July 2012 - Journal of Threatened Taxa

July 2012 | Vol. 4 | No. 7 | Pages 2673–2732
Date of Publication 26 July 2012
ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print)
© H.V. Ghate © H.V. Ghate
Sarothrocera lowii White
Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of articles in any medium
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continued on the back inside cover

JoTT Co m m u n ic a t i o n 4(7): 2673–2684
Entomophily, ornithophily and anemochory in the selfincompatible
Boswellia ovalifoliolata Bal. & Henry
(Burseraceae), an endemic and endangered medicinally
important tree species
A.J. Solomon Raju 1 , P. Vara Lakshmi 2 , K. Venkata Ramana 3 & P. Hareesh Chandra 4
1,2,3,4
Department of Environmental Sciences, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh 530003, India
Email: 1 ajsraju@yahoo.com (corresponding author), 2 varalakshmi83@gmail.com, 3 vrkes.btny@gmail.com,
4
hareeshchandu@gmail.com
Date of publication (online): 26 July 2012
Date of publication (print): 26 July 2012
ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print)
Editor: Cleofas R. Cervancia
Manuscript details:
Ms # o2964
Received 09 October 2011
Final received 12 May 2012
Finally accepted 16 June 2012
Citation: Raju, A.J.S., P.V. Lakshmi, K.V.
Ramana & P.H. Chandra (2012). Entomophily,
ornithophily and anemochory in the selfincompatible
Boswellia ovalifoliolata Bal. & Henry
(Burseraceae), an endemic and endangered
medicinally important tree species. Journal of
Threatened Taxa 4(7): 2673–2684.
Copyright: © A.J. Solomon Raju, P. Vara
Lakshmi, K. Venkata Ramana & P. Hareesh
Chandra 2012. Creative Commons Attribution
3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted
use of this article in any medium for non-profit
purposes, reproduction and distribution by
providing adequate credit to the authors and the
source of publication.
For Author Details and Author Contribution
see end of this article.
Acknowledgments: This study is a part of
the research work carried out under a major
research project on reproductive biology,
conservation and management of endemic and
globally endangered tree species, Boswellia
ovalifoliolata (Burseraceae) and Terminalia
pallida (Combretaeae) at Seshachalam Hills,
Andhra Pradesh, sanctioned to the first author
by the University Grants Commission, New
Delhi (F. 34-69/2006(SR). All authors thank
Dr. V.V. Ramamurthy, Division of Entomology,
Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New
Delhi, for identification of some insects reported
in the present study.
OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD
Abstract: Boswellia ovalifoliolata (Burseraceae) is a narrow endemic and endangered
deciduous tree species. Its flowering, fruiting and seed dispersal events occur in a
leafless state during the dry season. The flowers are small, bisexual, mildly odoriferous
and actinomorphic; weakly protandrous but strictly self-incompatible. While insects
and sunbirds pollinate the flowers, floral characteristics suggest that entomophily is the
principal mode. Both bud and flower feeding by a weevil and flower and fruit feeding by
the Palm Squirrel have been found to affect the success of sexual reproduction. The
Garden Lizard serves as a predator of pollinating insects, especially bees and wasps,
thus influencing pollination of this tree species. Fruit set in open pollination is below
10%, rising to 34% in manual cross-pollination. Limitation of cross-pollination, space
constraints for seed production from all flower ovules and availability of limited resources
in rocky, dry litter of the forest floor appear to constrain higher fruit set. Mature fruits
dehisce and disseminate their lightweight, papery winged seeds with the aid of wind.
The study site being windy provides the necessary driving force for effective dispersal
of seeds away from parent trees. Seed germination occurs following rainfall but further
growth depends on soil water and nutritional status. The success rate of seedling
recruitment is highly limited, and it could be due to nutrient-poor soil and water stress
resulting from dry spells during the rainy season.
Keywords: Anemochory, Boswellia ovalifoliolata, entomophily, ornithophily, selfincompatibility.
INTRODUCTION
The genus Boswellia belongs to the Burseraceae family and is widely
distributed in the dry regions of tropical Africa, Arabia and India. In Africa,
it is distributed in Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Kenya, Sudan, Tanzania,
Madagascar and some other countries. In Arabia, it is mainly restricted to
Yemen, Oman and Socotra. In India, it is distributed in a few regions such
as Rajasthan, southeast Punjab, Danwara, Madras, etc. There are about
18 species of Boswellia which are shrubs or trees with outer bark often
flaking. They include B. sacra, B. frereana, B. neglecta, B. microphylla,
B. papyrifera, B. ogadensis, B. pirottae, B. rivae, B. madagascariensis, B.
socotrana, B. popoviana, B. nana, B. ameero, B. bullata, B. dioscoridis,
B. elongata, B. serrata and B. ovalifoliolata. Only the last two species
have been reported to be distributed in India (Arabia 2005; Latheef et
al. 2008). Sunnichan et al. (2005) mentioned that B. serrata is the only
species found in India. But, other workers reported that B. ovalifoliolata
occurs on the foothills of the Seshachalam hill ranges of Eastern Ghats
in Chittoor, Cuddapah and Kurnool districts of Andhra Pradesh up to an
altitude of about 600–900 m. It is a globally endangered, strict endemic
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | July | 4(7): 2673–2684
2673

Boswellia ovalifoliolata
medium-sized deciduous medicinally important tree
species and listed in CITES Red Data book under
medicinal plants (Rani & Pullaiah 2002; Reddy et
al. 2002). Chetty et al. (2002) reported that both B.
serrata and B. ovalifoliolata occur at the foothills of
Seshachalam hill ranges of Eastern Ghats.
Reproductive biology information is available for
only a few species of Burseraceae such as Commiphora
weightii, Bursera medranoana, Sentiria laevigata and
Boswellia serrata (Sunnichan et al. 2005). Boswellia
ovalifoliolata has not been investigated for its
reproductive biology despite its medicinal importance
in India. Our field surveys in the areas of Tirumala
Hills have shown that the local tribes and others
make deep incisions on the main trunk to extract the
gum and resin, causing damage to trees which leads
to population depletion. The gum is used to treat a
number of conditions including ulcers, fever, stomach
pain, scorpion sting, amoebic dysentery and hydrocele,
while bark decoction is used for joint and rheumatic
pains (Henry 2006; Latheef et al. 2008). We have
investigated the floral biology, breeding behaviour,
pollination and foraging behavior of pollinators of B.
ovalifoliolata in its natural area, and the observations
and results obtained are discussed in the light of the
existing relevant information.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study area
The study area included Kapilatheertham and Deer
Park areas of Tirumala Hills (13 0 42’N & 79 0 20’E,
elevation 751m) of the southern Eastern Ghats in
Andhra Pradesh. The approximate number of trees of
Boswellia ovalifoliolata was 150 at Kapilatheertham
and 60 at Deer Park. The trees occur mostly as small
clusters at the former area while they are mostly
scattered at the latter area. In both areas, the associated
tree species are almost same and they include Zizyphus
rugosa (Rhamnaceae), Erythroxylum monogynum
(Erythroxylaceae), Spondias pinnata, Buchanania
axillaris (Anacardiaceae), Gyrocarpus asiaticus
(Hernandiaceae), Dalbergia paniculata (Fabaceae),
Schleichera oleosa (Sapindaceae), Ochna obtusata
(Ochnaceae), Hugonia mystax (Linaceae), Ficus mollis
(Moraceae) and Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae). Of
these, only the last one blooms during the flowering
A.J.S. Raju et al.
season of B. ovalifoliolata. The floor of the area is
completely dry with exposed rocks during summer
but it is covered with luxuriant growth of herbaceous
flora and grasses during rainy season. The field
studies were carried out on the flowering season, floral
biology, foraging activity, behavior and pollination by
pollinators, and fruit, seed and seedling aspects of B.
ovalifoliolata during 2007–2010.
Floral biology
The overall timing of leaf fall, leaf flushing,
flowering and fruiting events was recorded. The
number of flowers per inflorescence (N = 20) was
recorded for 10 selected inflorescences, two each from
five trees. These inflorescences were simultaneously
followed for their flowering duration. The floral
characteristics were recorded from 25 flowers collected
from five each from five trees. Mature flower buds
on ten inflorescences were tagged and followed for
recording the time of flower opening. The same
flowers were followed for recording the time of anther
dehiscence. The pollen grain characteristics were
recorded by consulting the book of Bhattacharya et al.
(2006). Pollen production per flower was calculated
following the method described by Cruden (1977).
Pollen fertility was assessed by staining them in 1%
acetocarmine. Stigma receptivity and nectar volume,
sugar concentration and sugar types were assessed
by following the methods prescribed by Dafni et al.
(2005).
Breeding behavior
Fifty mature buds, five each from 10 inflorescences
on five trees were bagged a day before anthesis without
manual self pollination to know whether fruit set
occurs through autogamy. Another set of 50 mature
buds was selected in the same way, then emasculated
and bagged a day prior to anthesis. The next day, the
bags were removed and the stigmas were brushed with
the freshly dehisced anthers from the flowers of the
same tree and re-bagged to know whether fruit set
occurs through geitonogamy. Ten trees were selected
for manual cross-pollination and open-pollination.
One hundred and twenty five flowers were used per
each tree for manual cross-pollination. For this,
mature buds were emasculated and bagged a day prior
to anthesis. The next day, the bags were removed;
freshly dehisced anthers from flowers of another
2674
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Boswellia ovalifoliolata
tree were brushed on the stigma and re-bagged. Ten
inflorescences on each tree were tagged and followed
for fruit set in open-pollination (Sunnichan et al. 2005).
The length of time followed for each of these breeding
systems was six weeks. Twenty stigmas, four each
from five trees were removed at 1500h and observed
under the microscope for the number of pollen grains
deposited by pollen vectors. The per cent of flower
predation by an unidentified weevil was calculated
by counting the number of damaged flowers on 50
selected inflorescences on 10 trees.
Foraging behavior of pollinators and pollination
Preliminary investigations on foraging activity
were made at different times of the day including dawn
and dusk. Based on this information, the number of
foraging visits made by each species was made for 15
minutes in each hour during the entire period of the
day. This data was used to calculate the total number
of foraging visits made by each species for the entire
day and also to calculate the total number of foraging
visits made by each category of foragers in order to
evaluate their relative importance and role in effecting
pollination. The forage collected and the area of
contact of the species with the floral sex organs were
also observed to understand their role in pollination.
Binoculars were specially used for this purpose.
Fruit, seed and seedling ecology
Field observations on fruit, seed and seedling
ecology were also made to the extent possible due to
certain restrictions in the study areas.
RESULTS
Floral biology
In B. ovalifoliolata (Image 1a), leaf shedding
occurs during December–February, and flowering
from first week of March to second week of April at
population level. An individual tree flowers for about
three weeks only. Leaf flushing occurs from the three
week of April and continues through rainy season. In a
few trees, flowering occurs before the fall of old leaves
but complete leaf shedding occurs when flowering is
at its peak. The leaves are imparipinnate and crowded
at the ends of branches. The flowers are borne in
branched panicles at the ends of the branches (Image
A.J.S. Raju et al.
1b). Each branch produces 8–10 inflorescences and
each inflorescence produces 35.2±13.77 (Range 16–
72) flowers over a period of 5–14 days. The flowers
are pedicellate, greenish-white, 6mm long, 5mm
across, mildly fragrant, cup-shaped, bisexual and
actinomorphic. The sepals are five, minute, basally
connate, imbricate, light green, lightly pubescent
outside and persistent without any further growth
during post-fertilization stage in fruited flowers. The
petals are five, white, free, imbricate, 5mm long and
erect. Stamens are inserted outside a fleshy annular
pinkish-red nectary disc which is present outside the
ovary at the flower base. They are 10 arranged in two
whorls, each with 2mm long white filament and 1mm
long dorsifixed yellow dithecous anther (Image 1c).
The pistil is clearly distinguished into ovary, style and
stigma. The ovary is superior, trilocular, each locule
with two pendulous ovules borne on axile placentation.
The style is light pink at base and dark green above,
4mm long and trilobed. The stigma is short, capitate,
shiny and wet papillate type (Image 1e,f).
The flowers open for a brief period daily during
1100–1300 hr. A fully open flower shows petals in
erect position exposing the stamens and stigma. The
stigma extends 1mm beyond the anthers and remains
in that state throughout the flower’s life. Anther
dehiscence is nearly synchronous with flower opening.
The anthers dehisce by longitudinal slits along the
theca and release pollen grains. The pollen grains are
light yellow, sticky, quadrangular, tricolporate with
smooth exine and 66.4 µm in size (Image 1d). An
anther produces 683.4±40.97 (Range 602–748) pollen
grains while the total pollen output per flower is 6834
of which 72% is fertile and the remaining is sterile.
The fertile pollen to ovule ratio is 820.1:1. The stigma
attains receptivity two hours after anthesis and remains
receptive until the noon of the next day. A flower
produces 0.4±0.15 µl of nectar with 53.8±1.75% (51–
56 %) sugar concentration. The nectar sugars include
glucose, fructose and sucrose with the last as more
dominant. The nectar also contains both essential and
non-essential amino acids. The essential amino acids
are arginine, histidine, lysine and threonine while the
non-essential amino acids are alanine, aspartic acid,
cysteine, glysine, hydroxyproline, serine, glutamic
acid and tyrosine. The flowers drop off by the evening
of the second day if not pollinated while only pistil
and sepals remain intact in pollinated flowers.
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | July 2012 | 4(7): 2673–2684
2675

Boswellia ovalifoliolata
A.J.S. Raju et al.
Image 1. Boswellia ovalifoliolata
a - Tree; b - Flowering inflorescence; c - Position of stamens; d - Pollen grain; e&f - Pistil; g - Apis dorsata; h - Trigona
iridipennis, i - Ceratina sp.; j - Xylocopa latipes; k - Xylocopa pubescens; l - Eumenes conica; m - Eumenes petiolata;
n - Eumenes sp.; o - Rhynchium sp.; p - Hyperalonia sp.; q - Catopsilia pomona.
2676
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Boswellia ovalifoliolata
Foraging activity and pollination
The flowers offer both pollen and nectar. They
were foraged by insects and sunbirds during daytime
throughout the flowering season. The insect foragers
included bees, wasps, flies and butterflies. The bees
included Apis dorsata (Image 1g), A. cerana, A. florea,
Trigona iridipennis (Image 1h), Ceratina sp. (Image
1i), Xylocopa latipes (Image 1j) and X. pubescens
(Image 1k). Juvenile Xylocopa bees were nectar
foragers while all other bees were nectar and pollen
foragers (Table 1). Apis and Trigona bees foraged
throughout the day from 0700–1800 hr while the other
bees during 0800–1300 hr (Fig. 1). The wasps included
Scolia sp., Rhynchium sp. (Image 1o), Eumenes sp.
(Image 1n), Eumenes petiolata (Image 1m) and E.
conica (Image 1l). They were exclusively nectar
foragers and their foraging visits were almost confined
to 0800–1400 h (Fig. 2). The flies were represented
by Hyperalonia sp. only (Image 1p); it collected
only nectar during 0800–1200 hr (Fig. 3). Butterflies
included four species - Catopsilia pomona (Image 1q),
Junonia lemonias (Image 2a), Acraea violae (Image
2b,c) and Danaus chrysippus (Image 2d). They are
nectar foragers and visited the flowers during 0800–
1700 hr (Fig. 4). The sunbirds, Nectarinia asiatica
(Image 2f,g) and N. zeylonica visited the flowers day
long from 0700 to 1800 hr with more foraging activity
during 1000-1300 hr (Fig. 5). Of the total insect and
sunbird visits, bee visits constituted 62%, wasps 17%,
sunbirds 12%, butterflies 7% and flies 2% (Fig. 6).
Other passerine birds such as Pycnonotus jocosus, P.
cafer, Pericrocotus cinnamomeus, Dicrurus adsimilis,
D. caerulescens, Parus xanthogenys, Turdoides
striatus, Motacilla flava, and a non-passerine bird,
Megalaima haemacephala also visited the flowering
trees in quest of nectar but discontinued flower-probing
immediately (Table 1).
All insect categories after landing probed the flowers
for nectar and/or pollen. The forehead and ventral
surface of the body of the insects except butterflies
were found to be contacting the anthers and stigma
invariably while probing the flower for nectar. The
bees while collecting pollen from the anthers normally
contacted the stigma on their underside and hence
were considered to be transferring pollen and effecting
pollination. Trigona bees mostly forage on one tree
largely effecting self-pollinations. Apis, Ceratina and
juvenile Xylocopa bees made frequent inter-tree flights
A.J.S. Raju et al.
Table 1. List of flower foragers on Boswellia ovalifoliolata
Family Scientific name Common name
Order: Hymenoptera
Apidae Apis dorsata F. Rock Bee
A. cerana F. Indian Honey Bee
A. florea F. Dwarf Honey Bee
Trigona iridipennis Smith Stingless Bee
Ceratina sp.
Small Carpenter Bee
Xylocopa latipes Drury Large Carpenter Bee
X. pubescens Spinola Large Carpenter Bee
Scoliidae Scolia sp. Digger Wasp
Vespidae Eumenes petiolata (F.) Smith Potter Wasp
Rhynchium sp.
Potter Wasp
Eumenidae Eumenes conica F. Potter Wasp
Eumenes sp.
Potter Wasp
Diptera
Bombyliidae Hyperalonia sp. Pomace Fly
Lepidoptera
Pieridae Catopsilia Pomona F. Common Emigrant
Nymphalidae Junonia lemonias L. Lemon Pansy
Acraea violae F.
Tawny Coster
Danaus chrysippus L. Plain Tiger
Class: Aves
Order: Piciformes
Capitonidae
Megalaima haemacephala
Statius Muller
Coppersmith
Order: Passeriformes
Nectariniidae Nectarinia asiatica Latham Purple Sunbird
N. zeylonica L.
Purple-Rumped
Sunbird
Pycnonotidae Pycnonotus jocosus L.
Red Whiskered
Bulbul
P. cafer L. Red-Vented Bulbul
Campephagidae Pericrocotus cinnamomeus L. Small Minivet
Dicruridae Dicrurus adsimilis Bechstein Black Drongo
D. caerulescens L.
White-Bellied
Drongo
Paridae Parus xanthogenys Vigors Yellow-Cheeked Tit
Muscicapidae Turdoides striatus Dumont Jungle Babbler
Motacillidae Motacilla flava L. Yellow Wagtail
in search of more forage. Wasps also exhibited similar
foraging behaviour. The fly tended to forage mostly
on the same tree collecting nectar very slowly from
each flower. The butterflies made frequent inter-tree
flights in quest of more nectar; they inserted proboscis
through the stamens as well as from the sides of the
petals for nectar collection. The Oriental Garden
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | July 2012 | 4(7): 2673–2684
2677

Boswellia ovalifoliolata
Apis dorsata
Apis cerana
A.J.S. Raju et al.
No. of foraging visits
No. of foraging visits
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Apis florea Apis dorsata
Trigona iridipennis
Apis cerana
Ceratina sp.
Apis florea
Xylocopa
Trigona
latipes
iridipennis
Xylocopa pubescens
Ceratina sp.
Xylocopa latipes
Xylocopa pubescens
0
6:00
7:00
8:00
9:00
10:00
11:00
12:00
Time (h)
13:00
14:00
Figure 1. Hourly foraging activity of bees on Boswellia Time (h) ovalifoliolata
15:00
16:00
17:00
18:00
No. of foraging visits
Figure 1: Hourly foraging activity of bees on Boswellia ovalifoliolata Scolia sp.
35
Eumenes petiolata
Scolia sp. sp.
30
35
Rhynchium Eumenes sp.
petiolata
25
30
Eumenes Rhynchium conica
sp.
20
25
Eumenes Eumenes sp.
conica
15
20
Eumenes sp. sp.
10
15
5
10
5
0
6:00 7:00 0 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00
6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 Time 11:00 (h) 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00
Figure 2. Hourly foraging activity of wasps on Boswellia Time ovalifoliolata
(h)
Time (h)
No. of foraging visits
No. of foraging visits
25
Figure 2: Hourly Figure foraging 2: Hourly activity foraging of activity wasps of on wasps Boswellia on Boswellia ovalifoliolata ovalifoliolata
No. of foraging visits
No. of foraging visits
20
15
10
5
0
6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00
Time (h)
Figure 3. Hourly foraging activity of the Dipteran, Hyperalonia
Time
sp.
(h)
on Boswellia ovalifoliolata
Figure 3: Hourly foraging activity of the Dipteran, Hyperalonia sp. on Boswellia ovalifoliolata
Lizard, Calotes versicolor (Squamata: Agamidae) was
found to lie in wait closely to the flowers to capture
the foraging insects (Image 2e). The prey species for
this lizard were mainly the foraging bees and wasps.
Sunbirds landed on the inflorescence branches, walked
to the flowers and inserting their curved beak to collect
2678
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Boswellia ovalifoliolata
Catopsilia pomona
A.J.S. Raju et al.
12
Junonia Catopsilia lemonias
pomona
No. of foraging visits
No. of foraging visits
10
8
6
4
2
0
No. of foraging visits
6:00
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
7:00
6:00
8:00
7:00
9:00
8:00
10:00
9:00
11:00
10:00
12:00
11:00
12:00 13:00
13:00 14:00
Time (h)
Figure 4. Hourly foraging activity of butterfly on Boswellia Time (h) Time ovalifoliolata (h)
14:00 15:00
15:00 16:00
16:00
17:00
17:00
18:00
18:00
Acraea Junonia violae
lemonias
Danaus Acraea chrysippus
violae
Danaus chrysippus
No. of foraging visits
No. of foraging visits
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
6:00
Figure 4: Hourly Figure 4: foraging Hourly foraging activity activity of butterflies of butterflies on Boswellia on Boswellia ovalifoliolata
45
40
Nectarinia Nectarinia asiatica
asiatica
No. of foraging visits
7:00
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
8:006:00
7:00
9:00
8:00
10:00
9:00
11:00
10:00
12:00
11:00
13:00
12:00
14:00
13:00
15:00 14:00
16:0015:00
17:0016:00
18:0017:00
Time (h) Time (h)
Figure 5. Hourly foraging activity of sunbirds on Boswellia Time (h) ovalifoliolata
Figure 5 : Hourly foraging activity of sunbirds on Boswellia ovalifoliolata
Percentage of foraging visits
Percentage of foraging visits
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Figure 5 : Hourly foraging activity of sunbirds on Boswellia ovalifoliolata
Nectarinia Nectarinia zeylonica
zeylonica
0
Bees Wasps Flies Butterflies Sunbirds
Forager category
Forager category
Figure 6. Relative percentage of foraging visits of different categories of insects and sunbirds on Boswellia ovalifoliolata
Figure 6 : Relative percentage of foraging visits of different categories of insects and sunbirds on
Boswellia ovalifoliolata
18:00
nectar; while doing so, the beak invariably contacted
both the stigma and stamens and such a contact was
considered to be transferring pollen and effecting
pollination.
Breeding behavior
The inflorescences with mature buds when bagged
without emasculation did not set any fruit. Further,
the manual flower-to-flower selfing on certain
inflorescences of the same tree also did not produce
any fruit. In different trees, the fruit set varied from
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | July 2012 | 4(7): 2673–2684
2679

Boswellia ovalifoliolata
Table 2. Fruit set under open pollination and manual
xenogamous cross-pollinations on 10 selected trees of
Tirumala Hill population
Tree number
Per cent fruit set (open
pollination)*
Per cent fruit set (hand
cross-pollination)**
KT1 4.3 24.2
KT2 9.8 12.0
KT3 3.4 19.2
KT4 2.4 19.0
KT5 2.9 31.6
DP1 4.1 26.4
DP2 4.0 15.2
DP3 1.8 16.8
DP4 8.7 33.7
A.J.S. Raju et al.
2:1. The seeds are winged, papery, compressed, 7mm
long, 4mm wide and 19.9±3.1 mg weight. The fruits
dehisce along the septa to disseminate seeds into the
air by the end of May (Image 2n,o). The seeds being
light in weight disseminate easily by the wind. The
study site is windy and the seeds travel distances up
to 400m downhill. The seeds germinate following
monsoon showers in June-July (Image 2p,q) but the
success rate seemed to be dependant on the continuity
of rain and the nutritional status of soil. Some seedlings
were found to show symptoms of chlorosis which may
be due to water and nutrient deficient soils in rocky
habitats.
DP5 4.1 10.8
KT - Kapilatheertham; DP - Deer Park; * - Average of 10 inflorescences
per tree; ** - Average of 125 pollinations per tree.
10.8 to 33.7 % in manual cross-pollinations while it
ranged from 1.8 to 9.8 % in open pollinations (Table
2). The results indicated that the site has no effect on
fruit set rate from open or hand-cross pollinations.
Further, the difference in fruit set rate in these two
pollination modes is quite significant (Pearson’s
Correlation Coefficient 0.877). A weevil species was
found feeding on buds and flowers (Image 2j,k); the
percent of bud predation is 18% and that of flower
predation is 27%. Further, Three-Striped Palm Squirrel
Funambulus palmarum (Family: Sciuridae) was found
to be feeding on flowers and fruits (Image 2h,i). The
exact percentage of flowers and fruits fed could not be
estimated due to difficulty in accessing the flowering
branches and in following the feeding activity of
the squirrel in the forest. But, visual observations
indicated that the squirrel fed voraciously on flowers
and growing fruits showing a significant effect on the
reproductive success of the plant.
Fruit, seed and seedling ecology
Natural fruit set rate is 9.3±4.63 (Range 2–24) at
inflorescence level (Image 2l). The average flower to
fruit ratio is 3.7: 1. The fruit is initially light green
(Image 2m), then creamy white and light brown when
mature. It grows to a maximum length of 13–14
mm and of 6mm width in four weeks. It is a simple
septicidal trigonous capsule with a weight of 179±26.6
mg and invariably produces three seeds against the
actual six ovules in a flower. The ovule to seed ratio is
DISCUSSION
Boswellia ovalifoliolata is a deciduous tree species
because it is leafless when in bloom. Leaf flushing
occurs almost at the end of fruiting. In a few trees,
leaf flushing is little bit early when fruits are still green
and young. The short flowering period evidenced
at individual as well as population level, massive
blooming and the position of panicle inflorescences
at the end of branches serve as a cue for foragers to
collect floral rewards from the flowers. The floral
characteristics of B. ovalifoliolata, such as fresh
mild odour, hidden nectar in moderate quantity and
pinkish-red nectary disc serving as nectar guide,
conform to bee-flowers (Faegri & van der Pijl 1979).
However, the small flower size, delicate petals and
actinomorphic symmetry are not suitable for foraging
visits by adult Xylocopa bees (Faegri & van der Pijl
1979), although the flowers can withstand juveniles.
The observed Xylocopa bees are juveniles because
they emerge from brood during March–April (Raju
& Rao 2006) and hence they are suitable for probing
the flowers to collect nectar. These juvenile bees in
quest of nectar for instant energy and for overcoming
dehydration make multiple visits to closely and
distantly spaced flowering trees of B. ovalifoliolata.
Such consistent flower visits between trees effect and
enhance cross-pollination rate. Apis, Trigona and
Ceratina bees collect pollen and nectar with ease due
to cup-like flower shape with exposed floral rewards.
Baker & Baker (1982; 1983) stated that short-tongued
bees such as the bees observed in this study tend to be
rewarded with sucrose-rich nectar. Further, Cruden et
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Boswellia ovalifoliolata
A.J.S. Raju et al.
Image 2. Boswellia ovalifoliolata
a - Junonia lemonias; b&c - Acraea violae; d - Danaus chrysippus; e - Calotes versicolor; f&g - Nectarinia asiatica (male
and female); h&i - Funambulus palmarum (flower and fruit feeding); j&k - Weevil feeding on buds and flowers; l - Fruit set;
m - Maturing fruit; n&o - Fruit dehiscence; p&q - Healthy seedlings.
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2681

Boswellia ovalifoliolata
al. (1983) reported that in dry seasonal forest plants, the
nectar concentration is usually high and bee-flowers
produce a small volume of nectar with high sugar
concentration. In B. ovalifoliolata, the flowers produce
a small volume of sucrose-rich nectar with high sugar
concentration and hence conform to the generalizations
stated by Baker & Baker (1982; 1983) and Cruden et
al. (1983). In line with this, bees recorded consistently
visit the flowers of different trees to collect forage
and in doing so effect pollination. Apis dorsata being
a large-bodied bee requires more energy and hence
efficiently probes the flowers in quick succession
on the same and different trees; its foraging visits
to different conspecific trees not only effect but also
enhance cross-pollination rate. Other Apis species,
Ceratina and Trigona bees with slow mobility between
conspecific trees for forage collection mostly effect
self-pollination which is not the mode of breeding
system in B. ovalifoliolata. Hence, these bees have
a minor role in cross-pollination. Wasps usually take
nectar as a supplement food, especially when brood
nursing is over. They are active in blossoms towards
the end of flowering season in seasonal climates.
Wasp-flowers are also sucrose-rich but are usually
unreliable and unsteady pollinators (Faegri & van der
Pijl 1979). The floral nectar of B. ovalifoliolata being
sucrose-rich is favoured by the wasps, Scolia, Eumenes
and Rhynchium. Their visits to the flowers throughout
the flowering season suggests that their brood nursing
period is over and hence, they are active in flowers to
take nectar as a supplement diet. However, they are
not consistent foragers like bees but they use this floral
source until exhausted and their frequent inter-tree
movement during their foraging period contributes
to cross-pollination. The garden lizard is an ambush
predator capturing the foraging insects at the flowers of
B. ovalifoliolata. The foraging insects cannot perceive
the lizard and do not respond by predator-avoidance
behaviour. The lizard does not attack the prey until
it forages on a flower for a considerable period. It is
for this reason that the pollinator insects have greater
opportunity of being approached and attacked by
the lizard. The predation of the lizard on pollinating
insects has its share in reducing the cross-pollination
rate in B. ovalifoliolata. The role of dipteran fly in
cross-pollination appears to be negligible due to its
restricted inter-tree mobility. Butterfly-flowers also
produce a small volume of sucrose-rich nectar with
A.J.S. Raju et al.
high sugar concentration (Opler 1983; Cruden et al.
1983; Baker & Baker 1982; 1983). As the floral nectar
of B. ovalifoliolata is characterized in this way, the
foraging visits of the observed species of butterflies
on this tree are not surprising. As they make frequent
flights between trees, their foraging visits also
contribute to cross-pollination. All these insect species
carry considerable number of pollen grains on their
body/proboscis, the character of which qualifies them
as effective and efficient pollinators. The foraging
activity of these insects coincides well with the timing
of anthesis; it gradually increases from anthesis
onwards, reaches to peak around noon and gradually
decreases towards the evening. In B. serrata, honey
bees have been reported to be the exclusive pollinators
(Sunnichan et al. 2005).
Ornithophilous flowers tend to be large, red and
deep seated with concealed nectar. They secrete
high volumes of hexose-rich nectar with low sugar
concentration (Cruden et al. 1983; Opler 1983; Baker
& Baker 1990). On the contrary, in the present study,
the sunbirds visit B. ovalifoliolata flowers which are
small, cup-shaped and white with a small volume of
sucrose-rich nectar with high sugar concentration.
Since the nectar volume is very small and sunbirds
require a greater amount of energy per flower, they
visit different conspecific trees in quest of more nectar.
Such a foraging behaviour results in cross-pollination.
These sunbirds exhibit fidelity to this floral source
until exhausted. Several other birds also attempt
to collect nectar from B. ovalifoliolata but soon
discontinue probing the flowers. The study shows that
B. ovalifoliolata is not ornithophilous but sunbirds use
it as nectar source for survival during dry season while
other birds are unable to use it even in the absence of
dry season blooming ornithophilous tree species in the
study area. Therefore, the birds recorded in the study
area appear to be searching for the floral nectar to meet
their energy requirement during dry season.
Insects require ten essential amino acids but all of
them are not normally found in all nectars. Usually,
three to four essential amino acids and several nonessential
amino acids are found in floral nectars (Baker
& Baker 1982; 1983). Baker & Baker (1986) reported
that the amino acids add taste to the floral nectar and it
depends on their concentration. Their presence serves
as an important cue for insects to visit flower and in
the process effect pollination. In B. ovalifoliolata,
2682
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Boswellia ovalifoliolata
the nectar contains some essential and non-essential
amino acids. Its nectar is an important source for four
of the ten essential amino acids required by insects for
their growth and development (DeGroot 1953). They
include arginine, histidine, lysine and threonine. Nonessential
amino acids are metabolized by insects from
the food they take; however, floral nectar provides
some of these amino acids instantaneously. The nectar
of B. ovalifoliolata provides alanine, aspartic acid,
cysteine, glysine, hydroxyproline, serine, glutamic
acid and tyrosine. Therefore, the insects and also
sunbirds by visiting and pollinating the flowers derive
the dual benefit of sugars and amino acids from the
nectar of B. ovalifoliolata.
In B. ovalifoliolata, the flowers are weakly
protandrous, produce considerable per cent of sterile
pollen and present the capitate, wet papillate trilobed
stigma above the stamens as in case of its allied
species B. serrata (Sunnichan et al. 2005). The stigma
receptivity ceases around noon on the next day. These
characteristics suggest that the tree species is adapted
for cross-pollination which is further substantiated
by the lack of fruit set in manual self-pollination
treatments. The reason for the failure of fruit set in selfpollination
appears to be related to inhibition of selfpollen
tubes after their entry into the style. Therefore,
the study suggests that B. ovalifoliolata is strictly
self-incompatible and obligate outcrosser like B.
serrata (Sunnichan et al. 2005). According to Cruden
(1977), the pollen production rate at flower level is not
commensurate with out-crossing breeding system but
it seems to be appropriate if the fruit set rate in manual
cross-pollination is considered. Fruit set in openpollination
among individual trees is less than 10%
but it is most likely to increase in the absence of bud/
flower predation by weevil and squirrel. The extent
of increase in fruit set in manual cross-pollination
also has not exceeded 34% and this suggests that
there are inherent constraints such as dry conditions,
nutrient-deficient environment to fruit set in addition
to limitation of cross-pollination. The distribution of
fruits on the inflorescence is sparse and hence, space
is not a constraint for increased fruit set. As all fruits
invariably produced three seeds, there seems to be a
space constraint in the ovary for seed set from all six
ovules of the flower. The uniform number of seeds in
each fruit seems to be an evolved and adaptive trait
to compensate the lower fruit set in open-pollinations.
A.J.S. Raju et al.
It also suggests that cross-pollen availability is not
a constraint in fruited flowers. In self-pollinated
flowers, the deposited self pollen and the pollen tubes
formed may prevent or block if the cross-pollen is
subsequently deposited by insects/sunbirds. Further,
the trees being leafless during the entire flowering and
fruiting period have to utilize the available limited
resources for fruit and seed loading. In consequence,
the trees may even selectively disallow genetically
inferior cross-pollinations to proceed further to set
fruit in order to save available resources for pumping
into the genetically superior fruits and seeds. The floor
of the forest being rocky, dry and litter free during
flowering and fruiting season deprives this tree species
of nutrient resources. Therefore, B. ovalifoliolata with
poor-nutrient environment is capable of performing
reproductive events and produce some per cent of
fruit set as a self-incompatible and obligate outcrosser.
Similar reproductive events and constraints have been
reported in B. serrata (Sunnichan et al. 2005). A
recent experimental study with Boswellia papyrifera
by Toon et al. (2006) shows that intensive tapping for
gum causes the trees to divert too much carbohydrate
into resin at the expense of reproductive organs, such
as flowers, fruit and seeds. In consequence, the trees
produce fewer smaller fruits with seeds of lower
weight and reduced vitality than non-tapped trees.
Such a situation in B. ovalifoliolata cannot be ruled
out since it is an important source of gum resin for
local tribes and hence there is a great threat to this
globally endangered and endemic species.
Fruits mature in a short period and dehisce along
the septa to disperse seeds for which dry conditions
are essential. Their dispersal takes place in the month
of May when temperature is at its maximum and
which provides ideal conditions for seed dispersal
by wind. The seed characteristics such as small size,
light weight, papery and winged nature are adapted for
anemochory. As the study site is windy, anemochory
is very effective, dispersing seeds up to 400m away
from the parental site. Therefore, in B. ovalifoliolata,
dry season seems to be the prerequisite for flowering,
fruiting and seed dispersal. Leaf flushing occurs
immediately after seed dispersal and the water stress
is released by rainfall in June and thereafter. During
this period, with foliage, the tree has to produce and
store the required energy for the recurrence of sexual
reproduction in the next dry season. The dispersed
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | July 2012 | 4(7): 2673–2684
2683

Boswellia ovalifoliolata
seeds germinate readily following rainfall but their
continued growth and development is related to soil
water and nutritional status. Since the natural area
of B. ovalifoliolata is rocky with little litter and soil
moisture, the success rate of seedlings each year is
very much limited and hence, this could be one of
the factors that give it the “endemic and endangered”
status.
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the honey bee (Apis mellifera L.). Physiologia Comparata
et Oecologia 3: 197–285.
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(2008). A database on endemic plants at Tirumala Hills in
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Author Details:
Pr o f. A.J. So l o m o n Ra j u is the Head of the Department of Environmental
Sciences, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam. He is the recipient of
several national and international awards. He has more than 250 research
papers in international and national journals. He is on the editorial board
of several international journals. He is presently working on endemic and
endangered plant species in southern Eastern Ghats forests with financial
support from UGC and MoEF.
P. Va r a La k s h m i is project fellow working in the major research project on
Reproductive Biology, Conservation and Management of Endemic and
Globally Endangered tree species, Boswellia ovalifoliolata (Burseraceae)
and Terminalia pallida (Combretaeae) at Seshachalam Hills, Andhra
Pradesh, funded by the University Grants Commission, New Delhi, under
the supervision of Prof. A.J. Solomon Raju.
K. Ve n k a t a Ra m a n a and P. Ha r e e s h Ch a n d r a are junior research fellows
working in another research project under the supervision of Prof. A.J.
Solomon Raju.
Author Contribution:
AJSR has done part of the field work and write-up of the ms while PVL,
KVP and PHC were involved in field work and provided assistance in the
preparation of the ms.
2684
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | July 2012 | 4(7): 2673–2684

JoTT Co m m u n ic a t i o n 4(7): 2685–2692
Diversity and community structure of dung beetles
(Coleoptera: Scarabaeinae) associated with semi-urban
fragmented agricultural land in the Malabar coast in
southern India
K. Simi Venugopal 1 , Sabu K. Thomas 2 & Albin T. Flemming 3
1,3
Post Graduate and Research Department of Zoology, Loyola College, Chennai, Tamil Nadu 600034, India
2
Post Graduate and Research Department of Zoology, St. Joseph’s College, Devagiri, Kozhikode, Kerala 673008, India
Email: 1 simisachin@gmail.com, 2 sabukthomas@gmail.com (corresponding author), 3 dratfleming@gmail.com
Date of publication (online): 26 July 2012
Date of publication (print): 26 July 2012
ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print)
Editor: B.B. Hosetti
Manuscript details:
Ms # o3074
Received 20 January 2012
Final received 09 May 2012
Finally accepted 29 May 2012
Citation: Venugopal, K.S., S.K. Thomas & A.T.
Flemming (2012). Diversity and community
structure of dung beetles (Coleoptera:
Scarabaeinae) associated with semi-urban
fragmented agricultural land in the Malabar coast
in southern India. Journal of Threatened Taxa
4(7): 2685–2692.
Copyright: © K. Simi Venugopal, Sabu K.
Thomas & Albin T. Flemming 2012. Creative
Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.
JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any
medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction
and distribution by providing adequate credit to
the authors and the source of publication.
Author Details: Mrs . K. Si m i Ve n u g o p a l is
pursuing her PhD programme on the ecology and
systematics of dung beetles at Post Graduate
and Research Department of Zoology, Loyola
College, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India.
Dr. Sa b u K. Th o m a s is an associate professor
attached to Post Graduate and Research
Department of Zoology, St. Joseph’s College,
Devagiri, Kozhikode, Kerala and systematics
and ecology of ground beetles in the moist
south Western Ghats is his thrust area.
Dr. Al b i n T. Fl e m i n g, associate professor and
head of the Post Graduate and Research
Department of Zoology, Loyola College,
Chennai, Tamil Nadu and is actively engaged
with the systematic of various insect groups in
peninsular India.
Author Contribution: Taxonomic analysis,
sampling and data analysis by the first and
second authors; discussion by all the three
authors.
Acknowledgments: The financial assistance
provided by UGC (University Grants
Commission, India), is gratefully acknowledged.
OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD
Abstract: An evaluation of the diversity and community structure of dung beetles
associated with semiurban agricultural land in the Malabar coast of southern India
revealed that urbanization has led to decreased diversity compared to regional
forests, and has affected the community status of dung beetles. However, contrary to
expectations, species richness was observed to be equivalent to rural agricultural fields
in the region. Low abundance of prominent agricultural habitat species indicates that
the study area has changed as a result of habitat modification/urbanization, and the
prevailing conditions are not ideal for the establishment of the most common species
in agriculture belts. Prominence of two less common species, Tiniocellus spinipes and
Caccobius vulcanus, indicates these generalist urban adaptable (synanthropic) species
have become increasingly widespread and locally abundant. The low abundance of
tunnelers and rollers is attributed to fragmentation of the urban agricultural belt, low
mammalian diversity and dung availability, and the hard nature of the laterite soil in the
Malabar coast region.
Keywords: Dung beetles, fragmentation, Malabar coast, southern India, Tiniocellus
spinipes, urbanization.
INTRODUCTION
Destruction and deterioration of natural habitats associated with
urbanization has led to dramatic changes in the biotic structure and
composition of ecological communities. Observations include decreased
abundance and diversity, disappearance or replacement of indigenous
species by non-natives (Blair 1996, 2004; La Sorte & Boecklen 2005) and
habitat specialists (Magura et al. 2010), and local extinctions (Raupp et
al. 2010). In many places, although highly modified and disturbed, small
urban fragments of agricultural lands in the midst of urban environments
have been identified as an important source of native biodiversity (Gaston
et al. 2004). The different fauna found in small urban fragments may be a
consequence of any of a number of pressures associated with fragmentation
and urbanization, including increased anthropogenic disturbance, reduced
area, loss of hosts, invasion of new species and release of natural enemies
(Yahner 1988). Such areas can provide ephemeral or more permanent
habitats for species, dispersal corridors or resting places for migrating
organisms (Gaston et al. 2005). Therefore, it is important to document
the status of biodiversity prevailing in other areas to identify the level
of biodiversity still left in urban areas and characterize the remaining
elements of the original biota (e.g. are they specialist or generalist). In
the present effort we aim to determine the community structure of dung
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | July | 4(7): 2685–2692
2685

Dung beetles in Malabar coast
beetles in a small isolated agricultural land in the midst
of urban settlements in the coastal Malabar region.
The Malabar coast moist deciduous forests
ecoregion—hereafter referred as MCF—was a swath
of lush tropical evergreen forest that extends along the
Western Ghats mountains and the Arabian Sea. MCF
represents an extreme example of deforestation in the
Western Ghats, having undergone major ecological
transformations over the last 100 years (Nair 1991;
Wikramanayake et al. 2002). MCF has lost more
than 95% of its original vegetation to deforestation
during the British rule (Colonial period), cash crop
cultivation during the post Colonial period and
recent urbanization. Currently, due to the recent
wave of urbanization, the agricultural lands are being
transferred into urban jungles at alarming rates in the
MCF. It is certain that the remaining original biota
that took shelter in these pockets will be lost soon.
No records exist about the impact of anthropogenic
activity on biodiversity in the region and hence we
lack crucial historical documentation of the natural
communities in MCF which would remain as an
important source of information for measuring species
extinctions in the area (Brook et al. 2003). The present
effort aims to gather data on the composition and
guild structure of dung beetle assemblage associated
with a fragmented agricultural landscape in the midst
of an urban environment in Kozhikode region in the
MCF. We selected dung beetles because they showed
significant changes in species composition and
community assemblage following forest fragmentation
and habitat disturbances (Nichols et al. 2007), making
them excellent biodiversity indicators for examining
the responses of species communities to anthropogenic
disturbance (Gardner et al. 2008a,b). We propose that
the regional dung beetle fauna might not have been
affected by urbanisation, disappearance of native
mammals and an unchanged native assemblage with
high diversity and abundance exists in the region.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study area
Selected study site was an open agricultural field
(11 0 15’N & 75 0 48’E) of predominantly coconut
plantation with the intervening grasslands close to
Devagiri College campus, Kozhikode used for cattle
K.S. Venugopal et al.
and sheep grazing. Annual temperature 24–32 0 C;
relative humidity 40–80 %; average rainfall 750–1500
mm/year which occurs mostly in the wet months of
June to November (CWRDM 2008-09).
Sampling
Dung beetles were collected using dung baited pitfall
traps of the bait-surface-grid type on a seasonal basis
during southwest monsoon (June–August), northeast
monsoon (September–November), presummer
(December–February) and summer (March–May)
periods from June 2008 to May 2009. Pit fall traps
were made of plastic basins, 10cm in diameter and
15cm deep and a mixture of water-formalin-liquid
soap mixture were used as preservative. The basins
were buried with their rim in level with the surrounding
substrate and each trap was topped with a plastic plate
supported on iron bars to prevent desiccation during
sunny days and inundation during the periods of rain.
Two hundred grams of fresh cow dung was placed
on a wire grid between the basin and the tray. Ten
such traps at 50m intervals along a linear transect
were placed following the standardized dung-beetle
sampling design of maintaining a minimum distance
of 50m between traps to minimize trap interference
(Larsen & Forsyth 2005). Beetles were collected at
0600 and 1600 hr each day. Both diurnal and nocturnal
collections were made separately.
Beetles were identified to species levels using
taxonomic keys available in Arrow (1931), Balthasar
(1963) and by comparing with the verified specimens.
After identification, specimens were deposited in the
insect collections of St. Joseph’s College, Devagiri,
Kozhikode. The species were sorted into three
functional guilds - dwellers (endocoprids), rollers
(telecoprids) and tunnelers (paracoprids) following
Cambefort & Hanski (1991) and three temporal guilds
(noctural/diurnal/generalists) following Krell et al.
(2003). Species that were present during all seasons
with >10% abundance were treated as major groups,

Dung beetles in Malabar coast
1949), evenness with Simpson’s evenness index
(Simpson 1949) and richness with Margalef’s species
richness index (d). Data used for statistical analysis
were tested for normality with GRETL open source
software version 1.1 (Cottrell 2006). Significant levels
of variation in the overall and species-wise abundance
with seasons were tested with Kruskal-Wallis followed
by Mann-Whitney U test (Weiss 2007). All statistical
data analyses were done with Mega Stat Version 10.0
software (Orris 2005) and diversity analysis with
Primer v5.2.9 software.
RESULTS
K.S. Venugopal et al.
Species richness and diversity
A total of 519 dung beetles representing 26 species,
belonging to eight genera and five tribes were recorded.
Assemblage consisted of three major species, 17 minor
and six rare species. Tiniocellus spinipes (44.89%)
and Caccobius vulcanus (17.92%) dominated the
assemblage (Image 1). Large and small size beetles
varied in abundance (Kruskal-Wallis test, H = 8.64,
df = 1, P

Dung beetles in Malabar coast
K.S. Venugopal et al.
a
b
and 15 were generalists. Diurnal guild dominated
the assemblage followed by nocturnal and generalist
(H=20.01, df=2, P

Dung beetles in Malabar coast
K.S. Venugopal et al.
Table 2. Results of Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-Whitney tests of overall and individual seasonal abundance of dung beetle
assemblage in the fragment urban agricultural habitat during 2008-09 period.
Kruskal-Wallis
Mann-Whitney
p-value
H DF p- values S - PS S - SW S - NE PS - SW PS - NE SW - NE
Abundance 20.97 3 0.05

Dung beetles in Malabar coast
is a major negative consequence of urbanization world
wide (Magura et al. 2010).
In total contrast to the dry habitat dwelling species,
occurrence of Ochicanthon species, a rare primitive
old world dung beetle species present in moist forest
patches ( Krikken & Huijbregts 2007; Latha et al.
2011) is unexpected. Its presence indicates that the
recent habitat modifications in the Western Ghats
have not wiped out these relict old world dung beetles
(primitive groups) from the agrilands. Similar record
of the following rare species namely Onthophagus
insignicollis, O. kchatriya, O. duporti and Oniticellus
cinctus in the moist Western Ghats indicate that these
species represent the sink population of a larger pool
of the source, i.e. the native dung beetle population.
It is possible that the fragmented agri habitats in the
region is a safe microhabitat for such rare species
(Onthophagus malabariensis, O. unifasciatus, O.
pygmaeus, Ochicanthon murthyi) (Magura et al. 2004;
Elek & Lövei 2007) till the gradual disappearance of
such habitats.
No record of the large species belonging to the
genera Gymnopleurus, Catharsius and Heliocopris
in the assemblage indicates that they might have
vanished from the region. It could be due to the
inability of large dung beetles to withstand dessication
and the low survival chance of their larvae in dry soil
conditions (Chown 2001). Since the present study was
confined to a single site, studies in other similar sites
in the region are necessary to establish whether the
disappearance of large beetles is a widely applicable
pattern.
Dominance of tunnelers in forest and agri habitats,
and the higher abundance of the cosmopolitian T.
setosus is typical of dung beetle assemblages in the
Western Ghats (Sabu et al. 2006, 2007; Vinod & Sabu
2007) and across the globe (Cambefort & Walter 1991;
Andresen 2005). Disappearance leads to the question
whether dominance of dweller guild with T. spinipes as
prominent species is a feature of extremely disturbed
habitats in the moist western slopes of the Western
Ghats and Malabar coast region. Distinctively high
abundance of dwellers over tunnelers and rollers is
arising from the unequal abundance of T. spinipes.
Similar dominance of dwellers with another species
(T. setosus) is reported from regions with high dung
pad availability as in the elephant dung rich Wayanad
forests in the Western Ghats (Vinod 2009) and is
K.S. Venugopal et al.
attributed to the abundance of elephant/gaur and the
resulting dung pad abundance. However there is no
record of dominance of dwellers in the agri belts in
the Western Ghats. High abundance of dwellers in an
agribelt with low dung availability and mammalian
diversity is attributed to the low abundance of other
guilds (tunnelers/rollers) and the hard nature of the
laterite soil in the Malabar coast region which do not
favour the population build up of other guilds.
Occurrence of two dominant species T. spinipes
(diurnal) and C. vulcanus (nocturnal) with distinctly
contrasting pattern of temporal resource utlilisation
patterns as prominent species could be an adaptive
strategy for efficient resource partitioning to avoid
competition for resources. Such perfect temporal
resource partition of the two prominent species
could be a major factor that leads to the decline in
the abundance of other species. Overall abundance
showed distinct seasonality with high abundance
during southwest monsoon followed by northeast and
summer season. Peak in abundance is linked to the
single species dominance of T. spinipes which was the
most abundant species during southwest monsoon. It
is likely that softening of the lateritic soil during the
rainy periods could be favouring the abundance of
both tunnelers and dwellers. Seasonality of tunnelers,
which was the only guild showing seasonality in the
region, is additional proof to this assumption.
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JoTT Sh o r t Co m m u n ic a t i o n 4(7): 2693–2698
Dinoflagellate Ceratium symmetricum Pavillard
(Gonyaulacales: Ceratiaceae): Its occurrence in the
Hooghly-Matla Estuary and offshore of Indian Sundarban
and its significance
Anirban Akhand 1 , Sourav Maity 2 , Anirban Mukhopadhyay 3 , Indrani Das 4 , Pranabes Sanyal 5 &
Sugata Hazra 6
1,3,5,6
School of Oceanographic Studies, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, West Bengal 700032, India
2
Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS), Ministry of Earth Science (MoES), Govt. of India, “Ocean Valley”,
PB No. 21, IDA Jeedimetla PO, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh 500055, India
4
Department of Botany, Midnapore College, West Bengal 721101, India
Email: 1 anirban_akhand@rediffmail.com (corresponding author), 2 srv_maity@rediffmail.com, 3 anirban_iirs@yahoo.com,
4
ms_indranidas@yahoo.co.in, 5 pranabes@gmail.com, 6 sugata_hazra@yahoo.com
The Sundarban, a Biosphere Reserve, constitutes
a complex ecosystem comprising one of the three
largest single tracts of mangrove forests of the world.
As neighboring countries, India and Bangladesh share
the territories which cover the areas of the Sundarban.
The Indian Sundarban (88 0 02’–89 0 06’E & 21 0 13’–
22 0 40’N) including the forest and nonforest parts
consist of three major estuaries. The biodiversity
richness of the Sundarban has been reported by many
researchers. However, there are very few studies on
phytoplankton diversity (Santra et al. 1991; Mitra et
al. 2003; Sen & Naskar 2003). Phytoplankton are the
Date of publication (online): 26 July 2012
Date of publication (print): 26 July 2012
ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print)
Editor: S.C. Santra
Manuscript details:
Ms # o2530
Received 29 July 2010
Final received 21 June 2012
Finally accepted 25 June 2012
Citation: Akhand, A., S. Maity, A. Mukhopadhyay, I. Das, P. Sanyal
& S. Hazra (2012). Dinoflagellate Ceratium symmetricum Pavillard
(Gonyaulacales: Ceratiaceae): Its occurrence in the Hooghly-Matla Estuary
and offshore of Indian Sundarban and its significance. Journal of Threatened
Taxa 4(7): 2693–2698.
Copyright: © Anirban Akhand, Sourav Maity, Anirban Mukhopadhyay,
Indrani Das, Pranabes Sanyal & Sugata Hazra 2012. Creative Commons
Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article
in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by
providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication.
Acknowledgements: Authors wish to thank Mr. Bijan Kumar Saha,
Former Senior Deputy Director General, Geological Survey of India for
his cooperation in this work. The authors are also grateful to National
Aeronautics and Space Administration for providing the SST data through
the Ocean Color website.
OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD
Abstract: The Sundarban is the largest mangrove ecosystem,
which is presently vulnerable to climate change related impacts.
The western part of it falls in the state of West Bengal between
the estuaries of the Hooghly and Ichamati-Raymongal Rivers.
The diversity of the genus Ceratium Schrank and the related
physicochemical parameters such as Sea Surface Temperature
(SST) was studied in the Hooghly-Matla estuary and offshore.
Five species of bio-indicator dinoflagellate, Ceratium were
identified in the bloom-forming season. The species are: C.
furca, C. fusus, C. symmetricum, C. trichoceros and C. tripos.
C. symmetricum was not previously reported from the Indian
part of the Sundarban and is now found in low abundance. The
other four species are less sensitive to warming or rise in SST. A
comparative study of the day time SST from the satellite images
of the year 2003 to 2009 of the months of January and February
reveals a rising winter SST. Compared to the previous years,
the increase in temperature can be one of the causative factors
to explain the lower abundance of C. symmetricum compared to
the others. With further rise of the SST, there is a possibility that
this species may no longer be found in abundance in the western
part of adjoining Hooghly-Matla estuarine system.
Keywards: Biological indicator, Ceratium, phytoplankton, sea
surface temperature, Sundarban.
foundation of the foodweb in the marine ecosystem
as they perform the critical ecological function
of primary production (Nielsen & Jensen 1957;
Banerjee & Santra 2001, Verlencer & Desai 2004).
The knowledge of phytoplankton species diversity
is crucial for any ecological or eco-physiological
work on marine phytoplankton. Phytoplankton are
highly sensitive to environmental changes. Their
community composition, biomass and shifts therein
represent an excellent tool to interpret the dynamics
of a pelagic ecosystem, transformation, cycling of
key elements and the impact on coastal water quality.
Phytoplankton also help to detect variations induced
by river discharge, eutrophication, pollution and even
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | July 2012 | 4(7): 2693–2698 2693

Ceratium symmetricum in Sundarban
certain unusual climatic phenomena (Lepisto et al.
2004; Paerl 2006). Ceratium Schrank, an armoured
dinoflagellate genus has been considered a biological
model for a wide range of studies as utilized by Tunin-
Ley et al. (2007, 2009). One of the several advantages
offered by this genus is that identification of species
level is more feasible than other phytoplankton group
(Tunin-Ley et al. 2009). Apart from this, Ceratium
is known for its sensitivity to temperature in terms of
biogeography (Dodge & Marshall 1994), seasonality
and morphology (Sournia 1967). Ceratium has been
considered to be a biological indicator of water masses
(Dodge 1993; Raine et al. 2002; Tunin-Ley et al.
2009), current regimes (Dowidar 1973) and climate
change (Dodge & Marshall 1994; Johns et al. 2003).
In the present paper, diversity and record of the species
Ceratium has been investigated in the Indian part
A. Akhand et al.
of the Sundarban estuary to offshore Bay of Bengal
and discussed in the context of ecological change,
particularly the change in Sea Surface Temperature
(SST).
Materials and Methods
Water samples were collected from different stations
from the case 2 water of Hooghly estuary and offshore
off Bakkhali-Frasergunje (Fig. 1). The depth of the
water varies between 1 to 10 m along a 10km radial
vector off the coast. The cruise was conducted in the
months of January and February, 2009, as December,
January and February are the bloom forming seasons
for most of the phytoplankton in Sundarban (Biswas et
al. 2004). Day time SST data, obtained from Moderate
Resolution Imaging Spectro Radiometer (MODIS)
with a wave length of 11µ and spatial resolution of
21 0 40’0”N 22 0 0’0”N 22 0 20’0”N 22 0 40’0”N
88 0 20’0”E 88 0 40’0”E 89 0 0’0”E
Figure 1. Sampling location of
phytoplankton in the Hooghly-Matla estuary
and offshore of Indian Sundarban.
2694
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Ceratium symmetricum in Sundarban
4km has been used in a 1 0 ×1 0 grid around the study
area. The monthly composite data were derived from
the year 2003 to 2009 for the months of January and
February. Salinity, pH and temperature were measured
using a portable refractometer (Model no.RHS-
10(ATC)), a digital pH meter (Model no. pHTestr 1,
Eutech instruments, Oakton Instruments) and a digital
thermometer respectively. Dissolved oxygen was
measured using Winkler’s titrimetric method. The
transparency of the water column was measured with
the help of a Secchi disc. Phytoplankton samples were
collected by plankton net of 20µ mesh size fitted to a
wooden stick. Known volume of water was passed
through it with a five litre bucket. Plankton samples
were preserved in Lugol’s iodine solution and sent
back to laboratory within 48 hours where it was
counted by a Sedgewick Rafter counting cell. The
identification of phytoplankton species was done with
the help of standard manuals and literature (Tomas
1996; Verlencar & Desai 2004). Relative abundance
(RA) was calculated using the formula:
RA of species X (%) of Ceratium = (No. of species X
of Ceratium in each known volume of sample × 100) /
No. of total Ceratium species in the same volume.
Results
All together, five species of Ceratium were
identified in the months of algal bloom. Ceratium
furca (Ehrenberg) Clapar~de & Lachmann, Ceratium
fusus (Ehrenberg) Dujardin, Ceratium trichoceros
(Ehrenberg) Kofoid, Ceratium tripos (O.F. Mialler)
Nitzsch and Ceratium symmetricum Pavillard have
been found when the day temperature of the surface
water ranged between 24.5–25.2 0 C, pH between
8.0–8.3, salinity between 26–27 ppt, dissolved oxygen
between 4.7–5.2 mg/L and total alkalinity (TA)
between 125–150 mg/L. The least transparency of
the water column was observed to be 39cm during
the course of sampling (Table 1). Relative abundance
was calculated for each species (Table 2), and showed
highest abundance of Ceratium furca, followed by C.
fusus, C. tripos, C. trichoceros and C. symmetricum.
Four out of 10 species of Ceratium, reported from
the Indian Sundarban earlier (Santra et al. 1991; Mitra
et al. 2003; Biswas et al. 2009) was also found in the
present study. The fifth species found in this study, C.
symmetricum (Image 1) was not reported previously
from the Indian Sundarban.
Table 1. The range of physico-chemical parameters
observed during the study period
Parameters
Range
Sea surface temperature ( o C) 24.5–25.2
pH 8.0–8.3
Salinity (ppt) 26–27
Dissolved Oxygen (mg/l) 4.7–5.2
Total Alkalinity (mg/l) 125–150
Secchi depth (cm) 39–151
A. Akhand et al.
Table 2. Relative Abundance (mean ± standard deviation) of
five species of the genus Ceratium Schrank
Name of the species
Relative Abundance (mean±SD)
Ceratium furca 37.7±4.2
Ceratium fusus 24.2±3.5
Ceratium tripos 21.5±4.8
Ceratium trichoceros 13.4±1.2
Ceratium symmetricum 3.2±0.2
Image 1. Ceratium symmetricum
The analytical data of the monthly composite SST
for seven years (2003 to 2009) derived from satellite
images within the study area for the months of January
and February (24.114 and 25.495 0 C respectively)
clearly depicts an increased winter SST in the year
2009, than the previous years (Figs. 2 & 3). The
temperature difference is also maximum between
2008 and 2009 (during January and February), within
the last seven years.
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Ceratium symmetricum in Sundarban
A. Akhand et al.
Figure 2. Change of SST in the month of January from 2003 to 2009 around the study area (1˚ × 1˚)
Figure 3. Change of SST in the month of February from 2003 to 2009 around the study area (1˚ × 1˚)
Discussion and Conclusions
The distributions of C. symmetricum are
comparatively limited and are reported in warm
temperate to tropical waters (Parke & Dixon 1976;
Gil-Rodriguez et al. 2003). The species was reported
from the water column of continental shelf of northern
and northwestern Australia (Hallegraeff & Jeffrey
1984) and northwestern Mediterranean Sea (Tunin-
Ley et al. 2009).
Several types of biological indicators of ecological
change have been suggested, for example, abundance
of individual taxa, functional attributes of the
ecosystem, species assemblages and phenological traits
(Beaugrand 2005). Among the species of Ceratium
found in this study, available literature suggests: C.
furca and C. tripos are perennial, whereas C. fusus
is almost perennial since it may be absent only for a
couple of months. C. trichoceros is one of the species
which is not specifically associated with any depth or
environment (Tunin-Ley et al. 2009). Among these
2696
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Ceratium symmetricum in Sundarban
species, mixotrophic behavior has been observed in C.
furca (Smalley et al. 1999) and C. fusus (Mikaelyan
& Zavyalova 1999). Mixotrophic organisms are
theoretically supposed to be, less dependent on nutrient
availability and irradiance (Tunin-Ley et al. 2009).
Tunin-Ley et al. (2009) have revealed in their
work that the diminished occurrence of certain
Ceratium species during the warm season (in case of
northwestern Mediterranean Sea) in surface water is
an important sign of change. Among these, C. teres,
in the main and C. symmetricum and C. horridum
to a lesser extent, could be proposed as indicators
of warming since they seemed to be limited by a
maximum temperature threshold. The temperature
of the northwestern Mediterranean Sea in the warm
season (23 0 C in summer, 2002, and above 25 0 C in
summer, 2003 (Tunin-Ley et al. 2007) is comparable
to the temperature (24.5–25.2 0 C) of our study area in
the winter as measured during the study period. Thus,
similar inferences can be drawn from the present study
of limited abundance of C. symmetricum in the estuary
and offshore of Indian Sundarban.
Ceratium symmetricum was found to be much
reduced in number (Relative Abundance: 3.2±0.2)
compared to the other four species during winter
(Table 1), indicating its lesser compatibility with the
physico-chemical features, especially with SST in the
study area. The other four species are less responsive
to warming and tolerant of a wide range of physical
condition, whereas the occurrence of a reduced number
of C. symmetricum may be indicative of temperature
rise in the Sundarban estuary and offshore.
It is proposed that, long term monitoring of thermal
preference or sensitivity of species of Ceratium along
with various physicochemical features of water can
be a useful approach for the analysis of the impact of
climate change on the phytoplankton community of
the northern Bay of Bengal. This study, thus, opens
some new avenues for generation of a long term dataset
which would throw some light on various aspects of
Sundarban’s mangrove ecosystem and climate change
induced impact on them.
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JoTT Sh o r t Co m m u n ic a t i o n 4(7): 2699–2704
Reproductive behaviour and population dynamics of the
Indian Flying Fox Pteropus giganteus
Virendra Mathur 1 , Yuvana Satya Priya 2 , Harendra Kumar 3 , Mukesh Kumar 4 &
Vadamalai Elangovan 5
1,2,3,4,5
Department of Applied Animal Sciences, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Vidya Vihar, Rae Bareli Road, Lucknow,
Uttar Pradesh 226025, India
Email: 1 virendra1982@yahoo.com, 2 yuvana76@yahoo.com, 3 k.harendra82@gmail.com, 4 mukesh_comm@yahoo.co.in,
5
elango70@yahoo.com (corresponding author)
Abstract: Reproductive behaviour and population dynamics of
Indian Flying Fox Pteropus giganteus were studied in a maternal
colony in Uttar Pradesh. About 300 individuals of P. giganteus
roosted in the maternal colony during early spring before the
colony expanded during a period of pair formation and mass
copulation, after which the colony size declined gradually to
reach apparent stability. General maintenance behaviours such
as wing fanning, wing stretching, grooming, locomotion, sleeping,
urination and defecation were observed, along with social
behaviours including antagonistic vocal display, courting females
and copulation. Two modes of copulatory behaviour—frontal
and dorsal—were observed. Courtship displays and copulatory
behaviours were observed throughout the day at the diurnal
roost. Peak copulation was observed between 1000 and 1200 hr
and on average each mating held for 90±19.5 sec. P. giganteus
used auditory, olfactory and tactile communications during pre
and post-copulation periods. In contrast to earlier reports, we
observed two mating cycles: spring and autumn. Female bats
involved in copulation during the spring season gave birth at the
beginning of June. Lactating females retained their pups for
three months. Postpartum females were observed to leave their
first cohort and become involved in pair formation and copulation
during the autumn reproductive season of the same year.
Keywords: Colony aggregation, mating season, population size,
Pteropus giganteus, reproductive behaviour.
Date of publication (online): 26 July 2012
Date of publication (print): 26 July 2012
ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print)
Editor: H. Raghuram
Manuscript details:
Ms # o2665
Received 31 December 2010
Final received 08 June 2012
Finally accepted 09 July 2012
OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD
This article is withdrawn by the Journal
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the authors have submitted/published the
same elsewhere
Citation: Mathur, V., Y.S. Priya, H. Kumar, M. Kumar & V. Elangovan (2012).
Reproductive behaviour and population dynamics of the Indian Flying Fox
Pteropus giganteus. Journal of Threatened Taxa 4(7): 2699–2704.
Copyright: © Virendra Mathur, Yuvana Satya Priya, Harendra Kumar,
Mukesh Kumar & Vadamalai Elangovan 2012. Creative Commons Attribution
3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any
medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing
adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication.
Acknowledgements: We thank Prof. G. Marimuthu for his useful comments
that improved the manuscript. VE and YSP received financial support from
CSIR, New Delhi, through a research project (No. 37(1281)/07/EMR-II) and
CSIR Research Associateship, respectively. VM has been supported by the
Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University Research Fellowship.
The Indian Flying Fox Pteropus giganteus is
widely distributed in the tropical region of South
Central Asia from Pakistan to China and as far south
as the Maldive Islands (Nowak 1999). P. giganteus
is a social species, living in a large diurnal roosts
comprising several hundred or thousand individuals,
usually located in well-exposed trees such as Ficus
bengalensis, F. religiosa, Tamarindus indicus,
Mangifera indica, Dalbergia sisso and Eucalyptus
sp. Bats visit many fruiting trees such as M. indica,
Achras sapota, Polyalthia longifolia, P. pendula,
F. bengalensis, F. religiosa, and F. benjamina for
food, and many plants depend on P. giganteus for
pollination and seed dispersal (Nathan et al. 2005).
The Indian Flying Fox is considered sacred in many
parts of India (Marimuthu 1988). The colony size
of P. giganteus varies due to food availability in its
nightly foraging habitat (Parry-Jones & Augee 1991;
Eby 1996; Parry-Jones & Augee 2001; Williams et al.
2006) and aggregation of individuals of both sexes
during mating season (Nelson 1965a; Parry-Jones &
Augee 2001; Holmes 2002).
In terms of population ecology, species with high
natural survival rates tend to show long life expectancy,
delayed sexual maturity, long gestation periods, slow
developmental rates and small litter sizes (Saether &
Bakke 2000). Flying foxes are long-living seasonal
breeders with a well-defined breeding season that is
largely or wholly genetically determined (McIlwee &
Martin 2002). Many species of Pteropus give birth
to a single young per year, e.g. P. vampyrus (Lekagul
& McNeely 1977), P. samoensis (Pierson & Rainey
1992) and P. poliocephalus (Tidemann 1999; Holmes
2002). Earlier studies reported that the Indian flying
fox, P. giganteus, copulates from July to October
and gives birth to one or two young from February
to March, with 140 to 150 days of gestation (Nowak
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Reproductive behaviour of P. giganteus
V. Mathur et al.
1999; Koilraj et al. 2001). Other studies suggest
that P. giganteus gives birth to a single young during
January–March (Neuweiler 1969). An accidental
observation was made on the reproductive behaviour
of P. giganteus during early October in southern India
(Koilraj et al. 2001), and the reproductive behaviour
of a few Indian frugivorous bats has been studied
(Sandhu & Gopalakrishna 1984; Sandhu 1985), yet
despite being the largest and most conspicuous fruit
bat little information is available concerning the
reproductive behavior of the Indian Flying Fox. This
study documents the reproductive behaviour and effect
of reproduction on population dynamics in Pteropus
giganteus under natural conditions.
The study was conducted between January 2007
and October 2008 in a traditional colony located
at Mohanlal Ganj, about 25km south of Lucknow
(26.55 0 N & 80.59 0 E), Uttar Pradesh, India. The
maternal colony was situated in 1400m 2 area botanical
garden established by the Indian Railways under the
scheme of social forestry scheme. The garden consists
of about 3000 Eucalyptus trees and few other trees such
as M. indica, Tectona grandis, Azardirachta indica and
F. religiosa. The garden was surrounded by residential
area, school, market, bus stop and railway station.
There was a goat slaughtering centre just beneath the
noisy colony which attracts a large number of local
people everyday.
Materials and Methods
Study area: A large colony of P. giganteus was
located at Mohanlal Ganj amid human habitation. It
is one of the traditional maternal colonies of Lucknow
District, and while the goat slaughtering centre beneath
the bat colony attracts predatory birds (kites, hawks
This article is withdrawn by the Journal
of Threatened Taxa from its contents as
the authors have submitted/published the
same elsewhere
and crows) predation was not observed. A total of
79 days of observations were carried out during the
study period. Observations on social and reproductive
behaviour were carried out at two distinct breeding
seasons, viz. spring and autumn. Population size was
estimated by counting numbers of individuals on each
roost tree and adding to obtain the total number. Four
trees were selected for studies of mating behaviour,
which was observed from a vantage point between
0600 and 1800 hr using binoculars. Video recordings
were also carried out.
Results
Individuals continuously fanned their wings and
often squawked towards neighboring individuals
during sunny hours, and they were silent with wrapped
wings around their body and head during cloudy hours.
Bats actively groomed their body and wing membrane
using fore and hind claws, mouth and tongue. In
addition, general behaviours such as locomotion, wing
stretching, urination and defecation were also observed
during the study period. Individuals roosting at the top
most stratum of the colony made many circling flights
before the onset of emergence, which was observed
between 1815 and 1900 hr during spring–summer
and between 1750 and 1840 hr during autumn–winter
seasons.
The population of the Mohanlal Ganj maternal
colony was 328±23 during early spring 2007. The
number of individuals in the colony began to increase
steadily with visits by males and after the first week
of February 2007 the colony reached a maximum of
1194±13 individuals (Fig. 1). The peak population
during mid February 2007 coincided with mass
copulation, after which the colony declined to 492±25
due to male emigration (Fig. 1). The bats were quite
silent during the non-reproductive period compared to
the reproductive period, however, they were actively
involved in wing fanning, grooming and shifting of
roosting places. Consistent with the spring breeding,
the population increased steadily from mid July to the
end of August (autumn), when it reached 947±147. In
addition, the peak population during autumn season
synchronized with another mass copulation, after which
the colony size declined steeply until early October
2007. The colony maintained an apparent stability
(653±17) from mid October 2007 to mid January 2008
when individuals were not reproductively active. The
mean population size of the colony during autumn
reproductive season was significantly higher than
spring population size (t = 2.093, p < 0.05). A similar
trend of increase in population size was observed
during spring 2008 reproductive season (Fig. 1).
The first mating season was observed from mid
January to early March (spring), while the second
mating season was observed between early August
and end of September (autumn). The male bats which
occupied the peripheral area frequently shifted their
roosting positions and many of them moved towards
centre of the colony where more females gathered.
2700
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Reproductive behaviour of P. giganteus
V. Mathur et al.
Number of bats
1600
1400
1200
1000
Number of bats
800
600
400
200
0
12/14/06 12/4/06
2/12/07
4/13/07
6/12/07
8/11/07
10/10/07
12/9/07
2/7/08
Date of observation (m/d/y)
Figure 1. Population of Pteropus giganteus in Mohanlal ganj colony during spring (February–March) and autumn (August–
September) breeding seasons.
Date of observation (M/D/Y)
A few individuals made frequent circling flights
over the colony and settled in different positions.
Simultaneously, males started approaching females
by fanning their wings, biting the neck of females
and wrapping them by their wings. In addition, males
tried to maintain physical contact with females by
pulling and touching. In addition, the males snuffled
the vaginal region of females and roost adjacent to
females with erected reproductive organ (Image 1).
The frequency of male’s approach towards females
increased gradually until pair formation. However,
some females ignored the males’ approach and
screamed against the males.
After successful pair formation, both male and
female bats settled about 15cm apart each other.
Thereafter, the male bat approached the female
persistently for about 30 min with physical contact
but the latter did not resist the male’s approach and
moved along the branch. Screaming against the male
happens mainly at the beginning of pair formation.
However, after the continuous approach of male and
pair formation, the female accepts the male for mating.
Thereafter, the male seized the female using wings
and copulation held for 90±19.5 sec. Individuals of P.
giganteus were actively involved in courtship display
and copulation throughout the day, however, peak
copulation was observed at 1100h (Fig. 2). The male
4/7/08
6/6/08
8/5/08
10/4/08
Image 1. Male Flying Fox
12/3/08
2/1/09
© Virendra Mathur
This article is withdrawn by the Journal
of Threatened Taxa from its contents as
the authors have submitted/published the
same elsewhere
P. giganteus was very aggressive during copulation
and produced long cry while the female tried to
release herself from the male using force and screams.
However, the male bat seemed reluctant to release
the female until the completion of copulation. The
male bats licked the scruff, face, and vaginal region
of the females after the completion of copulation. The
reproductively active pairs of P. giganteus resumed
mating after 2–3 h of latency. The copulation in P.
giganteus was observed in two modes viz. frontal and
dorsal, however the frontal mode of copulation was
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Reproductive behaviour of P. giganteus
V. Mathur et al.
6
6
Number of mating
Number of mating
5
4
3
2
1
0
5
4
3
2
1
0
06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00
6:00 8:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00
Time (h:min)
Time (h:min)
Figu r e 2. Temporal variations in the mating frequency of P. giganteus. Values are given as mean±SD.
often observed than the dorsal mounting. During
frontal mode of copulation the male was holding
female’s body and thrusting forcefully while the female
rapidly fluttered its patagium and made shrill calls.
However, during dorsal mode of copulation shrill calls
were observed without wing fluttering. Male intruders
were often observed during pair formation as well as
copulation but they were chased away by the male
partner. However, polygyny was also rarely observed
in P. giganteus. The females which copulated during
spring 2007 had given birth at the beginning of June
2007 and the pups were observed with them until they
were three months old. The females which had given
birth during summer 2007 involved in mating during
autumn 2007 reproductive season. The postpartum
females maintained their summer cohort at their close
proximity but they left their young for a short period
(35–45 min) during mating. Thereafter, the postpartum
females came closer to their young and often wrapped
them with their wings.
Discussion
The results of this study are consistent with the
earlier reports on social and reproductive behaviour
of Flying Foxes (Nelson 1965b; Neuweiler 1969;
Marimuthu 1988; Koilraj et al. 2001; Cayunda et al.
2004). The observed decline in population size of after
the mass copulation suggests the emigration of male
bats and colony segregation, as has been observed in
colonies of P. poliocephalus (Nelson 1965a; Parry-
Jones & Augee 2001; Williams et al. 2006; Sugita
et al. 2009). Among the reproductive behaviours,
copulation is the least observed behaviour in P.
giganteus as observed in other Pteropus (Cayunda et
al. 2004). In accordance to the earlier report (Fenton
1985) bats are ‘K’ strategists which produce relatively
few young per litter and few litters in a year. Temperate
bats are typically monoestrous, while some tropical
species are polyestrous, usually with two litters per
year. However, the available reports on reproductive
behaviour of P. giganteus did not reveal the occurrence
of two reproductive seasons in a year. A detailed study
reported that P. giganteus undergoes mass copulations
between July and October and gives birth during March
(Neuweiler 1969). Consistent with previous reports
mass copulations were observed in the current study
This article is withdrawn by the Journal
of Threatened Taxa from its contents as
the authors have submitted/published the
same elsewhere
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Reproductive behaviour of P. giganteus
V. Mathur et al.
during August–September 2007 and 2008, however,
we also observed another reproductive season during
spring. The duration of pregnancy during both spring
and autumn seasons was similar to an earlier study
(Brosset 1962).
As like other pteropodids, P. giganteus also
exhibited antagonistic behaviour to defend females
against intruding males that live in the colony
(Altringham 1996). Vocalizations and physical
attacks on intruders were also observed during the
mating season of P. poliocephalus (Nelson 1965b).
The vocal displays made by male bats might be a
behavioural approach to advertise their presence
to courting females. The continuous wing fanning
during pair formation might favour the male P.
giganteus to spread the odour from the scent glands.
The shoulder gland secretions of P. giganteus consist
of 65 odorous compounds (Wood et al. 2005). Earlier
report suggests that auditory, olfactory and tactile
stimuli are important before and during copulation
(Fenton 1985). A characteristic release sound made by
females followed by mating suggests mating success
(Bradbury 1977). The constant physical approaches
such as licking the scruff, face and vaginal region of
the females suggest that P. giganteus also use tactile
communication during mating (Marimuthu 1988).
In the current study, reproductively active male bats
snuffled the vaginal region of females at the beginning
of pair bonding, and it suggests that the olfactory
communication plays a crucial role in P. giganteus
reproduction. Similar sorts of tactile and olfactory
approaches were observed during the mating behaviour
of P. vampyrum (Cayunda et al. 2004). Grooming
and licking of genital area were also observed in P.
poliocephalus and the dorsal mode of copulation was
a common posture among Chiroptera (Nelson 1965b;
This article is withdrawn by the Journal
of Threatened Taxa from its contents as
the authors have submitted/published the
same elsewhere
Fenton 1985). However, in the current study mating
was observed by dorsal mode as reported by earlier
observers (Nelson 1965b; Neuweiler 1969), as well as
frontal mode.
Bats live longer than other placental mammals with
respect to their body mass (Bouliere 1958; Austad &
Fischer 1991; Wilkinson & South 2002). Pteropus
giganteus is one among the six species known to
live longer than 30 years (Nowak 1999; Wilkinson &
South 2002) and the longevity of bats is influenced by
reproductive rate (Wilkinson & South 2002). Thus
bats that either produce multiple pups per year have
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | July 2012 | 4(7): 2699–2704
shorter longevity, while those that produce a single
pup per year live longer. In contrast to the prediction
of an earlier study (Wilkinson & South 2002), the
current study reveals multiple reproductive cycles in
P. giganteus, which has a long life span. The present
study substantiates the earlier reports (Neuweiler 1969;
Marimuthu 1988; Koilraj et al. 2001) on reproductive
behaviour of P. giganteus, while noting an additional
reproductive cycle in the population studied.
References
Altringham, J.D. (1996). Bats: Biology and Behaviour. Oxford
University Press, New York, 262pp.
Austad, S.N. & K.E. Fischer (1991). Mammalian aging,
metabolism, and ecology: evidence from the bats and
marsupials. Journal of Gerontology A 46: B47–B53.
Bouliere, F. (1958). The comparative biology of aging. Journal
of Gerontology A 13: 16–24.
Bradbury, J.W. (1977). Lek mating behavior in the hammerheaded
bat. Zeitschrift fur Tierpsychology 45: 225–235.
Brosset, A. (1962). The bats of central and western India.
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 59(3):
707–746.
Cayunda, I.E., B.J.C. Ibañez & S.T. Bastian Jr. (2004).
Roosting behaviour and roost site characterization of
Pteropus vampyrum in Malagos watershed, Davao City.
Agham Mindanaw 2: 61–72.
Eby, P. (1996). Interactions between The Grey-headed Flying-
Fox, Pteropus poliocephalus (Chiroptera: Pteropodidae)
and Its Diet Plants - Seasonal Movements and Seed Dispersa.
Dissertation, University of New England, Armidale.
Fenton, M.B. (1985). Communication in The Chiroptera.
Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 220pp.
Holmes, J.L. (2002). Roosting ecology of the grey-headed
flying fox, Pteropus poliocephalus: spatial distribution in a
summer camp. Ph D Thesis. The University of Tennessee,
Knoxville.
Koilraj, J.A., G. Agoramoorthy & G. Marimuthu (2001).
Copulatory behaviour of Indian Flying Fox Pteropus
giganteus. Current Science 80: 15–16.
Lekagul, B. & J.A. McNeely (1977). Mammals of Thailand.
Association for the Conservation of Wildlife, Bangkok,
758pp.
Marimuthu, G. (1988). The sacred Flying Fox of India. Bats
6: 10–11.
McIlwee, A.P. & L. Martin (2002). On the intrinsic capacity
for increase of Australian Flying Foxes (Pteropus spp.,
Megachiroptera). Zoologist 32: 76–100.
Nathan, P.T., H. Raghuram, V. Elangovan, T. Karuppudurai
& G. Marimuthu (2005). Bat pollination of kapok tree,
Ceiba pentandra. Current Science 88: 1679–1681.
Nelson, J.E.W. (1965a). Movements of Australian Flying
2703

Reproductive behaviour of P. giganteus
V. Mathur et al.
Foxes (Pteropodidae: Megachiroptera). Australian Journal
of Zoology 13: 53–73.
Nelson, J.E.W. (1965b). Behaviour of Australian Pteropodidae
(Megachiroptera). Animal Behaviour 13: 44–557.
Neuweiler, G. (1969). Verhaltensbeobachtungen an einer
Indischen Flughundkolonie (Pteropus g. giganteus).
Zeitschrift fur Tierpsychology 26: 166–199.
Nowak, R. (1999). Walker’s Mammals of The World. The Johns
Hopkins University Press, London, 224pp.
Parry-Jones, K.A. & M.L. Augee (1991). Food Selection
by Grey-Headed Flying Foxes (Pteropus poliocephalus)
occupying a summer colony site near Gosford, New-South-
Wales. Wildlife Research 18: 111–124.
Parry-Jones, K.A. & M.L. Augee (2001). Factors affecting
the occupation of a colony site in Sydney, New South Wales
by the Grey-headed Flying-fox, Pteropus poliocephalus
(Pteropodidae). Australian Ecology 26: 47–55.
Pierson, E.D. & W.E. Rainey (1992). The biology of Flying
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Saether, B.E. & O. Bakke (2000). Avian life history variation
and contribution of demographic traits to the population
growth rate. Ecology 81: 642–653.
Sandhu, S. & A. Gopalakrishna (1984). Some observations
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Video 2. Pair formation of Flying
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Sandhu, S. (1985). Observations on the reproduction and
associated phenomena in the male Fruit Bat, Cynopterus
sphinx (Vahl) in Central India. Journal of the Bombay
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Sugita, N., M. Inaba & K. Ueda (2009). Roosting pattern
and reprodudctive cycle of Bonin Flying Foxes (Pteropus
pselaphon). Journal of Mammalogy 90: 195–202.
Tidemann, C.R. (1999). Biology and management of the Greyheaded
Flying-fox P. poliocephalus. Acta Chiropterologica
1: 151–164.
Wilkinson, G.S. & J.M. South (2002). Life history, ecology
and longevity in bats. Aging Cell 1: 124–131.
Williams, N.S.G., M.J. McDonnell, G.K. Phelan, L.D. Keim
& R.V.D. Ree (2006). Range expansion due to urbanization:
Increased food resources attract Grey-headed Flying-foxes
(Pteropus poliocephalus) to Melbourne. Australian Ecology
31: 190–198.
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Volatile compounds in shoulder gland secretions of male
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Zeitschrift fur Naturforshung 60: 779–784.
This article is withdrawn by the Journal
of Threatened Taxa from its contents as
the authors have submitted/published the
same elsewhere
2704
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | July 2012 | 4(7): 2699–2704

JoTT No t e 4(7): 2705–2708
Conservation of wild orchids in Sri
Krishnadevaraya University Botanic
Garden, Anantapur, Andhra Pradesh,
India
K. Prasad 1 , B. Sadasivaiah 2 , S. Khadar Basha 3 ,
M.V. Suresh Babu 4 , V. Sreenivasa Rao 5 ,
P. Priyadarshini 6 , D. Veeranjaneyulu 7 & B. Ravi
Prasad Rao 8
1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8
Biodiversity Conservation Division, Department of
Botany, Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Anantapur, Andhra
Pradesh 515003, India
Email: 1 prasad.orchids@gmail.com, 2 chum_sada@rediffmail.com,
3
khadar_ced@yahoo.co.in, 4 mvs_ced@rediffmail.com,
5
vendrapati@yahoo.com, 6 priya_ced@rediffmail.com,
7
hanveerobu@gmail.com, 8 biodiversityravi@gmail.com
(corresponding author)
Sri Krishnadevaraya University Botanic Garden
was established in 1975 and is being maintained by
the Department of Botany. The garden extends over
20000sq.m within the university campus and located
10km away from Anantapur City. The garden is
situated at 14 0 36’43.67”N and 77 0 38’42.34”E at an
altitude of 377m. The area receives moderate annual
rainfall of about 538mm and experiences a mean daily
maximum temperature of 28.7 0 C (in summer season
it is 38–40 0 C). The garden currently harbours about
Date of publication (online): 26 July 2012
Date of publication (print): 26 July 2012
ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print)
Editor: K. Ravikumar
Manuscript details:
Ms # o2928
Received 27 August 2011
Final received 06 June 2012
Finally accepted 28 June 2012
Citation: Prasad, K., B. Sadasivaiah, S.K. Basha, M.V.S. Babu, V.S. Rao,
P. Priyadarshini, D. Veeranjaneyulu & B.R.P. Rao (2012). Conservation of
wild orchids in Sri Krishnadevaraya University Botanic Garden, Anantapur,
Andhra Pradesh, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 4(7): 2705–2708.
Copyright: © K. Prasad, B. Sadasivaiah, S. Khadar Basha, M.V. Suresh
Babu, V. Sreenivasa Rao, P. Priyadarshini, D. Veeranjaneyulu & B. Ravi
Prasad Rao 2012. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.
JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-profit
purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the
authors and the source of publication.
Acknowledgements: The authors are grateful to the Department of
Biotechnology (BT/PR6603/NDB/ 51/089/2005), New Delhi for financial
assistance. Thanks are due to Andhra Pradesh Forest Department officials
for their help in field work.
OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD
300 indigenous and exotic taxa
including endemics. Orchids
collected from different parts
of the Eastern Ghats are being
maintained by the research group of Biodiversity
Conservation Division (BCD) of the Department of
Botany.
Orchids are one of the largest groups in the plant
kingdom comprising 22,075 species (APG 2009), of
which 1331 taxa are found in India (Misra 2007). In
the state of Andhra Pradesh, 77 species have so far
been reported to occur in different habitats (Raju et al.
2008), however, most of them are encountered in the
forests of the Eastern Ghats. Orchids are experiencing
major threats in terms of habitat destruction due to
over grazing, forest fires, encroachment of forest land
for agriculture and plantation purposes. This situation
in Andhra Pradesh prompted the ex situ maintenance
of selected orchid species in the botanic garden.
At present, 32 orchid species collected from
different parts of the Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh
are being maintained in the botanic garden green
house and the epiphytic ones are on trees within the
garden premises (Table 1). Of the 32 species, 13 are
epiphytic and 19 are terrestrial ones. The terrestrial
orchids are potted by using red soil mixed with pieces
of brick, charcoal and manure (3:2:2:3). The epiphytic
orchids are grown in pots using bricks, charcoal, coir
pieces with fresh cattle dung (3:3:2:2) and are tied on
the trunk of living trees with the help of a gunny-bag
fill of the above materials (Image 1). Watering of the
plants is done every day in summer and every 2–3
days in a week during the rainy season.
Of the 32 orchid species, five are endemic
to India (Ahmedullah et al. 1986) and they are:
Cirrhopetalum neilgherrense, Habenaria longicornu,
H. panigrahiana, H. rariflora and H. roxburghii;
Cirrhopetalum neilgherrense is categorised as
Vulnerable (Nayar & Sastry 2000); Eulophia graminea
is relocated after eight decades in Andhra Pradesh
(Sadasivaiah et al. 2010); one species, Eulophia
flava is a new distributional record for the Eastern
Ghats (Rao et al. 2010); Geodorum recurvum is a
new record for the southern Eastern Ghats (Prasad &
Rao 2010); Habenaria panigrahiana, Liparis nervosa
and L. paradoxa are new distributional records for
Andhra Pradesh (Sadasivaiah et al. 2009; Prasad et al.
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | July 2012 | 4(7): 2705–2708 2705

Wild orchids in SKUBG
K. Prasad et al.
Table 1. List of orchids conserved in Sri Krishnadevaraya University Botanic Garden
Binomial
Habit
Distribution in Andhra
Pradesh
Endemic/
Threat status
1 Acampe praemorsa (Roxb.) Blatter & McCann E Ch, Eg, Ku, Pr, Sr, Vi & Wg +
2 Aerides odorata Lour. E Eg, Vi & Wg
3 Cirrhopetalum neilgherrense Wight E Ch PI-VU +
4 Cymbidium aloifolium (L.) Sw. E Ch, Eg, Sr, Ne, Vi, Wg & Vj +
5 Dendrobium aphyllum (Roxb.) C.E.C. Fischer E Eg, Sr & Vi
6 Dendrobium macrostachyum Lindley E Ch, Ku & Vi +
7 Eulophia epidendraea (Koenig ex Retz.) C.E.C. Fischer T Ch, Ka, Ne, Sr & Vi +
8 Eulophia flava (Lindley) Hook. f. T Ch & Ka
9 Eulophia graminea Lindley T Ch, Ka, Ma & Ne
10 Eulophia explanta Lindley T Eg & Vi
11 Eulophia sp. T Pr
12 Geodorum densiflorum (Lam.) Schltr. T Common +
13 Geodorum recurvum (Roxb.) Alston T Eg, Ku, Ma, Pr & Vi
14 Goodyera procera (Ker-Gawler) Hook. T Ch, Ka & Vi
15 Habenaria longicornu Lindley T Ch PI +
16 Habenaria panigrahiana S. Misra T Ch, Eg & Ku PI
17 Habenaria rariflora A.Rich T Ch SI
18 Habenaria roxburghii R. Br. T Ad, Ku, Me, Ne, Ni & Vj IND +
19 Liparis deflexa Hook. f. T Eg & Ku
20 Liparis nervosa (Thunb.) Lindley T Ch & Vi
21 Liparis paradoxa (Lindley) Reichb. f. T Ch & Ku
22 Luisia trichorhiza (Hook.) Blume E Eg, Ku & Vi +
23 Nervilia aragoana Gaudich. T Eg, Kh, Ku, Vi &Vj +
24 Nervilia crociformis (Zoll. & Moritzi) Seidenf. T Eg & Vi
25 Oberonia ensiformis (Sm.) Lindley E Eg, Sr, Vi & Vj
26 Oberonia mucronata (D.Don) Ormer. & Seidenf. E Sr, Vi & Vj
27 Polystachya concreta (Jacq.) Garay & Sweet E Vi
28 Rhynchostylis retusa (L.) Blume E Eg, Sr & Vi +
29 Seidenfia versicolor (Lindl.) Marg . & Szlach T Ch, Eg, Sr & Vi +
30 Vanda tessellata (Roxb.) Hook. ex G. Don E Common +
31 Vanda testacea (Lindley) Reichb. f. E
32 Vanilla walkeriae Wight V Eg & Ch
Ch, Eg, Ku, Ma, Ne, Sr, Vi
& Vj
Medicinal
value
Habit: (E - Epiphyte, T - Terrestrial, V - Vine); Distribution in Andhra Pradesh: (Ad - Adilabad, Ch - Chittoor, Eg - East Godavari, Kh - Khammam, Ka
- Kadapa, Ku - Kurnool, Ma - Mahaboobnagar, Me - Medak, Ne - Nellore, Ni - Nizamabad, Pr - Prakasam, Sr - Srikakulam, Vi - Visakhapatnam, Vj -
Vijayanagaram, Wg - West Godavari); Endemics/Threat status: (IND - India, PI - Peninsular India, SI - South India, VU - Vulnerable).
+
2010). Of the 32 species, 14 species are reported with
medicinal values (Reddy et al. 2005; Raju et al. 2008).
All the 32 species are listed in Table 1 with their habit,
distribution pattern in Andhra Pradesh, endemic status
and medicinal value.
REFERENCES
Ahmedullah, M. & M.P. Nayar (1986). Endemic Plants of
the Indian Region—Vol. 1. Botanical Survey of India, New
Delhi, 261pp.
APG (2009). An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group
classification for the orders and families of flowering plants:
APG III. Bot. Journal of Linnean Society 161: 105–121.
Misra, S. (2007). Orchids of India - A Glimpse. Bishen Singh
2706
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | July 2012 | 4(7): 2705–2708

Wild orchids in SKUBG
K. Prasad et al.
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
Image 1. a & b - Interior of the Garden; c - Cymbidium aloifolium; d - Dendrobium aphyllum; e - Eulophia flava;
f - Goodyera procera; g - Liparis paradoxa; h - Oberonia ensiformis. © BCD Group
h
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | July 2012 | 4(7): 2705–2708
2707

Wild orchids in SKUBG
Mahendra Pal Sing, Dehra Dun, India, 390pp.
Nayar, M.P. & A.R.K. Sastry (2000). Red Data Book of
Indian Plants—Vol. 1. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta,
367pp.
Prasad, K., M.V.S. Babu, B. Sadasivaiah & B.R.P. Rao
(2010). Two species of Liparis L.C. Richard (Orchidaceae),
new distributional records to Andhra Pradesh, India. The
Journal of the Economic Taxonomic Botany 34(3): 514–
516.
Prasad, K. & B.R.P. Rao (2010). Geodorum recurvum, new
distribution record to southern Eastern Ghats of India.
Indian Journal of Forestry 33(1): 119–121.
Raju, V.S., C.S. Reddy, K.N. Reddy, K.S. Rao & B. Bahadur
(2008). Orchid Wealth of Andhra Pradesh. Proceedings of
Andhra Pradesh Akademi of Sciences 12(1&2): 180–192.
Rao, B.R.P., B. Sadasivaiah, K. Prasad, S.K. Basha, A.
K. Prasad et al.
Miria, A.B. Khan & M.V.S. Babu (2010). Eulophia flava
(Lindl.) Hook.f. (Orchidaceae), in Eastern Ghats, India.
Indian Journal of Forestry 33(3): 403–404.
Reddy, K.N., G.V. Subbaraju, C.S. Reddy & V.S. Raju
(2005). Ethnobotany of certain orchids of Eastern Ghats of
Andhra Pradesh. EPTRI-ENVIS Newsletter 11(3): 5–9.
Sadasivaiah, B., K. Prasad, V.S. Rao & B.R.P. Rao (2009).
Habenaria panigrahiana S. Misra - a new distributional
record to Andhra Pradesh, India. The Journal of the Swamy
Botanical Club 26: 1–2.
Sadasivaiah, B., K. Prasad, S.K. Basha, M.V.S. Babu, V.S.
Rao & B.R.P. Rao (2010). Eulophia graminea Lindl., E.
ochreata Lindl. and Habenaria barbata Wight ex Hook.f.
- Relocated in Andhra Pradesh after Eight Decades. Indian
Journal of Forestry 33(2): 211–214.
2708
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | July 2012 | 4(7): 2705–2708

JoTT No t e 4(7): 2709–2712
First record of the Long-horned
Beetle Sarothrocera lowii White, 1846
(Cerambycidae: Lamiinae: Lamiini)
from India
Hemant V. Ghate 1 , Sophio Riphung 2 &
N.S.A. Thakur 3
1
Head, Department of Zoology, Modern College, Shivajinagar,
Pune, Maharashtra 411005, India
2
Plant Protection Officer (Entomology), Central Integrated Pest
Management Centre, Opp. Commerce, R.G. Buruah Road,
Guwahati, Assam 781003, India
3
Pricipal Scientist and HOD, Division of Entomology, Indian
Council for Agricultural Research, Umaim, Meghalaya 793103,
India
Email: 1 hemantghate@gmail.com (corresponding author),
2
sophioriphung@gmail.com, 3 nsa_thakur@yahoo.com
The cerambycid fauna of India is quite rich.
Beeson (1941) stated the number of species to be
greater than 1200, and several hundred species have
been described since then. A comprehensive and upto-date
work listing all known species has not been
published so far. Gahan (1906) compiled the ‘non-
Lamiinae’ subfamilies as the ‘Fauna of British India’
Date of publication (online): 26 July 2012
Date of publication (print): 26 July 2012
ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print)
Editor: Francesco Vitali
Manuscript details:
Ms # o2890
Received 26 July 2011
Final received 06 May 2012
Finally accepted 04 June 2012
Citation: Ghate, H.V., S. Riphung & N.S.A. Thakur (2012). First record of
the Long-horned Beetle Sarothrocera lowii White, 1846 (Cerambycidae:
Lamiinae: Lamiini) from India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 4(7): 2709–
2712.
Copyright: © Hemant V. Ghate, Sophio Riphung & N.S.A. Thakur
2012. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows
unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-profit purposes,
reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors
and the source of publication.
Acknowledgements: The authors are grateful to the Indian Council for
Agricultural Research, Delhi, for its support through NPIB project at North
East Region, Umiam, and to the Department of Zoology, Modern College,
Pune, for providing facilities related with identification. HVG is particularly
grateful to Mr. Carolus Holzschuh, Villach (Austria) and Mr. Daniel J.
Heffern, Houston (USA) for their continuous support in work on this group.
We are also grateful to Mr. Francesco Vitali (Luxembourg) for his generous
help with literature, encouragement and comments on the first draft of this
paper. The work on Cerambycidae was supported by a grant from BCUD,
Pune University.
OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD
volume, but in spite of the fact that
they are numerous and difficult to
diagnose, Lamiinae are not yet
put in a single volume and hence
identification of its members is a difficult task.
While studying the collection of Cerambycidae
from northeastern India, we have come across a
species (Ukhrul District, Manipur, ix.2009, coll. S.
Riphung, presently preserved in Modern College,
Pune, Maharashtra 411005, as NE-Ceramb 25) that is
not recorded from Indian territories before.
This species has been identified as a female of
Sarothrocera lowii White, 1846 on the basis of keys by
Rondon & von Breuning (1970). Detailed characters
of the species, as given by the original author (White
1846), and the diagnosis given by Pascoe (1866) were
also checked. In addition, the characters given by von
Breuning (1943) were confirmed.
White (1846) described the genus Sarothrocera to
accommodate a species from Borneo collected by Mr.
Hugh Low, as Sarothrocera lowii. In brief, diagnosis
of the genus given by White is: “Antennae with the
first joint thick and furnished at the end on the inside
with a tuft of hairs, 2 nd joint very small, with one or
two hairs, 3 rd to 7 th joints behind fringed with longish
hairs, the hairs on the 3 rd & 4 th very thickly distributed
and extending over a considerable part of hind edge.
Thorax alomost as long as wide, with a short spine
on each side. Legs with the femora compressed,
especially above; the tibiae much compressed, slender
at the base, getting thicker towards the middle, and
then dilated at the end, with the sides nearly parallel,
etc.” White mentions of color as “of a rich brown,
slightly tinged with ochraceous, the scutellum is of
pale yellow; the base of the elytra is verrucose above,
the small warts not extending the middle, etc.” (Image
1).
Later, von Breuning (1943) provided additional
features, some of which are: “…head non retractile;
pronotum transverse with prominent lateral spines;
antennae robust, one-fourth or more longer in female
or twice longer than body in male. Scape and following
antennomeres II-VIII densely covered with long black
hairs. Scape moderately long, very strong, with
complete cicatrix; 3 rd article longer than 4 th , threefourth
longer than scape; antennal tubercles close,
very elevated; eyes coarsely faceted, inferior lobe
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | July 2012 | 4(7): 2709–2712 2709

First record of Sarothrocera lowii
H.V. Ghate et al.
© H.V. Ghate © H.V. Ghate
Image 1. Sarothrocera lowii White, dorsal view of female
longer than broad; elytra elongated, convex, rounded
at the apex; prosternal process short, feebly elevated;
legs moderately long, very robust; protibiae flattened,
metatibiae with a dorsal furrow, claws divaricated..” .
In ventral view, the body appears to be covered with
thin recumbent light brown pubescence (Image 2). In
lateral view (Image 3), one can see dense antennal
hairs from scape to 8 th antennomere, a character seen
in female; in male the dense hairs are present only
up to the base of 4 th antennomere, as pointed out by
Breuning (1943) and Rondon & Breuning (1970).
The frontal close-up of head (Image 4) shows nature
of antennal tubercles and shape of the forehead, while
the dorsal close-up of head and pronotum (Image 5)
reveals a furrow between the eyes, lateral prothoracic
spine and tongue-like scutellum.
Rondon & von Breuning (1970) mentioned its
distribution to be in Myanmar, Indonesia and Laos.
Borneo, Sumatra and West Malaysia are additional
known places where this beetle is found (Breuning
1943).
Mukhopadhyay & Halder (2004) first compiled
Image 2. Sarothrocera lowii White, ventral view
the list of Cerambycidae from Manipur. This list
was based on earlier collection records as well as
fresh surveys and it contains 43 species belonging to
33 genera and five subfamilies. Only eight of them
belonged to the Lamiinae and S. lowii was not among
the species mentioned therein. Hence, the species
becomes the first record for Manipur.
Similarly, publications on Cerambycidae of the
other regions of northeastern India also did not record
the presence of S. lowii. Sengupta & Sengupta (1981)
listed nine Lamiinae-species from Arunachal Pradesh,
Mukhopadhyay & Biswas (2000b) listed eight species
from Tripura, Mukhopadhyay & Biswas (2000a)
compiled the list of Cerambycidae from Meghalaya
including 48 Lamiinae; and Mukhopadhyay & Halder
(2003) listed 44 Lamiinae from Sikkim. These lists
were based on earlier collection records as well as
fresh surveys in most cases and do not mention S.
lowii. Since this species is not known from any other
2710
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First record of Sarothrocera lowii
H.V. Ghate et al.
© H.V. Ghate
Image 3. Sarothrocera lowii White, lateral view
© H.V. Ghate
© H.V. Ghate
Image 4. Sarothrocera lowii White, frontal view of the head
region of India, it is also an addition to the Indian
Cerambycidae fauna.
According to Beeson (1941), the beetles emerge in
May-July and the host-plants are Engelhardtia spicata
Lesch. ex Blume (Juglandaceae) and Stereospermum
suaveolens DC. (Bignoniaceae).
Image 5. Sarothrocera lowii White, head and pronotum,
dorsal view
REFERENCES
Beeson, C.F.C. (1941). The Ecology and Control of the
Forest Insects of India and the Neighbouring Countries.
(1993-Edition by Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh,
Dehradun), 1007pp.
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | July 2012 | 4(7): 2709–2712
2711

First record of Sarothrocera lowii
Gahan, C.J. (1906). Fauna of British India including Ceylon
and Burma, Coleoptera Vol. I (Cerambycidae). Taylor &
Francis, London, 329pp.
Mukhopadhyay, P. & S. Biswas (2000a). Coleoptera:
Cerambycidae, pp. 41–67. In: Director, Zoological Survey
of India (ed.). Zoological Survey of India, State Fauna
Series 4, Fauna of Meghalaya, Part 5, 666pp.
Mukhopadhyay, P. & S. Biswas (2000b). Coleoptera:
Cerambycidae, pp. 139–142. In: Director, Zoological
Survey of India (Ed.), Zoological Survey of India, State
Fauna Series 7, Fauna of Tripura, Part 3, 390pp.
Mukhopadhyay, P. & S.K. Halder (2003). Insecta: Coleoptera:
Cerambycidae, pp. 181–199. In: Director, Zoological
Survey of India (Ed.), Zoological Survey of India, State
Fauna Series 9, Fauna of Sikkim, Part 3, 411pp.
Mukhopadhyay, P. & S.K. Halder (2004). Insecta: Coleoptera:
Cerambycidae, pp. 421–431. In: Director, Zoological
Survey of India (Ed.), Zoological Survey of India, State
Fauna Series 10, Fauna of Manipur, Part 2, 625pp.
H.V. Ghate et al.
Pascoe, F. P. (1864–1869). Longicornia Malayana. Transactions
of the Entomological Society of London Third Series, Vol. III
(all parts I–VII combined) 712pp + plates (the description
of Sarothrocera lowii was published in 1866, vol. 3, part
III).
Rondon, J.A. & S. von Breuning (1970). Lamiines du Laos.
pp. 315–571. In: Gressitt, J.L., Rondon J.A. & S. Breuning,
von, Cerambycid-beetles of Laos (Longicornes du Laos).
Pacific Insects’ Monograph 24, Bernice P. Bishop Museum,
Hawaii, USA, 651pp.
Sengupta, C.K. & T. Sengupta (1981). Cerambycidae
(Coleoptera) of Arunachal Pradesh. Records of Zoological
Survey of India 78: 133–154.
White, A. (1846). Description of four apparently new species of
Longicorn Beetles in the collection of the British Museum.
Annals and Magazine of Natural History XVIII: 47–49.
von Breuning, S. (1943). Études sur les Lamiaires, Douzième
tribu: Agniini Thomson. Novitates Entomologicae 3 rd
supplement 106: 273–280.
2712
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | July 2012 | 4(7): 2709–2712

JoTT No t e 4(7): 2713–2717
Butterfly species diversity, relative
abundance and status in Tropical
Forest Research Institute, Jabalpur,
Madhya Pradesh, central India
Ashish D. Tiple
Forest Entomology Division, Tropical Forest Research Institute,
Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh 482021, India
Deparment of Zoology, Vidyabharati College Seloo, Wardha,
Maharashtra 442104, India
Email: ashishdtiple@yahoo.co.in
The Tropical Forest Research Institute (TFRI)
Jabalpur is one of nine institutes under the Indian Council
of Forestry Research and Education. It lies on the bank
of the Gour River on Mandla Road (79 0 59’23.50”E
& 21 0 08’54.30”N) about 10km southeast of Jabalpur.
The campus is spread over an area of 109ha amidst
picturesque surroundings (Image 1); semi-arid with
mean annual precipitation of 1358mm. The campus is
surrounded by agricultural fields with rural habitation.
The water reservoir and the vegetation planted around
the institute have created a very good habitat and source
of attraction for many faunal species like insects,
reptiles, birds and mammals (Tiple et al. 2010). The
area has trees, shrubs, grasslands and small hills.
Butterflies are generally regarded as one of the
best taxonomically studied groups of insects (Robbins
Date of publication (online): 26 July 2012
Date of publication (print): 26 July 2012
ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print)
Editor: B.A. Daniel
Manuscript details:
Ms # o2656
Received 23 December 2010
Final received 13 April 2012
Finally accepted 22 June 2012
Citation: Tiple, A.D. (2012). Butterfly species diversity, relative abundance
and status in Tropical Forest Research Institute, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh,
central India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 4(7): 2713–2717.
Copyright: © Ashish D. Tiple 2012. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0
Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium
for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate
credit to the authors and the source of publication.
Acknowledgements: Thanks to Dr. K.C. Joshi and Dr. Nitin Kulkarni,
Senior Scientist, Tropical Forest Research Institute, Jabalpur for valuable
suggestions and providing facilities. I am also thankful to Mr. Sanjay
Paunikar, for his assistance during the field survey.
OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD
& Opler 1997), yet even in
genera containing very common
and widespread species, our
understanding of true species
diversity may prove to be startlingly below common
expectation (Ackery 1987; Tiple & Khurad 2009;
Willmott et al. 2001).
Butterflies are an important aspect of ecosystems for
they interact with plants as pollinators and herbivores
(Tiple et al. 2006). Butterflies are also good indicators
of environmental changes as they are sensitive to habitat
degradation and climate changes (Kunte 2000).
The Indian subcontinent hosts about 1,504 species
of butterflies (Tiple 2011) of which peninsular India and
the Western Ghats host 351 and 334 species respectively.
In Madhya Pradesh and Vidarbha of central India 177
species of butterfly species have been documented
(D’Abreu 1931).
Subsequent works and fauna volumes include
several species from Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh
(Evans 1932; Talbot 1939, 1947; Wynter-Blyth 1957).
In the recent past, several researchers have studied
butterflies from some districts and conservation areas
of Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh (Singh 1977;
Gupta 1987; Chaudhury 1995; Chandra et al. 2000a,b;
2002; Singh & Chandra 2002; Siddiqui & Singh 2004;
Chandra 2006). Chandra et al. (2007) recorded 174
species of butterflies belonging to eight families from
Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh.
The present study was started to examine the
diversity of butterflies from TFRI Campus, since there
was no known published checklist of butterflies in the
TFRI campus.
Materials and Methods
The findings presented here are based on a bi-weekly
random survey carried out from June 2008 to May 2009
at the TFRI campus. The observations were made from
0800hr to 1100hr, which is a peak time for butterfly
activity. Butterflies were Primarily identified directly
in the field or, in difficult cases, following capture or
photography. In critical conditions, specimens were
collected only with handheld aerial sweep nets. Each
specimen was placed in a plastic bottle and carried to
the laboratory for further identification with the help of
a field guide (Wynter-Blyth 1957; Kunte 2000; Haribal
2002). All scientific names followed in the present
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | July 2012 | 4(7): 2713–2717 2713

Butterfly of TFRI Jabalpur
A.D. Tiple
Image 1. Satellite overview map of study locality
study are in accordance to Varshney (1983). The
observed butterflies were categorized in five categories
on the basis of their abundance in the TFRI campus.
VC - very common (> 100 sightings), C - common (50–
100 sightings), NR - not rare (15–50 sightings), R - rare
(2–15 sightings), VR - very rare (1–2 sightings) (Tiple
et al. 2006).
Results and Discussion
A total of 66 species of butterflies belonging to 47
genera and five families viz.,—Papilionidae (5 species),
Pieridae (9 species), Nymphalidae (25 species),
Lycaenidae (18 species) and Hesperiidae (9 species)—
were recorded. Among these 65 species, 24 (37%) were
commonly occurring, 16 (24%) were very common, 2
(3%) were not rare, 18 (27%) were rare and 6 (9%)
were very rare. The observed species and their status
on the TFRI campus is presented in Table 1. Five of
the recorded species (Table 1) come under the Indian
Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 (Kunte 2000; Gupta &
Mondal 2005).
Among the 66 species of butterflies, Papilio
demoleus, Catopsilia pomona, Eurema hecabe, Danaus
chrysippus, Euploea core, Hypolimnas misippus,
Junonia lemonias, Melanitis leda, Tirumala limniace,
Catochrysops strabo, Prosotas nora, Borbo cinnara,
Pelopidas mathias were present throughout the year
(January–December), whereas 53 species were observed
only from June-July till the beginning of summer
(April–May). Increasing species abundance from the
beginning of the monsoons (June–July) till early winter
(August–November) and decline in species abundance
from late winter (January–February) to the end of
summer (Fig. 1) have also been reported by Tiple et al.
(2007) and Tiple & Khurad (2009) in similar climatic
conditions in this region of central India. They further
demonstrated that most of the species were noticeably
absent in the disturbed and human impacted sites
(gardens, plantation and grassland) and there was no
occurrence of unique species in moderately disturbed
areas comparable to those of less disturbed wild areas.
The present study site is in constant disturbance due to
the cutting of grasses, shrubs and trees for landscaping
which may be the reason for the overall reduction of the
2714
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | July 2012 | 4(7): 2713–2717

Butterfly of TFRI Jabalpur
A.D. Tiple
Table 1. List of butterflies recorded from TFRI Campus together with common name and status
Common name
Scientific name
Occurrence
(months)
Status
Papilionidae (5)
Spot Swordtail Graphium nomius (Esper) 4–7 R
Common Rose Pachliopta aristolochiae (Fabricius) 7–3 NR
Crimson Rose Pachliopta hector (Linnaeus)* 8–1 R
Lime Papilio demoleus Linnaeus 1–12 VC
Common Mormon Papilio polytes Linnaeus 7–2 C
Pieridae (9)
Pioneer Anaphaeis aurota (Fabricius) 11–2 R
Lemon Emigrant Catopsilia pomona (Fabricius) 1–12 VC
Mottled Emigrant Catopsilia pyranthe (Linnaeus) 7–12 C
Common Gull Cepora nerissa (Fabricius) 7–2 R
Common Jezebel Delias eucharis (Linnaeus) 9–3 C
Three-Spot Grass Yellow Eurema blanda (Boisduval) 7–11 R
Common Grass Yellow Eurema hecabe (Linnaeus) 1–12 VC
Spotless Grass Yellow Eurema laeta (Boisduval) 4–8 C
Psyche Leptosia nina (Fabricius) 11–12 R
Nymphalidae (25)
Tawny Coster Acraea violae (Fabricius) 6–12 C
Angled Castor Ariadne ariadne (Linnaeus) 6–11 C
Black Rajah Charaxes solon (Fabricius) 8–9 VR
Painted Lady Cynthia cardui (Linnaeus) 9–3 C
Plain Tiger Danaus chrysippus (Linnaeus) 1–12 VC
Striped Tiger Danaus genutia (Cramer) 9–6 VC
Common Indian Crow Euploea core (Cramer)* 1–12 VC
Common Baron Euthalia aconthea (Cramer) 6 VR
Baronet Euthalia nais (Forster) 8–2 VC
Great Eggfly Hypolimnas bolina (Linnaeus) 6–1 C
Danaid Eggfly Hypolimnas misippus (Linnaeus)* 1–12 C
Peacock Pansy Junonia almanac (Linnaeus) 6–1 C
Grey Pansy Junonia atlites (Linnaeus) 8–3 R
Yellow Pansy Junonia hierta (Fabricius) 2 VR
Chocolate Pansy Junonia iphita (Cramer) 6–11 C
Lemon Pansy Junonia lemonias (Linnaeus) 1–12 VC
Blue Pansy Junonia orithya (Linnaeus) 9–3 C
Commander Limenitis procris (Cramer) 9–10 R
Common Evening Brown Melanitis leda (Linnaeus) 1–12 VC
Dark Branded Bushbrown Mycalesis mineus (Linnaeus) 6–11 C
Common Bushbrown Mycalesis perseus (Fabricius) 6–3 VC
Common Sailer Neptis hylas (Linnaeus) 7–12 VC
Common Leopard Phalanta phalantha (Drury) 6–1 VC
Blue Tiger Tirumala limniace (Cramer) 1–12 VC
Common Five Ring Ypthima baldus (Fabricius) 6–10 VR
Lycaenidae (18)
Plum Judy Abisara echerius (Stoll) 9–10 R
Large Oakblue Arhopala amantes (Hewitson) 10–2 R
Common Pierrot Castalius rosimon (Fabricius) 6–7 R
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | July 2012 | 4(7): 2713–2717
2715

Butterfly of TFRI Jabalpur
A.D. Tiple
Common name
Scientific name
Occurrence
(months)
Forget-Me-Not Catochrysops strabo (Fabricius) 1–12 C
Plains Cupid Chilades pandava (Horsfield) 6–2 C
Small Cupid Chilades parrhasius (Butler) 10–11 R
Lime Blue Chilades laius (Stoll) 7–9 C
Eastern grass Jewel Chilades pulti Kollar 6–2 C
Gram Blue Euchrysops cnejus (Fabricius)* 7–12 NR
Dark Cerulean Jamides bochus (Stoll) 8–9 VR
Pea Blue Lampides boeticus (Linnaeus)* 9–2 C
Zebra Blue Leptotes plinius Fabricius 7–9 C
Common Line Blue Prosotas nora (C. Felder) 1–12 C
Pale Grass Blue Psuedozizeeria maha (Kollar) 7 R
Common Silverline Spindasis vulcanus (Fabricius) 6–1 VC
Rounded Pierrot Tarucus nara Kollar 6–12 C
Lesser Grass Blue Zizina otis (Fabricius) 6–11 R
Tiny Grass Blue Zizula hylax (Fabricius) 6–8 R
Status
Hesperiidae (9)
Brown Awl Badamia exclamationis (Fabricius) 6–10 VC
Rice Swift Borbo cinnara (Wallace) 1–12 C
Blank Swift Caltoris kumara (Moore) 8–10 R
Tricolour Pied Flat Coladenia indrani (Moore) 6–9 C
Common Banded Awl Hasora chromus (Cramer) 6–10 VC
Dark Palm Dart Telicota ancilla (Herrich–Schaffer) 8–12 R
Pale Palm Dart Telicota colon (Fabricius) 8–9 VR
Small-Branded Swift Pelopidas mathias (Fabricius) 1–12 C
Indian Skipper Spialia galba (Fabricius) 8–10 R
VC - very common (> 100 sightings); C - common (50–100 sightings); NR - not rare (15–50 sightings); R - rare (2–15 sightings); VR - very rare (1-2
sightings); * - Listed in Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972
number of species.
The findings of the present study underline the
importance of institutional estates as a preferred habitat
for butterflies. If the landscaping and maintenance
of gardens are carefully planned, the diversity of
butterflies may increase in the TFRI campus providing
a rich ground for butterfly conservation as well as for
research.
REFERENCE
Ackery, P.R. (1987). Diversity and phantom competition in
African acraeine butterflies. Biological Journal of the
Linnean Society 30: 291–297.
Chandra, K., R.M. Sharma, A. Singh & R.K. Singh (2007). A
checklist of butterflies of Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh
States, India. Zoos’ Print Journal 22(8): 2790–2798.
Chandra, K., R.K. Singh & M.L. Koshta (2000a). On a
collection of butterflies (Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera) from
Sidhi District, Madhya Pradesh, India. Records of Zoological
Survey of India 98(4): 11–23.
Chandra, K., R.K. Singh & M.L. Koshta (2000b). On a
collection of Butterfly fauna from Pachmarhi Biosphere
Reserve. Proceedings of National Seminar on Biodiversity
Conservation 8 Management with Special Reference on
Biosphere Reserve, EPCO, Bhopal, November, 72–77pp.
Chandra, K., L.K. Chaudhary, R.K. Singh & M.L. Koshta
(2002). Butterflies of Pench Tiger Reserve, Madhya Pradesh.
Zoos’ Print Journal 17(10): 908–909.
Chandra, K. (2006). The Butterflies (Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera)
of Kangerghati National Park (Chhattisgarh). Advancement
in Indian Entomology: Productivity and Health, Vol. II, 83–
88pp.
Chaudhury, M. (1995). Insecta: Lepidoptera, Fauna of
Conservation Area: Fauna of Indravati Tiger Reserve.
Zoological Survey of India 6: 45–52.
D’Abreu, E. A. (1931). The Central Provinces Butterfly List.
Records of the Nagpur Museum Number VII, Government
Printing City Press, 39pp.
2716
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | July 2012 | 4(7): 2713–2717

Butterfly of TFRI Jabalpur
A.D. Tiple
Dec
Nov
Oct
Sep
Aug
Jul
Jun
May
Apr
Mar
Feb
Jan
5 15 25 35 45 55 65
Number of species
Figure 1. The variations of species composition throughout the year in Tropical Forest Research Institute, Jabalpur
Evans, W.H. (1932). The Identification of Indian Butterflies. 2nd
Edition. Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai, 454pp.
Gupta, I.J. & D.K. Mondal (2005). Red Data Book—Part II:
Buttrflies of India. Zoological Society of India, Kolkata,
535pp.
Gupta, I.J. 8 J.P.N. Shukla (1987). Butterflies from Bastar
district (Madhya Pradesh, India). Records of Zoological
Survey of India, Occasional Paper 106: 1–74.
Haribal, M. (1992). The Butterflies of Sikkim Himalaya and their
Natural History. Sikkim Nature Conservation Foundation
(SNCF), Sikkim, 217pp.
Kunte, K. (2000). Butterflies of Peninsular India. Universities
Press (Hyderabad) and Indian Academy of Sciences
(Bangalore), 254pp.
Siddiqui, A. & S.P. Singh (2004). A checklist of the butterfly
diversity of Panna Forest (M.P). National Journal of Life
Sciences 1(2): 403–406.
Singh, R.K. & K. Chandra (2002). An inventory of butterflies
of Chhattisgarh. Journal of Tropical Forestry 18(1): 67–74.
Singh, R.K. (1977). On a collection of butterflies (Insecta) from
Bastar district, Madhya Pradesh, India. Newsletter Zoological
Survey of India 3(5): 323–326.
Talbot, G. (1939). The Fauna of British India including Ceylon
and Burma. Butterflies. Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and
Publishers, New Delhi, 600pp.
Talbot, G. (1947). The Fauna of British India including Ceylon
and Burma. Butterflies. Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and
Publishers, New Delhi, 506pp.
Tiple, A.D. (2011). Butterflies of Vidarbha region Maharashtra,
India; a review with and implication for conservation.
Journal of Threatened Taxa 3(1): 1469–1477.
Tiple, A.D., N. Kulkarni, S. Paunikar & K.C. Joshi (2010).
Avian fauna of tropical forest research institute Jabalpur,
Madhya Pradesh, India. Indian Journal of Tropical
Biodiversity 18(1): 1–9
Tiple, A.D. & A.M. Khurad (2009). Butterfly species diversity,
habitats and seasonal distribution in and around Nagpur City,
central India. World Journal of Zoology 4(3): 153–162.
Tiple, A.D., V.P. Deshmukh & R.L.H. Dennis (2006). Factors
influencing nectar plant resource visits by butterflies on
a university campus: implications for conservation. Nota
Lepidopteralogica 28: 213–224.
Tiple, A.D., A.M. Khurad & R.L.H. Dennis (2007). Butterfly
diversity in relation to a human-impact gradient on an Indian
university campus. Nota Lepidopteralogica 30(1): 179–188.
Varshney, R.K. (1983). Index Rhopalocera indica part II.
Common names of butterflies from India and neighbouring
countries. Records of the Zoological Survey of India.
Occasional Paper no. 47: 1–49.
Willmott, K.R., J.P.W. Hall & G. Lamas (2001). Systematics
of Hypanartia (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae: Nymphalinae),
with a test for geographical speciation mechanisms in the
Andes. Systematic Entomology 26: 369–399.
Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957). Butterflies of the Indian Region.
Bombay Natural History Society, 523pp.
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | July 2012 | 4(7): 2713–2717
2717

JoTT No t e 4(7): 2718–2722
The first report of the widow spider
Latrodectus elegans (Araneae:
Theridiidae) from India
A. Kananbala 1 , K. Manoj 2 , M. Bhubaneshwari 3 ,
A. Binarani 4 & Manju Siliwal 5
1,2.3.4
Entomology Research Laboratory, P.G. Block, Department
of Zoology, D.M. College of Science Imphal, Manipur 795001,
India
5
Wildlife Information Liaison Development Society,
96, Kumudham Nagar, Vilankurichi Road, Coimbatore, Tamil
Nadu 641035, India
Email: 1 akhamkanan@gmail.com, 2 naitu_konthou@yahoo.com,
3
mbhubaneshwari@yahoo.com, 4 bina3athokpam@gmail.com,
5
manju@zooreach.org (corresponding author)
The comb-footed spider family Theridiidae is
popular for the widow spider genus Latrodectus
Walckenaer, 1805, which has clinical significance
(Daniel & Soman 1961; Siliwal & Kumar 2001; Kumar
& Siliwal 2005). So far, 31 species of Latrodectus
have been reported from the world (Platnick 2012). Of
these, three species L. erythromelas Schmidt & Klaas
1991, L. geometricus CL. Koch, 1841 and L. hasselti
Thorell, 1870 have been reported from India (Siliwal
& Kumar 2001; Kumar & Siliwal 2005; Shukla &
Broome 2007; Javed et al. 2010). L. hasselti is reported
from Gujarat, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu (Simon
1897; Pocock 1900; Daniel & Soman 1961; Kumar &
Siliwal 2005; Shukla & Broome 2007), whereas L.
Date of publication (online): 26 July 2012
Date of publication (print): 26 July 2012
ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print)
Editor: Barbara Knoflach-Thaler
Manuscript details:
Ms # o3152
Received 09 April 2012
Final received 28 May 2012
Finally accepted 04 July 2012
Citation: Kananbala, A., K. Manoj, M. Bhubaneshwari, A. Binarani & M.
Siliwal (2012). The first report of the widow spider Latrodectus elegans
(Araneae: Theridiidae) from India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 4(7):
2718–2722.
Copyright: © A. Kananbala, K. Manoj, M. Bhubaneshwari, A. Binarani &
Manju Siliwal 2012. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.
JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-profit
purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the
authors and the source of publication.
geometricus was recently reported
from Pune (Shukla & Broome
2007) and L. erythromelas from
Andhra Pradesh (Javed et al.
2010). While carrying out spider surveys in Manipur,
we collected three female specimens of Latrodectus
sp. On scanning the literature, it was found that
morphologically the specimens from Manipur
resembled Latrodectus elegans Thorell, 1898. Further,
the species was confirmed by examining the epigynum
structure of the female under a stereomicroscope. Prior
to this report, L. elegans was reported from China,
Myanmar and Japan.
The type locality of L. elegans is Carin Cheba
mountains in Burma (=Myanmar). Geographically,
Manipur shares a border with Myanmar, therefore,
many Indo-Malayan species have been reported from
northeastern India especially states which border
with Myanmar (Hora 1944; Koopman 1989; Corbet
& Hill 1992; Choudhury 2001; Slowinski et al. 2001;
Datta et al. 2003; Athreya 2006; Devi & Yadava 2006;
Ningombam & Bordoloi 2007; Mahony & Zug 2008).
In the past, there have been no proper surveys for spiders
carried out in Manipur and nearby states, therefore,
this species remained unreported. Here, we report
the occurrence of L. elegans from Manipur, which is
a first record for India. We provide a description of L.
elegans along with natural history notes based on fresh
specimens collected from Manipur.
Methods: The specimens were studied in the
Entomology Research Laboratory, P.G. Block of
Zoology Department, Dhanamanjuri College of
Science, Imphal. Photographs were taken after
anaesthetizing the spider with carbon tetrachloride.
Morphometry of the spider was taken with vernier
caliper and ocular meter. All measurements are in mm.
One specimen of Latrodectus elegans is deposited in
the Zoology Department P.G. Block, Dhanamanjuri
College of Science, Imphal, Manipur and another two
specimens are deposited at the Wildlife Information
Liasion Development Society, Coimbatore. All
measurements are in mm.
Acknowledgements: AK would like to thanks UGC grant No. MRPF.
No.-39-589/2010(SR) for financial support, during which the spider was
found.
OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD
2718
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | July 2012 | 4(7): 2718–2722

Latrodectus elegans in India
Latrodectus elegans Thorell, 1898
(Figs. 1–5; Image 1–5)
A. Kananbala et al.
Material Examined: Two females, 5–8.v.2011,
elevation 930m, (24 0 55’08.85”N & 94 0 09’13.59”E),
Thawai Village, Ukhrul District, Manipur, India, coll.
K. Manoj, A. Kananbala & M. Bhubaneshwari (WILD,
WILD-11-ARA-1113, WILD-11-ARA-1114).
Description of female (WILD-11-ARA-1113):
Total length 9.53. Cephalothorax 5.8 long, 5.73
wide. Abdomen 3.73 long, 3.36 wide and 6.01 high.
Morphometry of legs and palp given in Table 1. Leg
formula 1423.
Colour in life (Images. 1–3): Carapace, abdomen,
spinnerets and legs black. Metatarsi and tarsi of all
legs slightly lighter than the rest of the legs. Abdomen
black with bright blood-red pattern on dorsum,
posterior half chevron shape extending laterally and
on anterior half two curved bands (Image 1); ventrally
an hour-glass mark, blood red between epigastric area
and spinnerets (Image 3); a vertical black-line in the
middle of the hour-glass mark. Book lung light brown,
epigynum reddish-brown. The book lungs, epigynum,
epigastric furrow are surrounded by a light yellowish
border, the extension of the red hour-glass. In alcohol,
red colour pattern on abdomen fades and is yellowishred
dorsally but large patch on ventral side disappeared
reducing to a yellowish-cream patch of lower lip shape
below the epigastric furrow and an irregular patch
above the spinnerets, in between connecting red patch
is not visible, but it is replaced with blackish colour as
the rest of the abdomen.
Carapace (Fig. 1; Images 1,3): black, fovea as
wide depression in the centre, striae radiating on
sides. Slightly longer than wide, thoracic area broader
than cephalic area, ocular area high gradually sloping
posteriorly. Spines absent, covered with small hairs.
Eyes (Fig. 1): eight, transparent eyes except PME,
opaque, on low tubercles, two rows anterior row
recurved, posterior rows slightly recurved; PME
distinctly large, PLE, ALE subequal and AME-PME
equal. Diameter of PME=AME, 0.20, PLE=ALE, 0.3;
Distance between AME-AME, 0.20, PME-PME, 0.27,
PME-PLE 0.27, AME-ALE, 1.30, ALE-PLE, 0.33;
MOQ, square, 0.67 wide, 0.73 long; Ocular group 1.00
long and 1.87 wide. Clypeus: yellowish, glabrous
with long posterior end as seen in the genus steotoda.
Chelicerae: 1.27 long, 0.47 wide, yellowish-orange
with light brown fangs, two black dots at base on either
side of fangs. Labium (Fig. 2): wider (1.00) than long
(0.73), yellowish with 8–9 black hairs. Maxillae (Fig.
2): 1.0 long anteriorly, 1.47 long posteriorly, 0.6 wide,
3
4
1
2
5
Figures 1–5. Latrodectus elegans, female from Manipur (WILD-11-ARA-1113)
1 - Carapace and abdomen dorsal view; 2 - Carapace and abdomen ventral view; 3 - Abdomen, lateral view; 4 - Epigynum,
ventral view; 5 - Epigynum, dorsal view. Scale 1.0mm.
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | July 2012 | 4(7): 2718–2722
2719

Latrodectus elegans in India
1 2
A. Kananbala et al.
Table 1. Morphometry of legs and palp of female (WILD-11-
ARA-1113) from Manipur
Leg I Leg II Leg III Leg IV Palp
Femur 6.55 4.5 3.39 6.19 1.11
Patella 1.89 1.56 1,42 1.90 0.26
Tibia 4.89 3.05 2.06 4.31 0.50
Metatarsi 6.20 3.91 3.35 5.08 -
Tarsi 1.94 1.50 1.17 1.70 0.95
Total 21.47 14.52 9.97 19.18 2.82
3
4 5
Images 1–5. Latrodectus elegans, female.
1 - Dorsal view; 2 - Ventral view; 3 - Lateral view; 4 - Ventral
view; 5 - Epigynum, dorsal view. Images 1–3 of specimen
WILD-11-ARA-1113, 4–5 of specimen WILD-11-ARA-1114.
yellowish-orange with 12–15 widely spaced black hair.
Leg: formula 1423, coxal base seen from dorsal side,
yellowish-orange except distal ends of femora, patella,
tibia, metatarsi and tarsi with brown annulets; paired
claws without dentitions/teeth, inferior claw present
leg I-IV. Palp: yellowish-orange with black annulets
on tarsi, single curve claw without teeth.
Abdomen (Figs. 1–3; Images 1–3): globular,
slightly longer than wide, overlapping carapace,
covered uniformly with small black hairs. Spinnerets,
three pairs, conical, situated towards posterior end
(Fig. 2). Colulus large.
Epigynum (Figs. 4–5): Ventrally, opening of
epigynum lip shape, anterior lip with a notch in the
centre and posterior lip gently curved and not extending
on each side beyond opening of epigynum (Fig. 4).
Dorsally, seminal receptacles dumbbell-shaped,
constriction in the middle; short, curved fertilization
duct on the prolateral side of the posterior receptacles;
copulatory ducts coiled four times around the seminal
receptacles and opens externally; median parts of
copulatory ducts loop back near anterior seminal
receptacles as seen in L. mactans (Fig. 5).
Remarks
The ventral red hour-glass marking was very
evident and bright in all the spiders in life (Images.
2, 4). But on preserving them in 70% alcohol, in one
of the specimens, the ventral red hour-glass marking
disappeared except for two small patches (Image
2), one below epigastral furrow and another above
spinnerets, the connecting red patch disappeared. The
only difference between Sri Lanka L. erythromelas and
Australian Red-back Spider L. hasselti is the absence
of hour glass marking on ventral side of abdomen.
With the present finding, the ventral abdomen hourglass
marking becoming invisible in alcohol raises
questions about L. erythromelas as the spider would
have been described based on preserved specimens
and it is likely that the hour-glass marking disappeared
in the preserved specimen. Moreover, Latrodectus
shows high variability within the species and also
different stages of growth (Levi 1959; Knoflach &
2720
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | July 2012 | 4(7): 2718–2722

Latrodectus elegans in India
van Harten 2002; Garb et al. 2004) therefore, it is also
possible that absence of hour-glass marking could be
a variable character as observed in some Latrodectus
spp. (Knoflach & van Harten 2002) rather than being
a species character (Garb et al. 2004). It needs to
be further investigated with the help of molecular
techniques carried out on fresh collections from India
and Sri Lanka.
Distribution
China, Myanmar, Japan and present record of the
species from Manipur, India.
Natural History
Manipur gets high rainfall throughout the year,
with an annual average rainfall of 1600 to 2100 mm
and temperature varies between -3 to 35 0 C, 2010
(Metrological Department, A.A.I., Changangei,
Imphal). Dominant vegetation consists of Tectona
grandis, Pinus spp., Quercus delbata, some shrubs
like Lantana camara and local wild flora.
The habitat from where L. elegans specimens were
collected was a moist evergreen forest with red soil.
Spiders were found inside holes on roadside bunds
near a degraded forest. The hole was covered with
tangle web and at the bottom of the web there was a
pile of dry leaves and insects exuvia (majority of it was
cricket exuvia), which the spider would have eaten.
Two egg-sacs were collected along with the spider
(WILD-11-ARA-1113) from its web. The diameter
of each egg-sac was about 12mm and creamish in
colour.
The collected egg-sacs were kept in a jar in the lab
and monitored. Out of curiosity, one of the egg-sacs
was torn after two weeks of collection and about 49
spiderlings emerged from it. None of them survived
more than 47 days. Whereas, from the second eggsac,
after nearly three weeks of collection, about 180-
190 spiderlings emerged. The hourglass mark first
started appearing on the spiderlings after 12–13 days,
whereas the red mark on the dorsal side of the abdomen
appeared after 59 days of emergence from the egg-sac.
Moulting was observed in spiderlings three times, after
the 14 th , 62 nd and 110 th day of their emergence from
the egg-sac. Only one spiderling survived for 113 days
and was later released into the place it was collected
from as feeding it live food was a problem.
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Latrodectus elegans in India
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2722
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JoTT No t e 4(7): 2723–2726
Population density and group size of
the Grey Junglefowl Gallus sonneratii
in the Melghat Tiger Reserve,
Maharashtra, central India
K. Narasimmarajan 1 , Bidyut B. Barman 2 &
Lalthan Puia 3
1,2,3
Post Box No: 18, Wildlife Institute of India, Chandrabani,
Dehradun, Uttarakhand 248001, India
Email: 1 wildlife9protect@gmail.com (corresponding author),
2
bidyutb8@gmail.com, 3 lalthanpuia24@gmail.com
Avian community studies are effective tools for
monitoring forest ecosystems. Birds are widely
recognized as good bioindicators of the quality of the
ecosystems and the health of the environment (Gill
1994). They are responsive to change; their diversity
and abundance can reflect ecological trends in other
biodiversities (Furness & Greenwood 1993). Because
of their highly specific habitat requirements, birds
are increasingly intolerant of even slight ecosystem
disturbances (Schwartz & Schwartz 1951). Work on
forest bird communities has been done in other parts
of the country from time to time (Ramakrishnan 1983;
Johnsingh et al. 1987, 1994). The Grey Junglefowl
Date of publication (online): 26 July 2012
Date of publication (print): 26 July 2012
ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print)
Editor: Rajiv Kalsi
Manuscript details:
Ms # o2821
Received 03 June 2011
Final received 05 June 2012
Finally accepted 29 June 2012
Citation: Narasimmarajan, K., B.B. Barman & L. Puia (2012). Population
density and group size of the Grey Junglefowl Gallus sonneratii in the
Melghat Tiger Reserve, Maharashtra, central India . Journal of Threatened
Taxa 4(7): 2723–2726.
Copyright: © K. Narasimmarajan, Bidyut B. Barman & Lalthan Puia
2012. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows
unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-profit purposes,
reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors
and the source of publication.
Acknowledgements: We thank the Director and Dean, Wildlife Institute
of India. We would like to thank Mr. A.K. Mishra, field director and other
forest department staff in Melghat Tiger Reserve for their help for every
support and accommodation. We personally thanked Dr. K. Ramesh for
his valuable comments in earlier draft of the manuscript, we gratefully
acknowledged the anonymous referees and special thanks to Dr. R.S. Kalsi
for his positive comments during the editing. We also extend our thanks to
our field assistants and driver for their dedication during the field work.
OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD
(GJ), endemic to peninsular
India, is listed as Least Concern
in status (Birdlife International
2012). Although, there have been
several studies on the GJ in southern India, there
are no reported studies on its population density and
group size in the Melghat Tiger Reserve (Galliforms
of India 2007). Hence this study was conducted as
a preliminary investigation to find out the population
density of the GJ in Melghat Tiger Reserve.
Study area: Melghat Tiger Reserve established in
1973, is situated in the southern offshoot of the Satpura
mountain range (20 0 51’–21 0 46’N & 76 0 38’– 77 0 33’E).
The total tiger reserve area of about 1676.93km 2
including critical tiger habitat area of 361.28km 2 *
(*Gugamal division) is lies in two districts, Akola and
Amravati in Maharashtra (Chandrakar et al. 2007;
Narasimmarajan et al. 2011). The Melghat region
experiences tropical climate with temperatures ranging
between 13 0 C in winter and 45 0 C during summer.
The annual rainfall ranges between 1000 and 2250
mm. A total of 715 plant species were recorded in the
Melghat Tiger Reserve (Mahabal 2005). The survey
was carried out in three ranges of Gugamal division in
the Melghat Tiger Reserve, which is Dhargad, Dhakna
and Chikaldara with the area surveyed about 250km 2
(Image 1).
Material and Methods: Population densities
and group size of the GJ were estimated by the line
transect method using Distance Sampling (Burnham et
al. 1980; Buckland et al. 1993, 2001). We walked 34
line transects (2km length), each having five temporal
replicates to record the encounter rate of GJ. On every
walk, we recorded sightings, group size, sighting
angle using a hand held compass (KB 20, Santo,
Vantaa, Finland), and sighting distance using laser
range finder (Bushnell, Overland Park, Kansas, USA).
We laid 170 circular plots in order to describe and
evaluate the impact of biotic disturbance and emphasis
habitat preference of the GJ. Five circular plots were
laid at each transect having a 20m radius at a distance
of every 400m. On every plot, data on trees, shrubs,
herbs, grass and leaf litter cover, human disturbance,
tree lopping, wood/bamboo cutting, people seen and
the presence of human trail were recorded (Johnsingh
1987; Sathyakumar 2006). A total of 170 circular
plots were laid in order to estimate the impact of biotic
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | July 2012 | 4(7): 2723–2726 2723

Grey Junglefowl in Melghat
K. Narasimmarajan et al.
Image 1. The Grey Junglefowl Gallus sonneratii survey site of Melghat Tiger Reserve, Maharashtra
disturbance on the GJ, habitat and habitat preferences
were also investigated during the survey period. The
disturbances were subjectively categorized into highly
disturbed (0.75–1), moderately disturbed (0.50–0.75),
less disturbed (0.25–0.50) and least disturbed (0–0.25),
respectively. Data of the circular plots (n=170) were
pooled to estimate the Mean (±SE) of factors associated
with biotic disturbances. Pooled line transect data were
used to estimated the population density and group
size of GJ using program DISTANCE 5.0 (Thomas et
al. 2006).
Results and Discussion: Population density: A
total of 36 GJ sightings comprising 114 individuals
were recorded during (total effort 170 transect walks)
the entire study period. An overall density of GJ
16.72±4.70 Birds/km 2 , (n = 36) the average group
density was 5.68±1.49, (n = 36) whereas the average
cluster size was 2.95 birds (n = 36), P = 0.5157 (Table
1). Best fit model (Hazard/Hermite) was chosen on
the basis of minimum AIC = 248.55. The encounter
rate of GJ 0.39±0.2/km 2 was also determined from the
analysis (Fig. 1). The highest number of GJ recorded
in a sighting was five individuals and the least was one
individual among all the sightings recorded and mean
group size was 3.16 individuals. Studies conducted
elsewhere on the GJ have shown different estimates
of population density. Subhani et al. (2000) estimated
an overall density of 7.87 birds/km 2 in Deva Vetala
National Park and Das (2006) estimated density of
5.39 birds/ha in Rajaji National Park. The variation in
density estimates in different studies could be due to
the differences in methodology and habitat in the study
areas besides many other factors may influence such
as season, annual variations and observer differences.
Habitat preference and biotic disturbance: In the
Melghat Tiger Reserve, GJs were generally observed
in areas having mixed deciduous forest with Tectona
grandis and Dendrocalamus strictus. Other species
in this habitat included Terminalia tomentosa,
Anogeissus latifolia, Butea monosperma, Emblica
offficinalis, Boswellia serrata, Ougeinia oojeinensis,
Laegerstromia parviflora, Lantana camara and
Ziziphus mauritiana (Champion & Seth 1968), which
probably helped in camouflage for the GJ in the study
area (Johnsingh 1987, 1994; Sathyakumar 2006).
Estimated biotic disturbance indicators were Mean±SE
2724
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Grey Junglefowl in Melghat
K. Narasimmarajan et al.
Table 1. Population density and average group size of Grey Junglefowl (Gallus sonneratii) in Melghat Tiger Reserve,
Maharashtra (October 2010 to March 2011).
Parameter Point estimate Standard error
Percent coeficient
of variation
95% percent
confidence interval
DS 5.6825 1.4915 26.25 3.3834 9.5437
E(S) 2.9439 0.2959 10.05 2.4011 3.6094
D 16.728 4.7018 28.11 9.6423 29.022
N 17.000 4.7781 28.11 10.000 29.000
DS - estimate average group size; E(S) - estimate expected value of cluster size; D - estimate of density of animals; N - estimate no. of animals in the
specified area. Chi-square value P = 0.5157
1
Detection probability
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
distance in meters
Perpendicular distance in metere
Figure 1. Results of model fitted in the DISTANCE to
estimate detection probability and effective strip width of
Grey Junglefowl sightings in dry and mixed deciduous
habitats of Melghat Tiger Reserve.
of tree cutting 0.25±0.07, presence of human trails
0.16±0.02, number of trees lopped 0.05±0.08, grass/
bamboo cutting 0.02±0.01 and people seen 0.01±0.02
recorded from the study area (Fig. 2).
Johnsgard (1986) reported that the GJ inhabits a
wide variety of habitats, from secondary dry deciduous
to moist evergreen forests, but is especially common
in bamboo thickets, edges of village forests around
cultivated fields and around clearings or neglected
plantations. In the Periyar Tiger Reserve, GJ have
been sighted frequently near human inhabitations but
they were absent in the high hills (Zacharias 1997).
The species showed a preference for areas with a
mix of slopes, hilly, plains as well as the less forested
areas and open grassland patches (Subramanian et al.
2008). Consequently the Melghat Tiger reserve, GJs
were encountered mostly in areas having dense mixed
deciduous forests where the biotic disturbances were
in low intensity. They avoided human habitations and
high hills with open areas.
Habitat preference is a dynamic process in the
Mean (±SE)
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0.25
Tree
cutting
Biotic disturbances
Figure 2. Estimated Mean (±SE) of biotic disturbances
recorded from Melghat Tiger Reserve, Maharashtra during
(October 2010 to March 2011).
natural systems. Many species are confined to specific
habitat types (Winkler & Leisler 1985). Based on our
observations, we suggest that human disturbance, cattle
grazing and tree/grass cutting activities were probably
the major threats to the species in this area. This has
probably pushed the GJ back in to the dense shrubby
areas of the Tiger reserve. Further study is needed to
understand the ecology and conservation threats of the
species in Melghat Tiger Reserve.
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Human
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0.05
Trees
lopped
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Bamboo
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People
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JoTT No t e 4(7): 2727–2732
Preliminary observations on avifauna
of the Jai Prakash Narayan Bird
Sanctuary (Suraha Tal Lake), Ballia,
Uttar Pradesh, India
P.K. Srivastava 1 & S.J. Srivastava 2
1,2
Department of Zoology, S.M.M. Town Post Graduate College,
Ballia, Uttar Pradesh 277001, India
Present address: 1 Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute,
Barrackpore, Kolkata, West Bengal 700120, India
Email: 1 pksrivastava17@yahoo.co.in (corresponding author),
2
shivajee1948@yahoo.co.in
Suraha Tal Lake is the largest floodplain lake in
Ballia District of eastern Uttar Pradesh. It is an open type
oval ‘U’ shaped ox-bow lake in the floodplain of river
Ganga, located 8km north of the district headquarters
of Ballia. It is a perennial meander of the river Ganga
with an area of 26km 2 . During the monsoon season,
it covers about 33.4km 2 . It extends between 25 0 48’–
25 0 52’N and 84 0 8’–84 0 13’E at an altitude of 166m.
The lake circumference is about 33.4km (Image 1).
The Government of Uttar Pradesh has notified an area
of 34.4km 2 including the lake as a bird sanctuary by
Gazette notification No. 1088(1)/14-3-19/89 Lucknow
dated 24.03.1991. The sanctuary has been named “Jai
Date of publication (online): 26 July 2012
Date of publication (print): 26 July 2012
ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print)
Editor: R. Jayapal
Manuscript details:
Ms # o2042
Received 26 August 2008
Final received 16 July 2012
Finally accepted 17 July 2012
Citation: Srivastava, P.K. & S.J. Srivastava (2012). Preliminary observations
on avifauna of the Jai Prakash Narayan Bird Sanctuary (Suraha Tal
Lake), Ballia, Uttar Pradesh, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 4(7):
2727–2732.
Copyright: © P.K. Srivastava & S.J. Srivastava 2012. Creative Commons
Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article
in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by
providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication.
Acknowledgements: The authors are grateful to the Dr. A.K. Srivastava,
Head, Department of Zoology, S.M.M. Town Post Graduate College, Ballia,
for their valuable suggestions during the entire study period. We are grateful
to anonymous reviewer for their thoughtful comments. We also wish to thank
Dr. N.P. Shrivastava, Rtd. Principal Scientist and Joint Secretary, Inland
Fisheries Society of India for necessary corrections.
OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD
Prakash Narayan Bird Sanctuary”
and it comprises both private and
Gram Samaj lands in a number
of small pokets where paddy is
cultivated throughout the year. The lake is connected
with the river Ganga through 32.6km long Katehar
nullah. The lake is drained and filled through Katehar
nullah according to the water level of the river Ganga,
resulting in complete inundation during the monsoon
months. It offers good habitat for a variety of flora and
fauna. Birds are known to arrive frequently this lake
due to the availability of nesting and feeding habitats.
The lake has great recreational value and supports
local agriculture and tourism and also other activities
common in low lying areas such as irrigation and
fisheries. Human interference and alteration in water
levels of the wetlands are significantly responsible to
recent decline in bird population. So far there is no
detail infomation on the population status of water
birds and the possible impact of human activities on
wild birds population of this region.
Materials and methods: The checklist of
the avifauna of Suraha Tal Lake was prepared by
extensive field surveys between August 2002 and July
2004. Surveys were conducted by fishing boat inside
the entire lake and in paddy fields, trees and villages
situated around the lake. Surveys were conducted
monthly in the mornings from 0800–1100 hr and in
the evenings from 1500–1800 hr with the help of
8×40 Bushnell binoculars. Identification and records
were maintained according to their status (resident,
migrant and local migrant), season (summer, winter
and throughout the year) and habitat (aquatic, trees
and human habitation). Birds were identified with the
help of books by King et al. (1975), Hancock (1984),
Woodcock (1984), Ali & Ripley (1987), Manakadan
& Pittie (2001), and Ali (2002).
Results and Discussion: A total of 91 species
of birds representing 33 families and 13 orders were
recorded. Of these, 62 species are resident, 24 migrant
and 20 are local migrant (Table 1). Availability of
food and suitable habitat facilitated resident and local
migrant bird species to visit the lake throughout the
year (Fig. 1). In the winter season maximum birds
species were recorded while in summer season the
record was minimum. Common Teal, Temminck’s
Stint, Pallas’s Fishing Eagle, and Great Crested Grebe
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | July 2012 | 4(7): 2727–2732 2727

Birds of Suraha Tal Lake
P.K. Srivastava & S.J. Srivastava
25 0 54’0”N
25 0 52’0”N
25 0 50’0”N
25 0 48’0”N
25 0 46’0”N
25 0 44’0”N
25 0 42’0”N
84 0 4’0”E 84 0 6’0”E 84 0 8’0”E 84 0 10’0”E 84 0 12’0”E 84 0 14’0”E
Image 1. Schematic map of Jai Prakash Narayan Bird Sanctuary (Suraha Tal Lake)
were recorded occasionally during the study.
The common resident birds were Grey Heron, Indian
Pond Heron, Cattle Egret, Little Egret, Median Egret,
Great Cormorant, Indian Shag, Little Cormorant, Roseringed
Parakeet, Greater Coucal, Indian Cuckoo, Indian
Roller, Coppersmith Barbet, Brown-capped Pygmy
2728
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | July 2012 | 4(7): 2727–2732

Birds of Suraha Tal Lake
P.K. Srivastava & S.J. Srivastava
Table 1. Checklist of birds recorded from Suraha Tal Lake area
Scientific name Common name Vernacular name Status Season Habitation
Ciconiformes
Ardeidae
1 Ardea alba Large Egret Bagula R, LM W A
2 Ardea cinerea Grey Heron Khanjan R W A
3 Ardea purpurea Purple Heron Khyra R, LM T A
4 Ardeola grayii Indian Pond Heron Andha Bagula R T A
5 Bubulcus ibis Cattle Egret Bagula R W A
6 Egretta garzetta Little Egret Bagula R W A
7 Mesophoyx intermedia Median Egret Bagula R W A
Threskiorhnithidae
8 Nycticorax nycticorax Night Heron Manduk R, LM W A
9 Pseudibis papillosa Black Ibis Kala Baz LM W A
10 Threskiornis melanocephalus White Ibis Baz R, LM W A
Ciconiidae
11 Anastomus oscitans Open billed Stork Ghonghil R, LM W A
12 Ciconia episcopus White-necked Stork Lag Lag R, LM S A
Anseriformes
Anatidae
13 Anas crecca (Linne) Common Teal Jal Murgi M W A
14 Nettapus coromandelianus Cotton Teal Girria R, LM WS A
15 Sarkidiornis melanotos Comb Duck Nakta R W A
Falconiformes
Accipitridae
16 Accipiter badius Indian Shikra Shikra R T T
17 Calidris temminckii Temminck's Stint Chhota Panlawa M W A
18 Charadrius dubius Little ringed Plover Titir M T A
19 Elanus caeruleus Black winged Kite Kapassi R W A
20 Haliaeetus leucoryphus Pallas's Fishing Eagle Machhmmanga M W A
21 Pluvialis apricaria Golden plover Batan M W A
22 Vanellus cinereus Grey headed Lapwig Vuer chirae M W A
Charadriformes
Charadriidae
23 Tringa glareola Spotted Sandpiper Chupka M W A
24 Tringa hypoleucos Common Sandpiper Merwa M W A
25 Tringa nebularia Common Greenshank Timtima M W A
26 Tringa totanus Common Redshank Chhota Batan M W A
Recurvirostridae
27 Glareola lactea Pratincole or Swallow Plover Babuibattan M WS T
28 Himantopus himantopus Black winged Stilt Gozpaun M T A
Laridae
29 Larus ridibundus Black headed gull Dhomra M W A
30 Larus brunnicephalus Brown headed gull Dhomra M W A
31 Sterna aurantia River tern Tehri R T A
Jacanidae
32 Hydrophasianus chirurgus Pheasant-tailed Jacana Piho R, LM T A
33 Metopidius indicus Bronze-winged Jacana Kattoi R T A
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | July 2012 | 4(7): 2727–2732
2729

Birds of Suraha Tal Lake
P.K. Srivastava & S.J. Srivastava
Scientific name Common name Vernacular name Status Season Habitation
Columbiformes
Columbidae
34 Columba livia Blue Rock Pigeon Kabutar R T T
35 Streptopelia decaocto Eurasian Collared-dove Panduk R, LM T T
36 Streptopelia chinensis Spotted Dove Panduk R, LM T T
37 Treron phoenicoptera Yellow-legged Green Pigeon Harial LM W T
Pelecaniformes
Phalacrocoracidae
38 Anhinga melanogaster Darter or Snake Bird Pandubbi M W T
39 Phalacrocorax carbo Great Cormorant Pankawwa R W T
40 Phalacrocorax fuscicollis Indian Shag Kaul R W T
41 Phalacrocorax niger Little Cormorant Pankawwa R W T
Psittaciformes
Psittacidae
42 Psittacula krameri Rose-ringed Parakeet Tota R T T
Cuculiformes
Cuculidae
43 Centropus sinensis Greater Coucal Mohoka R W T
44 Cuculus micropterus Indian Cuckoo Papiha R W T
45 Eudynamys scolopacea Asian Koel Koel R, LM W T
Apodiformes
Apodidae
46 Apus affinis (Gray) House Swift Babila R W A
47 Cypsiurus balasiensis Asian Palm Swift Telchatta R T A
Coraciiformes
Alcedinidae
48 Alcedo atthis Small Blue Kingfisher Chhota Kilkila R T A
49 Ceryle rudis Lesser Pied Kingfisher Kilkila R T A
50 Halcyon smyrnensis White-breasted Kingfisher Kourilla R T T
51 Pelargopsis capensis Stork-billed Kingfisher Badami Kourilla R T T
Meropidae
52 Merops orientalis Small Bee-eater Patringia R T T
53 Merops phillipinus Blue-tailed Bee-eater Bada Patringia R, LM T T
Coraciidae
54 Coracias benghalensis Indian Roller Nilkanth R T T
Pioformes
Capitonidae
55 Megalaima haemacephala Coppersmith Barbet Chotta Basanth R S T
Picidae
56 Dendrocopos nanus
Podicipediformes
Podicipedidae
Brown-capped Pygmy
Woodpecker
Kathphorwa R W T
57 Podiceps cristatus Great Crested Grebe Pandubbi M W A
58 Tachybaptus ruficollis Little Grebe Pandubbi M W A
Passeriformes
Alaudidae
59 Alauda gulgula Eastern Skylark Bharat R W A
Hirundinidae
60 Hirundo smithii Wire-tailed Swallow Leishra R, LM W T
61 Hirundo rustica Common Swallow Ababeel M W T
T
2730
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | July 2012 | 4(7): 2727–2732

Birds of Suraha Tal Lake
P.K. Srivastava & S.J. Srivastava
Scientific name Common name Vernacular name Status Season Habitation
Laniidae
62 Lanius schach Rufous backed Shrike Kajala M, LM W T
Campephagidae
T
63 Tephrodornis pondicerianus Common Woodshrike Tartituiya R T T
Artamidae
64 Artamus fuscus Ashy Woodswallow Ababeel LM T T
Stumidae
65 Acridotheres fuscus Jungle Myna Junglee Myna R, LM T T
66 Acridotheres ginginianus Bank Myna Myna LM T T
67 Acridotheres tristis Common Myna Myna R T T
Corvidae
68 Corvus splendens House Crow Deshi Kawwa R T T
69 Corvus macrorhynchos Jungle Crow Dom Kawwa R T T
Pycnonotidae
70 Pycnonotus cafer Red-vented Bulbul Bulbul R T T
Muscicapidae
71 Cisticola juncidis Zitting Cisticola Ghas Ki Phutki R T A
72 Copsychus saularis Oriental Magpie Robin Daiyar R T T
73 Erithacus svecicus Bluethroat Nilkanth M W A
74 Orthotomus sutorius Common Tailorbird Phutki R T T
75 Rhipidura albicollis White-throated Fantail Chakdil R T T
76 Saxicoloides fulicata Indian Robin Kalchhum R T H
77 Turdoides caudatus Common Babbler Satbhai R T T
78 Turdoides striatus Jungle Babbler Satbhai R T T
Sittidae
79 Sitta castanea Chestnut-bellied Nuthatch Kath phorwa R T T
Motacillidae
80 Anthus rufulus Paddyfield Pipit Charchari R T A
81 Motacilla alba White Wagtail Dhoban M W A
82 Motacilla fIava Yellow Wagtail Pan Pilakh M W A
83 Motacilla maderaspatenis Large Pied Wagtail Khanjan R W A
84 Motacilla citreola Yellow-headed Wagtail Pani Ka Pilkya M W A
85 Motacilla cinerea Grey Wagtail Pani Ka Pilkya M W A
Nectannidae
86 Nectarinia asiatica Purple Sunbird Shakar khora R T T
Ploceidae
87 Eremopterix grisea Ashy-crowned Finch-Lark Diyora R, LM T A
88 Ploceus phillippinus Baya Weaver Baya R, LM T T
89 Passer domesticus House Sparrow Goraiya R T H
90 Petronia xanthocollis Yellow-throated Sparrow Jangalee Goraiya R T A
91 Ploceus manyar Streaked Weaver Bamani Baya R T A
Status: R - Resident; M - Migrant; LM - Local Migrant
Season: S - Summer; W - Winter; T - Throughout the year
Habitat: A - Aquatic (swampy, grass, and paddy fields); T - Trees (small and large); H - Human habitations
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | July 2012 | 4(7): 2727–2732
2731

Birds of Suraha Tal Lake
23%
18%
59%
Resident Migrant Local migrant
Figure 1. Percentage composition of avifauna of Suraha Tal
Lake
Woodpecker, Common Myna, House Crow, Jungle
Crow, Red-vented Bulbul, Jungle Babbler, Chestnutbellied
Nuthatch and House Sparrow (Table 1).
The local migrant birds encountered were Large
Egret, Purple Heron, Night Heron, Black Ibis, White
Ibis, Baya Weaver, White-necked Stork, Cotton Teal,
Pheasant-tailed Jacana, Eurasian Collared-dove,
Spotted Dove, Yellow-legged Green Pigeon, Asian
Koel, Blue-tailed Bee-eater, Wire-tailed Swallow,
Rufous backed Shrike, Jungle Myna, Bank Myna,
Ashy-crowned Finch-Lark and Open billed Stork
(Table 1). The migratory birds mostly visited the
area during winter season, were Common Teal, Little
Ringed Plover, Golden Plover, Spotted Sandpiper and
Darter are very common in appearance and also high
in density.
The number of migratory birds has decreased over
the years with increase in indiscriminate poaching.
Another serious problem is the use of pesticides in
paddy fields around the lake. A number of bird hunters
P.K. Srivastava & S.J. Srivastava
kill the birds illegally either by trapping or poisoning.
Poachers are adopting very special methods for birds
hunting. They insert insecticides (Furadan) in the
abdominal cavity of insects viz. (Forficula auricularia)
and spread them near the vicinity of the lake and on the
floating leaves of aquatic plants. Birds consume these
poisoned insects, become lethargic and ultimately
unconscious, and becoming easy prey to the poachers.
The poachers revive them putting water drops in the
bird’s mouth. Then the live birds are furtively sold
by them. Although the Forest Department has put
up a signboard against the hunting of birds in these
areas, they are still being hunted with the connivance
of some local residents. Awareness programmes
should be organized by local people, Government
organizations and NGOs against the birds hunting and
use of harmful pesticides in the agricultural fields.
Human interference, eco-tourism and encroachment
of wetlands are the main reasons for the decline in
avifauna in terms of density as well as diversity.
References
Ali, S. (2002). The Book of Indian Birds (13 th Edition). Oxford
University Press, New Delhi, 326pp.
Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987). Compact Handbook of Birds of
India and Pakistan. Oxford University Press, New Delhi,
820pp.
Hancock, J. (1984). The Birds of The Wetlands. Oxford
University Press, New Delhi, 176pp.
King, B., E.C. Dickinson & M.W. Woodcock (1975). A Field
Guide to The Birds of South-East Asia. Collins, London,
480pp.
Manakadan, R. & A. Pittie (2001). Standardized common and
scientific names of the Birds of the Indian Subcontinent
BUCEROS. Envis news letter: Avian Ecology & Inland
Wetlands 6(1): 33pp.
Woodcock, M. (1984). Collins Hand Guide to The Birds of The
Indian Sub-continent. Printed and bound by South China
Printing Co. Hong Kong, 176pp.
2732
Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | July 2012 | 4(7): 2727–2732

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Dr. Krushnamegh Kunte, Cambridge, USA
Prof. Dr. Adriano Brilhante Kury, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Dr. P. Lakshminarasimhan, Howrah, India
Dr. Carlos Alberto S de Lucena, Porto Alegre, Brazil
Dr. Glauco Machado, São Paulo, Brazil
Dr. Gowri Mallapur, Mamallapuram, India
Dr. George Mathew, Peechi, India
Prof. Richard Kiprono Mibey, Eldoret, Kenya
Dr. Lionel Monod, Genève, Switzerland
Dr. Shomen Mukherjee, Jamshedpur, India
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Dr. Robert Michael Pyle, Washington, USA
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ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print)
July 2012 | Vol. 4 | No. 7 | Pages 2673–2732
Date of Publication 26 July 2012 (online & print)
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