Islam and Citizenship in Europe - The Europaeum
Islam and Citizenship in Europe - The Europaeum
Islam and Citizenship in Europe - The Europaeum
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Report<br />
Underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g Muslims as<br />
Senior scholars <strong>and</strong> young researchers met <strong>in</strong><br />
Bologna to locate the place of Muslims <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong>an<br />
societies. LEON BUSKENS reviews the debates.<br />
<strong>Europaeum</strong> has sponsored several scholarly meet<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>and</strong><br />
sem<strong>in</strong>ars on <strong>Islam</strong>-<strong>in</strong>-<strong>Europe</strong> dur<strong>in</strong>g past years. On two days<br />
last November, an <strong>in</strong>ternational workshop on <strong>Islam</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>Citizenship</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong> was held <strong>in</strong> Bologna, coord<strong>in</strong>ated by Dr<br />
Ruba Salih, well-known for her research on Moroccan immigrants<br />
<strong>in</strong> Italy <strong>and</strong> on multiculturalism <strong>and</strong> gender.<br />
Our meet<strong>in</strong>gs took place <strong>in</strong> the Dipartimento di Politica,<br />
Istituzioni, Storia. <strong>The</strong> scholarly exchanges were made a success<br />
by the active participation of several faculty members, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Professors Tiziano Bonazzi, Gustavo Gozzi, <strong>and</strong> Pier Cesare Bori,<br />
other scholars <strong>and</strong> more than 200<br />
young scholars <strong>and</strong> students.<br />
After open<strong>in</strong>g speeches by<br />
representatives of the university<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>Europaeum</strong>, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g Secretary General Dr Paul Flather, Dr<br />
Salih <strong>in</strong>troduced the aims of the workshop: immigration of<br />
considerable groups of Muslims has challenged, <strong>in</strong> many<br />
<strong>Europe</strong>an countries received ideas about citizenship, <strong>and</strong><br />
established dichotomies between the private <strong>and</strong> public, <strong>and</strong><br />
religious <strong>and</strong> secular spheres. It is clear that nation states cannot<br />
cont<strong>in</strong>ue to pursue an exclusionary policy. Yet multiculturalism<br />
Muslim dress: divid<strong>in</strong>g <strong>Europe</strong><br />
<strong>The</strong> presence of Muslims prompts <strong>Europe</strong>ans to<br />
reth<strong>in</strong>k their “natural” ideas about citizenship<br />
seems to destabilize many classical categories of “modernity”<br />
<strong>and</strong> dem<strong>and</strong>s new ways of th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> policy-mak<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
In the first session two senior scholars of <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />
renown, Professor Tariq Modood (Bristol) <strong>and</strong> Professor Nilüfer<br />
Göle (Paris), offered ideas for such a new conceptual framework.<br />
Professor Modood scrut<strong>in</strong>ized the notion of equality <strong>in</strong> his plea<br />
to go beyond tolerance <strong>and</strong> secularism. Equal respect meant,<br />
for him, actively accept<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> respect<strong>in</strong>g differences of people<br />
with<strong>in</strong> a multicultural society. It also leads to the question<strong>in</strong>g of<br />
the idea that religion should rema<strong>in</strong> a private phenomenon. He<br />
called for a pragmatic, non-ideological approach, <strong>in</strong> which<br />
conflicts were negotiated. <strong>Islam</strong> could thus be <strong>in</strong>tegrated <strong>in</strong>to<br />
the <strong>in</strong>stitutional framework of the state.<br />
Professor Göle started with a detailed analysis of the mock<br />
veil<strong>in</strong>g of three young women,<br />
whom she had seen that very<br />
morn<strong>in</strong>g at Bologna airport. <strong>The</strong><br />
presence of Muslims prompts<br />
<strong>Europe</strong>ans the reth<strong>in</strong>k their “natural” ideas about citizenship.<br />
She took the headscarf issue as a way of analyz<strong>in</strong>g an emerg<strong>in</strong>g<br />
transnational vocabulary of what it means to be a Muslim <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Europe</strong>. Public space is becom<strong>in</strong>g transnational, she agreed, as<br />
the Danish cartoons’ affair also demonstrated. In current debates<br />
about citizenship <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong>, much centered around the body,<br />
space, <strong>and</strong> memory. Thus, the current debate about Muslims is<br />
also a debate about <strong>Europe</strong>, democracy, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>deed, modernity<br />
itself. A lively discussion ensued.<br />
<strong>The</strong> next two papers focused more on the national than on<br />
the <strong>Europe</strong>an level. Professor Chantal Sa<strong>in</strong>t Blancat at Padua<br />
University portrayed the relatively recent formation of Muslim<br />
communities <strong>in</strong> Italy. She focused on the multiple ways <strong>in</strong> which<br />
Muslim immigrants developed ties at the local level. Especially<br />
illum<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>and</strong> enterta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g, was her ethnography of the<br />
owners of kebab restaurants, who had managed to carve out a<br />
place for themselves <strong>in</strong> Padua – where it was much more the<br />
quality of the food than their religion which mattered. Her analysis<br />
also showed the importance of economic aspects <strong>in</strong> the debates<br />
about citizenship <strong>and</strong> identity.<br />
Next, current debates about <strong>Islam</strong> <strong>and</strong> citizenship <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Netherl<strong>and</strong>s was discussed by Professor Buskens. For Dutch<br />
op<strong>in</strong>ion makers, the ma<strong>in</strong> issues were women, crim<strong>in</strong>ality, <strong>and</strong> a<br />
renewed <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> national history. Even lead<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tellectuals<br />
could hardly th<strong>in</strong>k outside an established alterity discourse,<br />
dom<strong>in</strong>ated by stereotypes. Gradually the key notions <strong>in</strong> the<br />
debate had changed from ethnicity <strong>and</strong> culture to <strong>Islam</strong>. <strong>The</strong><br />
Dutch case was seen as part of a much larger, <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />
debate, but also showed some national particulars. Only sound<br />
empirical research might change the aggressive misconceptions<br />
which currently dom<strong>in</strong>ated the public sphere. <strong>The</strong> day was<br />
concluded by a f<strong>in</strong>e summary of the ma<strong>in</strong> po<strong>in</strong>ts by Professor<br />
Gozzi, <strong>and</strong> an animated debate, <strong>in</strong> which many students also<br />
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Report<br />
citizens of <strong>Europe</strong><br />
took an active part.<br />
Our second day began with three illum<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g case studies<br />
by young researchers, who offered fasc<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g ethnographic<br />
case material to supplement the theoretical <strong>and</strong> national analyses<br />
of the first day. Dr Laura Mijares of the Universidad Complutense<br />
de Madrid, presented her research on Muslims <strong>in</strong> Spanish<br />
secondary schools. Aga<strong>in</strong>, the veil turned out to be an important<br />
symbol. Some authorities understood the veil as an obstacle to<br />
“<strong>in</strong>tegration”, <strong>and</strong> denied those girls wear<strong>in</strong>g it access to schools.<br />
Here, a so-called “secularist” discourse of women’s rights was<br />
used to oppose the young women’s underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>gs of their<br />
own religious identities.<br />
Julia Hieber, at St. Anthony’s College, Oxford, offered a micro<br />
analysis of the ways <strong>in</strong> which ma<strong>in</strong>ly Turkish immigrants <strong>in</strong><br />
Munich were construct<strong>in</strong>g their new identities through all k<strong>in</strong>ds<br />
of local organizations. <strong>The</strong>ir views of <strong>Islam</strong> very closely tied to<br />
specific characteristics of time <strong>and</strong> place. Thus, on the local<br />
level, the idea of the umma, the universal community of Muslims,<br />
was not a lived reality. Internal differences proved to be more<br />
important as organizational pr<strong>in</strong>ciples. Julia Hieber evaluated<br />
the activities of the Muslim youth associations as highly positive<br />
contributions to <strong>in</strong>tegration <strong>and</strong> social coherence. Indeed, it<br />
was argued that the Munich experiences could be a stimulat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
example for other <strong>Europe</strong>an cities.<br />
Dr Annalisa Fris<strong>in</strong>a dealt with a similar theme <strong>in</strong> the Italian<br />
context. An association of Young Italian Muslims actively tried<br />
to counter <strong>Islam</strong>ophobic tendencies which had emerged <strong>in</strong> Italy<br />
after 9/11. <strong>The</strong>se young people went beyond defensive ideas<br />
about <strong>Islam</strong>, by focus<strong>in</strong>g on the notion of citizenship itself.<br />
Thus, the debate also became a mirror for Italians, <strong>and</strong> an<br />
<strong>in</strong>vitation to reth<strong>in</strong>k allegedly “normal” categories, l<strong>in</strong>ked to<br />
nationalism <strong>and</strong> Catholicism.<br />
As such, Dr Fris<strong>in</strong>a’s case<br />
study <strong>in</strong>vited a return to the<br />
theoretical debates <strong>in</strong>itiated<br />
<strong>and</strong> by Professors Modood<br />
<strong>and</strong> Göle.<br />
F<strong>in</strong>ally, the anthropologist Dr Ahmed Al-Shahi from St.<br />
Anthony’s College, Oxford presented some challeng<strong>in</strong>g<br />
thoughts on culture, <strong>in</strong>tegration, <strong>and</strong> citizenship. He referred to<br />
many examples from his personal experience, both as a researcher<br />
<strong>and</strong> teacher, <strong>and</strong> as an adviser to policy makers. He pronounced<br />
himself strongly aga<strong>in</strong>st “a ghetto mentality” <strong>and</strong> isolationism,<br />
<strong>and</strong> challenged many of the earlier expressed views. He<br />
particularly turned aga<strong>in</strong>st the political use which some<br />
immigrants made of <strong>Islam</strong>.<br />
<strong>The</strong> ensu<strong>in</strong>g debate was ably moderated by Professor Cesare<br />
Bori. In pass<strong>in</strong>g he contributed one of the most important <strong>and</strong><br />
practical lessons to the workshop, when he mentioned his efforts<br />
to translate important philosophical <strong>and</strong> mystical texts from the<br />
Arabic, <strong>in</strong> collaboration with Muslim prisoners.<br />
Muslims <strong>in</strong> the Netherl<strong>and</strong>s: seek<strong>in</strong>g full citizenship<br />
...by focus<strong>in</strong>g on the notion of citizenship itself...the<br />
debate also became a mirror for Italians, <strong>and</strong> an<br />
<strong>in</strong>vitation to reth<strong>in</strong>k allegedly “normal” categories<br />
<strong>The</strong> debates had been so lively that there was little time for<br />
conclusions. However, Dr Flather undertook a courageous<br />
attempt to sum up the ma<strong>in</strong> themes <strong>and</strong> issues. First, he po<strong>in</strong>ted<br />
to the l<strong>in</strong>k between the debates about <strong>Islam</strong> <strong>and</strong> the crisis <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Europe</strong>an citizenship. To what extent were the particular national<br />
debates specific expressions of this more general concern<br />
Second, could we discern any patterns <strong>in</strong> the national experiences<br />
of the different <strong>Europe</strong>an countries <strong>The</strong> case studies presented<br />
offered valuable material for this k<strong>in</strong>d of research. Muslims<br />
constituted, <strong>in</strong> practice, highly varied communities, although<br />
many <strong>Europe</strong>ans had constructed a uniform image which was at<br />
odds with this diversity. <strong>The</strong> way <strong>in</strong> which various <strong>Europe</strong>an<br />
countries deal with the idea of secularism proved also to be<br />
very diverse, embedded <strong>in</strong> different historical trajectories.<br />
Dr Flather concluded with a plea for more comparative<br />
research, both on common themes such as veil<strong>in</strong>g, youth<br />
associations, <strong>and</strong> the media, <strong>and</strong> on national policies. For<br />
example, <strong>Europe</strong>an countries could learn much form each other<br />
on the ways they were deal<strong>in</strong>g with legal issues, as well as<br />
questions of representation.<br />
<strong>The</strong> ‘oldest’ <strong>Europe</strong>an<br />
university proved to be an<br />
excellent venue for this<br />
learn<strong>in</strong>g of each other through<br />
comparison. <strong>The</strong> br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g<br />
together of researchers from various <strong>Europe</strong>an countries,<br />
hold<strong>in</strong>g differ<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>ts of view, lead to fruitful debates <strong>and</strong><br />
exchanges.<br />
Italy had relatively recently been confronted with the<br />
immigration of considerable groups of Muslims <strong>and</strong> scholars<br />
<strong>and</strong> students showed great curiosity <strong>and</strong> openness. This new<br />
look on problems which are for North/West <strong>Europe</strong> riven with<br />
conflict <strong>and</strong> difficulties was fresh <strong>and</strong> stimulat<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Thanks to the generosity <strong>and</strong> savoir vivre of our Bolognese<br />
hosts, <strong>and</strong> the stunn<strong>in</strong>g sett<strong>in</strong>g of a Medieval city, scholarship<br />
turned out to be not only an <strong>in</strong>tellectual, but also a sensuous<br />
pleasure.<br />
Léon Buskens is a lecturer <strong>in</strong> <strong>Islam</strong>ic Law <strong>and</strong> the Anthropology of Muslim<br />
societies at Leiden University, <strong>and</strong> a professor at Utrecht University.<br />
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