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S.R. Freitas et al. 2010. The effect of highways on native vegetation and reserve distribution in the State of São Paulo 676 by them. Between the ecoregions (Olson et al. 2001), Serra do Mar coastal forests were the most affected by roads (51%). However, in relation to its cover, mangroves have more of its cover affected by roads (16%). About 55% of nature nature reserves were affected by roads. Five of them showed more than 30% of their territory affected by roads. There is more native vegetation cover as road distance increases (Figura 1). This relationship was nearly logistic for expressways (Figure 1). 4. Discussion The State of São Paulo has a lower road density (0.15 km/km 2 ) than that considered as maximum for sustain populations of big predators (0.60 km/km 2 ; Forman and Alexander 1998). However, those roads affect the distribution of native vegetation and threat the efficiency of nature reserves. Near roads could cause a significant increase of mortality rates for many wildlife populations, even overcoming hunting (Forman and Alexander 1998). Almost 10% of State of São Paulo is ecologically affected by roads. Forman (2000) found a double proportion (about 20%) to United States of America. However, the State of São Paulo has a very lower road density than USA (0.41 km/km 2 ; Forman 2000), indicating that more native vegetation is under threat of roads in our study area. Even many states of USA have higher road densities than State of São Paulo (0.15 km/km 2 ): Misouri (1.89 km/km 2 ), Arkansas (1.23km/km 2 ) and Oklahoma (1.18 km/km 2 ; La Rue and Nielsen 2008). Laurance et al. (2009) state that non-paved roads represent a lower impact on vegetation and wildlife in tropical forests than paved roads because they usually are inaccessible during raining season (summer). However, our study showed that non-paved and paved roads affect more than highways and expressways because they are more abundant and spread all over the territory, showing higher densities (0.06 km/km 2 and 0.07 km/km 2 respectivelly) than highways (0.01 km/km 2 ) and expressways (0.01 km/km 2 ). As expected, the dominant vegetation type - Serra do Mar Coastal Forests - was the most affected by roads. Serra do Mar Coastal Forests is distributed along coastline as well as many of road network in Brazil, representing one of the most important connection axis for national transportation (north-south). However, in proportion mangroves are highly affected by roads for the same reason. Half of natural reserves is affected by roads. Five of them have more than 30% and three of them have more than 60% of their territory affected by roads, which represents a threat for their biodiversity. Roads facilitate hunter access and increase the probability of collision by vehicles (Laurance et al. 2009). Nature reserves near roads are probably under more conflicts with human population and more vulnerable to environmental degradation. There is more native vegetation as far as the road is. Roads act as atractor to land use and deforestation (Nagendra et al. 2003; Freitas et al. 2010). For instance, in the Amazon Forest, about 95% of deforestation occurred at most 50 km far from roads (Laurance et al. 2009). Expressways are not too densely distributed as other road types, however they show a nearly logistic relationship to native vegetation cover indicating a strong negative effect to the nearby native vegetation. Thus, road distance could be used as indicator to predict the distribution of native vegetation in the future. We suggest that in order to improve conservation and restoration strategies, the effect of highways should be carefully considered, prioritizing remote areas. Forest Landscapes and Global Change-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation and Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO Landscape Ecology Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.) 2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
S.R. Freitas et al. 2010. The effect of highways on native vegetation and reserve distribution in the State of São Paulo 677 References Develey, P.F. and Stouffer, P.C., 2001. Effects of roads on movements by understory birds in mixed-species flocks in central Amazonian Brazil. Conservation Biology, 15: 1416-1422. Fahrig, L. and Rytwinski, T., 2009. Effects of roads on animal abundance: an empirical review and synthesis. Ecology and Society, 14: 21. Forman, R.T.T. and Alexander, L.E., 1998. Roads and their major ecological effects. Annual Reviews in Ecology & Systematics, 29: 207-231. Forman, R.T.T. and Deblinger, R.D., 2000. The ecological road-effect zone of a Massachusetts (U.S.A.) suburban highway. Conservation Biology, 14: 36-46. Forman, R.T.T., 2000. Estimate of the area affected ecologically by the road system in the United States. Conservation Biology, 14: 31-35. Forman, R.T.T., Sperling, D., Bissonette, J.A., Clevenger, A.P., Cutshall, C.D., Dale, V.H., Fahrig, L., France, R., Goldman, C.R., Heanue, K., Jones, J.A., Swanson, F.J., Turrentine, T. and Winter, T.C., 2003. Road ecology: science and solutions. Island Press, Washington, DC, 481 p. Freitas, S.R., Hawbaker, T.J. and Metzger, J.P., 2010. Effects of roads, topography, and land use on forest cover dynamics in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. Forest Ecology and Management, 259: 410-417. Fuentes-Montemayor, E., Cuarón, A.D., Vázquez-Domínguez, E., Benítez-Malvido, J., Valenzuela-Galván, D. and Andresen, E., 2009. Living on the edge: roads and edge effects on small mammal populations. Journal of Animal Ecology, 78: 857-865. Hansen, M.J. and Clevenger, A.P., 2005. The influence of disturbance and habitat on the presence of non-native plant species along transport corridors. Biological Conservation, 125: 249-259. LaRue, M.A. and Nielsen, C.K., 2008. Modelling potential dispersal corridors for cougars in midwestern North America using least-cost path methods. Ecological Modelling, 212: 372-381. Laurance, W.F., Goosem, M. and Laurance, S.G.W., 2009. Impacts of roads and linear clearings on tropical forests. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 24: 659-669. Liu, S.L., Cui, B.S., Dong, S.K., Yang, Z.F., Yang, M. and Holt, K., 2008. Evaluating the influence of road networks on landscape and regional ecological risk - A case study in Lancang River Valley of Southwest China. Ecological Engineering, 34: 91-99. McGregor, R.L., Bender, D.J. and Fahrig, L., 2008. Do small mammals avoid roads because of the traffic Journal of Applied Ecology, 45: 117-123. Murcia, C., 1995. Edge effects in fragmented forests: implications for conservation. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 10: 58-62. Nagendra, H., Southworth, J. and Tucker, C., 2003. Accessibility as a determinant of landscape transformation in western Honduras: linking pattern and process. Landscape Ecology, 18: 141-158. Palomino, D. and Carrascal, L.M., 2007. Threshold distances to nearby cities and roads influence the bird community of a mosaic landscape. Biological Conservation, 140: 100- 109. Pfaff, A., Robalino, J., Walker, R., Aldrich, S., Caldas, M., Reis, E., Perz, S., Bohrer, C., Arima, E., Laurance, W. and Kirby, K., 2007. Road investments, spatial spillovers, and deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon. Journal of Regional Science, 47: 109-123. Reijnen, R., Foppen, R., Ter Braak, C. and Thissen, J., 1995. The effects of car traffic on breeding bird populations in woodland. III. Reduction of density in relation to the proximity of main roads. Journal of Applied Ecology, 32: 187-202. Taylor, P.D., Fahrig, L., Henein, K. and Merriam, G., 1993. Connectivity is a vital element of landscape structure. Oikos, 68: 571-573. Forest Landscapes and Global Change-New Frontiers in Management, Conservation and Restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO Landscape Ecology Working Group International Conference, September 21-27, 2010, Bragança, Portugal. J.C. Azevedo, M. Feliciano, J. Castro & M.A. Pinto (eds.) 2010, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal.
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Landscapes Forest and Global Change
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The contributions to this volume ha
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Table of contents Foreword Preface
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Fine-scale mapping of High Nature V
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Characterization of a Maculinea alc
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Urban tree inventory and socio-econ
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xiii Foreword Twenty years ago, Dr.
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Section 1 Scaling in landscape anal
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V. Cortes et al. 2010. Environmenta
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D. S. de Ron et al. 2010. Habitat s
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B. Bożętka 2010. Recent relations
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S.F. Chen et al. 2010. A physiotope
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V.D. de Campos & S M. Carvalho 2010
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N.S. Evseeva & Z.N. Kvasnikova 2010
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N.S. Evseeva & Z.N. Kvasnikova 2010
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S. Frank et al. 2010. A regionally
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M. García et al. 2010. The effect
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M. García et al. 2010. The effect
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S. Gholami et al. 2010. Spatial pat
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P. González-Moreno et al. 2010. Th
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T. Höbinger et al. 2010. Impact of
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P. Matos et al. 2010. Can lichen fu
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E.S. Meier et al. 2010. Projections
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E.S. Meier et al. 2010. Projections
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H. Moutahir et al. 2010. Applicatio
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H. Moutahir et al. 2010. Applicatio
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C. Palaghianu 2010. The use of Voro
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F. Peña-Cortés et al. 2010. Spati
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F.M. Rabenilalana et al. 2010. Mult
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A. Ruskule et al. 2010. Patterns of
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E. Sayad 2010. Nitrogen retrancloca
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E. Sayad 2010. Nitrogen retrancloca
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G. Zhelezov 2010. Evaluation of the
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Section 3 Disturbances in changing
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A. Altamirano et al. 2010. Human-ca
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A. Altamirano et al. 2010. Human-ca
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T. Curt & J. Pausas 2010. Are chang
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R.A Fleming et al. 2010. Forest man
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R.A Fleming et al. 2010. Forest man
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P.C. Goebel et al. 2010. How import
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L.R. Iverson et al. 2010. Merger of
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T.-C. Lin et al. 2010. Immediate ef
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K. L. Martin & P.C. Goebel 2010. Im
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G.M. Pastur et al. 2010. Indirect e
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E.W Saragih et al. 2010. Effects of
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L.R.P. Williamson et al. 2010. Anth
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N. Zurbriggen et al. 2010. Modeling
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Section 4 Biodiversity conservation
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Akbarzadeh et al. 2010. Ecotourism
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Akbarzadeh et al. 2010. Ecotourism
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C. Carvalho-Santos 2010. Fine-scale
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I. Catalano et al. 2010. Wood macro
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R.A. Diaz-Varela et al. 2010. Exten
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R.A. Diaz-Varela et al. 2010. Asses
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P.A.E. Diogo & J. Aranha 2010. GIS
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P.A.E. Diogo & J. Aranha 2010. GIS
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V. Etemad & N. Avani 2010. Investig
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A.E. Eycott et al. 2010. The impact
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E. Fernández-Núñez et al. 2010.
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N. Fracassi & D. Somma 2010. Partic
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J. Hartter et al. 2010. Fortresses
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M.B. Horta et al. 2010. Landscape S
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J.O. López-Martínez et al. 2010.
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Sara Marques et al. 2010. Impact of
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M.G.C. Martins & J. Aranha 2010. El
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M.G.C. Martins & J. Aranha 2010. El
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J.-F. Mas et al. 2010. Modeling lan
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R.S. Moro & T.K. Pereira 2010. Eval
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R.S. Moro & C.H Rocha 2010. A metho
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V. Núñez et al. 2010. Landscape i
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S.G. Plexida & A.I. Sfougaris 2010.
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A. Poljanec & A. Boncina 2010. Chan
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M. Redon & S. Luque 2010. Tengmalm
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M.C.C. Rodrigues et al. 2010. Contr
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M.C. Silva et al. 2010. Using Busin
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T.N. Terra & R.F dos Santos 2010. L
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E. Tetetla-Rangel et al. 2010. Rela
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M. Tsibulnikova 2010. Economic esti
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M. Akbarzadeh & E. Kouhgardi 2010.
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B. Baran-Zgłobicka & W. Zgłobicki
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B. Baran-Zgłobicka & W. Zgłobicki
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J. Beldade & T. Panagopoulos 2010.
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S.M. Carvalho & A.R. de Freitas 201
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R.A. Diaz-Varela et al. 2010. Quant
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I. Duarte & F.C. Rego 2010. Land us
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J.S.V. Filho & M.L. Leite 2010. Sim
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F.J. Gómez et al. 2010. Land use c
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M.L. Leite & J.S.V. Filho2010. Anal
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M.L. Leite & J.S.V. Filho2010. Anal
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M.L.Leite & J.S.V. Filho 2010. Iden
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M. Ortega et al. 2010. Monitoring v
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G. Puddu et al. 2010. Landscape tra
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H.R. Ratsimba et al. 2010. Multi-sc
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M.C. Rodrigues et al. 2010. Charact
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M.C. Rodrigues et al. 2010. Charact
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M.T.C. Rodrigues & V. Silva 2010. L
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J. Schaefer-Santos & C. Lingnau 201
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S.M. Scheffer & E. Schimanski 2010.
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S.M. Scheffer & E. Schimanski 2010.
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J. Superson et al. 2010. The defore
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A.L. Teixido et al. 2010. Impacts o
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H. Viana & J. Aranha 2010. Assessin
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H. Viana & J. Aranha 2010. Mapping
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Section 6 Tools of landscape assess
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N. Avani et al. 2010. Investigation
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J.C. Azevedo et al. 2010. Spatial d
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T. Batista et al. 2010. The third d
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V. Caboun 2010. New classification
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A.M. Carvalho et al. 2010. Connecti
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M. Deconchat et al. 2010. Identific
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J. Gaspar et al. 2010. Visibility a
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J. Gaspar et al. 2010. Visibility a
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A.M. Geraldes 2010. Landscape runof
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A.M. Geraldes & M.J. Boavida 2010.
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K. Koschke et al. 2010. Using a mul
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J.-F. Mas et al. 2010. Assessing
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A. Matos et al. 2010. Economic valu
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A. Migliozzi et al. 2010. Land-use
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M.L Porto et al. 2010. Naturalness
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M.L Porto et al. 2010. Naturalness
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M. Rehor & V. Ondracek 2010. Applic
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J. Russell et al. 2010. Developing
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Section 7 Management and sustainabi
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P. Angelstam & M. Elbakidze. 2010.
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M. Castro et al. 2010. Relationship
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M. Elbakidze et al. 2010. Does fore
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F. Fonseca & T. de Figueiredo 2010.
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A. Gil-Tena et al. 2010. Disentangl
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M.B. Horta & E. Keizer 2010. Assess
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E. Kouhgardi & M. Akbarzadeh 2010.
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E. Kouhgardi et al. 2010. Values of
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E. Kouhgardi et al. 2010. Values of
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E. Schimanski 2010. The importance
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L.A.M. da Silva & E. Shimanki 2010.
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N. Stryamets et al. 2010. Role of n
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E. Volkova 2010. The regional analy
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I. Löfström et al. 2010. Biodiver
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A.C.R. de Oliveira & S.M. Carvalho
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J.M. Rey Benayas 2010. Restoration
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IUFRO Unit 8.01.02 Landscape Ecolog
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