The complexiTy of resource governance in a conTexT of sTaTe ... - Ipis

54 International Alert
districts. Though these areas are vast, this corresponds in part with the mineral flows being studied
in this research. In fact, gold originating from Orientale, on average, comprises two-thirds of the
total amount of gold bought per month by Butembo traders. 215
Fourthly, resources other than gold are currently less in vogue in the region. 216 No coltan was
purchased from December 2008–May 2010, except for January 2010. Wolframite purchases also
drastically decreased in the same period. No cassiterite was bought in 2009, and only in May in
2010. The cassiterite, wolframite and coltan that were eventually purchased in May 2010 mainly
originated from Manguredjipa, with a very small amount (9.1 kg) from Mambasa. The former is a
well-known centre de négoce in North Kivu. Stakeholders on several occasions claimed that most
minerals with an “official” origin are actually transiting from Bafwasende and Mambasa territories.
3.4 Presence of armed groups and human rights violations
The involvement of FARDC soldiers in the mineral sector and its supply chains is an unmistakable
trend. Here, a clear distinction needs to be made between “institutional” FARDC control of
mines and FARDC soldiers exerting their power to make individual profit. It is important to
note this distinction in the light of the current focus on “conflict minerals” in DRC. There is a
difference between war economies used by armed groups to finance their war efforts, and what
in this case appear to be shadow economies in which soldiers use their power, influence and
networks to maintain and consolidate power bases outside the control of the state. The shadow
economy is ‘easily captured by combatants, either directly or in close cooperation with criminal
entrepreneurs. Shadow economies, thus, often become the basis for combat economies, while also
providing income for criminal elites and mafia structures.’ 217
The information ascertained by the field mission revealed FARDC involvement in the mineral
trade in both Bafwasende and Mambasa. This appears to be highly organised by their superiors,
and mirrors the pre-war Zairian trade patterns later criminalised during Congo’s war in that: ‘The
development of informal trade networks is not just the result of the recent wars but has to be
analysed from the perspective of the very nature of the pre-war Zairian state… This intertwining
of the previously existing local parallel networks and war economies at present makes it extremely
difficult to separate those “criminalised” networks … from the pre-war situation.’ 218
The second trend noted is the application of an informal taxation system by both FARDC and PNC,
often under pressure from their superiors. This practice mirrors in its motivation and application the
illegal taxation performed by government agents, and is discussed in more detail below.
Opienge, Bafwasende territory
As pointed out, only limited information emerges from the Opienge area. By virtue of the local
conflict dynamics in the area, this information, particularly concerning the Mayi-Mayi Kumu and
Simba, needs further verification as the field researchers were unable to access most locations south
and east of Opienge and thus could not triangulate the information provided by stakeholders.
The difficulties faced by the research team in accessing mines in areas under FARDC control
may indicate that informal involvement by individual soldiers and their commanders is occurring
at these sites. Certainly, the initial observation regarding shadow economies, raised above, has
been documented and discussed in the field interviews for southern Bafwasende territory. There
is clear evidence of FARDC soldiers profiting from mineral extraction and trade, using military
215 CEEC Butembo, Renseignments sur les négociants, 2009, p. 5.
216 Observation based on an analysis of CEEC Butembo statistical records for 2009 and 2010.
217 IPI (2003) ‘Transforming war economies: Challenges for peacemaking and peacebuilding’, Wilton Park. Report. p 13.
218 K. Vlassenroot and H. Romkema, ‘The emergence of a new order Resources and rar in Eastern Congo, in: Journal of Humanitarian
Assistance, October 2002. http://jha.ac/articles/a111.htm