 

for a particular vane setting an, since Equation [16] 

reduces to 

Once R is known, the performance can be calculated by assuming 

th at the total energy head of the oncoming relative flow is 

converted to velocity at zero pressure head in the free jets. The 

resulting equations are 

Thus, given R as a function of 0, and of C2, from Equation 

[17], Equation [19] determines k'C i. The resulting ideal curves 

are plotted in Figs. 7, 8, and 9 as dashed lines. These curves 

fall far below the actual curves since K \ and K lt the vane and 

profile coefficients, have been autom atically taken as unity and 

zero, respectively, in this analysis, which is for thin vanes w ith 

no curvature in the third dimension such as th a t imposed by the 

shrouds. 

The practical value of the ideal breakoff curves lies in the 

fact th a t their shape is similar to the empirical break-off curves. 

The sharp upturn at overcapacities, negative values of /S, now 

seems to be due to the severe interference effect of the stagger aa 

0 passes from positive to negative. I t is felt th a t this sim ilarity 

in shape justifies the picture of breakdown cavitation assumed in 

Fig. 11. 

It has been attem pted to raise the ideal curve to the empirical 

curve by adding the increments due to the difference between 

the actual values of K\ and K 2 and the assumed values, unity and 

zero. While good agreement has been found occasionally, more 

often it has been poor, and it is felt th a t the assum ption of twodimensional 

flow so limits the analysis th a t the actual flow 

picture is no more than qualitatively described. 

Compatibility W ith Aeronautical Experience. In the field of 

aeronautics, it has been found th a t the interference between the 

wing and the fuselage at the suction side of the wing on lowwing 

planes has necessitated the use of fillets to prevent separation 

of the flow in the region of the re-entrant angle. This 

separation consists of eddies tow ard the wing trailing edge. It 

is believed th a t a similar case is encountered in the impeller eye 

in the re-entrant angle, where the suction side of the blade joins 

th e suction shroud a t the eye periphery. Here the underpressures 

due to the shroud and vane profiles can be thought of as 

augm enting each other. For this reason cavitation would be 

expected to occur first in this interference region. W hat is 

thought to be the effect of sm ooth fair fillets can be seen in the 

flatness of the cavitation inception line of Fig. 9, which shows 

test results from an impeller w ith such fillets. Fig. 7 represents 

an impeller w ithout these fillets and it can be seen th a t the 

cavitation inception line is very steep near the design point, 

which indicates there are large underpressures a t small angles 

of attack. 

T h at this region of the blade span next to the suction shroud 

a t the eye periphery is critical for cavitation is further evidenced 

by the observed fact th a t am m ust be measured as the angle 

made by the vane trace in the suction shroud w ith the circle of 

revolution, if the measured value of C2o from Equation [9] is to 

correspond w ith the experimental value of Cm for both cavitation 

and complete breakdown. 

Aeronautical practice can be borrowed further in considering 

the question of sharp or blunt vane leading edges. The frequent 

use by aeronautical engineers of the “teardrop” or blunt-nosed 

profile for fuselage and wing sections for optim um drag characteristics 

would a t first seem to suggest the use of blunt-nosed 

impeller vanes, particularly since the underpressures on these 

profiles are less sensitive to angle of attack. However, as previously 

suggested in connection w ith flow around curved boundaries, 

the higher curvatures induce large local underpressures 

which, from Bernoulli’s theorem, m ust correspond to high local 

velocities. This proves the undoing of the blunt-nosed profile 

for aeronautical purposes if these local velocities approach th at 

of sound through the fluid, for the induced standing sound waves 

bear witness to the inability of the fluid to adjust itself w ith 

sufficient rapidity to conform w ith the required flow pattern. 

There is an analogy between the sonic velocity for the airplane 

section and the cavitation velocity, or the velocity corresponding 

to the total absolute suction head, for the pump-vane section. 

I t has been observed experimentally th a t sharp vanes give better 

cavitation performance both for inception and complete break-


off, since the cavitation velocity of the total absolute suction 

head is reached a t lower suction heads for the sharp vane sections. 

E y e D e s i g n F r o m E m p i r i c a l D a t a 

Values of S Related to New Parameters. The param eter S, or 

suction specific speed, as presented by Wislicenus, Watson, and 

Karassik (2) is related to Ci, C2, and C3 in the following manner: 

From curve A for 430. For class (a) eyes, it is recommended 

th at the design be from curve A in Fig. 12, as in the 

example. For class (6) much leeway is allowed in the vane setting 

and eye diam eter because of the adequate suction head. For 

class (c), inspection of Figs. 7, 8, and 9 shows th at cavitation-free 

operation can be secured up to line B, if Q does not vary far from 

Qn . The problem of design, therefore, becomes one of compromise 

among a number of factors to secure the best over-all pump 

performance. In general, it can be said th at for severe conditions 

the eye vanes should be given a flat setting with consequent 

large eye. However, there is a lower limit to vane setting as 

will be discussed hereafter. The best cavitation performance at 

Qn is secured by making Cm = Qn/ND3 or /3 = 0, but this does 

not give much overcapacity to the pump as the interference 

between vanes causes the cavitation performance to become very 

F i g . 12 R e p l o t o f F i g . 10 

those to the right correspond to low values of S. This means 

th a t low S corresponds to large a,o or steep vane settings, and high 

S to flat vane settings, where S is applied to the eye design point 

Cm, as N s, or discharge specific speed, is applied to the pump 

peak efficiency point. 

Using the second of Equations [20], the curves in Fig. 12 can 

be derived from those of Fig. 10. Curve B of Figs. 10 and 12 

is a definite line as may be seen from the relatively small scatter 

of points. Curve A is the author’s recommendation for a conservative 

design limit and, when applied to the eye design point, 

gives the conditions under which Ah will be less than l/ 2 per cent, 

up to 115 per cent of the design-point capacity. The suction 

heads specified by curve A are conservative by 20 per cent for 

good eyes and radical by 10 per cent for poor ones. 

Design Example. The curves of Fig. 12 are useful for design 

and performance prediction purposes, as will be illustrated by the 

following example: 

Given design operating conditions: 

F i g . 13 

T y p i c a l C o n s t a n t - S p e e d - P u m p C h a r a c t e r i s t i c C u r v e s 

poor for negative values of 0. Therefore, it is usually advisable 

to have 0 about + 1 to 3 deg a t Q;V. 

P u m p P e r f o r m a n c e i n R e l a t i o n t o S e p a r a t i o n 

Correlation W ith Empirical Discontinuity. The complete 

cavitation characteristic plots provide an excellent means of 

studying the flow conditions in the impeller entrance passages. 

Certain studies have been made from these plots and will now be 

presented. 

The discontinuities in the cavitation inception lines shown in 

Figs. 5, 6, 7, and 8 can be traced to the pump characteristic 

curves and, in particular, point B of Figs. 5 and 6 corresponds to 

point B ' of Fig. 13, which shows typical characteristic curves 

for a pump w ith volute-type casing. Experimental confirmation 

of this correlation is presented in Fig. 8. This figure, as 

previously explained, represents cavitation tests on a series of 

identical impellers a t different outside diameters. Short sections

GONGW ER—A THEO RY OF CAVITATION FLOW IN C EN T R IFU G A L -PU M P IM PELLER S 37 

of the efficiency curves containing the discontinuities have been 

plotted to the same abscissas. Although, because of an insufficient 

number of points, this jum p in efficiency is not usually 

noticed in manufacturer’s pump tests, it represents a difference 

of from 1 to 4 per cent. 

Since it has not usually been possible for the designer to 

predict the location of this so-called instability, it seems desirable 

to pursue further this correspondence linking the instability 

w ith the impeller eye. The location of B ' has been found to be 

independent of volute type and impeller cutting and, since it is 

characterized by a torque change as well as head change, it is 

more conclusively traced to the impeller and to the impeller eye. 

The Mechanics of Separation. From the discussion of the 

excessive underpressures, resulting from the interference between 

the suction side of the vane and the suction shroud, particularly 

a t high values of /3, it is reasonable to expect separation of the 

flow at this point. The term separation, as distinct from cavitation, 

is applied to the sudden departure of the streamlines from 

a path along the walls and their replacement by dead w ater or 

back eddies in the intervening space (5). I t is generally held 

th at separation is a consequence of the presence of insufficient 

energy in the boundary layer to m aintain flow against the abrupt 

pressure increases which follow underpressures. It should be 

kept in mind th at the foregoing remarks refer to noncavitation 

flow as will the remainder of the argument. 

I t therefore follows th a t the occurrence of this separation is 

accompanied by a large reduction in the underpressures because 

of the reduction in curvature of the streamlines, and therefore 

the cavitation sensitivity is reduced. This is verified by the 

experimental data in Figs. 7 and 8 where a drop in the inception 

lines with decreasing C2 occurs at the instability point. 

Since the phenomenon of separation is related to the pressure 

distribution in the flow, which is in turn most conveniently described 

in terms of angle of attack, in the case of airfoils, it should 

be instructive to evaluate the angles of attack for which the 

separation occurs. This has been done w ith the aid of Equation 

[9] and Table 1 lists the critical values for all the impellers considered. 

There is a striking constancy in angle for all impellers from 1 

through 11 w ith a sudden radical departure for the impellers 

thereafter. These latter impellers came under the heading of 

“ sick pumps” because of the corresponding narrow capacity 

range in which the efficiency is maintained at the higher values. 

It appears th a t the impellers of the first group are affected by 

an almost identical phenomenon, upon which much light can be 

shed by again borrowing from aeronautical experience. Hovgard 

(6) describes a prem ature stall (separation) a t the wingroot 

leading edge of some of the more recent airplanes. This 

stall results from interference w ith the fuselage, and means of 

eliminating it were devised. I t was found th at the fore-and-aft 

location of the wing was the principal factor. I t is believed th at 

the instability of the impeller is due to a similar effect, by which 

is meant a stall at the leading edges near the suction shroud. 

If this is the case, the methods of alleviating this condition, 

following the aeronautical case, should consist of flattening the 

setting slightly in the immediate vicinity of the shroud and 

raking the leading edge forward out of the eye. 

It is instructive to conjecture as to the nature of the seemingly 

different separation occurring in the latter group of impellers. 

I t can be said of these impellers th a t the exit vane settings were 

exceptionally flat. This flat setting is believed to have resulted 

in a tendency to separate at the suction shroud independent of 

the vane leading edges. This separation would result in a sheet 

of dead w ater covering the entire suction shroud. P itot traverses 

at the impeller discharge, a t capacities on either side of the 

instability, have suggested th a t this might be the case. I t can 

be shown th a t the lift of the vanes tends to rotate this dead water 

from the suction shroud to the suction side of the vanes and thus 

suppress the separation. It is therefore suggested that, in the 

absence of sufficient vane steepness, the low vane lift allows an 

entirely different separation, to control which m ay be responsible 

for the performance of the second group of impellers. 

W ith the value of 0r given in group I of Table 1, the author 

has been able to predict the location of the instability point from 

measurements of the eye vane setting. The setting is measured 

at the eye periphery in the separation region. 

G e n e r a l i z a t i o n s 

Cavitation Study. Several general conclusions m ay be drawn 

from the cavitation study: 

1 Cavitation performance is a function of eye vane leadingedge 

and shroud profiles and, consequently, the eye cavitation 

performance can be calculated from coefficients characteristic of 

these profiles together w ith the vane setting angle and eye 

diameter. 

2 The complete cavitation characteristics of an impeller 

eye design can be described in term s of the dimensionless parameters 

Ci, the through-flow index C2, the angle-of-entry index, 

and Cj, the peripheral index. 

3 For optimum cavitation performance, the vane leading 

edges should be sharp and well filleted where they join the 

shrouds. 

4 The term S, the suction specific speed, can be made a design 

param eter by plotting empirical values against C2, as has 

been done in Fig. 12. 

5 The term S stipulates the eye vane angular setting if suction 

conditions are severe, i.e., poor conditions corresponding to 

high S require flat vane settings and large eye, while good conditions 

corresponding to small S perm it leeway in vane setting. 

Separation Study. The general conclusions which may be 

drawn from the separation study include: 

1 An assumed eye separation is the cause of the discontinuities 

occurring in the discharge characteristics and this separation is 

of two types (a) a local leading-edge stall adjacent to the suction 

shroud, and (6) a full suction-shroud separation independent of 

the vanes and which is a result of insufficient vane lift (low exit 

vane setting). 

2 Given the eye angle setting, the eye diam eter should be 

adjusted, cavitation conditions perm itting, to locate the instability 

point entirely out of the operating region. 

A c k n o w l e d g m e n t 

The author is indebted to the staff of the California Institute 

of Technology and to the United States Bureau of Reclamation 

for the use of the experimental material upon which much of the 

argum ent of this paper is based, and for their generous technical 

advice and assistance. 

The author is particularly indebted to Professors Th. von 

K&rm&n, R. L. D augherty, and R. T. K napp and to Mr. J. W. 

Daily of the Institute and to Mr. D. P. Barnes of the U. S. 

Bureau of Reclamation. 

Special thanks are due Dr. George F. Wislicenus of the W orthington 

Pum p and Machinery Corporation and Mr. A. Hollander, 

chief engineer of the Byron Jackson Company for valuable tech-


nical assistance and permission to publish test data from their 

respective machines. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1 “Experimental Research in the Field of Water Power," by D. 

Thoma, First World Power Conference, London, vol. 2, 1924, pp. 

536-551. 

2 “Cavitation Characteristics of Centrifugal Pumps Described 

by Similarity Conditions,” by G. F. Wislicenus, R. M. Watson, and 

I. J. Karassik, Trans. A.S.M.E., vol. 61, 1939, pp. 17-24. 

3 “Centrifugal Pumps for the Colorado River Aqueduct,” by R. 

L. Daugherty, Mechanical Engineering, vol. 60, 1938, pp. 295-299. 

4 “Anwendung der Theorie der freien Strahlen,” by A. Betz and 

E. Petersohn, Ingenieur-Archiv, vol. 2, 1931, pp. 190-211. 

5 “Fluid Mechanics for Hydraulic Engineers,” by Hunter Rouse, 

Engineering Societies Monographs, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 

Inc., New York, N. Y., 1938. 

6 “Means for Suppression of Interference Burble,” by P. E. 

Hovgard, Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences, November, 1939, 

pp. 22-25. 

7 “Hydromechanische Probleme des Shiffsantriebs,” by G. 

Kempf and E. Foerster, Proceedings of the Conference on the Hydro- 

Mechanical Problem of Ship Propulsion, Hamburg, May 18 and 19, 

1932. 

D iscussion 

R. W. A n g u s . 3 The m aterial presented in this paper is of 

timely interest and the author has taken a method of analysis of 

the factors affecting cavitation in pum p impellers th a t is most 

constructive. The centrifugal pump has come into very common 

use but, unfortunately, numbers of them cause trouble through 

noise and vibration, a t times accompanied by a rapid deterioration 

of the pump. This noise does not necessarily indicate an 

inefficient pump, for some of those w ith highest efficiency are 

noisy and decidedly objectionable from the standpoint of the 

operator. 

After the pump is installed, the operator is greatly concerned 

with the destructive effect of the noise and, if he is not running 

the pump continuously, he may not be able to tell whether erosion 

is serious or not until after the pump has been paid for. Noise 

is sometimes eliminated by adm itting a very small volume of 

air to the suction pipe, and often there is no appreciable loss in 

efficiency thereby. Designers are in need of such studies as outlined 

in this paper, so they m ay be sure their pumps will be satisfactory. 

The w riter believes, however, th a t the design of the eye 

is not the sole cause of the trouble, b u t th a t the form of casing 

and the design of the inlet passages are also im portant factors. 

The writer is not clear as to the connection between the curves 

in Figs. 6, 7, 8, and 10 of the paper and would appreciate more 

detail. For example, Fig. 7 gives no definite indication of the 

point B shown in Fig. 5 and, while there is a suggestion of a point 

like B in Fig. 8, it is by no means as distinctly m arked as in Fig. 

6. W hat was the experimental background for suggesting the 

presence of the point B, and why is it suggested in Figs. 5 and 6 

th at the curves turn up to the right of A when, in Figs. 7 and 8, 

most of them are pointing downward 

In Fig. 12 the author does not clearly state his reason for drawing 

the curve B in the position shown. Assuming the curve to 

be properly placed, the investigation shows how it m ay be employed 

in design to good advantage. 

The horizontal axis of the curves is proportional to the 

N D 3 

square of the specific speed for a given pump, since N D represents 

the linear speed of a point on the impeller and is related to the 

head produced by the latter; Fig. 12 thus relates two specific 

>Professor of Mechanical Engineering, University of Toronto, 

Toronto, Canada. Fellow A.S.M.E. 

speeds both connected w ith the conditions a t entry to the impeller. 

The types of curves, shown in Fig. 13, are not uncommon and 

the discontinuities have been noticed by many engineers. Too 

often they have been ascribed to irregularities in the tests themselves, 

and a smooth curve drawn through the points in such a 

way as to mask these sudden changes of curvature. The writer 

believes th at the pump characteristics are very sensitive to the 

actual setting of the pump, and has noticed th at pumps not infrequently 

appear to be quite satisfactory when tested in the 

shops, but show considerable trouble when placed in service, 

even under apparently good suction conditions. Wherever possible, 

the w ater should enter the pump under some pressure. In 

future investigations, the writer would suggest trying the effect 

of elbows of different radii and set a t various angles somewhere 

in the suction line, not necessarily close to the pump. 

G. F. W i s l i c e n u s . 4 In order to understand the paper in its 

relation to other publications in the same field, it seems advisable 

to establish clearly the relation between the coefficients introduced 

by this paper and those already in use,6 as follows 

Gongwer 

Bibliography (2) 

of paper 

Sedille 

I t can be shown by the methods of dimensional analysis th at 

the factor Ci, C3, and C2 or their equivalent expressions, together 

with the suction specific speed S, are the only independent dimensionless 

coefficients which can be formed out of the variables 

Q, H„, N , D. No publication therefore can be expected to introduce 

fundam entally new coefficients derived from these basic 

variables. I t is rather the better understanding and improved 

application of these fundam ental coefficients to which this paper 

presents a valuable contribution. 

The paper seeks to establish design characteristics rather than 

performance characteristics. For the designer, the complete 

coefficients K ' Ci, K ’" C3, and K " C\ will be more useful than the 

abbreviated coefficients Ci, Cs, and Ci, in particular if the complete 

coefficients are expressed as simple head and velocity ratios. 

jtN D 

4 Q 

Putting - on = V, (Fig. 3 of paper) and —— = V E (equivalent 

irDs 

This form has the added advantage of extending the significance 

of the given equations to pumps with their shafts running through 

the eye of the impeller, while the same coefficients and relations 

in the form given in the paper apply to single-suction overhung 

pumps only. 

E quation [13] of the paper permits the derivation of a maximum 

obtainable value of the suction specific speeds S for given 

values of the coefficients K i and K i. An increase in eye diameter 

D for a fixed capacity Q and speed of rotation N will reduce the 

absolute fluid velocity in the eye and, thereby, the first term of 

4 Worthington Pump & Machinery Corporation, Harrison, N. J. 

Mem. A.S.M.E. 

s Discussion Bibliography (2) of paper, Trans. A.S.M.E., vol. 62, 

Feb., 1940, p. 160.

GONGW ER—A THEO RY OF CAVITATION FLOW IN C EN TRIFU G A L-PU M P IM PELLER S 39 

Equation [13], while it increases the relative velocity a t which 

the water meets the vanes and, thereby, the second term of 

Equation [13]. Obviously, there m ust be some optimum value 

of D giving the smallest sum of these two terms and, thereby, 

the lowest value for H„. This is obtained by putting the derivative 

of H„ with respect to D in Equation [13] equal to zero. 

Using Ki = 1.4 and K-x = 0.085 one obtains for the cavitation 

breakdown of single-suction overhung pumps S max = 740, 

(Q in cfs). 

Condensate and process pumps have been operated successfully 

at S values considerably in excess of the maximum value derived 

in this way. Such operation, however, is not free from considerable 

cavitation, although mostly w ithout harmful effects. This 

condition probably prevents the application of Equations [13] 

and [14] of the paper to these types of pumps. 

The application of the results by Betz and Peterson to the 

cavitation flow in centrifugal pumps is of great interest and the 

qualitative agreement between the theoretical and experimental 

results seems to be much better than could be expected, taking 

into account not only the three-dimensional character of the real 

flow but also the fact th at the simplifying assumption 9 — 0 is 

questionable because of the rotational character of relative flow 

in radial-flow runners. The sharp break in the theoretical curve 

seems to be in error judging from Equations [17] and [19] and 

from physical reasoning. The quantitive difference, on the other 

hand, seems to be most easily explainable from the thickness of 

the vanes in real pumps. 

The analysis of the relation between instabilities in the pump 

head and efficiency curves and the cavitation performance is believed 

to constitute the most original contribution made by this 

paper. Its importance is not diminished by the fact th at the 

practical application of this relation so far m ay be restricted to 

impellers of the type investigated, so th at generalizations of these 

results do not seem to be within immediate reach. I t is rather 

the general significance of these investigations with respect to 

the mechanism of the flow inside pump runners which may be 

far-reaching and which, for this reason, will be discussed. 

The writer previously presented a simple theoretical approximation 

for the beginning of separation on impeller vanes.6 This 

approximation was based on the average deflection of the fluid 

by the vane as a whole (average lift coefficient) and the average 

pressure rise along the vanes, assuming th a t the flow conditions 

in the boundary layers on impeller vanes are essentially the same 

as those along single aerofoils as tested in the wind tunnel. The 

results of the present paper on the other hand seem to indicate 

that not the average flow conditions but those near the inlet 

edges of the vanes have a predominating influence upon separation 

phenomena in the runner. The most probable reason 

for this discrepancy is the fact th a t the boundary-layer flow in 

radial-flow pump impellers may differ materially from th at observed 

on single aerofoils in the wind tunnel. Figs. 14 and 15 of 

this discussion indicate why such a difference in boundary-flow 

conditions is likely to exist. 

Fig. 14 shows separation as observed on a single aerofoil in the 

wind tunnel. The arrows in the zone of separation represent the 

average direction of rotation in the boundary layer after the point 

of separation. Fig. 15 shows the corresponding relative flow 

conditions in a radial-flow pump impeller, assuming th a t the 

direction of rotation in the separation zone remains the same as 

before. This direction of rotation, however, is opposite to the 

general tendency of relative rotation in radial-flow runners, indicating 

th at the rotation of the runner tends to suppress separa- 

1 “Separation in Pumps and Turbines,” by G. F . Wislicenus. 

Presented at Summer Meeting, University of California and Standford 

University, June 19-21, 1934, of the Aeronautic and Hydraulic 

Divisions of T h e A m e r ic a n S o c ie t y o f M e c h a n ic a l E n g i n e e r s . 

F i o . 14 

S e p a r a t i o n a s O b s e r v e d o n S i n g l e A e r o f o i l i n W in d 

T u n n e l 

F i g . 15 C o r r e s p o n d i n g R e l a t i v e F l o w C o n d i t i o n s i n R a d i a l - 

F l o w P u m p I m p e l l e r 

tion. This somewhat intuitive reasoning can be confirmed by a 

simple calculation of the influence of the Coriolis forces on the 

boundary flow in radial-flow runners. 

The turbulent shearing stress in a two-dimensional boundary 

layer (such as along an aerofoil in the wind tunnel) usually is expressed 

in the form 

where Vx' and V„' are the turbulent-velocity fluctuation in the 

direction of the fixed boundary x and a t right angles to the fixed 

boundary y; p is the mass of the fluid per unit volume. 

The corresponding expression for the turbulent boundary layer 

along the vanes of a radial-flow runner was found by the writer 

to be 

where w is the angular velocity of the runner, and I some form 

of a “mixing length” of the turbulent boundary layer. The new 

term in Equation [22], as compared w ith Equation [21], represents 

the influence of the Coriolis forces (or relative rotation) on 

the turbulent shearing stress. Since these stresses tend to suppress 

separation, it is apparent th a t Equation [22] has the same 

physical meaning as the result previously derived by inspection of 

Figs. 14 and 15. 

If it is assumed th a t the mixing length I is proportional to the 

distance between the vanes, the previously mentioned discrepancy 

between the results of this paper and earlier results of the writer 

is largely explained, qualitatively confirming the results of the 

present paper. A t the same tim e it becomes clear th at investigations 

of this type can be expected to throw considerable light on 

the general problems of flow conditions in hydraulic runners. I t 

is, therefore, believed th a t this paper deserves the most careful 

and serious consideration. 


In answer to the questions of Professor Angus concerning the 

difference between the experimental curves of Figs. 7, 8, and 9


and the type curves presented in Figs. 5 and 6, it was perhaps not 

made sufficiently clear that the experimental data for any one 

impeller were incomplete. The curves for all the impellers could 

be pieced together qualitatively to show that the type curves of 

Figs. 5 and 6 obtain over the complete capacity or angle of entry 

range. Although the uprise is not shown in Figs. 7 and 8 since 

points are not available at Cm (point A in Figs. 5 and 6) and beyond, 

in every impeller for which data were available in this region 

the curves turned up as in Figs. 5 and 6. Space considerations 

prevented the presentation of the many curves for which the discontinuity 

was more noticeable than in Fig. 7. However, a replot 

of these data in Fig. 8 shows the discontinuity and its relationship 

to the efficiency jumps. This correlation between the efficiency 

jumps and cavitation discontinuity was observed in every instance. 

In Fig. 12 the curve B has been drawn through the experimental 

points shown. Curve A is a rough indication of the maximum 

height of the curves on the plots of the type of Fig. 8 in terms of 

the location of Cm. This latter curve is offered as a qualitative 

aid to the determination of cavitation inception limits. 

The author wishes to emphasize that the horizontal and vertical 

variables in Fig. 12 are not the same quantities. The horizontal 

variable is best thought of as corresponding to the angular vane 

setting at the eye, and is proportional to tan aio in Fig. 3. The 

vertical variable is the suction specific speed at Cm, or point A in 

Figs. 5 and 6, which is obtained by eliminating the diameter D 

from any two of the coefficients Ci, C2, and Cs. The data are also 

plotted in Fig. 10 with the ordinate altered from Equations [20]. 

Regarding the effect of casing design on cavitation performance, 

the tests for Figs. 7 and 8 were made with impellers cut from 

14*/u in. to 127/ s in. and used in the same casing. Consequently, 

the head and capacity of the pump varied over wide limits but 

the eye cavitation performance remained the same within the 

limits of scatter in the figures. The scatter may perhaps be laid 

to this impeller cutting which was in effect a change in casing had 

the impeller remained uncut. 

In regard to the discussion of Dr. Wislicenus, the derivation of 

the maximum value of S to be expected from Equation [13] is 

very enlightening. However, in comparing this derived value 

with practice for condensate pumps, it must be remembered that 

the conditions are stipulated in Equation [13] that operation be 

at Cm, the zero-angle-of-attack point. Inspection of Fig. 8 shows 

that, for a given speed and eye, IL,> for breakoff approaches zero 

at shutoff. Consequently, S reaches large values toward shutoff 

since H,v enters as the three-fourth power in the denominator 

and O as only the one-half power in the numerator. Therefore, 

a pump can be operated at practically infinite S if the capacity is 

low enough. Consequently, this apparent disagreement between 

theory and practice is not real. 

The author feels that the sharp break in the theoretical curves 

of Figs. 7, 8, and 9 is compatible with physical reasoning for the 

two-dimensional-flow picture assumed, but the curvature of the 

actual flow in two additional directions and deviations from a 

rectangular entrance velocity profile would prevent resolution of 

this break in the experimental results. 

The author agrees with Dr. Wislicenus in his interesting discussion 

of the effect of Coriolis forces in suppressing separation from 

the impeller vanes. Similar conclusions can be reached by considering 

the increased radial head build-up in a dead water region, 

for backward sloping vanes, which would result in transverse 

pressure gradients tending to force the live water into the separation 

region.

T urbulence an d E n erg y D issipation 

T his paper incorporates a study o f th e origin and d issipation 

o f turbulence energy w hich m akes possible a better 

understanding o f th e m echanics o f energy losses th a t are 

introduced by various flow -disturbing devices such as 

expansions, bends, valves, etc. T he im p ortan t param eters 

w hich characterize turbulence are th e root-m ean-square 

values o f the fluctuatin g velocity com p on en ts, th e len gth 

factor proportional to th e size o f th e sm all eddies responsible 

for th e dissipation o f energy, and th e len gth 

factor proportional to the average size o f th e eddies. The 

effect o f variation o f th ese param eters on th e energy losses 

occurring in turbulent flow are discussed, and also th e 

change in these param eters in th e decaying turbulence 

beyond turbulence-producing devices is in dicated. D ata 

are presented show ing th e variation in th e k in etic energy 

o f m ean flow and th e turbulence energy in a 15-deg conical 

divergence. Visual studies o f th e start o f turbulence at 

rounded entrances to sm ooth conduits seem to in dicate 

that there is a regular vortex form ation a t th e boundary, 

and th e dispersion o f th ese vortexes in to th e m ain fluid 

stream gradually establishes norm al tu rb u len t flow. 

T 

H E flow of all real fluids involves energy loss due to the 

frictional resistance of the fluid. The terms “energy loss” 

or “energy dissipation” are used in this paper to describe 

the eventual changing into heat of the energy producing flow. 

Energy dissipation in a continuous fluid for either lam inar or 

turbulent flow is due to the action of the viscosity of the fluid, 

and such terms as “shock loss” or “im pact loss” do not describe 

correctly how energy losses occur in continuous fluids. 

Hydrodynamics indicates quite definitely how energy is 

dissipated in a fluid in viscous flow. The rate a t which energy 

is dissipated in viscous flow can be predicted from a knowledge 

of the flow pattern and the characteristics of the fluid. However, 

this is not the case for turbulent flow. I t is ordinarily 

possible by the use of semiempirical formulas to calculate the 

total over-all pressure drop and thus the total rate of energy loss, 

however, we know very little about the mechanics of how this 

energy loss takes place in the turbulent fluid itself. The purpose 

of this paper is to analyze more thoroughly the mechanics of 

energy dissipation in a turbulent fluid, and to relate such analyses 

to various practical hydraulics problems. Liberal use will be 

made of the fundamental ideas regarding the mechanism of 

turbulence which have been put forth by L. Prandtl, G. I. Taylor, 

Th. von K&rm&n, and their co-workers. The principles of the 

statistical theory of turbulence will be extended to the practical 

problems of energy dissipation in liquid flow. 

F u n d a m e n t a l C o n c e p t i o n s 

In order th at the meaning of various terms and expressions 

used in this paper may be clearer they will be defined at this 

stage. 

By A. A. K A LIN SK E,1 IOWA CITY, IOWA 

1 Assistant Professor of Hydraulics, College of Engineering, State 

University of Iowa, and Research Engineer, Iowa Institute of Hydraulic 

Research. 

Contributed by the Hydraulic Division and presented at the 


A m e r i c a n S o c i e t y o f M e c h a n i c a l E n g i n e e r s . 


understood as individual expressions of their authors, and not those 


41 

When a fluid flows in a straight conduit a t distances far enough 

beyond bends or transition sections, so-called normal conditions 

become established. In such a case, the am ount and nature 

of turbulence present is unvarying and the shape of the meanvelocity 

distribution remains constant. For this condition of 

flow, the rate of creation of turbulence is in equilibrium with its 

rate of dissipation. The kinetic energy of mean flow per pound 

of fluid flowing is ordinarily designated as Um2/2g, where Um is 

the mean velocity in the cross section. The total kinetic energy 

of the mean flow is then equal to QyUm2/2g where Q is the discharge 

and y is the specific weight. Because of the variation 

in mean velocity, all particles of fluid passing any section do not 

have the same kinetic energy, therefore the foregoing expression 

can only be exactly correct for uniform velocity distribution. 

For a circular cross section, the correct expression for the total 

kinetic energy of mean flow is 

where p = 

V = 

U = 

unit density of fluid 

distance from center 

radius of cross section 

mean velocity with respect to time a t point y 

In true turbulent flow, the velocity a t a point varies irregularly 

with time in direction and magnitude. However, in vortex motion, 

as for example in the von Kdrm&n vortex street produced beyond 

a body immersed in a flowing fluid, the variation in the velocity 

vector with time is quite regular. Whenever the term “turbulence” 

is used it will refer to a condition of flow where there is no 

regularity in the variation of the direction and magnitude of the 

velocity vector, except in the probability sense. I t is convenient 

to designate the velocity vector a t any instant by the components 

U, V, and W along the x, y, and z axes, respectively. 

The x axis is in the direction of mean flow, the y axis is normal 

to the mean flow, and the z axis is the other normal axis. 

The kinetic energy per pound of fluid a t any instant is actually 

equal to U2/2g. Separate the fluctuating component U into two 

parts, such th a t U = U + u, where u is the fluctuating part. 

Obviously, u = 0; (the bar indicating an arithm etic mean). 

Thus the mean kinetic energy is in reality equal to (U + u)2/2g 

or to ( t /2 + u2)/2g and the p art u2/2g is called the kinetic energy 

of turbulence. Therefore, the total kinetic energy due to the 

turbulence per pound of fluid will be 

The total kinetic energy of turbulence for the fluid flowing in a 

circular conduit will then be 

E, = ttp U(u2 + v2 + w2)ydy [3] 

Another im portant fundam ental idea is the concept of shear 

in a moving fluid. For viscous flow the shear per unit area at 

any point is equal to n dU/dy, or the product of the coefficient of 

viscosity and the velocity gradient. The mean shear in a tu r 

bulent fluid is equal to 

The term e is the so-called diffusion coefficient having the dimen-


sions of a velocity times a length, and a good physical interpretation 

of e is given by Bakhmeteff ( l).2 In fully developed 

turbulent flow, except near a smooth boundary, the coefficient 

pe is many times greater than thus the first term in Equation 

[4] becomes quite small compared to the second term. 

The rate a t which potential or pressure energy is used in producing 

flow is equal to r(dU/dy) in foot-pounds per unit volume 

of fluid. For viscous flow this becomes ti{dU/dy)2, and represents 

the rate a t which the energy producing flow is dissipated 

into heat a t any point in a fluid. In fully developed turbulent 

flow, since the mean shear stress is not influenced by viscosity, 

the quantity r(dU/dy) represents the rate at which the pressureenergy 

producing flow is transformed into turbulence energy. 

The turbulence energy is then dissipated into heat by the action 

of viscosity on the small eddies. However, energy of turbulence 

is not necessarily dissipated a t the point where it is created; 

it can and is diffused by the mixing action of the turbulence. 

For instance in a uniform conduit, the term r(dU/dy) is greatest 

near the boundaries and is zero at the center. The energy of 

turbulence produced a t the boundaries is in p art diffused to the 

center of the conduit and dissipated there. Of course it should 

be remembered that, in nonchanging uniform flow, the total rate 

a t which energy of turbulence is created is equal to the rate of 

dissipation of this energy by the action of viscosity. 

Lamb (5) shows th a t the general equation for the rate of dissipation 

of energy per unit volume in a viscous fluid is 

In isotropic turbulence U, V, and IF can be replaced by u, v, 

and w. Taylor simplifies Equation [5] by demonstrating the 

interrelationship existing between the various mean squares 

and mean products of the velocity gradients, and obtains 

E n e r g y C o n s i d e r a t i o n s f o r I s o t r o p i c T u r b u l e n c e 

Because of the complexity of the turbulence mechanism, any 

theoretical considerations m ust start w ith the simplest conditions. 

One of the types of turbulence th a t has received extensive 

consideration by physicists interested in wind-tunnel turbulence 

phenomena is th a t referred to as isotropic turbulence. 

This type of turbulence is such th a t (a) the mean values of 

squares and products of the fluctuating velocity components, 

such as v2 and uv, and their derivatives, such 

/d»v 

W and 

/ dv du\ 

are independent of the location of the point observed, 

\cto by) 

and (b) the same mean values are obtained if the axes of reference 

are rotated or reflected. Fluids having isotropic turbulence 

can have no mean shear or mean-pressure gradient, th a t is, 

dU/dy = 0, dU/dx — 0, etc. 

In practical hydraulics, isotropic turbulence is hardly ever 

attained; however, it is sometimes approached. The turbulence 

in the center of closed conduits is nearly isotropic; also, the 

turbulence formed downstream from various turbulence-producing 

devices such as screens, grids, expansions, and flow-control 

apparatus tends to approach isotropy a t times. As G. I. Taylor 

remarks, “there is a strong tendency to isotropy in turbulent 

motion.” A study of the energy dissipation characteristics of 

isotropic turbulence may throw considerable light on the more 

complicated turbulence obtained in many practical hydraulics 

problems. 

The intensity of turbulence is usually designated by the ratios 

"v/w2/ U, y/v2/U, and "v/w2/ U, and for isotropic turbulence 

these are all equal. Investigations by Dryden (2) and others reveal 

th at these ratios a t any point beyond any particular turbulence-producing 

device tend to be independentof the mean velocity. 

This relationship also appears to hold for nonisotropic turbulence 

a t high Reynolds numbers. The decrease in the intensity of 

the turbulence beyond screens and grids in wind tunnels, or 

the decay of the turbulence, has been studied quite extensively 

both theoretically and experimentally by Taylor (3), von K&rm&n 

(4), and Dryden (2). 

2 Numbers in parentheses refer to the Bibliography at the end of 

the paper. 

where X is a length proportional to the small eddies present since 

they are primarily responsible for the dissipation of the turbulence 

energy. Possible methods of experimentally determining 

v2 and X were discussed by the author in a previous paper (6). 

The mechanism by which the small eddies are produced from 

the larger ones is a fundam ental problem of turbulence about 

which little is known. I t is these small eddies, referred to sometimes 

as the microturbulence, which are largely responsible for 

the high rate of energy dissipation associated with turbulent 

flow. 

The scale of the turbulence, L, which is im portant in regard 

to the diffusive action of the turbulence, is proportional to the 

average size of the eddies. The product \ / v2L is proportional 

to the transverse diffusion coefficient e, as used in Equation [4], 

As the turbulence created by some obstruction in a fluid stream 

is dissipated downstream, a change in the length factors X and 

L takes place which is a characteristic phenomenon of decaying 

turbulence. Qualitative visual observations of the turbulence 

in w ater streams beyond grids, throttled valves, sudden expansions, 

etc., seem to indicate th a t the average size of the eddies 

tends to increase as the turbulence is dissipated. 

The internal stresses in turbulent flow are proportional to the 

product of the density and the mean square of the fluctuating 

velocities such as pu1. Any such force will then dissipate energy 

at a rate proportional to the product of the force and the associated 

velocity, thus, p(tt')3, where u' = \ / w 2. The total area 

on which these forces act will be proportional to the square of 

the scale of the eddy system, or to L2, and the rate of dissipap 

M 3 

tion per unit volume will then be proportional to For 

isotropic turbulence, this quantity should then be proportional 

to the rate of energy dissipation given by Equation [6]. The 

following pronortionalitv can then he writ,ten 

The terms under the radical in Equation [8] have been referred

K A LIN SK E—TU R B U LEN C E AND EN E R G Y D ISSIPA TIO N 43 

to as a Reynolds number of turbulence. In decaying turbulence, 

certain early experiments in wind tunnels seemed to indicate 

th at the length factor L tended to remain constant for a considerable 

distance downstream from the turbulence-producing 

grid. However, later experiments and analyses indicate th at 

L increases as the dissipation progresses, and also it appears 

th at X increases faster than L. The value of decreases 

practically hyperbolically with the distance from the turbulence- 

producing device. Since the term y / u 2 decreases and X increases, 

Fig. 2. The general variation of the rate of pressure-energy 

conversion, as given by Equation [9], and the rate of dissipation 

of the energy of turbulence seems to be consistent. Of course, 

the dissipation formula cannot be accurate near the wall, since 

isotropy is not approximated in this region. Very near the 

wall, especially in the boundary layer, much of the pressure 

energy is converted into heat directly w ithout passing through 

the interm ediate stage of turbulent energy. 

The total rate of energy dissipation from the center o f th is 

F i g . 1 

D a t a o n D e c r e a s e i n I n t e n s i t y a n d I n c r e a s e i n S c a l e 

o f W i n d - T u n n e l T u r b u l e n c e B e y o n d a S c r e e n 

the rate of dissipation of the turbulence energy continually decreases. 

In Fig. 1 is shown a plotting of some data obtained by 

Dryden (2) and his co-workers in regard to the decay of tu r 

bulence and the increase of the scale factor L beyond a 

mesh screen in a wind tunnel. The term L was defined as 

I lijly , where R„ is the correlation coefficient, -==. The 

J o * " ’ » u i 

terms u and uv are the simultaneous velocities at two points a 

distance y apart. 

S o m e A p p l i c a t i o n s o f F o r e g o i n g C o n c e p t i o n s 

The use of some of the ideas relating to energy of turbulence, 

particularly its creation and dissipation, gives an insight into 

many practical fluid-flow problems. Probably the simplest form 

of turbulent flow is th at of uniform, steady flow in a closed 

conduit; yet there is much th at we do not understand regarding 

the mechanism of the dissipation of energy in such a simple case 

of fluid flow. If the pressure drop is known, the average boundary 

and internal shear can be accurately determined, particularly 

for a simple conduit such as one having a circular cross section, 

or a wide rectangular one where the end effects are negligible. 

Knowing the shear and the distribution of mean velocity, the 

rate at which pressure energy is converted into turbulence 

energy per unit volume is equal to rd lj/d y (assuming fully 

developed turbulent flow). For a two-dimensional conduit of 

width 26, the shear varies linearly from the value t 0 at the wall 

to zero a t the center, and we have for this rate of energy conversion 

F i g . 2 V a r i a t i o n o f R a t e o f P r e s s u r e - E n e r g y C o n v e r s i o n 

a n d T u r b u l e n c e - E n e r g y D i s s i p a t i o n p e r U n i t V o l u m e A c r o s s 

a C o n d u it 

Taylor (3) presents some interesting calculations on the 

variation of this quantity and the rate of turbulence energy 

dissipation as calculated from Equation [6] for the dissipation 

of isotropic turbulence. The calculated values are shown in 

F i g . 3 V a r i a t i o n i n T o t a l R a t e s o f P r e s s u r e - E n e r g y C o n 

v e r s i o n a n d T u r b u l e n c e - E n e r g y D i s s i p a t i o n , a s C a l c u l a t e d 

B e t w e e n t h e C e n t e r a n d Y D i s t a n c e F r o m C e n t e r i n a C l o s e d 

C o n d u i t


rectangular conduit to some distance y from the center is equal 

to (Equations [6] and [7]) 

T.he rate of pressure-energy conversion in the same region is 

equal to 

These two quantities are plotted in Fig. 3 and it is to be noted 

th at the rate of transform ation of pressure energy into turbulence 

energy in the entire center region is less than the rate of turbulence-energy 

dissipation. This again indicates th at a large part 

of the energy of turbulence is created near the boundaries and 

diffuses into the main portion of the stream. 

Another problem which it is interesting to analyze in the light 

of the ideas relating to turbulence and energy dissipation is th at 

of the prevention of high velocities in conduits having steep 

hydraulic gradients. This is of practical importance in the 

design of fishpasses and the design of closed conduits where the 

velocity m ust be reduced for some reason and the cross section 

of flow kept relatively large. Taking the case of a circular conduit, 

the total rate of energy dissipation per unit time is equal 

to Qy(h/L), where y is the unit fluid weight, Q the discharge, 

and h/L the loss of pressure head per unit length of conduit. 

It has been shown previously th a t this total rate of energy dissipation 

can be calculated also by integrating over the cross section 

the rate of pressure-energy conversion per unit volume of fluid. 

Thus there is obtained the relation 

For rough conduits and fully developed turbulent flow the mean 

shear r will be determined practically entirely by the characteristics 

of the turbulence, primarily by the value of the mixing 

coefficient «, since r = pedU/dy. For a given cross section and 

given friction slope, if we desire to reduce the mean velocity, 

the total rate of energy dissipation m ust be reduced. Offhand, 

it might appear that, to reduce the rate of energy dissipation, 

the am ount of turbulence should be reduced. This problem will 

be clearer if for the moment we replace the coefficient of tu r 

bulent diffusion, e, by the viscosity coefficient and imagine we 

are dealing with viscous flow. Obviously, to reduce the velocity 

of viscous flow for a given cross section and pressure drop, the 

viscosity m ust be increased. Therefore, it is logical that, for 

the case of fully developed turbulent flow, the value of e should 

be increased, thus obtaining more intense mixing. For a constan 

t cross-sectional area, or depth of open channel and constant 

hydraulic gradient, the mean shear remains the same, therefore, 

dU 

any increase in e m ust result in a decrease in - —. Since accorddy 

ing to Equation [12] the rate of energy dissipation is proportional 

to t and to (dU/dy)2, it is apparent th at an increase in t 

will result in a decrease in the mean velocity. The value of e can 

be effectively increased by the installation of specially designed 

obstacles along the conduit walls so as to produce discontinuities 

in the flow which will result in the creation of large eddies, thus 

producing intense mixing between the liquid a t the walls and 

th a t in the center of the conduit. 

Referring to Equations [6] and [7], which give the rate of 

turbulence-energy dissipation, it is noted th at this rate is decreased 

by increasing the scale of the turbulence and by decreasing 

the velocity fluctuations. Of course, the rate of energy 

dissipation as given by Equation [12] m ust be the same as the 

rate of dissipation of the energy of turbulence by viscosity. 

However, since the turbulence is not isotropic, all th at can be 

said is th at the expression for isotropic-turbulence dissipation 

indicates the manner in which the various parameters describing 

the turbulence affect the energy dissipation. I t is thus apparent 

th a t to decrease the rate of energy dissipation, which in the 

problem under consideration, means to reduce the mean velocity, 

eddies of large scale instead of large vorticity should be created. 

Beyond bends, valves, transition sections, etc., a considerable 

am ount of the energy producing flow is converted into energy 

of turbulence, which gradually dissipates downstream. This 

turbulence accounts for a major part of the pressure loss produced 

by any of the aforementioned apparatus. Ordinarily this 

energy of turbulence causes no other particular difficulty; however, 

there are some instances where it m ay create additional 

troubles. If a stream of water containing a considerable amount 

of turbulence energy is used for some purpose such as in a diffuser 

to convert part of the velocity energy into pressure energy, inefficient 

conversion will result. I t has been shown, for instance, 

th at the operation of various water-using equipment, such as 

closet-bowls and other plumbing equipment, can be improved if 

valves and other flow-disturbing apparatus are located sufficiently 

far away from the water-using apparatus so th at the 

turbulence energy created has tim e to dissipate. 

Solid streams of water passing through the atmosphere must 

be free of large intense turbulence eddies, otherwise the stream 

will spread and not remain solid. The importance of this particular 

item was demonstrated by Quick (7) in regard to the 

efficiency of impulse turbines. Fittings, valves, etc., upstream 

from the turbine nozzle introduce excess turbulence and, unless 

this turbulence energy is dissipated, it will appear in the jet 

issuing from the nozzle, causing spreading of the jet and decreasing 

the power it supplies to the wheel. In this connection, 

an item of importance is that, in a contracting stream such as 

in a nozzle, the longitudinal components of the turbulence are 

reduced considerably, while the transverse components are not, 

and m ay in fact increase (8). 

In tests of apparatus such as valves, diffusers, bends, etc., 

varying the degree of turbulence in the approaching fluid is 

m any times desirable and of interest, especially if flow separation 

occurs. I t has been demonstrated th at in many flow phenomena 

an increase in the energy of turbulence produces effects quite 

similar to an increase in Reynolds number. This fact has been 

applied in studying the transition of the boundary layer from 

viscous to turbulent flow in wind-tunnel experiments. An increase 

in Reynolds’ number or an increase in the turbulence 

causes the transition to occur nearer the leading edge. 

K err in his discussion of Quick’s paper (7) on impulse turbines 

brings out the interesting fact th a t he was able to correlate field 

and laboratory tests better by introducing artificial turbulence 

in the approach conduits. The intensity of the turbulence is 

the param eter th at has the most influence in altering flow characteristics 

past solid boundaries, however, Taylor (9) has shown 

th a t the scale factor of the turbulence does have some influence. 

An increase in the scale factor produces an effect opposite to that 

produced by an increase in the intensity. However, the relative 

effect of a change in scale is much less than the effect of a change 

in the intensity. 

In general, preliminary investigations seem to indicate th at 

the effect of turbulence in the approaching fluid on the energy 

loss through any flow-control apparatus or device is far from 

negligible. Turbulence is another property of the flow which 

must be controlled and its effect understood, if accurate correlation 

of test data, especially model-test results, is to be obtained.

K A LIN SKE—TU R B U LEN C E AND EN E R G Y D ISSIPA TIO N 45 

E n e r g y o f T u r b u l e n c e i n a D i v e r g i n g C o n d u i t 

Most of the energy lost in diverging conduits of greater total 

angle than about 4 deg is lost because of the creation of an extra 

amount of turbulence. P art of the kinetic energy of mean flow 

in the smaller conduit is converted into turbulence energy which 

is gradually dissipated downstream. Gibson (10), Peters (11), 

and others have shown th at in general the efficiency of the conversion 

of the kinetic energy into pressure energy is least for a 

total angle of divergence of some 60 deg and that, a t an angle 

of 40 deg, the efficiency of conversion is about identical to th at 

at 180 deg, or sudden expansion. Depending upon the angle 

of divergence and the Reynolds number, separation m ay occur 

with the resultant backflow along the diverging boundary. 

A study has been made by the author under the sponsorship 

of the American Society of Civil Engineers’ Hydraulic Research 

F ig . 4 V a r i a t i o n or K i n e t i c E n e r g y o f M e a n F l o w a n d 

T u r b u l e n c e E n e r g y , A l o n g a C o n ic a l D i v e r g i n g C o n d u it 

Committee relating to the mechanism of the energy changes 

th at take place in diverging conical conduits. By use of a 

special technique (12), streaks formed by immiscible particles 

suspended in the water were obtained on motion-picture film. 

From the length and direction of these streaks, the longitudinal 

and transverse components of the velocity vector a t various 

points in the fluid could be determined; from these it was possible 

to calculate a t any point the mean velocity U and the 

parameters y/v and y/v2. The total kinetic energy of mean 

flow and the total turbulence energy, as given by Equations [1] 

and [3], could then be calculated at various sections in the 

expansion and beyond it. In calculating the turbulence energy, 

the transverse component v was assumed equal to w; this should 

be quite true in the central portion of the conduit, however, it 

does not hold near the boundary. 

In Fig. 4 are shown typical data obtained on the energy changes 

in a 15-deg (total angle) expansion from a 3-in. to a 5-in. pipe. 

Though the absolute magnitude of the energy of turbulence 

may not be quite exact, nevertheless, its variation should be 

correct. 

Note th at the value of the energy of turbulence increases until 

the end of the expansion, remains practically constant for some 

distance, and then gradually decreases. D ata were not obtained 

a sufficient distance downstream to indicate th at normal conditions 

had been established, however, it is to be noted th at the 

value of the total kinetic energy of mean flow was not changing 

very much after a distance of 2 ft beyond the start of the expansion. 

The discharge for the data shown in Fig. 4 was 0.082 cfs, 

which gave a velocity of 1.67 fps in the 3-in. and 0.6 fps in the 

5-in. conduit. No separation of flow appeared to occur in the 

expansion, probably due to the low Reynolds number. I t is to 

be noted that, in the expansion and for some distance in the 

large conduit, the value of E m is considerably greater than the 

value of the total kinetic energy of mean flow computed, using 

the average velocity in the cross section, which will be referred 

__ 2 

to as E m' and is equal to Q yU /2 g. In fact, just at the end of 

the expansion, the value of E m is almost three times as great 

as the value of E J . A t a distance of 2.5 ft beyond the start 

of the expansion, the ratio E m/E m' is still 1.3. 

I t is of interest to note th at the total turbulence energy reaches 

a maximum value of 28 per cent of the kinetic energy of mean 

flow a t a distance of about 10 in. beyond the end of the expansion, 

thus indicating th a t the relative intensity of the turbulence 

is greatest a t th a t point. The ratio of Et to E m in the straight 

3-in. conduit is only about 3 per cent. 

The investigation outlined illustrates the possibility of making 

a study of the internal energy changes th at take place in turbulent 

fluids when such fluids pass through apparatus causing a dissipation 

of energy due to the creation of an extra am ount of energy 

of turbulence. Other flow-controlling and regulating equipment 

can be studied in a similar fashion. The acquisition of such data 

for various apparatus under different conditions would give the 

designing hydraulic engineer a better picture of exactly w hat is 

occurring at any point in the flowing fluid. 

Regarding the study of flow in expanding conduits, mention 

should be made of the distribution of the turbulence energy in 

any cross section. In the very beginning of the expansion, most 

of the turbulence energy was concentrated in a layer a short 

distance from the wall. This seemed to be the place of greatest 

shear w ith the result th a t most of the excess turbulence was 

created in this layer. Farther downstream in the expansion, 

this region of maximum shear stress moved toward the center 

of the conduit, w ith a result th a t the turbulence became more 

uniformly distributed. The variation of shearing stress across 

a section of a diffuser has been studied by Schultz-Grunow (13), 

who showed th a t the maximum shear stress does occur in the 

interior of the fluid. 

Delaying of separation in a diffuser, and thus causing a decrease 

in the energy of turbulence created, can be achieved to a 

certain extent by the inducing of spiral motion in the fluid 

entering a diffuser. Such spiral motion tends to cause the flow 

to follow the boundaries for higher mean velocities than it 

otherwise would. This was experimentally dem onstrated by 

Peters (11). 

C o n c e r n i n g t h e O r i g i n o f T u r b u l e n c e 

In practical hydraulics problems, the dissipation of potential 

energy or kinetic energy is, in the final analysis, a problem 

associated with the turbulence characteristics. In various 

hydraulic structures and apparatus, the shape of flow passages 

may be such as to produce regions of high internal shear, thus 

causing the creation of large amounts of energy of turbulence. 

A study of the origin and dissipation of this energy is possible 

and highly profitable. However, the main difficulty at present 

in any such study is the lack of efficient methods of measuring 

quantities such as the intensity and scale of the turbulence. 

To date the hot-wire anemometer has become practically a 

standard apparatus for obtaining turbulence measurements in 

air streams, however, its use in w ater has not been very successful. 

Photographic methods are being used in w ater and though the 

data obtained appear reliable and the necessary equipm ent is 

inexpensive, the time consumed in making analyses from motion 

pictures is somewhat excessive. The general method of obtaining 

the necessary data is to take motion pictures of thin color


streams or of immiscible droplets suspended in the flowing water. 

There are many fundamental problems relating to the turbulence 

mechanism which merit study and such studies should help 

clear up many indefinite and obscure points. Probably one of 

the most interesting of these problems is that of the “origin of 

turbulence.” In the regions where the turbulent flow is fully 

developed, it becomes difficult to obtain any idea of where and 

how the vortexes or eddies really originate. It appears that in 

hydraulically smooth conduits there is a sort of surface of discontinuity 

near the boundary, the “rolling up” of which results 

in vortex formation. This vortex formation at a boundary 

should take place according to a strict physical law. However, 

as these vortexes depart from the wall and enter the main part 

o f the fluid, their individual behavior from then on is unpredictable. 

In rough conduits, if the roughness protuberances 

project up through the laminar boundary layer, each such projection 

must of course shed vortexes, probably in a fairly regular 

manner, and these are also dispersed into the main stream by 

the diffusive action of the turbulence. 

In a uniform conduit, where an unchanging velocity distribution 

has been established, there is, of course, a statistical equilibrium 

between the creation of the vortexes and their dissipation 

in the main body of the fluid. At rounded entrances to smooth 

pipes, the formation of these vortexes at the boundaries is easily 

observable by the injection of a stream of color near the boundary. 

A sort of vortex trail is developed which gradually breaks up 

and disperses downstream, thus establishing normal turbulent 

flow. 

Schiller (14) has made a very significant application of this 

■observed phenomenon. He noted that the resistance to flow in 

the region of fully developed turbulence was essentially the same 

as in the region of the vortex trail near the entrance. From the 

arrangement and intensity of the vortexes, as revealed from a 

photographic study, it was possible to calculate their energy and 

dissipation. The dissipation of energy calculated using the 

vortex data agreed fairly well with the energy dissipation calculated 

from the measured resistance. Thus, the conclusion is 

reached that the dynamics of a turbulent flow can be calculated 

from the vortex trail from which it develops. Perhaps it will be 

studies of this character which will reveal the true physical 

nature of turbulence and make possible a better quantitative 

description of its characteristics. 

Though hydraulic engineers may not be directly interested in 

such fundamental investigations regarding the dynamics of turbulence, 

nevertheless it should appear quite evident that such 

information has much practical value. In general, any future 

increase in the efficiencies of turbines, pumps, various fluid-flowcontrol 

apparatus, diffusers, etc., will necessarily be of relatively 

small magnitude. However, to obtain such increases it will be 

necessary to study and understand the inner mechanics of turbulent 

fluid flow more thoroughly. Though the problems are 

extremely complex, the advances made in the last few years are 

promising, and it is hoped that with increasing interest in this 

subject our knowledge will develop rapidly. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1 “The Mechanics of Turbulent Flow,” by B. A. Bakhmeteff, 

Princeton University Press, Princeton, N. J., 1936, p. 37. 

2 “Measurements of Intensity and Seale of Wind-Tunnel 

Turbulence and Their Relation to the Critical Reynolds Number 

of Spheres,” by H. L. Dryden, G. B. Schubauer, W. C. Mock, Jr., 

and H. K. Skramstad, U. S. National Advisory Committee for 

Aeronautics, Report No. 581, 1937, pp. 109-140. 

3 “Statistical Theory of Turbulence,” by G. I. Taylor, Proceedings 

of the Royal Society of London, vol. 151A, 1935, pp. 421-478. 

4 “The Fundamentals of the Statistical Theory of Turbulence,” 

by Th. von K&rm&n, Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences, vol. 4, 

no. 4, 1937, pp. 131-138. 

5 “Hydrodynamics,” by Horace Lamb, Cambridge University 

Press, England, 1932, p. 580. 

6 “Relation of the Statistical Theory of Turbulence to Hydraulics,” 

by A. A. Kalinske, Proceedings of the American Society of 

Civil Engineers, vol. 65, no. 8, 1939, p. 1394. 

7 “Problems Encountered in the Design and Operation of Impulse 

Turbines,” by Ray S. Quick, Trans. A.S.M.E., vol. 62, no. 1, 

January, 1940, pp. 15-20. 

8 “Turbulence in a Contracting Stream,” by G. I. Taylor, 

Zeitschrift fttr Angewandte Mathematik und Mechanik, vol. 15, 

1935, pp. 91-96. 

9 “Effect of Turbulence on Boundary Layer,” by G. I. Taylor, 

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, vol. 156, series A, 1936, 

pp. 307-317. 

10 “The Conversion of Kinetic to Pressure Energy in the Flow 

of Water Through Passages Having Divergent Boundaries,” by A. 

H. Gibson, Engineering, vol. 93, 1912, pp. 205-206. 

11 “Energieumsetzung in Querschnittserweiterungen bei Verschiedenen 

Zulaufbedingungen,” by H. Peters, Ingenieur-Archiv, 

vol. 2, 1931, pp. 92-107; translated as Technical Memorandum 

No. 737 of U. S. National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, 1934 

under the title “Conversion of Energy in Cross-Sectional Divergences 

Under Different Conditions of Inflow.” 

12 “Report of Special Committee on Hydraulic Research,” 

Civil Engineering, vol. 8. no. 3, 1938, p. 195; vol. 9, no. 2, 1939, p. 

109; vol. 10, no. 3, March, 1940, p. 185. 

13 “Concerning Turbulent Flow as Affected by Deceleration With 

Respect to Space and Time,” by F. Schultz-Grunow, Proceedings of 

the Fifth International Congress for Applied Mechanics, John Wiley 

& Sons, Inc., New York, N. Y., 1938, pp. 428-435. 

14 “Vortex Photographs as Means for the Quantitative Analysis 

of the Development of Turbulence and Resistance,” by L. Schiller, 

Proceedings of the Fifth International Congress for Applied Mechanics, 

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,New York, N. Y., 1938,pp.315-320. 

Discussion 

B . A. B a k h m e t e f f .3 It would seem that future progress in 

practical hydraulics largely depends upon the understanding and 

mastery of “turbulence.” Until recently, knowledge of turbulence 

has been most rudimentary and then grossly empirical. One is 

greatly indebted therefore to the author for his efforts to present 

the latest attainments of the theory in their possible relation to 

hydraulical problems. 

||; Contributions of the type, illustrated in Fig. 4 of the paper 

and revealing the inside-energy course in an expanding conduit, 

are particularly welcome. Detailed quantitative observations 

of the inner mechanism of turbulence are extremely difficult 

and for that reason more than scarce. The author has perfected 

a novel technique and with its use has disclosed important and 

valuable facts. It is earnestly hoped that the author will persevere 

in his experimental explorations because the gathering of 

systematic factual material which, in an unmistakable manner, 

would elucidate the physical aspects of the turbulent process in 

all its stages, is the most important and urgent step for research 

to fulfill. 

Present-day turbulent theory, in itself a remarkable and daring 

mathematical venture, in many respects has outdistanced direct 

experimental knowledge of turbulent phenomena. Many of the 

theoretical concepts and premises are still in a hypothetical and 

contestable stage. Indeed nothing could benefit and spur theoretical 

advance more than a solid background of indisputable facts. 

The necessity for probing theoretical concepts is not limited to 

the latest advances of turbulent theory. Indeed the gulf between 

mathematical analysis and physical reality has been a lifelong 

feature in the realm of hydromechanics. A surprising example is 

offered by the traditional chain of reasoning dealing with dissipation 

of energy in viscous flow, the concluding link of which is 

presented by Equation [5] of the paper. The general treatment, 

typified by the presentation in Lamb’s classical treatise,4 has 

* Professor of Civil Engineering, Columbia University, New York, 

N. Y. Mem. A.S.M.E. 

4 Bibliography (5) of paper, paragraph 329, p. 579.

KALINSKE—TURBULENCE AND ENERGY DISSIPATION 47 

never been questioned. The fact is, nevertheless, that when 

probed against the simplest practical cases, such as uniform 

laminar motion in pipes or between parallel plates, the reasoning 

leads to most unexpected and baffling conclusions, which only 

indicate that the initial premises underlying the analysis require 

attentive and constructive scrutiny. 

The writer is especially interested in the closing part of the 

paper, dealing with the “origin of turbulence.” He recalls discussing 

this rather evasive and controversial subject with the 

author and is happy to subscribe and support the views adhered 

to by him. From a practical point of view, two basic forms in 

which turbulent energy is engendered and subsequently dissipated, 

should be differentiated. The one, featured by Fig. 4 of the paper 

is typical of so-called “local hydraulic resistances” and can be 

appropriately termed “episodic turbulence,” in contrast to “established 

turbulence” as typified by uniform pipe or channel motion. 

“Episodic turbulence,” being the source of so called “local 

losses,” arises from concentrated turbulence-engendering activities 

which accompany brusque changes of flow forms (retardation 

or deflection). The process is especially enhanced by “separation.” 

In fact both observation and theory6 are in substantial 

accord regarding the way by which eddies are generated in the 

“free” discontinuity (separation) sheets inside fluids, as in the instance 

of submerged efflux from an orifice or in the wakes back of 

immersed blunt solids. The eddy-engendering activity is ascribed 

to the inherent instability of such “free” discontinuity sheets subjected 

to excessive stress. Similar to columns or thin plates, 

which buckle under excessive load, these separation sheets cease 

to conserve stability of form and, as the author points out, curl 

up into regular chains of individual eddies. The next stage is 

for these eddies to be “cast off” into the neighboring streaming, 

where they swarm in an unpredictable and random fashion, such 

irregular eddy motion constituting the physical essence of turbulence. 

No direct visual testimony is available so far regarding the 

engendering of eddies near the walls of a smooth conduit in established 

turbulent flow. Indirect evidence amply indicates, nevertheless, 

that the process in essence may not be dissimilar to what 

takes place in a separation surface inside a fluid. The wall surface 

naturally restricts crosswise deformation. Hence a certain 

transversal latitude is required before the inherent instability, 

pertinent to the sheets of the highly stressed boundary layer, 

can assert itself. This transversal latitude is exemplified by the 

critical boundary-layer thickness Sm = (RS)„ X — (where v = 

Ub 

kinematic viscosity; Ub = border velocity of stream), which qualifies 

“transition" from laminar flow to turbulent. The origin of turbulence 

in “established” flow reverts thus to the boundary-friction 

aone which, in the process of expansion, reaches the critical stage 

and assumes at the outskirts of the laminar sublayer the role of a 

special eddy-generating region. Cast off into the central parts 

of the streaming, these eddies in their gradual spreading impose 

an appropriate turbulent pattern on the flow as a whole. 

H t jn t b b R o u s e .* Fluid turbulence and its accompanying 

problems have been approached, so to speak, by the process of 

successive approximation. Long ago it was considered sufficient 

to take the effects of turbulence into account by means of a single 

coefficient, empirically determined for the boundary conditions 

in question. With the advent of more rigorous thought, attention 

was given to the analysis of turbulent flow along flat plates and 

through uniform eonduits on the basis of certain general concepts 

1 “Instability of Vortex Sheets,” by L. Rosenhead, Proceedings of 

the Royal Society of London, vol. 134 A, 1931, p. 170. 

• Professor of Hydraulics, State University of Iowa, and Consulting 

Engineer, lows Institute of Hydraulic Research, Iowa City, Iowa. 

regarding the physical nature of the turbulence mechanism. 

Eventually, however, it was realized that this very nature of 

the phenomenon rendered its exact analysis impossible without 

the use of statistical methods. To hydraulic engineers, this 

realization brought little comfort, for the tedious routine of 

laboratory investigation and the apparent mathematical complexity 

of the resulting functions are not in themselves particularly 

attractive. Therefore, the author deserves the gratitude of 

the profession at large, not only for undertaking the first statistical 

analyses of turbulence to be performed in the hydraulic laboratory, 

but for summarizing and explaining in hydraulic phraseology 

the essentials of this most recent approach. 

Hydraulic engineers are wont to distinguish generally between 

two sorts of “turbulent” motion, considering the local disturbances 

produced by boundary changes as quite unrelated to the 

phenomenon ordinarily classed as turbulence in pipe flow. The 

author shows that any case of statistically irregular motion may 

be analyzed in terms of the same two types of parameter, the 

average eddy size and the average velocity of fluctuation which 

the eddies produce, one form of turbulence differing from another 

only to the extent that these parameters are differently distributed 

throughout the flow. Whether the flow is uniform or nonuniform, 

therefore, and whether the problem is one of energy loss, 

heat transfer, or sediment transportation, knowledge of the variation 

of these two parameters provides the key to the ultimate 

solution. 

Were all turbulence isotropic in nature, both the experimental 

and analytical phases of the general problem would be relatively 

simple, for at any point the length and velocity scales of isotropic 

turbulence are the same in all directions. Unfortunately, most 

of the phenomena confronting the hydraulic engineer display 

definitely anisotropic characteristics. N ot only are the three rootmean-square 

components of the velocity of fluctuation generally 

different, but a generally dissimilar difference is found in the mean 

dimensions of the eddies in the corresponding directions. A complete 

description of the turbulence pattern may therefore be obtained 

only through the determination of the velocity and length 

parameters in each of the three coordinate directions throughout 

the region of flow under investigation. This situation represents 

the principal obstacle to experimental progress, for no means yet 

exists of measuring more than two velocity components simultaneously, 

and the evaluation of the eddy dimensions remains dependent 

upon measurements of the velocity correlation at different 

points as functions of distance and direction. 

In diffusion problems, to be sure, only the two transverse parameters 

seem to be of importance, as in the case of heat transfer 

or sediment suspension. On the other hand, only the longitudinal 

characteristics of eddy velocity and size can be measured with a 

single instrument. For instance, the revolutions of a current 

meter (provided that it is sufficiently small in proportion to the 

flow section) may be recorded in such a way as to provide from 

a single graph both the longitudinal root-mean-square fluctuation 

and the longitudinal mean eddy size. That is, the variation in 

amplitude of the velocity graph will yield the characteristic 

magnitude of the fluctuation, while the velocity variation with 

time (i.e., the frequency of fluctuation) should permit evaluation 

of a correlation coefficient R x, somewhat similar to the factor Ry 

used by the author. Were it possible to establish the relationship 

between these characteristics and those for other directions, the 

measurement of anisotropic turbulence would thereby be greatly 

simplified. 

The author discusses two different parameters for the linear 

scale of turbulence, the mean eddy size L and the “small” eddy 

size X. The writer believes that the fact should be stressed that 

these are not strictly comparable length parameters, for the latter 

represents an arbitrary intercept of the horizontal axis of the cor


relation curve, while the former usually represents the area under 

the curve. That some types of turbulence apparently do have 

several different length (and velocity) scales of comparable type, 

however, is indicated by current-meter records of river flow in 

which high-frequency low-amplitude variation seems to be superposed 

upon a primary curve of lower frequency and higher amplitude; 

indeed, fluctuations of still lower frequency are evidenced 

by long, roughly sinusoidal waves in the velocity record, although 

variations of such great period probably do not merit the name 

of turbulence. Since, as pointed out by the author, the smaller 

eddies govern the rate of energy dissipation and the larger the 

diffusion characteristics of the turbulence, the writer raises a 

question as to whether the customary evaluation of the velocity 

record as a whole properly takes into account the relative magnitudes 

of these different turbulence scales. 


In order to bring the newer concepts of turbulent fluid motion 

into the realm of useful knowledge of the hydraulic engineer it 

is necessary to present accurate and clear physical interpretations. 

This is not always easy. Professor Bakhmeteff in his discussion 

helps to supply such interpretations which do much to further 

elucidate the various phenomena, particularly that of the origin 

of turbulence. The process and mechanism by which the energy 

producing normal turbulent flow in a simple straight conduit is 

transformed into heat is unbelievably complex. A few years ago 

we were satisfied to state that hydraulic friction consisted of 

the “rubbing together of fluid particles against each other and 

on the walls of the conduit.” How entirely inadequate this 

description is has been impressed on those who have given this 

problem some thought and study in the light of our increased 

knowledge of the turbulence mechanism. 

Analyses and observations indicate that the energy-producing 

flow is to a large extent transferred into the “eddy-generating” zone 

near the walls. In this zone the energy is transformed into turbulence 

energy of the rotating eddies which diffuse throughout 

the stream and gradually are dissipated. The mixing action of 

the eddies in the main portion of the stream is the mechanism by 

which the energy producing flow is transferred to the boundary 

zone. The process of transferring the potential energy producing 

flow from one region to another and the process of dissipation of 

this energy by the eddies after they are created occur, of course, 

in established turbulent flow, simultaneously; nevertheless, they 

are distinct and can be separated in any analytical study. 

As mentioned by Professor Bakhmeteff even the mechanism of 

energy dissipation in viscous flow in conduits has not been perhaps 

adequately interpreted from the physical standpoint. 

Though the fundamental equations given in the classical hydrodynamic 

treatises are correct, they, however, do not clearly 

indicate what actually occurs, and thus may lead to faulty physical 

interpretations. 

The goal of modern fluid mechanics is to probe more deeply into 

all fluid-flow phenomena, using the available theoretical concepts 

as guides and always depending on the laboratory to provide 

the necessary facts. Since a proper physical picture appears 

essential, the author has favored various photographic techniques 

in making the necessary experimental studies, even though much 

time is required to obtain the final data and facts. 

Professor Rouse mentions that most of the turbulence phenomena 

of concern to the hydraulic engineer are not of the simple 

isotropic type. This is, of course, quite true, and therefore care 

must be taken in any attempt to extend the results of analyses 

and experiments dealing solely with isotropic turbulence. In 

general only the ideas and methods of attack can be borrowed, 

not the conclusions. Since no method exists at present for recording 

simultaneously the three velocity components in turbulent 

water, the best that can be done is to measure two components 

simultaneously, and another two in the other plane. Such 

measurements will give adequate data for obtaining the intensity 

and length characteristics of the turbulence in the three coordinate 

directions. 

Professor Rouse’s comments regarding the two different length 

parameters, which the author discusses in the paper, are quite 

pertinent. It is probably true that the relative magnitude of 

X and L has no particular significance. Nevertheless, the particular 

definition of these length terms makes it possible to compare 

them for different conditions and to make conclusions 

regarding the energy dissipation and diffusion characteristics of 

different turbulence phenomena. 

The encouraging comments of the discussers is appreciated and 

will prove very helpful in further work in this most interesting 

field of fluid mechanics.

P rogress in D esign a n d P e rfo rm a n c e of 

M o d e rn L arg e S team T u rb in e s for 

G e n e ra to r D riv e 

B y G. B. W A R R E N ,1 SC H EN EC TA D Y , N . Y, 

T h e first p o r tio n o f t h is p ap er review s b riefly t h e p rogress 

o f tu r b in e a n d p o w er-p la n t d e sig n over t h e la s t 20 y e a rs. 

T h e second p o r tio n illu s tr a te s w ith n u m e r o u s a ssem b ly 

dra w in g s th e p rogress o f r ecen t tu r b in e d e sig n a n d sh o w s 

b o th th e sta n d a rd a n d t h e sp ecia l ty p e s o f tu r b in e s b ein g 

b u ilt t o m e e t p resen t r e q u ir e m e n ts. In a d d itio n , it s e ts 

fo r th t h e gen era l p r in c ip le s g o v ern in g tu r b in e c o n s tr u c 

tio n a n d illu s tr a te s so m e o f th e n e w tu r b in e c o n str u c tio n s 

d esig n ed t o w ith s ta n d e x tr e m e ly h ig h p ressu res a n d t e m 

p eratu res. T h e tren d o f tu r b in e r e lia b ility a n d tu r b in e 

e c o n o m y is sh o w n , a n d a n u m b e r o f t e s t r e s u lts o f la rg e 

m o d e m tu r b in e s are m a d e a v a ila b le. 

T h e th ir d se c tio n d isc u sse s d e ta ile d c o n sid e r a tio n s o f 

tu r b in e d e sig n , a n d illu s tr a te s n u m e r o u s tu r b in e p a r ts 

d esig n ed fo r t h e u tiliz a tio n o f h ig h p ressu res a n d h ig h 

te m p eratu r e s, b u t w h ic h m a y b e o f in te r e st fo r o th e r field s 

o f a p p lic a tio n . 

PART I—TRENDS IN POWER-PLANT AND TURBINE 

DESIGN 

THE progress of turbine design and construction since its 

inception has consisted largely in: 

1 Building turbines and the attached generators of 

higher unit capacities to meet the growing demands for more 

power, and so permit reduction of the plant investment per unit 

of output. 

2 Continuously modifying and refining the design, manufacturing 

processes, and materials used in order to increase the 

reliability of operation and to reduce the outage time which has 

always been one of the chief concerns of operators of such equipment. 

3 Utilizing higher initial steam pressure and temperature, 

coupled with improved heat cycles, such as regenerative feedwater 

heating, resuperheating, air preheating, etc., to decrease 

the fuel consumption per unit of output. 

4 Designing the turbine to utilize an ever-increasing proportion 

of the available energy in the steam cycle being used at the 

time. 

The decrease of over-all plant investment through greater 

reliability of the turbine generator, and the decrease in investment 

and operating costs resulting from improved efficiency 

have always been of much greater significance to the owners of 

such equipment than reduction of first cost of the turbine and 

generator alone. The major endeavor, therefore, has been to 

improve these two factors through the use of new knowledge, 

new materials, and new tools and manufacturing processes. 

The principle of diminishing returns must be observed, however, 

1 Designing Engineer, Turbine Engineering Department, General 

Electric Company. Mem. A.S.M.E. 

Contributed by the Power Division and presented at the Semi- 

Annual Meeting, Milwaukee, Wis., June 17-20, 1940, o f T h s A m e r i 

c a n S o c ie t y o f M e c h a n ic a l E n g i n e e r s . 

Notis: Statements and opinions advanced in papers are to be 

understood as individual expressions of their authors, and not those 


and increased m aterial and labor cannot be added out of proportion 

to the returns obtained, and every effort has been m ade to 

reduce costs where not inconsistent w ith th e foregoing prim ary 

objectives. 

W ith these forces a t work, the turbine designers and builders 

have never been perm itted to rest on their oars. E ach year has 

seen new problems and new conditions to be met. 

H ydrogen cooling2 has m ade possible larger 3600-rpm generators, 

and has within the last few years perm itted building m any 

turbines for 3600 rpm rather than 1800 rpm. 

M uch of the progress mentioned has been summarized in a 

paper by W. E. Blowney,3 b u t in order still further to illustrate 

this situation, Fig. 1 brings up to date a num ber of curves first 

published by E rnest L. Robinson4 before the W orld Power 

Conference in Japan in 1929. The new figures show the average 

steam conditions for the turbines sold by General Electric each 

year, while the original curves showed but the maximum conditions. 

A b etter conception is thus gained of the trends. 

Several conclusions can be draw n from these curves: 

(a) Although th e largest possible unit a t any given speed has 

steadily increased, and the large units have been effectively 

utilized in reducing operating and fixed costs on the large utility 

systems, the average size of unit sold in the U nited S tates (units 

above 10,000 kw only considered) has increased but slowly. 

(b) Increases in th e maximum pressure and tem perature 

have been followed by a steady rise in th e average pressure and 

tem perature for which machines have been sold, thus certifying 

to the fact th a t the pioneering done by a few power-plant owners 

has been followed by a general advance for th e entire industry. 

(c) The foregoing is further attested to by th e alm ost continuous 

downward trend of the fuel consumption both for the 

best plants available and th e somewhat similar trend for the 

average. Although it would appear from this latter curve th a t 

the continued progress in th e average coal consum ption m ay have 

slowed up, a closer examination of all the facts will serve to indicate 

th a t this is not th e case. 

T he reduction in the coal consumption of th e best plants i« 

! "The Hydrogen-Cooled Turbine Generators,” by D. S. Sn«ll, 

Trans. A.I.E.E., vol. 69, 1940, pp. 35-50. 

“Hydrogen-Cooled Turbine Generators,” by M. D. Ross and C. C. 

Sterrett. Trans. A.I.E.E., vol. 59, 1930, pp. 11-17. 

“Hydrogen Cooled Generators,” by E. H. Freiburghouae and D . S. 

Snell, Power, vol. 82, no. 8, 1938, pp. 38-41. 

“Hydrogen as a Cooling Medium for Electrical Machines,” by 

Edgar Knowlton, Chester Rice, and E. H. Freiburghouae, Trans. 

A.I.E.E., vol. 44, 1925, pp. 922-934. 

“The Application of Hydrogen-Cooling to Turbine Generators,” 

by M. D. Ross, Trans. A.I.E.E., vol. 50, 1931, pp. 381-380. 

“Liquid Film Seal for Hydrogen-Cooled Machines,” by C. W. 

Rice, General Electric Review, vol. 30, 1927, pp. 516-530. 

“Hydrogen Cooling of Rotating Machines,” by C. M. Lafoon, 

Trans. A.I.E.E., vol. 55, 1938, pp. 703-709. 

5 “Turbine Trends,” by W. E. Blowney, Power, vol. 83, no. 1, 

1939, pp. 74-76. 

* “General Trend of Steam Turbine Development by the General 

Electric Company,” Trans. Tokio Sectional Meeting, World Power 

Conference, Tokio, Japan, 1929, vol. 3, pp. 1066-1078.


F i g . 1 C u r v e s S u m m a r iz i n g S t a t i s t i c s o f T u r b i n e P r o g r e s s 

(M ax im u m c a p a c ity refers to sin g le -sh a ft u n its. L a rg er 1800-rpm oross-oom pound u n its h a v e been b u ilt tip to 208,000 kw .) 

due to the progress already noted which has continued during 

the last few years; whereas, the continual reduction in the average 

is due to the taking over of the load by newer and more efficient 

stations as they are installed from year to year, and to the 

relegating of the older and less efficient plants to peak-load and 

stand-by service. The last several years of business depression 

have served to reduce the number of new plants being installed, 

although the growth of the electrical load has continued. This 

resulted in an increasing use of m any older and less efficient plants 

with a slowing up of the year-by-year reductions in the average 

coal consumption per kilowatthour. W ith the resumption of the 

power-plant building program which is now under way, we should 

see still further reductions in the coal consumption per unit of 

output. This is borne out by the latest prelim inary figure of 

1.37 lb of coal per kilowatthour recently published6 for year 

1939. 

T u r f i i n e S p e e d s 

The trend tow ard higher turbine rotative speeds has been 

dictated by the requirements of efficiency, reliability, and cost. 

Where the leaving loss from the last stages of condensing 

turbines is not a determining factor, it is usually true th a t the 

turbine efficiency ratio, i.e., the relation between the energy 

which it makes available as output and th a t theoretically available, 

is increased as the design speed is increased. In th a t part 

* Annual statistical number of the Electrical World, vol. 113, Jan. 

13, 1940, p. 81 (105). 

of a turbine with a high volume flow, i.e., on most low-initialpressure 

turbines and on the condensing end of all turbines, this 

increase is small, and m ay even be negative. On the other hand, 

when the volume flow is low, as on the high-pressure end of even 

large-capacity turbines, and on almost all small turbines, the 

gain w ith increasing speed is greater. 

Of even greater importance is the fact th at it becomes very 

much easier to build reliable turbines for high pressures and 

tem peratures if the dimensions of the shells and rotors and interstage 

diaphragms are kept as small as possible. This can be done 

in the higher-speed turbines. As an extreme example, it is doubtful 

if it would be practical to design a 1200-rpm turbine of reasonable 

efficiency to operate at 1200 psi pressure, 950 F; whereas, 

such turbines are now being built for 3600 rpm with ease. 

As an illustration of this situation, Figs. 2 and 3 have been 

prepared showing comparable turbine rotors and turbine casings 

for 50,000 kw condensing turbines a t 1200 rpm, 1800 rpm, and 

3600 rpm, respectively. These designs were for steam conditions 

of 275 psi, 650 F, 375 psi, 725 F, and 1200 psi, 900 F, respectively. 

I t is apparent th a t the requisite shell-wall thickness, etc., and 

increased shaft span th at would be necessary to make the slowerspeed 

machines good for the higher pressures and temperatures 

would be prohibitive. The deflections and distortions which 

would result, together w ith the great bearing span, would also 

prohibit the maintenance of the reasonably small clearances 

upon which high efficiency with high pressure depends. There 

seems to be reason to believe, supported by evidence on both

W A RREN —M O DERN LARGE STEAM T U R B IN ES FO R G EN ERA TO R D R IV E 51 

F i g . 2 T u r b in e R o t o r s f o r 5 0 ,0 0 0 -K w C o n d e n s in g T u r b in e s 

(1200 rpm , 275 psi gage; 1800 rp m , 375 psi gage; a n d 3600 rp m , 1200 psi 

gage, resp ectiv ely ; ap p ro x im a te ly to sam e scale.) 

F i g . 3 T u r b in e S h e l l s f o r 5 0 ,0 0 0 -K w C o n d e n s in g T u r b i n e s 

(1200 rp m , 275 psi gage; 1800 rp m , 375 psi gage; a n d 3600 rp m , 1200 psi 

gage, resp ectiv ely ; a p p ro x im ately to sam e scale.) 

land and marine turbines,6 th at the newer high-speed turbines 

are more reliable as well as more economical than the older 

slower-speed machines. This is contrary to the preconceived 

ideas of many engineers, and generally contrary to reciprocatingmachinery 

experience. Nor do higher speeds generally mean 

higher stresses in the turbine elements. In almost every case 

* “New Engineering in the Navy,” by Charles Edison, Secretary 

of the Navy, Scientific American, vol. 162, March, 1940, p. 138. 

the stresses in the new 3600-rpm turbines are lower than in the 

1800-rpm machines of a few years ago. 

The advantages of the higher speed have been particularly 

apparent in connection w ith high-pressure and high-temperature 

condensing, or so-called “topping,” turbines. 

The higher speeds have perm itted better utilization of materials 

and should eventually reduce costs. The simultaneous 

increase in steam conditions, the utilization of better, more refined, 

and more costly materials as a means of increasing reliability, 

together w ith increasing labor costs as compared to 

several years ago, make relative cost comparisons between present 

and past practice difficult and often misleading. Costs are 

undoubtedly lower than they would have been had speeds not 

been increased. Turbine speeds for generator drive seem to have 

reached a limit at 3600 rpm with 60-cycle power being generated. 

Although new electrical devices m ay change this situation, it 

does not appear to be in the immediate future, and new developm 

ent should be stabilized at this speed, which will probably be 

an advantage for all concerned. 

PART II—GENERAL DESIGN AND PERFORMANCE 

The recent trend of turbine development can best be illustrated 

by discussing specific turbines, somewhat in chronological order. 

The requirements of the various customers are still so diverse 

th at each turbine is more or less a custom-built machine. This, 

however, has not been as costly as is oftentimes thought, because 

it has been possible in a large percentage of the turbines 

built to utilize more or less standardized portions of turbines 

with only minor modifications of these parts from machine to 

machine. 

Although all of the turbines described in this paper bear a 

“family resemblance,” there are still many differences. Actually, 

this is because in most cases there is not just one solution to a 

problem, but several. W hen one solution has been found to 

work, it m ay be incorporated in subsequent turbines built for 

closely similar conditions over a period of years. 

In the meantime, turbine development m ay have been following 

along another solution, because this other solution m ay give 

promise of meeting future conditions better than the previous 

one which is still in use, and, hence, newer machines in process of 

design will embody the newer arrangement, although for certain 

current conditions of operation it m ay be no better than an older 

arrangement still also in use. 

Fig. 4 shows cross sections of two modern turbines for rather 

moderate steam conditions, th a t is, 300 psi to 400 psi pressure 

and 700 F to 750 F tem perature. The first is for 15,000 kw, 3600 

rpm ; and the second, for 75,000 kw, 1800 rpm. In both these 

machines steam a t full boiler pressure and tem perature is bypassed 

around early stages to obtain full load. Turbines of both 

these types have been fully tested and have, as will be shown in 

a later part of this paper, extremely high over-all efficiencies. 

Fig. 5 shows four very recent machines designed for modern 

higher steam pressures and tem peratures and for capacities 

ranging from 10,000 kw to 80,000 kw. The first machine shown 

is for 10,000 kw to 15,000 kw capacity and for 600 psi to 800 psi 

pressure, 825 F to 900 F tem perature. The second machine is 

for 20,000 kw to 25,000 kw capacity for 800 psi, 900 F to 950 F 

tem perature. 

The third machine is typical of the 3600-rpm tandem compound 

turbines for from 30,000 kw to 50,000 kw capacity and for steam 

conditions varying from 600 psi to 1200 psi and tem peratures 

from 825 F to 950 F. The fourth machine, typical of the large 

1800-rpm single-casing turbines, is for from 75,000 kw to 85,000 

kw capacity, and for steam conditions from 800 psi to 1250 psi, 

825 F to 900 F. A turbine similar to this latter machine, rated


F i a . 4 C r o s s S e c t i o n s o f 1 5 ,0 0 0 -K w , 3600-R pm , a n d 7 5 ,0 0 0 -K w , 1800-R pm C o n d e n s i n g T u r b i n e s f o r 300 t o 400 P s i, 750 F 

( A p p r o x im a te ly t o s a m e sc ale .) 

80,000 kw and to operate at 1250 psi, 900 F, is now being installed 

for the Central New York Power Corporation. 

C o n t r o l l i n g V a l v e s a n d D e s i g n o p E a r l y S t a g e s 

The general use of higher and more efficient steam conditions 

has had an im portant bearing upon the design of the early stages 

in turbines and upon the arrangem ent of the controlling-valve 

system used to perm it the efficient meeting of a wide range of 

outputs from the turbine. In general, a two-row velocity stage 

first-stage wheel is the best design for a turbine w ith comparatively 

low volume flow, th a t is, somewhat under 50 cfs. This is 

because, although the two-row velocity stage wheel in itself is 

not as efficient as corresponding single-row impulse wheels, it 

gives a quick drop in the initial pressure and tem perature through 

the first-stage nozzles, and reduces the pressure on the high-pressure 

packing and on the diaphragm packings, the losses through 

which are major items w ith a low volume flow turbine, and also 

reduces the rotation loss of the early stages. This arrangement 

also produces a relatively constant efficiency over a wide range 

of load. 

If the volume flow is between 50 and 125 cfs, general experience 

indicates th a t the first stage should also be a two-row wheel as 

on the smaller flow machines, but th a t after approximately 75 

per cent to 80 per cent full flow is obtained, full steam flow should 

be obtained by by-passing the first-stage wheel, and adm itting 

full boiler pressure and tem perature to the first-stage shell. 

This is sometimes called a single by-pass machine. On machines 

of larger volume flow than the foregoing, the two-row first-stage 

wheel, which is generally here full peripheral admission, may be 

retained, but designed so th at a t full admission to this wheel, 

about 60 per cent to 65 per cent of full-load flow is obtained. 

Eighty per cent of full load is obtained by admission of steam at 

full pressure and tem perature to the first-stage shell; and full 

flow is obtained by by-passing steam a t nearly full boiler pressure 

and tem perature to a still lower stage. This is sometimes called 

a two by-pass machine. I t is seldom desirable to carry this 

process further. The aforementioned volume flows are for 3600- 

rpm turbines. The corresponding flows for 1800-rpm turbines 

will be between three and four times these values. This latter 

construction is illustrated in Fig. 4. This by-passing method of 

regulating the flow is advantageous from many standpoints, but 

the author feels it is generally not so desirable when the pressure 

and tem perature are high because of the larger portion of the turbine 

exposed to these conditions and the heating of the steam 

passing through the idle stages. 

The method used on the smaller-volume-flow machines with 

a two-row velocity-stage wheel which is not by-passed is excellent 

for high pressures and tem peratures, because it does not 

perm it these steam conditions to go in their full intensity past 

the first-stage nozzles; to continue this system on the larger 

machines, however, would not result in the most efficient possible 

design for the lighter load conditions of such turbines. If

W ARREN—M O DERN LARGE STEAM TU R B IN ES FO R G EN ERA TO R D R IV E 

F i g . 5 

C r o s s S e c t io n s o f 1 0 ,0 0 0 -K w t o 8 0 ,0 0 0 - K w C o n d e n s i n g T u r b i n e s f o r M o d e r n S t e a m C o n d i t i o n s 

(600 to 1200 psi and 825 F to 950 F ; approxim ately to scale.)


F i o . 6 

D i a g r a m m a t i c C r o s s S e c t i o n o f I n t e r n a l B y - P a s s V a l v e C o n d e n s i n g T u r b i n e a n d V a r i a t i o n s o f T e m p e r a t u r e T h r o u g h 

T u r b i n e s W i t h E x t e r n a l a n d I n t e r n a l B y - P a s s V a l v e s 

(C u rv es C a n d E are tu rb in e s w ith in te rn a l, A, B, a n d D tu rb in e s w ith e x te rn a l, b y -p ass valves.) 

the by-passing method of control just described is used, the shells 

and other turbine parts are subjected to the full intensity of the 

initial pressure and tem perature of the steam. Therefore, an 

older construction, often referred to as an “internal by-pass 

valve,” was revived and incorporated in the design. This 

permits a nearly equivalent result from the standpoint of economy, 

and a t the same time protects the parts of the turbine against 

the incidence of these unusually high steam conditions. 

A clearer view of the internal by-pass arrangem ent is shown in 

Fig. 6. The upper portion shows the arrangement on the 80,000- 

kw single-cylinder condensing turbine previously referred to. 

The lower portion shows a group of curves in which the maximum 

operating tem perature a t the various stages is plotted for a 

number of turbines rated from 50,000 kw to 80,000 kw capacity 

and w ith various steam-admission arrangements. Some of the 

curves represent the tem peratures in older, lower-pressure, lowertem 

perature turbines w ith by-passing similar to those shown in 

Fig. 4. Curves C and E represent corresponding tem peratures 

with the internal-by-pass machine w ith the by-pass both open 

and closed, and indicate th at this construction permits the 

building of a single-cylinder turbine for 1200 psi, 900 F, which, 

with the exception of the first-stage nozzle and valve chest has

W A RR EN — M O D E R N LA R G E STEA M T U R B IN E S FO R G E N E R A T O R D R IV E 65 

temperatures throughout no higher and generally less than older 

type turbines operating at much lower conditions. This type of 

design should result in a substantial increase in the temperatures 

for which turbines can be safely designed with present material, 

and should also result in decidedly less distortion and ereep of 

turbine parts as a result of operation at these higher steam conditions. 

Another refinement incorporated in some modem turbines is 

the placing of the controlling valves symmetrically in the top 

and bottom halves of the high-pressure shells. This tends to 

preserve the alignment and, hence, maintain the smaller clearances 

so necessary to high economy, despite the greater expansions 

incident to the present higher temperatures. This can be noted 

by contrasting the designs of the three larger machines in Fig. 5 

with the designs shown in Fig. 4. 

D e s ig n o f L a st-S t a g e B u c k e t s a n d E x h a u s t H o o d s 

It is common knowledge that the projected area through the 

last-stage bucket annulus is generally the limiting factor in connection 

with the capacity for which condensing turbines can be 

built. It is possible within reasonable limits to build the earlier 

stages of any given turbine carrying a given last-stage bucket 

so as to pass any required quantity of flow, and to obtain any 

given capacity, providing, of course, the parts are made strong 

enough. Under such circumstances the velocity of steam leaving 

the last-stage buckets would go up approximately as the capacity, 

and the energy in the steam which is thus thrown away would 

go up as the square of the capacity. A point is soon reached at 

which the loss in energy from this so-called “leaving loss” or 

"exhaust loss” is so great as to make the increase in capacity 

obtainable this way wholly uneconomical. There is no hard and 

fast line which can be drawn, or which says that the leaving loss 

should be such and such a percentage in commercial machines. 

It generally ranges from 2 per cent to 6 per cent at maximum load, 

depending upon the steam conditions, vacuum, extraction, and 

the like. 

Mechanically, there is a rather definite limit to the annulus 

area which can be obtained at any given speed, and at any given 

stress in the root of the buckets and their attachments. The 

actual value depends upon the skill and experience of the bucket 

designer, and upon the stress which his experience indicates he 

can allow safely in the materials available. This limit at the 

present time is approximately 25 sq ft of projected annulus area 

(pitch circumference times the length of bucket) at 3600 rpm, 

and about four times this value at 1800 rpm. 

The kilowatt capacity which can be economically put into a 

turbine with a given last-stage bucket area depends upon the 

steam conditions. This capacity generally increases as the initial 

pressure and temperature are increased, if resuperheating is 

used, and if steam is extracted for regenerative feedwater heating, 

or for any other purpose.7 This economical capacity is 

greater at poorer vacuums. 

A rough rule would indicate that from 600 kw to 12G0 kw 

maximum turbine capacity can be obtained economically from 

each square foot of last-stage bucket annulus, depending upon the 

conditions. Therefore, 80,000-kw to 100,000-kw, single-flow, 

1800-rpm turbines can be built, but in 3600-rpm turbines it is 

generally necessary to “double-flow” above 25,000 kw capacity, 

and at the present time on a cross-compound, 100,000-kw, 3600- 

rpm turbine, described later, a quadruple flow exhaust to the 

condenser is being used. 

The tip speed of these last-stage buckets is so great that the 

effect of the impingement of the tips of the buckets upon the 

slow-moving moisture particles in the steam causes erosion of 

the metal from the last-stage buckets. 

Higher initial temperature or resuperheating reduces the moisture 

present, or the moisture can be separated by centrifugal 

force from the steam before it reaehes the last stage. This latter 

is done, in so far as possible, by circumferential chambers surrounding 

the tips of the latter stages shown in the preceding turbine 

cross sections. 

Experience has proved that these chambers are effective in 

removing the heavier moisture particles and in greatly reducing 

the erosion. The total effect on efficiency is not very great, 

ranging from about one quarter to three quarters of one per 

cent, being less on the larger and lower-speed machines. 

Another method of protecting these buckets is to attach strips 

of harder material to the tips of the buckets. Stellite, as shown 

by the results of extensive research both here and abroad, seems 

to be the most effective material for preventing such erosion. 

Its superior qualities in this respect are all out of proportion to 

its hardness. These shields are generally attached to the outer 

portion of the higher-speed last-stage buckets. 

The erosion of the next to the last-stage bucket does not appear 

to be a major factor on account of the higher density of the steam, 

and, hence, the higher absolute and lower relative velocity of 

the moisture particles before they are struck by the bucket edge. 

Mueh research work in mechanical design and steam flow has 

been carried out to assist in the design of the last-stage buckets. 

However, much remains to be done. From both foregoing standpoints 

the design must be a compromise between (1} the varying 

stream-flow requirements at the root and at the tip, (2) the varying 

requirements of strength for the root and lightness for the 

tip, and (3) sufficient rigidity to the whole structure as to give 

the proper vibrational characteristics. 

These latter-stage wheels and buckets must be tuned so that 

they will not vibrate at running speed,1 but they would probably 

break if operated for very long under load at certain speeds 

either below or above this designed operating speed. In variable-speed 

marine turbines special precautions must be taken to 

see that the buckets are proportioned so as to be safe, at all 

speeds. This is not generally difficult for the sizes, speeds, and 

vacuums generally encountered. 

E xH A trsT H oo d s 

The exhaust hood is the chamber into which the steam from 

the last-stage bucket of a turbine discharges. If this chamber 

is extremely large, no loss in pressure between the last-stage 

bucket and the entrance to the condenser will take place, but 

such a hood would be too costly, and would probably not be 

sufficiently rigid to hold the high-pressure portions of the turbine 

in alignment with the bearings. An exhaust hood which 

is too small would not permit the turbine to utilize the full 

condenser vacuum, and so would result in excessive losses. 

A great deal of research, some of which was described by 

H. L. Wirt in 1924,s has been carried out by means of model 

tests in order to ascertain the best shape for building these exhaust 

hoods. 

It is rather strange to find that under these circumstances 

the original designs, made more or less on the basis of judgment 

and instinct, are still frequently in use and are about as good 

as anything which the research work has disclosed. These 

7 “Recent and Possible Future Developments Affecting the 

Economics of Large Steam Turbine Practice in the U. S.,” by G. B. 

Warren, Transactions of the Second World Power Conference, Berlin, 

1930, vol. S, pp. 107-141 and General Electric Review, vol. 33, 1930, 

pp. 434-443, 522-827. 

8 “The Protection of Steam-Turbine Disk Wheels From Axial 

Vibration,” by Wilfred Campbell, Trans. A.S.M.E., vol. 46,1924, pp. 

31-60. 

* “The Turbine Designers’ Wind Tunnel," by H. L, W irt, Mechanical 

Engineering, vol. 47, 1925, pp. 13-17.


Fio. 7 C r o s s S e c t i o n s T h r o u g h N o n c o n d e n s i n g T u r b i n e s f o r H i g h I n i t i a l P r e s s u r e s a n d T e m p e r a t u r e s 

( A p p r o x im a te ly t o sc a le .)

WARREN—MODERN LARGE STEAM TURBINES FOR GENERATOR DRIVE 57 

original designs, however, have been refined in certain ways as 

a result of this testing, and have been made much better 

from the mechanical standpoint as a result of operating experience 

with turbines in the interim. 

Some turbines have been built where condenser placement on 

the turbine operating level has perm itted a “stream flow” or 

“diffuser” type of exhaust hood. On these units vacuum measurements 

were obtained a t the last wheel which were greater 

than the vacuums existing in the condenser. These hoods have 

been in service for a number of years on several turbines in the 

Chicago district with great success, but generally this type of 

condenser arrangement has not been favored by station designers 

on account of the extra space and unconventional arrangement 

required, although a gain somewhat in excess of one per cent 

results. 

N o n c o n d e n s i n g T u r b i n e s 

Fig. 7 shows three sizes of noncondensing turbines for high 

pressures and tem peratures. These have been built in quite a 

number of cases to supply industrial process steam, or to operate 

as superposed turbines exhausting into existing lower-pressure 

condensing turbines. 

The first of these is for 10,000 kw to 15,000 kw capacity, 800 

psi to 1200 psi pressure, and up to 900 F. This size machine 

generally requires no by-pass, and passes all of the steam through 

the first-stage wheel. 

The second is a recently designed machine for 15,000 kw to 

20,000 kw capacity, for the same pressure range as the first, and 

up to 925 F. In this size a by-pass becomes advisable in order 

to secure the best possible light-load economy. The design 

shown is one of the latest involving an internal by-pass, which, 

as previously pointed out, perm its all of the steam to pass 

through the first-stage wheel at all loads. 

The third shows a type of machine which has been built for 

from 25,000 kw to 00,000 kw capacity, for a wide range of steam 

conditions up to 2300 psi pressure and up to 950 F. 

The first two of the foregoing machines are of the single-shell 

type. The third machine is of a type which was developed only 

a few years ago, and is known as the “double-shell” construction. 

I t has been successfully applied to a num ber of installations at 

high pressures and temperatures. 

Operating experience on seven of these turbines now in commercial 

service has been decidedly favorable. Trouble from 

steam leaks has not occurred. Shell distortions have been reduced 

to much less than ever previously experienced even in 

turbines at lower pressures and tem peratures. The dismantling 

of this type has been made easier owing to greater ease of handling 

the smaller shell bolts and the reduced shell distortions. 

Several other machines of this type are now being installed or 

manufactured. 

D e v e l o p m e n t o p D o u b l e S h e l l 10 

Double-shell construction has had a rather interesting developm 

ent through four steps, the last of which is not yet in operation. 

The various steps in this design are shown in Fig. 8. 

Basically, the principle is to surround the working parts of 

the turbine with a steam tight inner shell carrying its own bolting 

flange, and to build around this a second shell. The space between 

the two shells is m aintained by communication with a 

lower stage in the turbine a t a pressure interm ediate between 

the intial pressure in the inner shell and the atmosphere. The 

total pressure drop is thus divided into two stages; neither shell 

10 "Logan Double-Shell Turbine,” by G. B. Warren, Power, vol. 

8 3 , 1937 p p . 3 0 2 -3 0 5 . 

‘'53,000-Kw 3000-Iipm Superposed Turbine for Waterside Station,” 

by G. B. Warren, Combustion, vol. 9, 1938, pp. 27-32. 

F i o . 8 V a r i o u s D o u b l e - S h e l l D e s i g n s S h o w i n g S u c c e s s i v e 

D e v e l o p m e n t s


need be as thick as it would otherwise have to be in a single-shell 

machine. The inner shell is heated by steam on both sides, and 

as a result of all of these factors there is much less tendency for 

the shells to distort and the turbine m ay be much more rapidly 

brought up to operating tem perature w ithout the danger of undue 

internal stresses or distortions. Fig. 9 shows views of the hori- 

F i g . 9 C o m p a r a b l e B o l t i n g F l a n g e o f S i n g l e - a n d D o u b l e - 

S h e l l T u r b i n e s 

zontal bolting flanges of comparable single- and double-shell 

designs. 

Type I in Fig. 8 is the first embodiment of this design, of which 

eight are built or building and five have now been put in operation. 

I t has been quite successful but required an external controlling 

valve chest or chests and complicated piping. 

Type II was the next design of which four were built or are 

building, and two have now been put in operation. This construction 

eliminated the external valve chest but preserved the 

advantages of the double-shell construction, embodying the 

valve chests in the upper- and lower-half outer shells or casings 

which made the turbine much more compact. 

Type II I shows the third embodiment of this construction in 

which to Type II an internal by-pass valve has been added. 

Seven machines of this type are being built. This design secures 

good economy over a wider range of load and a t the same time 

permits a drop of pressure and tem perature through the firststage 

wheel and nozzle a t all loads, w ith resultant protection to 

the turbine elements from the higher pressure and tem perature 

of the inlet steam. 

Type IV shows a still further development of this design in a 

condensing turbine to operate ultim ately a t 1250 psi gage pressure, 

1000 F. In this last construction the entire upper and lower 

controlling valve chests are cast integral w ith the inner shell, 

the controlling valves operated by valve stems coupled to other 

valve stems coming through the outer shell, and thus the outer 

shell is protected a t all points from the initial steam conditions 

and is only in contact w ith steam at much lower pressures and 

tem peratures. The first-stage nozzle and the incoming steam 

pipes are the only parts of the turbine subjected to the full initial 

steam conditions. These parts are really such a small portion 

of the turbine th a t if need be they might be considered renewal 

parts, although it is not felt, w ith steam conditions now under 

consideration, with present-day materials, and with stresses 

which are now being run, th a t these parts will have to be renewed. 

I n t e r e s t i n g a n d U n i q u e T u r b i n e s o f R e c e n t D e s i g n 

The turbines shown in Figs. 4, 5, and 7 have been designed to 

fit more or less standard conditions, and they conform in general 

to the suggested standards issued in 1938 by the Federal Power 

Commission.11 

In the last few years, however, a number of very interesting 

turbines have been designed to m eet necessarily special or 

pioneering conditions. Some of these are described in the following 

paragraphs. Three of these, in which the furnishing of extraction 

steam has figured prominently, are shown in Fig. 10. 

The first shows one of three high-pressure, condensing, extraction, 

tandem-compound turbines designed to operate in power plants 

built and operated by the Pacific Gas and Electric Company 

adjacent in each case to an oil-refining plant and to furnish power 

and process steam to the oil refineries and excess and stand-by 

power to the utility transmission lines. These turbines are to 

operate at 1400 psi pressure, 940 F tem perature, and to exhaust 

from zero to about 97 per cent of the full throttle flow a t approxim 

ately 200 psi gage to evaporators which furnish process steam 

to the oil refineries. Under partial or complete condensing operation 

as much as 50,000 kw can be generated. This is the most 

extensive and efficient combined power and heat supply undertaking 

in which a power utility and a group of industrial plants 

have cooperated. 

The second machine, a 15,000-kw turbine for the Iowa Electric 

Light and Power Company, Cedar Rapids, Iowa, is designed 

to supply steam to adjacent industries and power to the utilities. 

It is to operate at 650 psi initial steam pressure, 750 F temperature, 

condensing, and supply extraction steam a t 100 to 225 

psi gage. The machine really consists of two separate turbines 

in the same casing: a noncondensing turbine in the front end, 

and a condensing turbine on the generator end. The valve chest 

for one is in the upper half of the casing, and for the other in the 

lower half of the casing. The parallel-flow construction permits 

independence of operation between the noncondensing and condensing 

portions of the turbine and gives high efficiency at all 

conditions of operation. 

The third machine is one of the largest noncondensing superposed 

turbines ever built, rated 65,000 kw, and is for the Consolidated 

Edison Company of New York, Inc. I t will operate at 

1250 psi, 925 F, and exhaust into an existing 200-psi header 

supplying condensing turbines and a district heating system. 

The low-pressure turbine between the high-pressure turbine and 

the generator takes a portion of the exhaust of the main turbine 

and exhausts it into a two-stage feedwater-heating system. The 

m ethod of mounting this small turbine w ithout bearings of its 

own is interesting. There will be in all four units of this general 

type in this plant (built by two manufacturers), two of which are 

operating and all of which embody the feedwater-heating turbine 

arrangement. This has been a nice solution to the difficulty 

usually associated with superposing in obtaining low-pressure 

steam for feedwater-heating purposes, since the existing 

condensing turbines of older design are often not adapted for 

steam extraction. 

Fig. 11 shows the 3600-rpm high-pressure section and the 1800- 

rpm low-pressure section of a 76,500-kw cross-compound condensing 

and resuperheating turbine which will operate a t 2300 

psi, 940 F initial tem perature and 900 F resuperheating temperature, 

in the Twin Branch station of the Indiana and Michigan 

Electric Company at South Bend, Ind. This company is one 

in the American Gas and Electric Company group and the engineering 

for this extension is being done by the American Gas and 

Electric Service Corporation. These are the highest steam conditions 

yet undertaken for commercial service in this country. 

11 “Preferred Standards for Steam-Turbine Generators (of 10,000 

kw rating and above).” Subcommittee on Standardization of the 

National Defense Power Committee, Washington, D. C., Nov. 3, 

1938.

W A RREN —M O DERN LARGE STEAM T U R B IN ES FOR G EN ERA TO R D R IV E 

F io . 10 

E x t r a c t io n - C o n d e n s in g T u r b i n e s o f R e c e n t D e s i g n f o r H i g h S t e a m C o n d i t i o n s


Fig. 11 

C r o s s S e c t i o n s o f H i g h - a n d L o w - P r e s s u r e E l e m e n t s o f 7 6 ,5 0 0 - K w C r o s s - C o m p o u n d T u r b i n e f o r 2 3 0 0 Psi, 9 4 0 F I n i t i a l 

a n d 9 0 0 F R e h e a t T e m p e r a t u r e f o r T w i n B r a n c h S t a t i o n f o r I n d i a n a a n d M i c h i g a n E l e c t r i c C o m p a n y 

B oth of these units will drive hydrogen-cooled generators; 

the high-pressure turbine is of the double-shell construction and 

steam is extracted from the turbines a t five points for feedwater 

heating. This installation, when in operation, should have the 

lowest heat consumption yet obtained from a steam power 

plant. 

Fig. 12 shows the cross section of the high- and low-pressure 

sections of a 3600-rpm condensing turbine being built for the 

Burlington Generating Station of the Public Service Electric 

and Gas Company, New Jersey, which is designed for 1250 psi 

gage, 950 F initial conditions. These sections are each 50,000 

kw, making a total rated capacity of 100,000 kw for the set, 

with the turbines able to carry 125,000 kw at unity power factor 

on the generators. In order to get adequate leaving area at 3600 

rpm, it became necessary, as previously mentioned, to have four 

parallel flows in the low-pressure section, which discharge to 

a single-pass condenser arranged lengthwise under the turbine. 

From the condenser viewpoint, this makes an ideal arrangement 

in m any respects, permits close spacing between the high- and 

low-pressure sections, and results in a very compact installation, 

y Normally, these two turbines operate as a single cross-compound 

turbine w ith the cross-over pressure fluctuating with load. 

The sections are valved in such a way as to permit emergency 

operation of either one separately. The high-pressure section 

m ay discharge into a steam header at 200 psi pressure. The 

low-pressure section m ay operate either through a reducing valve 

from the high-pressure boiler, or from the 200-psi steam header. 

Both generators will be hydrogen-cooled.

W ARREN—M O DERN LARGE STEAM TU R B IN ES FO R G EN ERA TO R D R IV E 

til 

Fio. 12 

C r o s s S e c t i o n s o f H i g h a n d Low E l e m e n t s o f 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 - K w C r o s s - C o m p o u n d 3 6 0 0 -R p m C o n d e n s i n g T u r b i n e f o r 1 2 5 0 P a i 

a n d 9 5 0 F I n i t i a l T e m p e r a t u r e f o r B u r l i n g t o n G e n e r a t i n g S t a t i o n o f P u b l i c S e r v i c e E l e c t r i c a n d G a s C o m p a n y , N e w J e r s e y 

Fig. 13 shows a cross section of the third of three similar 

vertical compound turbines in operation in the power plant of 

the Ford M otor Company a t River Rouge, D etroit. This unit 

recently put in service has hydrogen-cooled generators. The 

first of these turbines operates a t 750 F with steam resuperheating 

between the two units; and the second and third operate at 

1250 psi, 900 F initial tem perature, with resuperheating between 

the units eliminated. Test results are shown on the last two of 

these units in a later portion of this paper. The first two of 

these vertical compound machines have had a very remarkable 

record from the standpoint of reliability. The third, of course, 

has not yet been in operation long enough for its record to have 

any significance. 

Records submitted by the Ford M otor Company complete 

up to March, 1940, are shown in Table 1. 

Fig. 14 shows the condensing turbine, previously mentioned, 

now being designed for 25,000 kw normal capacity, condensing, 

1300 psi initial pressure, to operate initially at 960 F, utim ately 

a t 1000 F temperature. I t is the first single-cylinder, doubleshell, 

condensing turbine which has been designed. The highest 

tem perature to be encountered by the rotor, by the turbine dia- 

T A B L E 1 

R E C O R D S O F F O R D M O T O R C O M P A N Y U N IT S 

U n its N os. 1 a n d 2 

(F irs t v ertical com p o u n d u n it, officially s ta rte d J u ly 23, 1931, by M r. H en ry 

F ord) 

T o ta l hours in s ta lle d ............................................................................ 75,412 

T o ta l hours in o p e ra tio n ..................................................................... 60,044 

T o ta l hours dow n d u e to no lo a d ..................................................................9,032 

O u tag e d u e to re h e a te r re p a ir, h r ................................................................... 336 

T o ta l g en e ra ted k w h r........................................................................... 2,932,965,400 

A vailability, p er c e n t............................................................................................99.5 

U n its N os. 3 a n d 4 

(Second v ertical com p o u n d u n it, officially sta rte d J u ly 15, 1936, b y M r. 

H e n ry F ord) 

T o tal hours in s ta lle d ..........................................................................................31,728 

O o tal hours in o p e ra tio n ..................................................................... .............28,368 

T o tal hours dow n, due to no lo a d .................................................. .............. 3,360 

T u ta g e ......................................................................................................... .............. N one 

T o ta l g en e ra ted k w h r .......................................................................... 1,002,663,000 

A v ailability, per c e n t............................................................................................ 100 

phragms, or by the main bolt of the turbine shell and the horizontal 

joint bolting will be about 890 F a t 1000 F initial tem 

perature and maximum load. This turbine will be installed in 

the A tlantic C ity Electric Company’s plant, which is in the 

South Jersey System of the American Gas and Electric Company. 

R e b u i l d i n g o f O l d M a c h i n e s 

A number of utility companies have found it profitable to 

undertake rather extensive rebuilding of old machines. Some 

of the rebuildings were for greater capacity and higher efficiency 

at the same steam conditions; some to change the frequency from 

25 cycles to 60 cycles, and a t the same time secure additional 

capacity; and some to obtain additional capacity, higher efficiency, 

and to operate a t higher steam conditions.18 These 

types of rehabilitation are of importance particularly in times of 

depressed business conditions when few new m ajor plants ars 

under consideration. 

Sometimes older turbines are rebuilt or modernized to give 

them a new “lease on life,” particularly when they are intended 

to be used from then on as the low-pressure elements of a new 

superposed turbine.13 

This rejuvenating of old power equipment has undoubtedly 

extended the useful life, a t relatively high load factors, of much 

equipment which was formerly considered obsolete and good 

only for peak-load service. 

One interesting rebuilding proposition undertaken and completed 

was the furnishing of complete new internal turbine elements 

for a 160,000-kw cross-compound European-built turbine 

in the Hell Gate plant of the Consolidated Edison Company of 

New York, Inc. 

11 ‘‘Modernizing the Connors Creek Power Plant,” by S. Crocker, 

Combustion, vols. 6 and 7, 1935, p. 11. 

“Load-Area Detroit Plant,” by P. W. Thompson, Electrical World, 

vol. 106, 1936, p. 2685. 

11 “Logan Steam Plant Landmark," by Philip Sporn, Electrical 

World, vol. 106, 1936, p. 1017.


F i g . 13 

C b o s s S e c t i o n o r T h i b d 110,000-Kw V e b t i c a l C o m p o u n d T u b b i n e I n s t a l l e d i n t h e K iv e b R o u g e P o w e b P l a n t o f t h e 

F o b d M o t o b C o m pa n y 

Fig. 15 shows cross sections of the rebuilt high- and low-pressure 

elements of this machine as compared to the original design. 

Fig. 16 shows the recent test results of the rebuilt machine as 

compared w ith tests of the original machine. The generators 

are not of m odem design and efficiency, and the turbines as 

rebuilt had a comparatively small number of stages and shorter 

last-stage buckets than the original. 

T h e T r e n d o p R e l i a b i l i t y 

The trend of turbine reliability has been toward improvement 

despite the higher steam conditions and the higher operating 

speeds. The figures on turbine outage compiled by the Edison 

Electric Institute each year and published in the Annual Reports 

of the Turbine Subcommittee of the Prime Movers Comm 

ittee14 support this view, as shown in Fig. 17. 

14 “Turbines, Condensers, and Pumps 1939 (A Report of the Turbines 

Subcommittee of the Prime Movers Committee, Edison Electric 

Institute).” Publication No. G7, published Jan., 1940. 

Certain difficulties have been experienced on some recently 

constructed turbines, largely in the first stage of high-capacity 

3600-rpm superposed turbines, which have increased the outage 

of these machines during the last year or so. I t is felt, however, 

th a t these difficulties are now fairly well solved, and th at this 

factor should not be a m ajor consideration on these turbines or 

on new turbines in the future. 

In spite of this difficulty, however, on eight turbines of this 

type now in operation ranging in capacity from 10,000 kw to 

60,000 kw w ith a total of 17 machine-years, up to Jan. 1, 1940, 

the unscheduled outage due to all turbine difficulties has been 

6.7 per cent. The unscheduled outage in the last nine months of 

1939 has been 3.6 per cent, which is less than the average of all 

condensing machines. 

Bucket troubles or bucket failures used to be a greater factor 

in turbine outage. Figures published in the 1939 report of the 

turbine subcommittee already referred to indicate th a t the 

outages from this cause on all turbines reported have been

W A RREN —M O DERN LARGE STEAM T U R B IN ES FO R G EN ERA TO R D RIV E 63 

F ig . 14 2 5 ,0 0 0 -K w , 3 6 0 0 -R p m C o n d e n s i n g D o u b l e - S h e l l T u r b i n e D e s i g n e d f o r 1 3 5 0 Psi, 1 0 0 0 F I n i t i a l T e m p e r a t u r e , t o Bb I n 

s t a l l e d b y t h e A t l a n t i c C i t y E l e c t r i c C o m p a n y , A m e r i c a n G a s a n d E l e c t r i c C o m p a n y 

P i g . 15 

C r o s s S e c t i o n s o f H i g h - a n d L o w - P r e s s u r e E l e m e n t s o f O r i g i n a l a n d R e b u i l t 160,000-Kw T u r b i n e a t t h e H e l l G a t h 

S t a t i o n o f t h e C o n s o l i d a t e d E d i s o n C o m p a n y o f N e w Y o r k , I n c .


Fia. 16 T e s t R e s u l t s o f 1 6 0 ,0 0 0 -K w T u r b i n e S h o w n i n F i g . 15 

reduced to less than half w hat they were ten years ago. This is 

also shown in Fig. 17. 

Fig. 18 is a curve covering the last 16 years which shows the 

average operating life of the original bucket rows in turbines 

built by the author’s company in eacli year on which difficulty 

was experienced. This is the average operating life 

of those buckets only on which trouble occurs. It will be noted 

th a t with the exception of this last year, in which the influence 

of the first-stage bucket troubles previously mentioned have been 

a contributing factor, and one other year, this curve has gone up 

steadily every year since 1924, and the average life of the buckets 

which gave trouble has been tripled before trouble is encountered. 

One additional difficulty to which the newer larger 3600-rpm 

turbines have been subject during the last two years has been 

in connection with thrust-bearing failures or outages ordered 

for the purpose of permitting changes to prevent future thrust 

failures. Among other things contributing to this difficulty was 

the fact th at the greater “out-tangent” effect of the nozzle jet 

on the smaller-diameter wheels lowered the pressure on the 

entrance side of the wheel below the values which had previously 

been calculated. This produced more thrust of the turbine 

rotor against steam flow than had been provided for. Tests 

and analyses made since have, it is believed, permitted a much 

better evaluation of this situation and should prevent future 

trouble. 

T h e T r e n d o p T u r b i n e E c o n o m y 

The economy with which power can be produced by steam 

from fuel has steadily increased. This has been a result of three 

m ajor factors: 

1 Im provement in steam conditions. 

2 Im provement of the heat cycle through which the steam is 

used. 

YEAR 

Fio. 17 A n a l y s is o f T u r b i n e O u t a g e I n c l u d in g N o r m a l I n s p e c 

t i o n s o n A l l M a k e s a n d o n A l l T u r b i n e s R e p o r t e d t o T u r b i n e 

S u b c o m m it t e e o f t h e P r im e M o v e r s C o m m it t e e , E d is o n E l e c t r ic 

I n s t i t u t e , B a s e d o n 1939 R e p o r t 

Y E A R 

F ig . 18 A v e r a g e L e n g t h o f S e r v i c e o f O r i g i n a l R o w s o f T u r 

b i n e B u c k e t s o n W h i c h T r o u b l e W a s R e p o r t e d F i g . 19 C o m p a r a t iv e S t e a m C o n s u m p t io n o f V a r io u s T u r b i n e s

W A RREN —M O DERN LARGE STEA M T U R B IN E S FO R G EN ERA TO R D R IV E 65 

3 Im provem ent in the basic “engine efficiency ratio” itself, 

th at is, improvement in the percentage of the available energy 

in the steam which the turbine makes usable. 

The improvement in the turbine or engine efficiency ratio has 

resulted from a continuous and comprehensive program of research 

and design studies upon the various elements by means of 

which the energy in the steam is turned into useful energy in 

the turbine. Losses a t every point have been studied and carefully 

reduced. 

I t is, of course, somewhat difficult in the over-all results to 

sort out the separate influences of the foregoing factors, but some 

indication will be given in the following comparison of several 

turbine tests and guarantees made over the last few years on 

turbines built by the author's company. 

Figs. 19A and 195 show the results of tests on successive tu r 

bines in the same plant operating a t the same steam conditions. 

Fig. 19A shows the nonextraction tests and the corresponding 

guarantees on two turbine generating sets installed in the Valm 

ont plant of the Public Service Com pany of Colorado; one a 

25,000-kw unit installed in 1926, and the other a 25,000-kw 

3600-rpm unit installed in 1937. Both operate a t the same 

steam conditions and have air-cooled generators. The reduction 

in steam consumption when operating nonextraction is about 5 

per cent to 6 per cent, and the total reduction in heat consumption 

due to the more efficient feed-heating cycle on the second 

turbine would be even greater. 

Fig. 19B shows the noncxtraction steam rates of three tu r 

bines installed in a large central-station power plant; the first 

a 50,000-kw turbine installed in 1927, the second a 75,000-kw 

turbine installed in 1929, and the third a 75,000-kw turbine 

installed in 1937. These turbines are all 1800-rpm machines, 

equipped w ith air-cooled generators, and operate a t the same 

steam conditions. A 5 per cent gain was m ade between the 

first and the last machine installed. 

Fig. 20 shows the com parative results of successive turbines 

in three different stations. 

Fig. 20A shows a comparison between the heat-consum ption 

guarantee on the first 110,000-kw vertical-compound turbine 

generator installed in the River Rouge plant of the Ford M otor 

Company in 1931, on which a complete test was not made, and 

the guarantees and tests of the second and third machines installed 

in this plant in 1936 and 1939, respectively. All are of 

the same capacity and operate a t the same steam pressure. The 

first m achine had steam -heated resuperheaters, b u t on the second 

Fio. 20 

C o m p a r a tiv e H e a t C o n s u m p tio n s o f V a r i o u s T u r b i n e s 

F io . 21 E q u iv a l e n t C o m p a r a t iv e - H e a t C o n s u m p t io n G u a r a n 

t e e s o n S u c c e s s iv e T u r b in e G e n e r a t o r s S o ld t o T w o D if f e r e n t 

P u b l ic -U t il it y C o m p a n ie s


and third machines the initial tem perature was raised so high 

resuperheating could be dispensed with. 

Fig. 20B shows the guarantees and test results of a 208,000-kw 

cross-compound turbine installed by the Chicago D istrict Electric 

Generating Corp. in 1929 operating a t 600 psi, 730 F, resuperheat 

tem perature 500 F ; and the guarantee and test results 

on the recently installed tandem-compound 150,000-kw turbine 

operating a t 1200 psi, 825 F, resuperheat tem perature 825 F, 

driving a hydrogen-cooled generator and installed in the same 

station. 

This latter turbine generator probably has the lowest heat 

consumption so far obtained, consuming 8460 B tu per kwhr at 

the m ost economical load. The reduction in heat consumption 

between the 208,000-kw and the 150,000-kw set is about 13 per 

cent. 

Fig. 20C shows the test results of a 63,000-kw cross-compound 

1800-rpm turbine-generator unit operating a t 600 psi, 725 F 

initial tem perature and 725 F reheating tem perature, installed 

in 1926 in the Columbia Park station of the Cincinnati Gas and 

Electric Company, and rebuilt in 1928; as compared w ith the 

test results on a recently installed 65,000-kw tandem-compound 

turbine equipped w ith a hydrogen-cooled generator, operating 

at 650 psi, 900 F initial tem perature w ithout reheat, installed in 

1938. The improvement is about 10 per cent. This does not 

reflect against the value of resuperheat, but shows the advantage 

of higher tem perature, better turbine design, lower leaving loss, 

and the gain from hydrogen cooling. If resuperheating were used 

the economy would be even better. 

Fig. 21 shows the heat-consumption guarantees on successive 

turbine generators sold to two different public-utility companies 

over the last 25 and 13 years, respectively. The differences between 

the first and the last guarantees are some 35 per cent and 

27 per cent, respectively. 

P e r f o r m a n c e o f N o n c o n d e n s i n g T o p p i n g U n i t s 

Tests have been run recently on six large high-pressure, hightem 

perature, noncondensing turbines. W ith one exception, 

these turbines have, in general, m et their contract guarantees. 

The inherent difficulties of making such tests, and of insuring 

th a t the turbines are free from boiler solids in new plants have 

not yet perm itted obtaining the accurate and uniform results 

which are possible w ith condensing machines. 

However, over-all test efficiencies of noncondensing turbines 

operating between 1200 psi and 200 psi pressure, based on the 

net energy output of the generator, and the steam conditions 

ahead of the stop valve, were about 79 per cent on 10,000-kw 

sizes with air-cooled generators, and about 84 per cent on 50,000- 

kw turbines w ith hydrogen-cooled generators. 

These engine efficiency ratios are generally greater for the 

range of energy through which these turbines are operating than 

the over-all engine efficiency ratios of the low-pressure turbines 

into which they are discharging. 

These results, together with those shown in Figs. 19, 20, and 

21, showing results on both high-pressure and low-pressure tu r 

bines, indicate quite definitely th a t the expected performances of 

the newer high-pressure turbines are being realized. 

C l e a n l i n e s s o f I n t e r n a l P a r t s o f T u r b i n e s 

The importance of the maintenance of internal cleanliness on 

turbines during operation cannot be overemphasized. It is of 

no value for the turbine designer to refine the nozzle and bucket 

shape and then to have solids deposit out from the steam and 

reduce the high efficiency so obtained. I t is an action similar to 

the more well-known icing up of airplane xings and propellers. 

Variation in load and periodic shutdowns tend to wash the 

deposits out; whereas, base-load machines are ap t to build up 

deposits.18 Washing procedures are available which, if carefully 

carried out, will restore the machine to reasonable cleanliness if 

the deposits are soluble. 

The problem can usually be solved a t the source as evidenced 

by the large number of stations in which the turbines seem to 

operate for years w ithout difficulty. In other stations deposits 

build up so rapidly th at it is impossible to obtain a reliable test 

immediately after an inspection. 

The solution seems to lie in proper treatm ent of the feedwater 

and control of carry-over from the boiler drums under each local 

condition encountered. New stations are likely to have this 

difficulty until these problems are solved for their particular 

conditions. 

PART III—DETAIL CONSIDERATIONS OF TURBINE 

DESIGN 

N u m b e r o f S t a g e s a n d C y l i n d e r s o r C a s i n g s 

The proper number of stages for best economy and the proper 

number best to m eet the other requirements of design and first 

cost have been a question on which turbine designers have differed 

greatly among themselves and from time to time. It is now quite 

definitely established, on the basis of both research work and 

analysis from fundam ental hydrodynamic principles, th a t turbine 

stage efficiencies generally: 

(o) Increase as the radial height of the nozzle and bucket of 

the stage is increased, other conditions remaining fixed. 

(6) Are relatively constant for a given stage w ith varying 

steam velocity (if the ratio of bucket to steam speed is held constant), 

b u t tend to be somewhat lower at lower velocities and 

highest near the velocity of sound. 

(c) Are likely to decrease w ith smaller wheel diameters, bucket 

length and speed remaining constant. 

Specific nozzle and bucket designs m ay change these relations, 

but they are generally safe rules to follow with contemporary 

design practice. Item (a) indicates th at if the number of stages 

in a turbine is increased, and, hence, since the total bucket speed 

is limited, the diameters are reduced, and the bucket lengths increased, 

then the efficiency will be increased. On the other hand, 

(6) and (c) indicate th at some of this gain m ay be lost by the 

lower steam velocities and smaller wheel diameters so encountered. 

Furthermore, in an actual turbine design, experience seems to 

indicate th at the diaphragm and high-pressure packing radial 

clearances which can be m aintained between the rotating and 

stationary elements are a function of the span between bearings, 

actually appearing to be, based on measurements on modern 

turbines equipped w ith turning gears and after good commercial 

operation, about 2 mils per foot of shaft span between bearing 

center lines. This factor puts a rather definite limit a t around 

20 to the number of stages which can be carried advantageously 

between one pair of bearings. 

Where a turbine m ust be double flow in the low-pressure turbine, 

it can be divided advantageously between two different 

bearing spans; but to divide a single-flow machine in order to 

secure the increased efficiency of the larger number of stages and 

the shorter, smaller shafts so perm itted, m ay introduce other 

losses, such as cross-over pressure drop, and extra bearing and 

external packing losses, so as to neutralize much of the gain except 

in turbines for higher pressures. 

The result of all of these factors has been th a t it has been possible 

to develop compact single-cylinder turbines which compare 

very favorably w ith two- and three-cylinder tandem-compound 

turbines both as to economy and reliability. 

Is “Power Station Chemistry 1937 (A Report of the Power Station 

Chemistry Subcommittee of the Prime Movers Committee, Edison 

Electric Institute).” Publication No. E10, September, 1937.

W ARREN—M O DERN LARGE STEAM TU R B IN ES FOR G EN ERA TO R D RIVE 67 

Fio. 23 

T y p ic a l G r o u p o f B u c k e t s 

N o z z l e s a n d D ia p h r a g m s 

Nozzles and diaphragms are the transverse walls which separate 

the stages, withstand the stage pressure drop, and carry the 

directing nozzles through which the pressure drop is changed to 

the last tw enty years, and still being actively pursued.11 This 

research work has resulted in a great improvement in the efficiencies 

of the nozzles used in actual turbines and hence in an 

improvement in the over-all efficiency of the turbine generator 

The mechanical design of these elements is also of equal and 

coordinate importance. They m ust be strong enough to withstand 

terrific mechanical forces of both a steady and a highly 

periodic character, ofttimes at high tem peratures; and, since 

they carry the diaphragm packings, they m ust stay accurately 

centered with the shaft. In order to do this effectively they 

F i g . 22 

T y p ic a l H ig h - a n d L o w - P r e s s u r e D ia p h r a g m s 

a speed increase in the steam stream, which is in turn directed 

onto the moving buckets by the nozzles. 

These elements are all im portant from the standpoint of tu r 

bine efficiency, and have been the object of a comprehensive 

research program both in this country and abroad extending over 

16 “The. Turbine Designer’s Wind Tunnel,” by H. L. Wirt, Mechanical 

Engineering, vol. 47, 1925, pp. 13-17. 

"A Machine for Testing Steam-Turbine Nozzles by the Reaction 

Method,” by G. B. Warren and J. H. Keenan, Mechanical Engineering, 

vol. 48, 1926, pp. 227-232. 

The six reports of the Steam-Nozzles Research Committee: 

First report, Proceedings of The Institution of Mechanical 

Engineers, 1923, vol. 1, January-June, p. 1. 

Second report, Proceedings of The Institution of Mechanical 

Engineers, 1923, vol. 1, January-June, p. 311. 

Third report, Proceedings of The Institution of Mechanical 

Engineers, 1924, vol. 1, January-May, p. 455. 

Fourth report, Proceedings of The Institution of Mechanical 

Engineers, 1925, vol. 2, May-December, p. 747. 

Fifth report, Proceedings of The Institution of Mechanical 


Sixth report, Proceedings of The Institution of Mechanical 


"Some Researches on Steam-Turbine Nozzles Efficiency,” by H. L. 

Guy, presented at the Institution of Civil Engineers, London, 1939, 

Sir Charles Parsons Memorial Lecture. 

“An Investigation of Energy Losses in Steam-Turbine Elements 

by Impact Traverse Static Test With Air at Subacoustic Velocities,” 

by Winston R. New, Trans. A.S.M.E. vol. 62, 1940, pp. 489-502. 

“Automatic Integrating Pressure Traverse Recorder for Study of 

Flow Phenomena in Steam-Turbine Nozzles and Buckets,” by H. 

Kraft and T. M. Berry, Trans. A.S.M.E., vol. 62, 1940, pp. 479-488.


must be supported so as to stay centered w ithin 10 mils, if possible, 

despite total heat expansions a t their outer diameters of 30 

times this value. Fig. 22 shows typical nozzle diaphragms for 

high- and low-pressure sections of the turbines. 

The manufacture of these parts is a highly specialized process. 

I t differs radically for the higher- and lower-pressure diaphragms. 

The former are fabricated by welding and the latter by casting. 

First-stage nozzles are subjected to particularly difficult conditions 

because of: (1) High pressure drop, particularly a t lighter 

loads; (2) the high tem perature a t which they operate; and 

(3) the requirements of steam flow which make it undesirable 

to increase the exit edge thickness unduly. Furtherm ore, it 

has been found th a t the first-stage buckets react on the nozzle 

edges, and so produce violent alterations of the pressure drop 

across the nozzle edges, and at frequencies which m ay reach 

from 6000 to 20,000 per second. 

B u c k e t s 

Buckets are the elements of turbines which are attached to 

the wheels or rotor and which convert the energy in the moving 

steam stream into power on the wheel rim. 

The more general problems of last-stage bucket designs have 

been discussed in P art II of this paper because of the immediate 

bearing upon the entire turbine design. 

In the shorter impulse buckets, the basic design from the 

steam standpoint has changed but little in 35 years despite the 

results of much research work. This is probably due less to 

the present excellence of the general design than to the inherent 

difficulty of carrying out the research and isolating the various 

factors, since the moving buckets and stationary nozzles are so 

interrelated. Research now in progress may alter this situation, 

however. 

Longer buckets, owing to inherent lower steam leakage, are 

generally improved in efficiency by being designed for some pressure 

drop across them, partaking, particularly at the tip, of 

nozzle characteristics, and so have been improved by the years 

of highly fruitful nozzle research. 

W ith buckets the problems of mechanical design and manufacture 

have been of param ount importance, particularly from 

the standpoint of turbine reliability. Here perfection has been 

obtained only by painstaking research17 into the vibration characteristics 

of such structures, supplemented by the use of design 

strength factors based upon a complete statistical record and 

analysis of past bucket troubles and past successful operation. 

Fig. 23 shows a group of typical buckets for both 1800-rpm 

and 3600-rpm turbines. The particularly rugged characteristics 

of the design and attachm ents of some of the buckets should be 

noted, as well as the difference in character between the root and 

tip shapes of the longer buckets. 

The shape and proportions of the attachm ents or “dovetails” 

have been worked out analytically, supplemented by photoelasticstress 

analysis and pull and vibration tests to destruction of 

full-size samples. 

Finally, all large 1800-rpm bucketed turbine wheels and 

typical 3600-rpm wheels are tested for vibration characteristics 

and tuned to run “off resonance” in the wheel-testing machine 

shown in Fig. 24. More than 110,000 oscillograph films similar 

to th at shown have been obtained, analyzed, and recorded. 

Buckets which cannot be protected by this tuning method, 

which in general includes most buckets under 10 in. in length, 

m ust be protected against vibration by being made strong enough 

to run, if necessary, “on resonance.” 

17 “The Protection of Steam-Turbine Disk Wheels From Axial 

Vibration,” by Wilfred Campbell, Trans. A.S.M.E., vol. 46, 1924, 

pp. 31-60. 

‘‘Tangential Vibration of Steam-Turbine Buckets,” by Wilfred 

Campbell and W. C. Heckman, Trans. A.S.M.E., vol. 47, 1925, pp. 

643-671. 

F ig . 24 

W h e e l V i b r a t i o n T e s t i n g M a c h i n e W i t h T y p i c a l O s c i l l o g r a p h R e c o r d o f T e s t s

W A RREN —M O DERN LARGE STEAM T U R B IN ES FO R G EN ERA TO R D RIVE 69 

Tests indicate th at for a given bucket wheel the amplitude of 

resonant vibration generally increases in proportion to the load 

being carried. Statistical experience accumulated by an analysis 

of results obtained on about 10,000 wheel-years of operation 

indicates quite definitely th at the liability of reaching vibration 

stresses in the buckets on such wheels which will produce failure 

is reduced to the vanishing point when the buckets are made 

strong enough in relation to the loads carried. I t is essential, of 

course, that the other details of design and construction be uniformly 

and properly carried out. 

R o t o r s 

The rotor, aside from the buckets, might be considered as the 

aggregate of the shaft and the wheels which carry the buckets, 

together with the rotating elements of the packings. 

Rotors for 1800-rpm turbines are generally made of a shaft 

with wheels separately shrunk on and packing rings. The 

wheels in the low-temperature section are keyed to the shaft. 

In the higher-temperature sections it has been found necessary 

to be sure th at the wheels are able to leave the shaft under the 

combined influence of centrifugal force and a sudden increase in 

temperature, and at the same time stay central and drive the 

shaft. This is accomplished by a so-called “pin bushing.” 

The bushing is keyed to the shaft, and the wheel hub is attached 

to the bushing itself by a number of radial pins. 

Two refinements which have resulted in great improvement 

in the operation of this type of turbine are: (1) Making the 

keys discontinuous, th at is, a separate key for each wheel, which 

does not extend under the packing ring between adjacent wheels; 

and (2) the undercutting of the packing sleeves to reduce the 

heat passed into the shaft due to accidental rubbing of the packings. 

3600-Rpm T u r b i n e s 

Rotors for 3600-rpm turbines are generally machined from a 

solid forging. This obviates the difficulties associated with 

separate wheels and packing sleeves, and secures a short rigid 

rotor which permits operation of such high-speed turbines below 

the calculated critical speed. These rotors have shown great 

stability under changing load and tem perature conditions. 

This rotor construction also possesses an im portant inherent 

advantage in the ease with which it is heated due to its extended 

surface. This gives it an autom atic “end loosening” effect in 

that during starting the axial clearanes are opened up without 

change of the thrust-bearing position. The close proximity of 

the diaphragms prevents the rotor’s cooling faster than the shell 

on shutting down and so prevents a tightening of the clearances. 

A refinement in manufacture which has materially contributed 

to smoother operation of turbines under service conditions 

F i g . 2 5 T y p ic a l H o r iz o n t a l J o in t F l a n g e a n d B o l t in g 

F i g . 2 6 

M a g n i f i e d P h o t o g r a p h o f T u r n e d a n d M i l l e d T h r e a d s 

o n S t u d 

is the so-called “heat stabilizing” of the shafts. Every shaft or 

rotor on the turbines under consideration receives this test and 

treatm ent which is as follows: 

After a shaft or rotor is rough-machined it is put in a special 

lathe in an electrically heated furnace and slowly heated while 

being revolved, and it is carefully indicated for “runout” during 

the heating. M ost normal shafts will increase their runout 

5 to 15 mils in this process until a tem perature of 700 F to 900 F 

is reached, a t which some kind of a readjustm ent takes place, 

probably on the machined surfaces, which permits the shaft to 

come back to a “hot runout” of not more than 1 to 2 mils more 

than its “cold runout,” and on being cooled its runout does not 

change greatly. On putting such a shaft through a second heating 

its runout will not go through this cycle, but will go to the 

hot-runout condition directly. Some shafts will have a large 

hot runout which cannot be corrected this way. Such a shaft or 

rotor m ust be reheat-treated, and if this does not correct the 

condition, it m ust be rejected, otherwise the balance of the tu r 

bine in w'hich it is used would be seriously different in the hot 

and cold condition and would change w ith load. 

All wheel and solid rotor forgings m ust be metallurgically 

sound, and are checked following final machining by the magnaflux 

method. 

B o l t i n g F l a n g e s 

The horizontal flanges by which the upper and lower halves 

of the shells are joined are perhaps one of the most im portant 

parts of the turbine design. This joint m ust remain tight despite 

tem perature and pressure conditions and changes. I t must 

permit of being dismantled, and reassembled, and still remain 

tight; and this w ithout the aid of gaskets. 

Fig. 25 shows a typical shell flange. The bolts are put in as 

close to the inner diam eter as possible, and still leave sufficient 

metal between the inner flange wall and the bolt hole, generally 

around 1 in. as a minimum. This requires a flange of great depth. 

The flange is given a sizeable “toe” or portion beyond the bolt. 

Studies carried out several years ago on rubber models indicated 

definitely th at this configuration resulted in relatively low bolt 

stresses while a t the same time it kept the joint tight a t the 

cylinder bore. 

The nuts are made cylindrical, w ith the “hex” on top, which 

permits a smaller hex and hence smaller wrenches. This in 

turn permits a closer spacing of the bolts than is possible with 

nuts of the conventional type. 

Joints of this type when properly “scraped to fit” appear to 

hold steam tight when the stress in the bolts is about IV 2 to 2 

times th a t required to overcome the bursting pressure on the


inner cylinder diameter. The “softness” or elasticity of the 

flange resulting from its depth and high compressive loading 

must make the two faces conform to each other much as two 

pieces of rubber would a t pressures within our ordinary experience. 

In the design of high-pressure turbine shells it is im portant 

F io . 27 

T a p e r e d T h r e a d s t o D i s t r i b u t e L o a d o n T h r e a d s o r 

H e a v i l y L o a d e d S t u d s 

Two further refinements are: (1) To plate the threads of the 

nut w ith a thin copper coating; and (2) to make the clearance 

between the nut and stud somewhat larger than normal, about 

5 mils on 1-in-diameter and 10 mils on 3-in-diameter studs. 

Both refinements seem conducive to ease in removing nuts from 

studs after use. 

All studs over 2 in. in diameter are made hollow to permit heating 

for ease in setting up and loosening. 

A refinement recently introduced is illustrated in Fig. 27. 

This shows, first, a nut and stud combination in which the threads 

are of the usual parallel construction, and second, a nut and stud 

in which the threads on the nut are machined on a taper, shown 

exaggerated in the figure, of course. In the nut with the parallel 

threads the load m ust of necessity be concentrated on the first 

few threads, if not even on the first, because of the tendency of 

the remaining portion of the stud to stretch away from, and the 

nut to compress away from, the load with resultant overstressing 

of the portion of the stud adjacent to this first thread. The 

tendency of the n u t to stretch circumferentially tends to reduce 

this concentration,18 but the freedom to stretch circumferentially 

is reduced in the nuts on studs which are set up by heating. 

In studs screwed into castings rather than into nuts, such concentration 

of loading is very pronounced. This concentration 

of stress has caused some studs to crack at the bottom of the 

nut or where entering the casting. If, however, threads on the 

nut or casting are cut on a proper taper, as shown, the threads 

a t the end of the stud are loaded first, and when tight the loading 

is more uniformly distributed. The taper is sometimes put on the 

threads of the stud. Such tapered threads also reduce the con- 

I. STOP-VALVE BONNET 

F i q . 2 8 C ir c u l a r F l a n g e J o in t s 

3. FLANGE JO IN T ON PIPE 

f o r H i g h P r e s s u r e s 

T e m p e r a t u r e s 

th at abrupt changes of diam eter be avoided as much as possible, 

particularly to avoid a small “w aist” between two larger sections 

because the normal perm anent distortions which accompany 

heating and cooling are of such a nature as to cause the flange to 

want to open up a t this small waist portion. Also, projecting 

inner walls or rings attached to the shells should be avoided if 

possible because they tend to heat up faster than the shell and 

so by expansion, force the joint open. 

A manufacturing refinement which has been introduced into 

the manufacture of the bolts and studs is to mill these threads on 

a special machine rather than to turn them as was formerly 

done. Fig. 26 shows a magnified section of the threads on studs 

on which the threads have been turned, and on which they have 

been milled. The superior quality of the milled thread is apparent. 

F i g . 29 

T y p ic a l S t o p a n d C o n t r o l V a l v e s f o r T u r b i n e s f o b 

H i g h P r e s s u r e s a n d T e m p e r a t u r e s 

centration of stress if the studs are not perfectly aligned with the 

threaded holes. 

Fig. 28 shows three typical circular flange joints: First, th at 

used on stop-valve bonnets; second, the type commonly used 

on control-valve bonnets; and third, as used in pipe runs where 

welding is undesirable because of dismantling requirements. 

18 “The Distribution of Load on the Threads of Screws,” by 

J. N. Goodier, Journal of Applied Mechanics, vol. 7, March, 1940, p. 

A-10.

W A R R E N -M O D E R N LARGE STEAM TU R B IN ES FO R G EN ERA TO R D RIV E 71 

These joints all use a narrow, thin, soft iron enclosed gasket. 

The gasket is usually made about equal to the net cross-sectional 

area of the bolting. I t is desirable oftentimes both to reduce the 

bolt circle diameter and to put in as m any bolts as possible; 

the new cylindrical nut with the hex on top perm its this. 

The bolting shown on the stop-valve bonnet embodies a unique 

feature in th at washers of about the same depth as the bolt diameter 

are used under the nuts. These have a cross section equal 

to th at of the studs a t the roots of the threads. The elastic 

system of washer and stud then has about three times the flexibility 

it would have if the nut rested directly upon the valve 

bonnet. This has proved useful in keeping the joint tight under 

conditions of a violent drop in tem perature such as might follow 

priming of the boiler, and its use might advantageously be extended 

to other types of joints, but so far the need has not been 

apparent. 

These joints have been successfully used for some time a t pressures 

up to 2000 psi and 925 F, and practically no leakage difficulties 

have developed. 

V a l v e s 

Fig. 29 shows typical control and stop valves used on large 

high-pressure high-temperature machines over a number of years. 

The streamlined or venturi-type valve was tested and first introduced 

about 1926, and has been refined in design and construction 

and applied to the entire line of turbines since then. 

F i g . 3 0 

O ld a n d N e w S t r a i n e r D e s ig n 

The seat is a rounded-entrance venturi tube, of great mechanical 

rigidity, and shaped so as to regain a substantial portion 

of the velocity-head drop through the opening. The valve proper 

is made a stream-flow shape, but th at portion which engages 

the seat when closed is made a portion of a sphere, so th at when 

closed it is as though a ball were dropped in a hole. Line contact 

is made with great pressure on the joint and inherent tightness 

results without grinding. If the valve should be injured 

it can be made tight again by remachining or stoning to a surface 

of revolution. The smooth flow a t partial opening seems to be 

conducive to the maintenance to the valve surface, and special 

materials do not seem to be required. 

Stuffing boxes in the older sense of the term have been eliminated 

and close-clearance metal bushings are used w ith one or 

two leak-offs. Nitrided stems and bushings are used up to 950 

F, and there is some experience to indicate th a t this material 

m ay be satisfactory above this point, although research work has 

been under way for some tim e to determine the properties of 

other materials a t these higher tem peratures for this application. 

Hardness seems to be one of the essentials. 

Experience over several years with more than a thousand valves 

of this type in service indicates th at the difficulties usually associated 

with such parts have been reduced now to a small fraction 

of those previously encountered. 

S t r a i n e r s 

Strainers, although they are seldom-thought-of parts of a turbine, 

play a m ost im portant function in keeping harm ful foreign 

material out of the turbine blading system. Fig. 30 shows a 

strainer which has been battered and broken by small portions 

of m aterial, probably welding wire left in the piping or superheater. 

In the older type of strainer this m aterial was free to 

circulate around the outside of the strainer and to be blown back 

against the wire by the incoming steam, probably millions of 

times, until finally the wire was simply peened “in tw o” on the 

edge of the backing-plate holes opposite the incoming steam pipes. 

In the new design the strainer is made solid at this point, and a 

dam is placed in the chamber outside the strainer so th at recirculation 

is not possible, and the particles will be trapped. No 

strainers of the new type have been battered through. 

H y d r a u l i c S e r v o - M e c h a n i s m s t o A c t u a t e C o n t r o l V a l v e s 

The forces required to operate the control valve on large tu r 

bines are very great, although generally less on high-pressure 

machines than if the pressures were lower and other things equal. 

On the other hand, the tendency toward single-seat, streamlined, 

and hence unbalanced valves, together w ith the greater 

speed of operation required to prevent over-speed on loss of load 

by the liigh-output, light-rotor, 3600-rpm turbines, has aggravated 

this problem, and increased the power which the hydraulic 

valve-moving mechanism m ust have. 

One method of meeting this demand for more hydraulic power 

has been to raise the operating oil pressure from the usual 125 psi 

to 250 psi, since by so doing greater output can be obtained in 

proportion to the energy put into the pilot valve by the governor. 

Another has been to relay the power of the centrifugal governor 

through a separate oil cylinder as has been common practice on 

governors for hydraulic turbines. 

A typical hydraulic mechanism on a large turbine is shown in 

Fig. 31. In modern turbines this mechanism is completely enclosed 

in either the oiltight turbine bearing pedestal or in the oil 

tank under the front end of the turbine. In this way the oil 

fire hazard incident to exposed high-pressure oil piping has been 

made negligible. 

The two-diameter piston is helpful in increasing the speed 

with which the valves can be closed, and is possible since the 

forces required to close the valves are less than half those required 

to open them. 

Fig. 32 shows in diagrammatic form the governor and control 

system of a typical turbine of this type. Two im portant and 

rather recent aids to good operation are shown. The first is the 

hand wheel for operating the control valves in starting shown at 

A . The throttle valve has become a stop valve and has no 

interm ediate setting between open and closed. In order to 

start the machine the hand wheel A is set in the closed position, 

and the stop valve opened to adm it steam to the valve chest. 

The turbine can then be started on the control valves by turning 

wheel A toward the open position. Incidentally, steam is saved 

during the start, and the exhaust hood of the turbine heated 

more gently. W hen up to speed the speed governor takes over, 

but cannot open the control valves to a position greater than


Fia. 31 T y p i c a l H y d r a u l i c M e c h a n i s m S h o w i n o T w o - D i a m e t e r O p e r a t i n g P i s t o n t o S e c u r e Q u i c k V a l v e C l o s i n g , A l s o C o m 

p l e t e E n c l o s u r e o f P a r t s C a r r y i n g H i g h - P r e s s u r e O i l t o R e d u c e F i r e H a z a r d 

th at for which wheel A is set. Thus, the starting wheel becomes 

a valuable “load limit” which may be used to set the maximum 

load th at a turbine may suddenly take on so as to protect boilers 

and other parts, or it may be used to set the load a t any desired 

value for base-load operation of a particular turbine. 

The second new device is called, for lack of a better name perhaps, 

the “magnetic pull-out.” I t is the invention of West 

Coast utility engineers, and has been applied on turbines recently 

delivered to one of these companies. In some systems 

connected with water power a major problem in steam-turbine 

operation is to operate the steam turbines safely as “spinning 

reserve;” i.e., to carry as little load on them as possible, but 

yet have them able instantly to pick up w hat load is required by 

an emergency. If the load is set down to the desired low value 

on the ordinary governor an increase in system frequency will 

cause the steam valves to be closed, the generator to “m otor,” 

and, hence, the turbine m ay overheat. If a fixed by-pass is put 

in to prevent this, it may jeopardize the ability of the operating 

and emergency governor to control the turbine overspeed on loss 

of heavy load. This new device is an adjustable magnetic link 

by which the governor may be set at any desired position, and 

then pulled down to the desired light load by the adjustable 

magnetic link. Any slight increase in frequency will have no 

effect, but a predetermined drop in frequency, which indicates 

need for this machine, will cause the governor to break the 

magnetic link, and the turbine will immediately take on whatever 

load the governor and frequency demand or the load limit 

may be set for. 

Large turbines when operating as such spinning reserve have 

picked up load successfully from l/,o to full load in one minute’s 

time. Proper precautions were taken to see th at dry steam was 

supplied during the process. 

O i l P i p i n g 

The general precautions taken against oil fires are: (1) To 

make all parts carrying oil under pressure of steel, with every 

possible precaution taken to insure against breakage or leaks; 

and (2) in addition to enclose all oil pipes or other parts carrying

W A RREN —M O DERN LARGE STEAM T U R B IN ES FO R G EN ERA TO R D RIVE 73 

F io . 3 2 D i a g r a m m a t i c S k e t c h o p G o v e r n o r M e c h a n i s m S h o w i n g H a n d w h e e l A f o r P o s i t i o n i n g o f M a i n - C o n t r o l V a l v e , 

“ M a g n e t i c P u l l - O u t ” f o r P e r m i t t i n g S t a b l e L i g h t L o a d O p e r a t i o n , a n d “ V a c u u m T r i p ” t o S h u t U n i t D o w n 

i n E v e n t o f L o s s o f V a c u u m 

oil under pressure when adjacent to the high-tem perature end 

of the turbine either within the oil tank, the turbine pedestals, 

or within the drain pipes. These seem to have been very effective 

in preventing oil fires. 

B e a r i n g s 

A very complete description of the “tapered-land” type of 

thrust bearing used was given in a recent paper.19 The journal 

bearings frequently are operated a t 220 psi pressure based on the 

projected area. Recent research work has made possible a 

considerable reduction in the air entrapped in the oil in its passage 

through the bearing which should have many favorable results. 

C o u p l i n g s 

Experience has generally indicated th a t the flexible couplings, 

formerly used to connect turbine and generator rotors, are not 

only unnecessary, but also undesirable from the operation and 

maintenance viewpoints. It is now common practice to connect 

" "Thrust Bearings,” by F. C. Linn and R. Sheppard, Trans. 

A.S.M.E., vol. 60, 1938, pp. 245-252. 

the rotors solidly together from one end to the other, with but one 

thrust bearing. Certain tandem-compound machines are exceptions 

to this rule. W ith correct bearing support the stability 

of operation is enhanced; the first cost and the maintenance 

costs are both reduced when compared to the use of flexible 

couplings. 

P a c k i n g s 

Fig. 33 shows cross sections through both typical high-pressure 

and diaphragm packings on a modern turbine. The rings are 

cut in four to six segments and are held in grooves usually cut in 

the shell or diaphragm. Each packing segment is backed by a 

flat plate spring of a special high-tem perature alloy which has 

been found to hold its tension. The shoulder in the groove prevents 

the segments’ being pushed against the shaft. Up to about 

850 F the rings are cut from a special centrifugally cast lead 

bronze, which has been found to have a low coefficient of friction 

when it comes in contact with the shaft, and to rub away 

readily. Above this tem perature ribbons of pure nickel are set 

into a steel backing ring.

74 TRANSACTIONS OF T H E A S.M .E. JANUARY, 1941 

F ig . 33 

T y p i c a l H i g h - P r e s s u r e S h a f t a n d D i a p h r a g m P a c k i n g s 

The outer seal on both ends is a water-seal packing of the 

usual type. 

This general type of packing has been in use on hundreds of 

turbines for several years, and has been by far the most successful 

type of packing which has been used. Its stationary elements 

are readily pushed out of the way by a crooked shaft on starting, 

and, if rubbed to a large clearance at any time, can be readily 

reset, on opening the turbine, to the original clearance, or renewed 

if necessary. 

T u r n i n g G e a r s 

All modern large turbines are now equipped with turning 

gears for the purpose of keeping the rotors rotating slowly during 

warming up, during cooling off, and generally during shutdown 

periods extending up to several days when it is expected th at the 

turbine m ay be started again. 

These turning gears have been of such great value th at about 

80 have been sold for installation on older turbines. If the 

packings are refitted when this is done, a very appreciable gain 

in economy is made. 

Fig. 34 shows, in general terms, the reduction in starting time 

th at can be made w ith the use of a turning gear. Actual times 

cannot be given because they vary so much from turbine to turbine 

and for different conditions, but it is believed th a t generally 

the relationships are correct. 

I t has not been found necessary to use high-pressure oil to 

lift the journals off their bearings when using a turning gear. 

A low-pressure motor-driven oil pump is used which floods the 

bearings with about half their usual flow of oil through the regular 

oil piping. The turning gear is then made powerful enough to 

start the rotor and rotate it a t from IV 2 to 3 rpm. Sufficient 

lubrication seems to reach the bearing surfaces to prevent damage 

to journals. A brightening of the babbitt in the bottom of the 

bearings generally results. 

M a t e r i a l s 

This subject is both too broad and too specialized, as well as 

too controversial, for more than a brief discussion here. A great 

am ount of research work is being carried out all over the world 

pertaining to the properties of materials for use at high tem peratures.20 

Much original research work has also been done by the 

X IS TIME REOUIRED TO START FROM COLD GENERALLY 

ABOUTO NE HOUR 

F i g . 34 R e d u c t i o n i n S t a r t i n g T i m e M a d e P o s s i b l e b y O p e r a 

t i o n o f T u r n i n g G e a r s 

laboratories and the turbine engineering departm ents of the 

General Electric Company pertaining to turbine and power-plant 

materials. As rapidly as possible this is being shared w ith the 

many other workers in this im portant field, not only for their 

,0 “Compilation of Available High-Temperature Creep Characteristics 

of Metals and Alloys.” Compiled by Creep Data Section of 

Joint Research Committee on Effect of Temperature on the Properties 

of Metals (Joint Committee of A.S.M.E. and A.S.T.M.), March, 

1938.

W A RREN —M O DERN LARGE STEAM T U R B IN ES FO R G EN ERA TO R D RIV E 75 

help, but primarily for their critical examination and discussion.*1 

Out of all this work on materials for higher temperatures 

have come a few generally accepted principles: 

1 The addition of l/j per cent to 1 per cent molybdenum is 

desirable for low-cost materials that will withstand temperatures 

up to 1000 F. 

2 On these steels certain grain sizes, obtained by heat-treatment, 

seem to be desirable at the higher temperatures. 

3 Elimination of “duplex” and dendritic microstructure. 

4 Avoidance of use of aluminum in the refining process seems 

very desirable. 

Research work started several years ago, first at the University 

of Michigan,22 and somewhat later at the General Electric 

Company^28 has introduced a new conception, however, as to the 

conditions necessary for the safe design of parts subjected to high 

temperatures. 

Generally, designs for high temperature were predicated upon 

the “creep rate,” and it was thought that if this was kept within 

certain values safety was assured. Furthermore, it was generally 

thought that the plastic flow introduced by creep would safely 

take care of stress concentrations which might exist. These 

later tests have indicated that rupture of parts subjected to high 

temperatures and stress follows rather definite time-temperaturestress 

relationships, and that strains which formerly appeared 

satisfactory may no longer be so if the parts are to have a 

useful life of, say, 100,000 hours. Further, these rupture tests 

indicate that materials when operating at high temperatures 

must be handled much as “brittle” materials like cast iron are 

treated at lower temperatures; i.e., concentrations of stress 

should be avoided as far as possible. 

One result, for instance, of this latter viewpoint is that, whereas 

creep considerations alone indicated that cold straining of a piping 

system might not be necessary since “creep would soon relieve 

it anyway,” these slow tests to rupture indicate that if 

much strain is necessitated by slow adjustments to some localized 

©verstressed conditions, cracks might be started. This could 

be guarded against by cold-straining the piping system nearly to 

its hot condition. 

On the other hand, the result of all of this research work has 

been to lend assurance that when the stresses are kept within the 

present allowable standards determined for the temperatures 

and materials under consideration and for structures such as 

turbines in which the clearance considerations have always required 

very low creep allowances, safe operation will be assured. 

There is reason to believe that in general the stresses now in use 

11 “Flow of Steels at Elevated Temperature,” by F. P. Coffin and 

T. H. Swisher, Trans. A.S.M.E., 1932, APM-54-6, p. 59. 

“Stability of Steels Under Stress at Temperatures Up to 1000 F 

(as reviewed by a turbine designer),” by Ernest L. Robinson, 

Metal Progress, Sept., 1935, vol. 28, pp. 34-39, 78. 

“The Creep of Steels as Influenced by Microstructure,” by L. L. 

Wyman, Mechanical Engineering, vol. 57, 1935, pp. 625-627. 

“Actual Grain Size Related to Creep Strength of Steels at Elevated 

Temperatures,” by S. H. Weaver, Proc. A.S.T.M., vol. 38, Part II, 

1938, pp. 176-196. 

“Fracture of Steels at Elevated Temperatures After Prolonged 

Loading,” by R. H. Thielemann and E. R. Parker, Trans. A.I.M.E., 

Class C, Iron and Steel Division, vol. 135, 1939, p. 559. 

32 “The Fracture of Carbon Steels at Elevated Temperatures,” by 

A. E. White, C. L. Clark and R. L. Wilson, Trans. American Society 

for Metals, vol. 25, September, 1937. 

“The Rupture Strength of Steels at Elevated Temperatures,” 

by A. E. White, C. L. Clark, and R. L. Wilson, Trans. American 

Society for Metals, vol. 26, pp. 52-80, March, 1938. 

” “Fracture of Steels at Elevated Temperatures After Prolonged 

Loading,” by R. H. Thielemann and E. R. Parker, Trans. A.I.M.E., 

Class C, Iron and Steel Division, vol. 135, 1939, p. 559. 

Paper No. 1034. 

Technical 

at 900 F may be more conservative in relation to the materials 

used than were those used ten years ago at 750 F. 

There are, however, in addition to obtaining further rupture 

data, three rather important aspects of the action of steam at 

high pressures and temperatures on materials which will have to 

be cleared up before we can go much further. These have to do 

with: (1) The fatigue properties of metals; (2) the resistance to 

oxidation; and (3) the possible weakening effects of structural 

changes brought about by the surrounding conditions. Studies 

and investigations which are under way and in preparation with 

respect to these factors together with the additional progress 

promised by the metallurgists may still further extend our limits 

of safe operation. 

C o n c l u s io n 

The steam-turbine power plant is the most efficient means 

which we now have commercially available for transforming the 

energy of our great solid-fuel resources into the power which 

plays such an important part in the lives of us all. The value 

and growth of the fuel-burning power plants will probably increase 

in the years to come with the complete utilization of our 

definitely limited water-power resources. The steam turbine 

has maintained its position of leadership by the ease with which 

it can be made to produce large quantities of power economically. 

The progress in turbine design and construction, some of which is 

outlined in this paper, has been a necessary part of the maintenance 

of this position, and the further progress which appears 

possible indicates that the steam turbine will probably maintain 

its leadership for a great many years to come. 

Discussion 

M. W. B e n j a m i n .24 T w o matters of special interest are shown 

by the several performance curves included in the paper. The 

first is that turbine designers are now able to predict performance 

with much greater certainty than in years past. As an example, 

one may compare the test and guarantee curves of Fig. 19B, with 

those of Figs. 20B, 20C, and 21. These curves show definitely 

the trend toward reducing the margin between guarantee and 

actual performance from a value of some 3 or 4 per cent a decade 

ago to around 0.5 to 1 per cent as of today. It is of value in designing 

a plant to know that turbine performance as guaranteed 

may be counted upon so accurately, since it permits closer calculations 

on optional investments for improved plant efficiency. 

A second point of interest in the paper is presented in Figs. 20C 

and 21, which show that the most satisfactory choice of throttle 

steam conditions depends not only upon fuel costs and loading 

conditions but also upon the plant designers particular preference 

as to how the available money is to be spent. In Fig. 20C, 

a 65,000-kw tandem-compound hydrogen-cooled machine, operating 

on 650-psi steam, has a heat rate about 200 Btu per kwhr 

lower than that of a 75,000-kw single-casing air-cooled machine, 

operating at 815 psi gage. Exhaust pressures, throttle temperatures, 

feedwater temperatures, and number of feed-heating stages 

are essentially the same for both units. As between the tandemcompound 

unit of Fig. 20C, and the 80,000-kw, 1250-psi unit of 

Fig. 21, the increase in pressure from 650 psi to 1250 psi produces 

only 150 Btu per kwhr improvement in turbine heat rate. As 

between the 60,000-kw 600-psi gage 825 F unit, the 75,000-kw 

815-psi gage 900 F unit, and the 80,000-kw 1250-psi gage 900 F 

unit of Fig. 21, it is evident that two thirds of the improvement 

possible between 600 psi gage 825 F and 1250 psi gage 900 F can 

be obtained by increasing the pressure only one third of the way; 

that is, 215 psi, and the temperature 75 F. Thus the advantages 

24 Engineer, Engineering Division, The Detroit Edison Company, 

Detroit, Mich. Mem. A.S.M.E.


of improved turbine design, low leaving loss and hydrogen cooling 

are in direct, competition with improved performance obtained 

through increases in steam pressure. 

Users of large turbines are grateful to the author for this paper. 

As it is restudied and re-examined the facts presented will 

take on added significance to the general benefit of all steampower 

engineers. 

C . B. C a m p b e l l .25 Attention is directed to the author’s statements 

regarding the desirability of adopting 3600-rpm turbine 

designs within their practical capacity range. The writer takes 

this opportunity to support his conclusion. With high steam 

pressures and temperatures, in particular, it seems axiomatic that 

the small high-speed unit should be superior to the 1800-rpm turbines 

both as to reliability and sustained high efficiency. Actual 

operating experience with 3600-rpm turbines exceeding 15,000- 

kw rating is limited to a relatively short period of time, but such 

conclusions as can be drawn to date are distinctly favorable. 

The author refers to moisture erosion of high-tip-speed exhaustend 

blading of condensing turbines. Centrifugal moisture removal 

and stellite shielding, combined with shrouded and airfoilsection-tipped 

blades has relegated this problem to one of secondary 

importance in modern turbines. But slight erosion has been 

found after 2 years of service with blades having tip speeds of 

1256 fps in steam having a nominal moisture content of 12 to 13 

per cent. 

M . K . D r e w r y .28 That modern turbines merit cleaner steam, 

and never any water, is certainly an appropriate admonition. 

An ill-advised standard of boiler-water treatment has and apparently 

will continue to cost the power industry enormous 

sums in unnecessary coal because of the carry-over it promotes. 

To achieve “chemically pure” turbine blading is worth much 

effort. 

That turbine manufacturers must provide for large quantities 

of water (“priming”) in high-temperature high-pressure turbines 

is not creditable to boiler design or boiler operation. For 900 

F turbines to receive “shots” of water should be considered as 

serious, for instance, as water in the generator. Boiler-waterlevel 

control continues to be a most important item in plant 

operation. 

A r t h u r M c C u t c h a n .27 The author’s statement to the effect 

that the subject of materials for high-temperature service is controversial 

cannot be questioned, but the “few generally accepted 

principles” listed are certainly far from acceptance. These 

principles are discussed as follows: 

1 The value of adding molybdenum to secure greater creep 

strength is well substantiated, although the addition of chromium 

also appears desirable from both the corrosion and strength standpoints, 

if temperatures as high as 1000 F are involved.28 

2 It has been reasonably well established that a fairly large 

grain size obtained by control of melting practice is desirable. 

Attempts to secure large grain size by heat-treating naturally 

fine-grained steels have proved disappointing as far as creep 

resistance is concerned.s( 

25 Manager, Land Turbine Engineering. Westinghouse Electric & 

Manufacturing Company, Philadelphia, Pa. 

26 Assistant Chief Engineer of Power Plants, Wisconsin Electric 

Power Company, Milwaukee, Wis. Mem. A.S.M.E. 

27 Engineer, Engineering Division, Detroit Edison Company, Detroit, 

Mich. Mem. A.S.M.E. 

28 “High-Temperature-Steam Experience at Detroit,” by R. M. 

Van Duzer, Jr., and Arthur McCutchan, Trans. A.S.M.E., vol. 61, 

1939, pp. 392-396. 

28 “Investigation of Influence of Grain Size and Creep Strength 

of Carbon-Molybdenum Steels,” University of Michigan project for 

The Detroit Edison Company. 

3 The so-called dendritic structure observed in wrought 

molybdenum is otherwise known as “acicular” or Widmanstatten 

structure and is associated with the best creep resistance so far obtained 

in creep tests on molybdenum steels.80 Instead of eliminating 

this structure, the present tendency is to try to retain it 

by substituting normalizing for the present annealing treatment 

after fabrication of grain-size-controlled molybdenum pipe. The 

effect of “duplex” grains on creep strength remains a disputed 

point among metallurgists. 

4 In producing the present larger grain-size material, mill 

practice is to add 1 lb of aluminum per ton rather than 2 lb, as 

in former practice. This reduction can hardly be said to represent 

“avoidance of the use of aluminum.” 

The rupture tests referred to by the author demonstrate only 

what has been known for many years, namely, that the majority 

of materials, if slowly stretched at high temperatures, fail by 

intercrystalline rupture with little plastic deformation. It is 

misleading to imply that material becomes brittle or like cast iron 

under such loading, since the material, if rapidly tested at room 

temperature after a period of service at high temperature, will 

show practically its original ductility. 

The relief of excessive bending stress through creep is a relaxation 

phenomenon similar to that encountered in bolting or relaxation-creep 

tests. The writer would like to know if the author 

has encountered failure under any type of relaxation loading. Because 

of the initial and fairly large adjustment which occurs in 

the first few hundred hours at temperature, there is little reason 

in the writer’s opinion to fear any occurrence that could be remotely 

related to intercrystalline failure as far as bending stress 

is concerned. 

T. C. R a t h b o n e .81 The chart Fig. 18 of the paper, representing 

for each year the average length of service of original rows of 

turbine buckets on which trouble was reported, is interesting. It 

is assumed that the figure for each year represents the mean time 

for the aggregate of all buckets which have given trouble during 

that year. Thus, for 1938, the figure of approximately 10 years 

is taken to represent the average of a number of cases, ranging 

from buckets that had been installed relatively recently to buckets 

that had been in service 20 or 30 3’ears. 

The definition of “trouble” probably includes erosion and corrosion 

as well as fatigue failure in either the bucket proper or its 

root. The interesting point is that fatigue failures can occur after 

so many years of operation. The popular conception of failure 

by fatigue involves stress reversals or fluctuations with intensities 

exceeding the appropriate endurance limit, and this limit is commonly 

defined as the value which the S-N curve approaches 

asymptotically, which is roughly after 10,000,000 or 15,000,000 

cycles. 

Assuming a nominal bucket-vibration frequency of 500 per 

sec and a turbine use factor of 8000 hr per year, the total number 

of bucket vibrations accumulated would be about 150,000,- 

000,000. Peterson32 has reported fatigue failures after 100,000,000 

cycles, but some other explanation seems necessary to account 

for failures occasionally experienced where the stress cycles reach 

astronomic numbers. 

Either some change has been brought about just prior to failure 

to alter the bucket frequency into a closer approach to the 

resonant condition, such as by changes in the mass of the bucket 

50 “Quick Determination of Limiting Creep Stress,” letter by Walter 

Rosenhain, Metal Progress, Feb., 1932, pp. 65-66. 

81 Chief Engineer, Turbine and Machinery Division, The Fidelity 

and Casualty Company of New York, New York, N. Y. Mem. 

A.S.M.E. 

32 Research Department, Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing 

Company, East Pittsburgh, Pa.

W ARREN—M ODERN LARGE STEAM TU R B IN ES FO R G EN ERA TO R D RIV E 77 

by erosion, or in the root-fastening condition; or else the resonant 

amplitudes are built up only during some transient operating 

condition, such as at an infrequent partial load, or a t some 

lower speed which is passed through only when the unit is taken 

out or placed in service. The critical condition may occur at an 

overspeed which is transited only on the occasion of the infrequent 

overspeed tests to check the emergency governor. Thus, 

years may be required to accumulate a sufficient number of 

cycles a t stresses slightly above the endurance limit to bring 

about failure. 

The curve, Fig. 18, represents only the bucket rows which have 

given trouble. It would be interesting to supplement this chart 

by means of a suitable ordinate to show the relation between 

rows in trouble and total rows in service. This would give a 

better perspective of the problem, and would emphasize the remarkably 

small percentage of buckets which have given trouble. 

It is gratifying to note the number of older turbines th at have 

been equipped with turning gear. These installations represent 

worth-while investments. In addition to the gains mentioned 

by the author, namely, the reduction of starting time and gain 

in economy, the turning gear also eliminates the hazard of rubbing 

and excessive vibration when the unit is brought to speed. 

The first turning gears, in the development of which the writer 

participated, were designed to rotate the spindle about 25 rpm. 

Experiments53 were made with an elaborate setup for recording 

low speeds accurately, to find the point on drifting down to standstill 

at which the bearing oil films first began to break down. This 

was determined by the break in the deceleration curve. Values 

from 10 to 18 rpm were found, depending upon the oil and temperature. 

A speed of 25 rpm was selected as being safely above 

this point. Some fear was then entertained th a t wiping might 

occur at lower speeds. 

The disadvantage of the gears for this speed was th a t they had 

to be engaged a t exactly the proper moment on drifting down, as 

the spindles could not be started from a standstill by the gear, unless 

an auxiliary high-pressure bearing oil system was installed. 

Otherwise, it was necessary to turn over the rotor with steam. 

It was later found th at turning gears could be operated at 

much low'er speeds, apparently with no difficulty from wiping, 

and gears turning the spindle a t only 1 or 2 rpm are able to start 

rolling from a standstill without high-pressure oil. 

When turning gears on central-station turbines were first introduced, 

the urge to eliminate the starting-up rubbing and 

damage to packing and blade tips caused by distortions was about 

as vital as the desire to reduce the starting-up tim e after a short 

shutdown. When the unit is standing hot after a shutdown 

the stratification of hot gases, collecting a t the top of the casing 

distorts both the rotor and the cylinder into an upward bow, 

reaching a maximum in say 8 hr. 

If the distorted rotor is turned over */« revolution in this condition, 

the radial clearance, between its parts and the upward-distorted 

cylinder parts is a t a minimum. Cylinder distortion although 

of secondary importance may yet be of concern. 

At 25 rpm, the fanning action of the blades tends to whip the 

gases around the cylinder and prevent cylinder distortion. At 

1 to 2 rpm, no such benefit would seem to be possible. The writer 

would like to inquire whether there has been any experience indicating 

difficulty from cylinder distortions with the slow-speed 

gear 

A. M. S e l v e y . 34 The problem of moisture in the lower turbine 

stages becomes more and more im portant with every increase in 

33 “Turbine-Shaft Distortion Corrected by Spindle Rotation,” by 

T. C. Rathbone, Electric Journal, vol. 28, Feb., 1931, pp. 91-95. 

31 Engineer, The Detroit Edison Company, Detroit, Mich. Mem. 

A.S.M.E. 

throttle steam pressure. I t is well known th a t moisture has 

two detrim ental effects on turbine performance (1) the erosion 

of buckets, and (2) the reduction in stage efficiency. Because 

structural materials for turbine buckets are not yet available 

which will w ithstand the action of higher exhaust-moisture contents, 

the turbine designer m ust limit them to about 12 to 15 per 

cent. This situation is an appreciable handicap since, w ith the 

high stage efficiency and high steam pressure and tem perature 

obtaining today, up to 20 per cent moisture could be formed 

within the turbine w ith a large attendant increase in over-all 

efficiency, despite the reduction in stage efficiency due to the 

extra moisture. While there is a small loss of efficiency, due to 

the braking effect of the extra 5 to 7 per cent of moisture present, 

it represents only 4 to 5 per cent of the additional energy liberated 

by the moisture formation. Every 1 per cent of moisture formed 

in the turbine releases approximately 10 Btu per lb of steam flow. 

W ith the publication of W. M. Meijer’s recent paper, on 

“The Extraction of Condensate From Expanding Steam,” 36 the 

attractive possibilities of moisture withdrawal from the lower 

turbine stages was again brought to notice. Turbine designers 

have been striving for many years to develop and perfect convenient 

mechanical means of moisture separation, preferably 

without cumbersome equipm ent external to the turbine. W ith 

the accomplishment of this desirable operation, it will become 

more practicable for power-plant designers to increase throttle 

steam pressure and tem perature. Until such time, there is slight 

advantage in adopting high steam pressure and tem perature, if 

turbine efficiency m ust be sacrificed to keep exhaust moisture 

within bounds prescribed by bucket erosion. 

Fig. 35 M a x i m u m B e t t e r m e n t i n T u r b i n e P e r f o r m a n c e 

A t t a i n a b l e T h r o u g h M o i s t u r e W i t h d r a w a l 

(In fin ite n u m b e r of fe e d w a te r h e a te rs and stag e s of boiler feed p u m p s; 

reg en e ratio n to th r o ttle s a tu ra tio n te m p e ra tu re ; zero h e a te r-te rm in a l 

d ifference; co n d enser pressu re, 1 in. H g ; no g e n e ra to r or m echanical losses; 

d ry -s ta g e efficiency 84.5 p er c e n t; th r o ttle te m p e ra tu re , 900 F .) 

Fig. 35 of this discussion shows the maximum reduction in tu r 

bine heat rate obtainable by complete moisture withdrawal for 

the throttle conditions and cycle noted. The cumulative total 

am ount of moisture w ithdrawn also is indicated. To obtain an 

equivalent of the 300-Btu per kwhr reduction in turbine heat 

rate, attendant upon complete moisture withdrawal a t 1500 psi 

abs, the throttle steam pressure would have to be increased to 

2600 psi abs. I t is understood th a t considerable benefit in reduced 

heat rate obtains even when moisture withdrawal is only 

partial and not complete. It should be pointed out that, when 

moisture withdrawal and increased steam pressure go hand-inhand, 

sizable cumulative saving may be realized. 

It is to be hoped th a t Dr. Meijer’s paper will quicken the in- 

36 “The Extraction of Condensate From Expanding Steam,” by 

W. M. Meijer, Journal of the Institution of Naval Architects, London, 

vol. 81, 1939, pp. 36-48. See also Engineering, p. 416, April 7, 1939, 

and Combustion, August, 1939.


terest of turbine manufacturers in the possibility of moisture 

withdrawal to the end that they will actively attack the problem 

with a view to more fully realizing the advantages to be gained 

therefrom. 

P h i l i p S p o b n . 38 This is not only an excellent paper, broad in 

scope, but also an excellent answer to those who either bemoan 

lack of opportunity for making further progress in the powerproduction 

field or who would prefer to go back to the days in 

power-plant design when pressures and temperatures were fixed 

at 200 lb and 550 F. It is also an answer to those individuals who, 

without the necessary knowledge, take a set of unrelated figures 

and attempt to prove that the summation of a series of coordinated 

progressive steps constitutes a retrogression. 

In part 1 of the paper, Figs. 2 and 3, which show so well how the 

large 3600-rpm turbine and hydrogen-cooled generator have aided 

the cause for higher pressure and temperature (and plant performance), 

are noteworthy. Perhaps few appreciate that “it is 

doubtful if it would be practical to design a 1200-rpm turbine of 

reasonable efficiency to operate at 1200 lb pressure 950 F.” Perhaps 

it is not common knowledge that large 3600-rpm generators 

of over 25,000 kw capacity were not available before 1935. 

In part 2, a striking use of comparative illustrations indicates 

the development of the double shell. The top cross section of 

Fig. 8 shows the front end of the Logan 40,000-kw turbine,10 the 

first turbine to have a double shell. Below is shown the 60,000-kw 

Windsor turbine, the first to have the “valve-in-head” design. 

When each of these turbines was opened, the close clearances 

found to have been maintained by the diaphragm and shaft 

packings were remarkable. The bottom cross section shows the 

25,000-kw turbine for the Missouri Avenue plant of the Atlantic 

City Electric Company. All of these units are on the systems of 

the American Gas and Electric Company. 

Since it is “details” which are most important in a design, 

part 3 of the paper is particularly interesting. Piping and 

valve designers could well take advantage of the ideas expressed 

on bolting threads, as well as the use of washers under stopvalve-bonnet 

bolts. The replacement of valve-stern packings by 

close-clearance metallic bushings might well be extended to more 

general use. 

An additional special “detail” which might be mentioned is 

the initial pressure regulators developed for the Windsor and Twin 

Branch turbines which protect the boilers (and, hence, the turbines) 

against too great a pressure drop which might cause carryover 

and too rapid cooling of drums and other thick parts. We 

are also using such a regulator for the Atlantic City and Philo 

turbines. 

A large number of the turbines described will soon come on the 

line or are already in operation. We hope that a paper will be 

presented at a future meeting summarizing actual operating experience 

with these, and new developments in design, resulting 

from that experience. 

The author points out the stabilization of design speeds at 3600 

rpm for some time to come. While this is so, we hope and believe 

that no stabilization will occur in other fields. Certainly, all 

should maintain the same spirit of inquiry and resourcefulness 

evidenced in this paper by the author and his associates. Such 

an attitude will assure not only more reliable but also more 

economical turbines. 


In reply to Mr. Benjamin’s comments, it would be misleading 

if the results of the tests shown in Figs. 19 and 20 were compared 

with the guarantees shown in Fig. 21, particularly for such small 

8* Vice-President and Chief Engineer, American Gas and Electric 

Service Corporation, New York, N. Y. Mem. A.S.M.E. 

differences as the 1 and 2 per cent differences mentioned by Mr. 

Benjamin. A companion paper presented at the same meeting 

jointly with Mr. Knowlton37 is designed to permit a more definite 

appraisal of the relative fuel consumptions as between 

turbines of comparable design for different steam conditions, 

with and without hydrogen cooling and with different leaving 

losses. 

It is, of course, true that the improvements due to tandem 

compounding or other improved turbine-design features, low 

leaving loss, and hydrogen cooling might be considered as in 

competition with comparable gains which can be obtained by 

higher steam conditions. However, it would seem that it might 

be better to consider that on the whole these might be used to 

supplement each other. 

Supporting Mr. Campbell’s statement that the erosion 

problem on the last-stage buckets has been relegated to “one of 

secondary importance in modern turbines,” it might be of interest 

to state that four last-stage buckets of airfoil section at the tip 

have been in operation at 1201 fps with a theoretical moisture 

content of 13 to 14 per cent for an average of 81/! years and without 

sufficient erosion to warrant replacing, or any serious reduction 

in efficiency. These blades did not have stellite erosion 

shields. 

The writer can only indorse the stand taken by Mr. Drewry 

with respect to the desirability of keeping water out of a turbine 

However, the fact remains that this has happened in a number 

of cases in the past, even with relatively modem steam conditions 

and boilers, and it has been our intention to do everything 

possible in connection with the design of the turbine to minimize 

the detrimental effects if it does happen. It is quite probable 

that a turbine designed with these drastic conditions in mind, 

if it can be designed so as to withstand such severe service, will 

be a better turbine to withstand the much less severe but ordinary 

variations in temperature incident to rapid load changes 

and rapid starts. 

Making allowance for a somewhat different use of words, the 

author finds himself for the most part in agreement with the comments 

offered by Mr. McCutchan. Indeed, his discussion constitutes 

an amplification of the author’s very brief review of the 

principles controlling high-temperature strength. 

1 Chromium was not mentioned by the author because its 

beneficial characteristics are effective throughout a wide range of 

temperatures. 

2 The author welcomes Mr. McCutchan’s more complete 

statement about grain size. As a matter of fact, any adequate 

discussion of this subject might well cover an entire article by 

itself. 

3 The objectionable dendritic microstructure referred to by 

the author might perhaps better have been called dendritic segregation 

or banding. It is visible to the naked eye and is altogether 

different from the acicular microstructure which gives 

high values of creep strength in ordinary creep tests. There is no 

disagreement about these matters once the meaning of the terms 

is cleared up. By duplex microstructure the author referred to 

the presence of large grains and small grains at the same time, and 

he is not aware that any metallurgist regards such an arrangement 

as desirable. 

4 The author agrees with Mr. McCutchan that a reduction 

of aluminum addition from 2 to 1 lb has not gone very far in this 

direction. The present evidence is that such mills as still make 

these large additions of aluminum can improve the high-tem- 

37 “Relative ‘Engine Efficiencies’ Realizable From Large Modern 

Steam-Turbine-Generator Units,” by G. B. Warren and P. H. 

Knowlton, presented at the Semi-Annual Meeting, June 17-20, 

1040, of The A m e r i c a n S o c i e t y o f M e c h a n i c a l E n g i n e e r s .

W ARREN—M ODERN LARGE STEAM T U R B IN ES FOR G EN ERA TO R D RIV E 79 

perature quality of their product by further alteration of their 

deoxidation practice. 

Mr. McCutchan’s remarks with reference to the rupture test 

are welcome. While it is true that the intercrystalline character 

of such rupture has been known for a long time, the discovery 

of a definite stress-time relationship whereby it is possible 

to assign working stresses with a definite margin of safety dates 

from the first paper on this subject presented in 1936 by C. L. 

Clark22 of the University of Michigan and published the following 

year. 

The author did not say that the material becomes brittle, but 

that it “must be handled much as brittle materials.” In reply 

to Mr. McCutchan’s question, the author would say that no actual 

failures have been encountered in service under any type of 

relaxation loading, although it is necessary to note that in a few 

cases bolts have had to be replaced after repeated dismantling 

and reassembly. The author hopes that Mr. McCutchan’s 

optimism with reference to bending behavior is justified. 

Mr. Rathbone’s analysis of the situation leading to bucket 

failures after 10 years or more of operation is probably correct. 

The definition of trouble does include erosion and corrosion as 

well as fatigue failure in either the bucket proper, its root, the 

shroud band, or the tie wire. The bulk of the buckets in trouble 

have been those designed before the method of proportioning 

described in the paper was developed and applied. The number 

of buckets which have given trouble is only a small fraction of 

the total in service. Upon careful consideration at the time the 

paper was written it was thought that the presentation of the 

information contained in Fig. 17 was a better presentation of this 

matter than any records of our own would be. 

With respect to Mr. Rathbone’s statements regarding the 

turning gears, the question of the proper speed for turning gears 

has been a matter of discussion for years. The low speed adopted, 

as Mr. Rathbone states, has been primarily because of the greater 

simplicity in design and operation attainable with the lower 

speeds. So far as the author is aware, there have never been 

any difficulties attributable to insufficient speed of the turning 

gears on the types of turbines described in the paper, that is, on 

turbines with relatively short shafts and shells, with large radial 

clearances at the bucket tips and with packings having spring 

backing. Packing measurements on some machines during inspection 

have indicated slightly more clearance at the bottom of 

the diaphragms in the middle of the shaft length than on the 

sides or top, such as might be due to an upward bow in the casing, 

and this might indicate the desirability of a higher turning gear 

speed. It is probable that this will be one of the developments 

of the next few years. 

As pointed out by Mr. Selvey, turbine designers have devoted 

much attention for many years to constructions which will drain 

moisture from the various turbine stages or cross-over connections 

during operation. The gains are, of course, very substantial 

but must be balanced against the increased capital costs which 

would be required, particularly if attempts are made to extract 

the moisture from cross-over connections between turbine casings 

or, if the turbines were divided into various casings to permit extraction 

of moisture from the pipe connections in between. One 

means of eliminating the moisture which was quite commonly 

used a few years ago, before the advent of higher initial temperatures, 

was resuperheating. There is much evidence to indicate 

that resuperheating may have definite economic advantages 

even with modem high initial temperatures. As pointed out by 

Mr. Campbell, erosion is not a major problem in modern turbines, 

and it has never been necessary with steam conditions now 

in use to sacrifice turbine efficiency “to keep exhaust moisture 

within bounds prescribed by bucket erosion.” 

Mr. Sporn’s comments regarding the value of the paper are 

appreciated. No reference to the initial-pressure regulator was 

made in the paper because at the time the paper was in preparar 

tion this device was in the process of development with Mr. 

Sporn’s organization. However, this regulator was recently 

described in an article58 in the technical press. 

,s “Recent Development in Turbine Governing to Meet Special 

Conditions,” by R. J. Caughey, Combustion, June, 1940, vol. 11, pp. 

27-29.

The American Society of Mechanical Engineers

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