BUCJKWJHIJEAT lIN

NBPGR ShimIa Sci. Monogr. No. 2
BUCJKWJHIJEAT lIN TINIDJrA.
B.D. JOSHI
R.S. PARODA
National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources
Regional Station, Phagli, Shimla-171 004
INDIA

June, 1991
Copies available from :
The Head·
National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources
Regional Station, Phagli, Shimla-l71 004
INDIA
All Rights Reserved
© 1991, National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources
New Delhi-12
Title Cover :
Field view of Buckwheat Crop
Title Inset :
Variation in seed, shape, size a~d colour
Back Cover page :
Top Photo : Twigs of three buckwheat species in flowering/fruiting
Bottom Photo: Himpriya at maturity.
Published by the Director, National Bureau of Plant Genetic
Resources, New Delhi-lIO 012 and Phototypeset & Printed at :
Azad Hind Stores (P) Ltd., 34, Sector 17-E, Chandigarh.

CONTENTS
PREFACE
1. Introduction 1
2. Origin and Distribution 3
3. Uses 9
4. Botany and Cytotaxonomy 17
5. Breeding and Genetics 22
6. Physiology and Biochemistry 30
7. Cultivation 37
8. Research Needs ·44
9. Exploration and Collection 47
10. ' Conservation 51
11. Characterization and Evaluation 53
12. Descriptor and Descriptor states 63
13. Catalogue 68
14. Germplasm Distribution 102
15. References 104
(iii)

PREFACE
Mountain regions of India are rich reservoir of plant genetic
diversity. This diversity of crops, both within and between species,
is partly explained by the multitude of elevation related ecological
niches in and round mountain villages. Many unique crops like
buckwheat, amaranth, chenopod, hull-less barley and potato have
been selected for mountain conditions apart from prosomillet,
finger millet, italian millet and barnyard millet. Crop diversity is
also one of the farmers strategies for reducing risk in the face of
harsh and highly variable climate. Mountain soils are highly
variable and frequently stony and thus supporting varied type of
crops. Terracing has made it possible to cultivate steep slopes of
the hills. The agricultural research community has generally
neglected mountain areas in favour of the plains which have
greater food production potential and are often more densely
populated and richer. This vast temperate plant genetic variabili.ty
need to be collected and conserved for crop improvement
programmes in the region on priority basis.
The National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, Regional
Station, Phagli, Shimla has been engaged in collecting, evaluation
and characterizing, documenting and conserving this vast genetic
wealth of mountain crops for the development of hill agriculture.
Two crop catalogues, one on french bean (Patel et al. 1981) and
other on grain amaranth (Joshi, 1981) were published from this
station. One variety of buckwheat named. 'Himpriya' was
recommended for release and cultivation in the hills as a result of
evalutation of large collections and multi location trials of buck
wheat gemplasm in the hills.
It is hoped that this little effort on our part to collect, evaluate,
conserve, classify and synthesize all available information on
buckwheat including exotic and wild relative of buckwheat will be
of great interest to botanists, plant breeders, plant explorers and
to those interested in mountain crop diversity and evolution. This
(v)

publication will also be useful, particularly when interest in this
crop has been generated now through the execution of all India
Coordinated Research Project on Under-utilized and
Underexploited crop plants by Indian Council of Agricultural
Research (lCAR) for the development of hill agriculture.
We express our gratitude to Drs. AB. Joshi ex-Director, IARI;
T.N. Khoshoo, distinguished Scientist, CSIR; M.V. Rao Ex. Special
Director General, ICAR; R.S. Rana, Director, NBPGR and Shri
T.A Thomas, Head of Evaluation Division, NBPGR for their advice
and encouragements. We are thankful to Dr. S.K Pandey,
scientist, CPRI, Shimla fC1r going through the manuscript. Finally
we are grateful to the farmers (the custodians) of the remote high
hills who generously permitted the senior author to collect the
buckwheat landraces from their small holdings, backyards,
threshingyards and seed stores during various exploration tours.
B.D. JOSm
R.S. PARODA
(vi)

INTRODUCTION
Plant genetic resources are one of the important gifts of nature
to the mankind. They represent the sum total of diversity
accumulated through years of evolution under domestication and
natural selection. Many of these genetic resources are presently,
the important sources of high nutritional value, resistant to
several diseases and pests, drought and frost in Himalayas.
Mountain agricultural systems are characterized by their extreme
diversity due to ecological niches. Many unique crops have been
selected by the mountain dweller to suit· their requirements
ranging from three crops in a year in subtropical belts to single
crop in a year in high mountains. The diversity in th~
environments have produced thousands of landraces of the widely
grown crops like buckwheat.
Man has utilized only 20 crop plants as a major food source
since the agricultural practices came into existence about 10,000
years ag;o. The potential of another 3,000 plant species having food
and other economic value has yet to be exploited. Considering that
by 2000 AD, the total population of India is expected to be 1000
million and to feed them, the country would be requiring about
375 million tonnes of food.· Hence it is not only necessary to use
the available rich diversity and wide genetic base to improve the
existing conventional cultivars but also look for un-conventional,
lesser known food crops such as buckwheat and grain amaranths
which are cultivated in Himalayas for centuries.
Common buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench.) is a
herbaceous erect annual plant with diploid chromosome number
2n=16 belonging to family Polygonaceae. Buckwheat is the most
important crop of the mountain regions above 1800m elevation
both for grains and greens. It occupies large area of solid stands
and extends from 1800 m to more than 4500 m in the Himalayas.
It is highly nutritive. Unlike common cereals which are deficient
in lysine, buckwheat has excellent protein quality interms of
essential amino-acid composition. It is a multipurpose crop. The
1

tender shoots are used as leafy vegetables. The flower and green
leaves are used for extraction of rutin (glucoside) used in medicine.
The flower produces honey of very good quality. The seed is used
in a n'umber of culinary preparations as well as. alcoholic drinks.
The crop helps in soil binding and check soil erosion during rainy
seasons and is a good green manuring crop. The other importance
of buckwheat as a food is its great effect in reducing the risks to
person exposed to radiation hazards- in the high mountain areas.
Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) originated in temperate
eastern Asia. The perennial wild species Fagopyrum cymo;um
native to India and China is considered to be the progenitor of
both (Fagopyrum esculentum and F. 'tataricum). Buckwheat is
cultivated in a number of countries as a food and fodder crop. In
Europe, particularly in Russia, it constitutes one of the main food
crops. It is also grown in USA, Canada, France, Germany, U.K
Denmark, Poland, Holland, Sweden, Australia, Bulgaria, Rumania,
Italy, Japan, South Mrica, Brazil, China, Nepal and Bhutan. In
India, the crop is wiQely grown from Jammu and Kashmir in the
West to Arunachal Pradesh in the east. At the time of maturity
the ladder type fields of buckwheat on the hill slopes give beautiful
view of the crop to the passer by from distance as if the hill-lock
has been artificially decorated with scarlet red gardening. In the
lower hills it is more often raised as a leafy than as grain crop. Its
higher concentration was observed in the high mountains of
Himachal Pradesh (Chamba, Pangi, Lahaul and Spiti, Mandi, Kulu
and Kinnaur); Uttar l\ashi, Chamoli, Pauri and Pithoragarh
districts of Uttar Pradesh hills. The crop is also grown in Jammu
and Kashmir; Sikkim, Khasi hills, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh,
Darjeeling, Siliguri, Assam, Nilgiris and Palni hills in the South.
Similar to higher hills of India its concentration is high in Bhutan
and Nepal. The recent report from Bhutan (1987) revealed that the
cultivation and concentration of buckwheat is increasing and
competing with potato cultivation. The reasons for its favour is its
ability to grow on poor soils at low temperature of high mountains,
early maturity and excellent top soil binding habit.
In view of great importance of the crop, a collection of
buckwheat comprising 539 population samples was made by the
scientists of the Bureau before some of them are lost from remote
2

areas of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,
Sikkim and North Eastern Hills of India. A few introductions from
Nepal, USSR, USA, Hungry, Germany, Italy and Poland were also
added in the buckwheat germplasm. This diversity was evaluated
for 31 agro-morphological (descriptor and descriptor states)
characters. The details of 408 collections are given in the
catalogue. The material presented in this monograph deals with
origin and distribution, uses, botany and cytotaxonomy, breeding
and genetics, cultural practices, future research needs, exploration
and collection conservation, characterization and evaluation. The
promising lines of breeders' interest have also been enumerated in
this publication. A buckwheat literature comprising of more than
200 references has been provided in the end for the benefit and
use of buckwheat research workers.
ORIGIN AND DISTRffiUTION
Buckwheat is said to have originated in temperate Central Asia.
The perennial wild species, Fagopyrum cymosum (2n=16) is native
to northern India and China. This species is considered to be the
probable progenitor of both F. esculentum (2n=16) and F. tataricu~
(2n=16) cultivated forms (Krotov, 1963). Wild forms of F.
esculentum are found in China and Siberia. Morris (1947) and
Tsvetoukhine (1952) believed that the genus Fagopyrum might
have originated in Central Asia where it is growing wild
(Manchuria and Siberia). Soviet authors consider the centre of its
origin to be in the Himalayan region of either Western China or
Northern India (Elagin, 1959). Kovalenk (1986), while studying the
phylogenetic relationship in Fagopyrum species, reported that the
common ancestor of F. tataricum (tartary buckwheat). F. cymosum
and F. esculentum (common buckwheat) is thought to have been
homomorphic, self-self-incompatible insect pollinated perennial
form. F. tataricum is phylogenetically the most ancient. F.
esculentum was derived from F. cymosum by divergent evolution
following its dispersal to different environments, particularly under
the influence of cultivation and selection by man. Further
evolution within the genus is seen in terms of the reconstruction of
the'S' locus and the production of homostylous forms. In India and
China tartary buckwheat (bitter buckwheat) grows in the cooler
and harsher climatic conditions to which it is better adapted than
the common buckwheat (sweet buckwheat). Comparison of
3

F. cymosum with the two cultivated species suggests that selection
for annual habit, non-shattering inflorescence and low seed
dormancy was operative. F. tataricum has more fragile heads and
more dormant seed than the common forms and is less evolved
morpl.lOlogically as compared to other two species of the genus.
Dolinsek (1980) observed a polymorphism of electrophoretic
patterns of water soluble proteins within populations of
buckwheat. Ohnishi (1983) compared the electrophoretic band
patterns of seven enzymes among three speies of Fagopyrum and
postulated that F. cymosum is the ancestral form, whereas F.
esculentum and F. tataricum are derived from it independently.
Although F. tataricum has more morphological variability than F.
esculentum yet it has unbelievably limited allozyme variability
within the species (Ohnishi 1986). Farooq and Tahir (1987)
determined the intrageneric relationship between F. esculentum, F.
sagittatum, F. Kashmirianum and F. tataricum by comparing the
polygraphs separately in grains and leaves; it was found that F.
esculentum stands distinct from the other three species. Sherchuk
(1983) found that although albumins in grains of F. esculentum
and F. tataricum were immune chemically identical, yet they
~ppeared to be heterogenous when separated by gel filtration on
sephadex G-lOO.
Matano et al. (1979) reported that 300 cultivars from Japan were
classified by flowering and yield responses into summer (A)
autumn (B) and intermediate (C) agro-ecotypes, which showed a
close relationship to the geographical distribution. In a study
carried out in Nepal (Matsuoka, 1956), the length of growing
period and yield varied with altitude. It is considered that the
species diffused from the primary centre of origin in South West
China to northeastern countries of Asia. The primary agro-ecotype
might be regarded as an autumn type adapted to the climatic
conditions of the low altitude. Cultivation. under different
conditions, a summer agro-ecotype would have originated from
autumn type. It seems that summer type occurred in Nothern
China, North Korea and Manchuria.
Although buckwheat is known to have been cultivated in China
for 1000 years, it is not believed to be very ancient (Hunt, 1910).
The earliest records about buckwheat have been traced in certain
4

Chinese writings which suggest that buckwheat production was in
vogue in China during fifth and sixth centuries AD (Krotov, 1963,
Yurui and Zhongqing, 1984). Presumably it was cultivated in
China for nearly a millennium before it spread to Europe via
Russia. It was introduced into Europe in the middle ages, probably
from Siberia reaching Germany early in the fifteenth century
(Huges and Henson, 1934). Darlington (1956) mentioned that in
Germany tartary buckwheat grows as a weed in crops of common
buckwheat. In Russia it was apparently not cultivated to any
appreciable extent till the fifteenth century (Krotov, 1963) and was
introduced into Europe about the same period (Tsvetoukhine, 1952;
Giacomini, 19~5). In Poland buckwheat was brought from Asia by
Mangols and the first records of buckwheat being grown in Poland
date back to fifteenth century AD (Ruszkowski, 1983). Seeds and
fossil buckwheat grains have been discovered in the lesser Poland
region and the lown Tyniec in the Krakow area (Krol, 1986). In
Yugoslavia earliest records suggest that it was widely spread in
this country in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries (Kuhar,
1976).
Buckwheat is believed to have been introduced into Japan
alongwith millet (Panicum miliaceum), foxtail millet (Setaria
italica and rice (Oryza sativa) about 3000 years ago. The first
descriptive record of buckwheat in Japan dates to 722 AD. It has
been inferred that buckwheat was intoduced into Japan via
Korean peninsula from China (N agatomo, 1983).
Accordingly to De Condolle (1883), the common buckwheat was
not cultivated in ancient times in India. There is no name for any
of the species of Fagopvrum in Sanskrit literature. He also
mentioned that it carne to Europe through Tartary and Russia in
the middle ages. During the seventeenth century, it was present Tn
most of the Europe, China and in the mountains of India. In the
ninteenth century, Roxburgh had not seen it in northern India.
The first descriptive record of buckwheat cultivation in Kashmir is
found in the writings of nineteenth century (Lawrence, 1985).
Buckwheat was presumably introduced into Kashmir after 1200
AD (Gohil, 1984). The world distribution and cultivation of the
crop is given in Figure 1.
5

...
...
liD
Iio<
6

Fig. 2 : Cultivation and Distribution of Buckwheat in India.
1. Jammu & Kashmir 8. Assam
2. Leh 9. Arunachal Pradesh
3. Himachal Pradesh 10. Nagaland
4. Garhwal II. Manipur
5. Kumaon 12. Nilgris
6. Darjeeling 13. Palni hills
7. Sikkim
7

Buckwheat is cultivated in a number of countnes on a food and
fodder crop. The Soviet Union is by far the largest producer of
buckwheat where it constitutes the chief food of peasants (De
Jong, 1972). Apart from Soviet Union other buckwheat producing
countries are United States, Canada, Germany, Poland,
Yugoslavia, Hungry, Brazil, China, Japan, Korea, Iran,
Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan and India. Cultivation of
buckwheat has recently been reported from Austria, Switzerland,
Italy, France, Great Britain and Australia (Kreft, 1983). Unlike
grain amarnath cultivation which is gradually declining,
buckwheat continues to be popular crop and has a wide
distribution.
In India the crop is widely grown from Jammu and Kashmir in
the West to Arunachal Pradesh in the east (Figure 2). As
compared to higher hills in the lower hills it is more often raised
as a leafy vegetable than as grain crop. Its concentration was
observed in the high mountains of Himachal Pradesh (Chamba,
Pangi, Labaul and Spiti, Mandi, Kulu, Shimla and Kinnaur) and
,Uttar Rashi, Chamoli, Pauri, Pithoragarh and Almora districts of
Uttar Pradesh hills. The crop is also grown in Sikkim, Khasi hills,
Manipur, Datjeeling, Siliguri, Assam, Nilgiris and Palni hills in
South. Similar to higher hills of India its concentration is high in
Nepal and Bhutan. In a recent report from Bhutan (1987) revealed
that the cultivation and concentration of buckwheat is increasing
replacing potato cultivation. The reasons for its favour is its
potential to grow on poor soils at low temperature of high
mountains, early maturity and excellent top soil binding habit.
In the hills it is cultivated as a rainfed crop from 600 m to more
than 4500m altitudinal limits where no other crop can grow. The
exact figure for acerage and production in the world and India are
not available, the authors estimated that it occupies more than
20,000 hectares Kharif land in the hills of India with annual
production of 6000 metric tonnes. Being early maturing,crop in the
Western hills of India, Bhutan and Nepal it occupies 100 percent
land of higher hills where conditions favourable to plant growth
prevail only for a limited period.
8

USES
Buckwheat is a multipurpose crop. The tender shoots are used
as leafy vegetables. The flower and green leaves are used for
extraction of rutin (glucoside) used in medicine. The flower of
common buckwheat produces very good quality honey. The seed is
used in a number of culinary preparations and alcoholic drinks.
The crop helps in soil binding 'and check soil erosion during rainy
seasons and is a good green manure crop. The food value of
buckwheat is given in table 1, 2, 3 and 4. The heavy consumption
of buckwheat and exposure to sunlight can produce an irritating
skin disorder, as white or light-coloured areas on the skin or hide
(De Jong, 1972). Buckwheat is highly nutritious being rich source
of proteins (Coe, 1931). The nutritive v~ue of buckwheat is
superior as compard to millet or even the cerea]s 1ike ric~ and
wheat. It is a rich source of proteins, minerals, vitamins and fat.
Table 1 : Composition of Buckwheat Grains Per 100 Grams·
Name of Food Moisture Protein Fat Total Cal. Iron Phosfood
grains energy % (g) (g) carbohy. (mg) (mg) phoros
cal. drate(g) (mg)
Buckwheat 335 11.0 13.5 7.4 72.S 114 13.2 282
Amaranth 391 9.3 15.3 7.1 63.1 490 22.4 453
Cornmeal 355 12.0 9.2 3.9 73.7 20 3.5 256
Ryegrain 334 11.0 12.1 1.7 73.4 38 376
Whole
Wheat flour 333 12.0 13.3 2.0 71.0 41 10.5 372
·Source : USDA Composition of Food Agricultural Hand Book No. 8
Farooq and Tahir (1988) reported that the chemical composition
of leaves of 6-week old plant of F. esculentum, F. sagittatum, F.
tataricum and F. Kashmirianum was compared. F. esculentum had
thicker and more succulent- leaves containing more sugars and
starch and lower levels of phenols than the other species indicating
that it was more suitable as a green vegetable. Buckwheat
proteins have better amino acid composition with high level of
9

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11

Table 4 : Essential Amino-acids of Buckwheat Grains As
Compared To Other Cereals (as per centage of protein)*
Name of food grains Lysine Methionine Tryptophan Leucine
\ .
Buckwheat 5.9 3.7 1.4 5.8
Amaranth 5.0 4.4 1.4 4.7
Wheat 2.6 3.5 1.2 6.3
Rice 3.8 3.0 1.0 8.2
Maize 1.9 3.2 0.6 13.0
FAOIWHO 5.5 3.5 1.0 7.0
Recommendation
*Source : Proceedings of Second Amaranth Conference, 1979 USA.
lysine, which is generally deficient in the proteins on most of
cereals and millets. The nutritive value of the proteins is
comparable to that of Casein (milk protein). Therefore, the grains
unlike other cereals can serve as a sole source of good quality
protein even without supplementing them with pulses or lysine. In
view of the increasing demand for food grains in our country
where rice and wheat production n.ay reach a pI atue , exploitation
of millets and buckwheats as good grain may become important.
This is particularly important as large tracts of our land are semiarid
where only coarse grain can be grown. Presently these grains
are consumed' mostly by the poor. But by upgrading their quality,
these grains can be accepted and consumed by the higher income
groups also. Various uses of buckwheat have been enumerated
below.
(i) Culinary Preparations
The grain is variously used as an article of food in different
countries. In Europe and USA, the flour is mixed with flour of
wheat, rice or maize to form pancakes, biscuits, noodles, cereals
etc. In Russia and Poland, the starchy flour is consumed as
porridge (Kasha) and soup. In the hills of India, Bhutan and
Nepal, the flour is the staple food. In the districts of Kulu, Mandi,
Chamba, Kinnaur of Himachal Pradesh and Pithoragarh, Chamoli
and Pauri districts of Uttar Pradesh, the flour of bharesha
12

(P. esculentum) is husked for making chillare which is an unleavened
bread fried with ghee and crisp pahora are made. In Rohdu area of
Shimla district Jalebi like article is prepared from bharesha flour.
In case of hathu (F. tataricum) the seed is treated in boiling water
to remove bitterness before making chillare. In the hills of Uttar
Pradesh the flour of buckwheat is mixed with potato and delicious
parathas are prepared. In Kulu valley the gangri variety (F.
tataricum var himalianum is easily husked and the husked kernels
are cooked like rice. In U.P. hills the ogla (common buckwheat)
flour is used in making a sweet preparation called halwa on fastJ
religious festivals. It is also mixed with wheat and barley for
making chapattis. In higher hills of Himachal Pradesh and Uttar
Pradesh, West Bengal, Sikkim, Bhutan, and Nepal, hathu
buckwheat is used for making country liquor called pechuwi and
chang. The buckwheat flour and groats must be used fresh because
their fat content is high and they soon become rancid. When eaten
continously or in large quantity it casued rashes on the skin.
(ii) Rich Source of Honey
Common buckwheat is a rich source of honey. It is estimated
that one acre of land of common buckwheat produces about 60 Kg
of honey (Wealth of India, 1956). The honey produced by
buckwheat is dark coloured and strong in flavour. No honey is
obtained from tartary buckwheat flower. It is reported that the
sugar content of honey is 2 to 4 times greater in the first period of
blooming than in the second period. Lesik (1953) observed that
application of 10 kg boron and 3 CWt of manganese, per hectare,
increased the quantity and quality of honey. The composition of
buckwheat honey has been reported as follows : water 18.54, invert
sugar 76.85, sucrose 0.03, dextrin 1.22, acid formic 0.21 and ash
0.09 per cent (Wilson, 1948).
(iii) Medicinal Plant
Dried and green buckwheat plants are rich source of rutin a
glucoside. The leaves and flowers are richer in rutin which varies
from 1.0 to 6.0 per cent. The stems have little while the seeds
have none. The tartary buckwheat has higher rutin than common
buckwheat. .The crop for rutin is harvested before the seed set.
Spring sowing is reported to produce higher rutin content than the
summer sown crop.
13

Rutin is used in medicine in the treatment of increased capillary
fragility with associated hypertension, a condition which
sometimes results in the bursting of blood vessels in the brain,
leadin~ to apoplexy or retinal haemorrhage and causing partial or
even complete blindness. It is useful in a variety of haemorrhagic
conditions which include certain types of purpura, bleeding from
the kidney, hereditary haemorrhagic telangiectasia and
haemophilia. Rutin has been shown to afford protection against
harmful effects of X-rays, indicating that it may be of use to
persons exposed to dangerous atomic radiations. It has been used
with success as a prophylactic against gangrene due to frost bite.
Rutin is conjunction with certain miotics is of value in glaucoma
and in combination with dicumarol, in the treatment of retinitis. It
also prevents weakening of capillaries due to such drugs as
salicylates, arsenicals, thiocyanate, sulphadiazine and gold salts.
Rutin is administered orally in the form of tablets. The usual
dosage is 10-30 mg repeated 3 to 4 times daily for several weeks.
It is non-toxic and can be safely administered for long periods
(Couch, 1950-51). Buckwheat when consumed in excess by human
beings may cause severe itching with development of rash in
certain individuals. The source and nature of the toxic substance is
not definitely known. A photodynamically active pigment,
fagopyrin, related to hypericin, has been isolated from dried
flowers by extraction With methyl alcohol followed by fractionation
and chromatographic adsorption. The pigment is stated to be
present only in the flowers and hulls and not in the leaves, stern
and flour. This property of buckwheat will be of immense value in
the modern times when there is all fear of nuclear holocaust.
In USA, recent researches have shown that buckwheat plant is a
promising commercial source of rutin (yield 3-6%), a flavonol
glucoside having the property of reducing increased capillary
fragility. The leaves and blossoms of the plant contain most of the
rutin (80-90%), only a small percentage is present in the stems
and none in the fruits. The rutin content varies with the age of the
plant, reaching a maximum in the early blossoming stage.
However, because of the extra growth of the plant, the maximum
yield of rutin per acre is obtained when buckwheat is harvested at
full bloom just before the fruits have set. With further growth, the
rutin content decreased due to the faster growth of the stem
14

tissue, atrophying of the leaf tissue and replacement of flowers by
fruits.
It is obtained from fresh or dried leaves and flowers. Green
plants should be processed as quickly as possible after harvesting,
as there is a rapid loss of rutin in slow fields drying. A process for
the rapid dehydration of leaves, wing rotary alfasfa dries has been
developed for obtaining leaf meal rich in rutin and stable under
ordinary storage conditions for at least a year. By choosing drying
conditions specifically designed to minimise loss, the overall loss of
rutin can be reduced to about 25%. The solvents employed for the
extraction of rutin are hot water, dilute isopropyl alcohol or
ethanol, hot isopropyl alcohol is an efficient solvent. By distilling
off the alcohol from the extract and straining the fat which settles
out, a watery solution is obtained from which crude rutin
crystallises on standing and croling. It is dissolved in boiling
water, treated with silica gel to remove the red pigment, and rutin
crystallised out from the filtrate. About 78% of rutin in the meal is
recoverable by this process (Esken et aI., 1948).
During the extraction of rutin from buckwheat varieties 60% of a
fatty mat~r is obtained as a byproduct. It is dark green in colour,
almost solid at room temperature and contains an unusually high
percentage (14.9%) of unsaponifiable matter, it contains lecithin
(2%). The principal acids present are : linolenic, oleic, linoleic and
palmitic. The unsaponifiable fraction contains carotene,
xanthophylls, phytol, B-sitosterol and one of the cicosanols. The
mother liquor from crude rutin crystallisation contians potasium
nitrate and sugar.
(iv) Feed For Live Stocks
Buckwheat grain's are mostly used as food for livestock and
poultry in USA and USSR. In USA buckwheat flour is mixed with
wheat, rice and com with skim milk, salt an leavening agents are
marketed. It is a suitable partial substitute for other grains in
feeding livestock. The tartary buckwheat has lower feeding value
than the common buckwheat. It is extensively used for poultry,
round seeds have been found more suitable for poultry feed. The
hulls have little or no feeding value. The straw is sometimes used
as feed when well preserved, but cause digestive disturbance when
fed in large quantities. Mixed with peas and vetches, it may be
15

used as green fodder. The hay contains per 100 parts; moisture
14.0, protein 10.5, fat 2.1, carbohydrates 35.6, fibre 31.4 and ash
6.4 (Morrison, 1945). However, in the hills of India it is not used
as feed for animals and said to be injurious to sheep. Stock
\
animals fed on buckwheat under certain conditions and stages of
growth are liable to photosensilization and consequent dermatitis
of the unpigmented portion of the skin. The disease is known as
fagopyrism and the fresh plant in the flowering stage is considered
most toxic. Animals with pigmated skins or those which are not
exposed to bright light do not develop the symptoms.
(v) Green Manure ADd Soil-Binder
The crop is very suitable as a green manure. Buckwheat is very
much succulent and decay quickly in soil. Saptharishi and Azarich
(1952) reported that buckwheat is a useful green manure crop for
potatoes on the Nilgiris. It is excellent crop for soil improvement.
Poor land can be improved by cultivating rye with buckwheat and
is profitably used for improving the virgin up country land which
is not in good physical condition for establishing pastures
(Ladefoged, 1952). Its spreading, profuse rooting habit and
yigourous quick growth, smothers weeds and forms very .good close
canopy which acts as a strong soil binder preventing erosion of top
soil during heavy rainfall in the hills. The hulls are often used for
stutfmg pillows.
16

BOTANY AND CYTOTAXONOMY
The genus Fagopyrum of family Polygonaceae is represented by
four species; three cultivated and one wild. The species are F.
esculentum Moench, F. tataricum Gaertn., F. emarginatum
Moench. and F. cymosum Meissn. The grains of Notch-seeded
buckwheat (F. emarginatum) cultivated in Northern India and
China differ from tartary and common buckwheat having.' the
angles or edges of the hull extended into wide, rounded margins or
wing. Morphologically the plant resembles common buckwheat in
all other respects and is compatible with it, most workers consider
it a form of F. esculentum (Bailey, 1917). Airy-Shaw (1973)
reported that the genus Fagopyrum is represented by about
fifteen species which are mostly distributed in the temperate
regions. Morphological details of these buckwheats have been
described by Bailey (1958), Marshall (1969), MC Gregor (1976) and
Munshi (1982). Molchan (1987) while studying the
intrapopulational, variation in development of the stamens 'and
pistils, long styled and short styled flowers differed in mean pistil
length, but the variation was so wide in both floral types that the
boundary between flowers of different style length was blurred. In
homomorphic long-styled polulations as well as dimorphic
populations, 'cross pollination of plants, with different flower
structure occurred under natural conditions. Homostylous long
styled flowers with long stamens and large pollen grains and
homostylous short styled flowers with short stamens and small
pollen grain showed fairly high compatibility. Differences in
compatibility and floral structure occurred not only between plants
but also between flowers within plant in case of common
buckwheat. Fagopyrum cymosum growing wild in the hills of
India is considered to be the progenitor of both cultivated common
and tartary buckwheat.
Taxonomy
Perennial buckwheat (F. cymosum Meissn). A tall branched
annual with perennial roots. It is believed that this has given rise
17

to the cultivated buckwheat. It is a vigorous growing perennial
found commonly in the temperate Himalayas from Kashmir to
Sikkim, at an altitude of 1800m to 2800m. The plants are tall and
stout. The leaves are large, long stalked and. triangular; angle
acute or obtuse, upper ones usually narrow and amplexicaule;
petiole long and slender. The pedicelled white flowers are borne on
long recurved branches of peduncled terminal and axillary cymes.
The nut is ovate and triangular, more than twice as long as the
persistant perianth, larger than that of F. esculentum and F.
tataricum. 7-8mm long and 6-7mm wide. In the North Western
hills, this species is locally called phaphru or khurfa. In Assam it
is known as jarain.
Common buckwheat (F. esculentum Moench), IS a herbaceous
erect annual attaining a height of 60 to 180 em. The stem is
hollow, angular, with swollen nodes with red, pink and green
colour. The leaves are alternate, triangular, blades hastate or
cordate, acute 5-10 cm long. The upper leaves are almost sessile,
lower with petioles upto 10 cm. long; Ochrea short truncate. The
inflorescence is axilary and terminal cyme with more or less
densely clustered flowers. Each flower consists of five partite
persistant perianths, white, pink or red in colour. There are eight
stamens alternating, at the base with eight glands secreting honey.
The ovary is one celled and contains a single erect ovule; the style
is tripartite, each with a knob-like stigma. The flowers dimorphic,
being long and short-styled flowers. On each plant there is only
one type of flower. The fruit is a dry, one seeded, three-sided nut
called achene, measuring 6 mm x 3mm. Some varieties have
distinctly winged seeds. The colour of seed is brown or grey
marked with dark spots and lines and triangular in shape. Locally
called bharesha, ogla and fuUen.
Tartary buckwheat (F. tataricum Gaertn.) is a herbaceous annual
plant taller and coarser than F. esculentum. The sterns have
shorter internodes which are stouter and less fragile than those of
F. esculentum. The leaves are narrow and arrow-shaped with a
long triangular membraneous ochrea. The flowers borne in axillary
racemes are small having inconspicuous light green sepals that
make them distinguishable from the large white or red flowered
varieties of common buckwheat. This species is self-fertile and
high yielding. The flowers are all of one type. The fruit, is ovoid,
18

Perennial buckwheat
Common buckwheat
Tartnry buckwheat
19

conical with more or less wavy outline, brownish grey or black in
colour, with dull irregular faces on each of which is a deep furrow.
The ,angles of the fruit are rounded except near the tips where
they are slightly keeled. Some varieties have top shaped and other
toothedshaped seeds, locally called phaphara, hathu and trumba.
Notch seeded buckwheat (F. esculentum. var. emarginatum
Moench.) is shorter in height and has small dehiscent fruits, the
seeds of which are exposed when ripe. It is easier to seperae the
seeds of this variety. Its grain differ from tartary ,and common
buckwheat by havng the angles of edges of the hull extended into
wide, rounded margins or wings. The seed colour is brown or
blakish.
Cytotaxonomy
The cytotaxonomy of buckwheat has not been studied in detail
but it is believed that F. cymosum was the original parent of both
common and tartary buckwheat (Krotov, 1963). The three species
of buckwheat examined cytologically by various workers were
found to have a diploid chromosome number. Steven (1912)
reported that F. esculentum has n=8 while Jarotzky (1928)
reported 2n=16. He further reported that F. esculentum var.
emarginatum has n=8. Sando (1935) observed that F. tataricum
has 2n=16 (where-as Quisenbury (1927) reported that F. tataricum
has 2n=16). In the wild perennial species (F. cymosum). Jartozky
(1928) observed that it has n=8. Sinkovic and Bohanec (1988)
mentioned that the methods for studying the relatively small
chromosomes of common buckwheat were developed using root tips
grown in vitro and in vivo. The chromosome number was
confirmed as 2n=2 x=16, the genome consisting of 4 metacentrics
and 4 submetacentrics.· A karyogram for cv. Darja is presented.
'Thus all the four species perennial, common, notch-seeded and
tartary buckwheat are diploid with 2n=2 x=16. Monsurova (1948)
while studying the caryology, observed that translocation involving
chromosomes V and VI may be responsible for an additional
satellite in F. emarginatum (F. esculentum var. emarginatum).
Morphological and cytological studies by Mahoney (1935) suggest
that in the common buckwheat an orthotropous ovule, having two
integuments, is formed. A typical seven called embryo sac,
consisting of three cells of egg apparatus at the micropylar end,
20

the three antipodals at the cha]za] end and a binucleate primary
endosperm cell. The fertilization is complete within 48 to 60 hours
after pollination. While studying the embryogeny, he further
reported that the embryo of F. esculentum is of the Schnarfs's
crucifer type, since the apical cell of the two-celled embryo gives
rise to the embryo proper and the basal cell forms a suspensor.
21

BREEDING AND GENETICS
In India no breeding work has been taken up and it still
remains an under-utilized and under-exploited crop. Amongst the
buckwheat growing countries, plant breeders in the Soviet Union
appear to have taken a lead in breeding new varieties of
buckwheat. A number of improved varieties have been evolved in
the USSR, Canada and USA.
Out of the three cultivated species, F. esculentum is dimorphic
and self-sterile and hence, cross-pollination is the rule. The other
spcies Viz. F.tataricum is self-fertile and produces flowers of only
one kind. The breeding system of F. cymosum is unknown but it
may reasonably be assumed to share with F. esculentum a
heteromorphic in compatibility system. F. tataricum is self
compatible and homomorphic. It appears, therefore, as though one
cultigen, F. tataricum, has moved towards inbreeding under
domestication. In the recent years, F tataricum has become more
popular due to the presence of the glucoside called rutin in its
leaves.
Common buckwheat is a self incompat.ible, sexually propagated
crop and as such does not lend itself readily to improvement by
breeding. Sharma and Boyes (1961) have studied the
heteromorphic sporophytic type of incompatibility involved and
suggested that the inheritance of style length is controlled by a
single gene. The allle for short style, S, is dominant to the allele
for long style s. However, short-styled flowers also differ from long
styled ones in having longer stamens, larger pollen grains, the
thrum style incompatibility reaction and the thrum pollen
incompatibility reaction. They postulated a supergene for this
complex of characters, similar to that proposed for Primula. They
further suggested that the supergene could be broken down into
sub units by crossing over. Although the mechanism is not known,
there is evidence of genetic change at the'S' locus. Thus
homomorphic, highly self-compatible diploid lines have been
22

isolated; their value in breeding programme has yet to be
determined as severe inbreeding depression OCcurs.
Tartary buckwheat is self-compatible. Attempts to transfer the
self-compatibility of F. tataricum to F. esculentum have proved
unsuccessful. A study of pollen tube growth in the interspecific
cross indicated that pollen tubes of F. esculentum reached the
base of F. tataricum styles whereas those of F. tataricum were
inhibited in F. esculentum -and no hybrid seed was obtained
(Morris, 1951). Garber (1927) studied inheritance of style length in
F. esculentum. It was reported to be governed by single factor
with short style being dominant. Sugawara (1956) reported that
the optimum temperature for pollination was observed to be 200C.
With increase in temperature, the initial rate of germination rises,
but pollen tube growh tends to become arrested before fertilization
is effected. Garber (1927) found that large glassine bags and
muslin cages were more satisfactory for selfing. Short-styled plants
proved to be somewhat more fertile than long styled plants. It
would, thus, appear that for breeding purposes, it is possible to
obtain selfed seed in the common buckwheat.
While describing methods for producing buckwheat varieties for
high and regular yields, Petilina (1950) recommended selection for
definite stem and leaf characters. Non-branching single stem forms
or forms with the stem divided into two long branches had a better
fruit setting capacity than forms with short branches or with more
than two long branches. Selection was also recommended for froms
in v.:hich the leaves dry at harvest time.
Pisarey and Vivogranova (1952) showd that mass selections for
different types of seeds in a heterogeneous population could be
effective. They obtained a promising population by continued open
pollinaion of 20 local and cultivated varieties and the subsequent
selection of the most productive plants. Fesenko et al. (1981)
outlined various methods used in breeding buckwheat in USSR.
The authors described a method of evolving synthetic varieties.
The method consists of selecting 300-500 best plants of the
breeding material for yield and grain quality in the first year, inbred
in the second, subjectd to test cross by the top cross method
in th third and tested for yield in the years 4 to 6., In the seventh
year 4 to 10 best families than being combined into a synthetic.
23

This synthetic variety is multiplied and tE'sted for yield in 8 to
10th years. State variety trial than conducted in 11 to 13th years.
Likewise plants may be selected from the first or second generation
f~r a second cycle of recurrent selection. This breeding programme
is said to increase yield by 15-20% and was used to select cv
Lovchanka from the initial variety Boyatyr,
Campbell (1983) mentioned that cv Manor' is the 2nd largeseeded
buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) licensed in Canada. It
is adapted to a larger growing areas than Mancan and has a
higher yield potential, Mancan is a midseason cultivar developted
at the Agricultural Canada Research Station, Modern Manitoba. It
has a seed size 26% larger than Tokyo and is the 1st large seeded
buckwheat c.v. licensed in Canada. It is especially suited to South
Manitoba. CM221 was developed from a cross between a semidwarf
spontaneous mutant of breeding line CD7464 and the larger
seeded line CM108. CM221 is about 80 cm tall compared with 110
cm for CM 108. The semi dwarf character proved to be controlled
by a single recessive gene and to be caused by a shortening of the
first 6 internodes in CM221. Plants of CM221 showed an early
initiation of branching, especially from cotyledonary axils,
resulting in a high branched upright growth habit. CM221 is
highly resistant to lodging. It has about soild stem in the regions
of reduced internodes resulting in increased resistance to wind and
hail damage as compared to normal hollow stemmed plants.
Martynenko (1987) reported that the selection was carried out in
determinate populations for an increased number of inflorescence,
limited branching and an increased number of vegetative nodes on
the main stem. Selection for the last trait gave the greatest
increae in yield. Variation in characters in the population under
selection supported the theory of compensation. Forms with large
inflorescences were also among the types selected as breeding
material.
Koblev (1987) while breeding buckwheat for resistance to lodging
in USSR, reported that the high yielding Orlovskii Karlik KM3 is
20% shorter than its initial variety Ore I Dwarf KM3 and has high
resistance to lodging. As a result of breeding work over a period of
4 years, involving crossing Orlovskii Karlik KM3 with normal
varieties, mass selection and controlled pollination, the varieties
24

Malysh7 and Malysh 10 were developed. These combine lodging
resistance with high grain quality and high yields, exceeding the
standard by 0.31 to 0.45 tJha.
In USSR, Orlovskii Karlik KM3 a doner of shortness and lodging
resistance, was crossed with high yielding but lodging susceptible
varieties. In a comparision of length of stems and internode
number, only the length of 3rd internode was a reliable marker
under field and greenhouse conditions. Selection for short 3rd.
internode increased the number of lodging resistance, short forms
in the hybrid population to 90% following 3 cycles of selection in
the field and green house (Fesenko et al., 1986). Anokhiva (1987)
mentioned that the determinate forms ~ave unstable yield and
that selection for determinte habit should be accompanied by
selection for yield. Marshal (1970) reported that F. sagittatum,
Pannline 10 is an inbred line derived from a highly self-fertile S5
plant isolated from the open poHinated buckwheat collection Pa53.
It is homomorphic for a new flower and has been released for
breeding purpose in Park, USA
Alekseeva (1988) described the work involving treatment of
seeds of the Fagopurum eculentum cv. Viktoriya with radiation
and chemical mutagens in 1974 in USSR. He observed that the
selection for large grains (the best mutant lines having lOOO-seed
weights of 41-48g, 12-19g heavier than the control) and high yield
from the M2 onwards led to release of the mutant variety Pod-olyanka
in 1984. It is high yielding (2950 Kg'ha), matures 17-18
days earlier than Viktoriya and has short stems (height 60-80em)
with 7 nodes and only 2-3 primary branches (no secondary
branches). There are 10-12 inflorescence, the first branch occurring
at the second node and the first inflorescence at the fourth node.
De Jong (1972) cites several workers who have reported
modification of incompatibility through irradiation of grains. Esser
(1953) found some homomorphic self-compatible plants in a
population of autotetraploids. Attempts to transfer self comptability
of F. tataricum through inter-specific crosses have proved
unsuccessful (Morris 1947, 1951, Ruszkowski, 1980). Adachi et aI.
(1981) have postulated that the break down of incompatibility of
autotetraploid buckwheat would be in the pistil and not in the
ponen. In order to study incompatibility responses in buckwheat,
25

Maeda (1983) conducted electron microscopic studies and observed
that cells of stigma head show enlarged vacuoles containing
polyphenolic substances.
Fesenko (1968) discovered a mutant with a determinate growth
habit. This character is apparently controlled by a single recessive
gene. Thus the genotypes of normal plants are DD and D d, while
that of the determinate type plants is d d. Experiments have been
conducted to register the useful agronomic characters associated
with ~uckwheat having determinate growth habit (Luthar et al.,
1986).
An unstable gene system affecting chlorophyll production has
been -described in buckwheat (Alikhan, 1971) and is controlled by a
major gene with multiple alleles. Tatebe (1972) studied leaf
variegation in buckwheat and found three kinds of variegated
plants; yellow, yellowish-white and pale green.
Not much is known about the inheritance of most characters in
buckwheat. Morris (1947) reported that the winged condition of the
grain is dominant over the non winged condition. Her results are
contradicted by those of Marshall (1969) who, obtained true
breeding winged lines as a result of inbreeding non-winged forms.
Several Russian breeders have investigated the use of heterosis
in buckwheat (Taranenko, 1986). Since self fertilization usually
fails, Zheleznov (1957) has produced inbred lines. In various inbred
lines Marshall (1979) observed favourable effects of heterosis for
plant height, dry matter yield, grain yield and grain weight.
Gorina (1969) reported that heterosis was lost by the F2
generation in most hybrid populations.
Owing to indeterminate growth, the grains borne on older
racemes are prone to shattering. Efforts have been made to
develop varieties that are resistant to shattering (Fesenko, 1963;
1966). Fesenko and Koblev (1983) hve reported the application of a
short stemmed buckwheat in breeding for resistane to lodging.
Potentially useful forms of buckwheat including varieties with high
adaptability to environment have resulted from experimental
mutagenesis (Alekseyeva, 1984). Srejovic and Neskovic (1981,
1983) and Bohanec (1985) observed that buckwheat can be
successfully propagated in culture. Recently experiments have been
26

conducted to obtain heterokaryons of F. esculentum and F.
tataricum protoplasts (Adachi, 1986). Experiments are being
conducted to analyse varietal response for day length and
temperature independently for the selection of phenotypes (Adachi,
1986).
Polyploidy
In USSR and USA somework on inducing polyploidy in
buckwheat has been carried-out. Sando (1935), reported a
colchicine induced tetraploid buckwheat and he (1956) further
reported that the tetraploid tartary buckwheat with higher rutin
content than the common diploid tartary. Saharov et al. (1944),
obtained tetraploids by colchicine treatment. There was
pronounced decrease in fertility, but selection for high fertility was
possible on account of diverse material treated with colchicine. In
the progeny of the best tetraploid of variety Bolshevik, they
obtained two to four times more seeds than diploids. The
tetraploids were vigorous with higher percentage of germination.
The increase in seed size ranged from 42 to 85 per cent. The
tetraploides and diploids did not cross. Saharov et al. (1944) also
obtained tetraploides in variety Bolshevik. A valuable economic
character of the tetraploid was absence of seed shedding. The
tetraploids were capable of self-pollination in-contrast to the
diploid, in which self pollination was rare or absent. Tzikov (1947)
observed that ,F. esculentum was more sensitive to colchicine than
F. tataricum . A high concentration of 0.30 per cent proved lethal.
Results of irradiation studies were also reported by Monsurova
et al. (1958). Dry seeds of Bolshevik variety (2n-16) and its autotetraploids
were irradiated with doses of 10,15,20 and 30 kr from
C0 60 . The diploids showed a greater r~duction in germination
capacity from the highest doses, in all doses their growth was
more retarded than that of the tetraploids. Studies on the changes
in nitrogen and sugar content, in the process of growth of
tetraploid of F. esculentum showed that in the early growth
stages, the tetraploids were larger but after flowering the process
was reversed (MuraKami and Usabure, 1950), total nitrogen was
greater in tetraploids during the slow growth peJjod. Tetraploid
seeds contained less total sugar and tetraploid seedlings had a
higher total sugars showing less consumption in the tetraploid
than diploids.
27

Dovzherko (1988) while studying the possible ways of applying
meiosis selection in tetraploid buckwheat improvement, reported
that by selecting for both normal meiosis (as measured by the
f\:equency of abnormal microspore tetrad) and high yield over 3
years in tetraploid cultivars, Bolshevik 4 and Iskra, the mean
frequency of abnormal tetrads declined from 24.0 to 10.9% in
Bolshevik 4 and from 19.4 to 10.3% in Iskra. When selection was
for reduced frequency of abnormal tetrads and high yield in plants
of Bolshevik 4 which has less than 10% abnormal tetrads in
primary inflorescences, the mean frequency of abnormal tetrads
fell from 17% to about 9% after only two cycles of selection, when
selection was for high frequency of abnormal tetrads, this
frequency stabilized at about 30-50% after 1-3 cycles. Among the
population selected for low abnormility was a highly self-fertile
plant which was used to produce a monomorphic long-styled
populations. Analysis of low, moderate and high yielding groups
from this population showed that the highest yielding group
(forming 159 grains/plants) had the lowest frequency of abnormal
tetrads (9%).
Colchicine induced tetraploids have been successfully produced
in common buckwheat (Bremer and Bremer, 1952). Although
tetraploid plants produced higher dry matter and showed higher
nitrogen uptake rate through-out their growth period, yet they
showed a lower grain yield compared with diploid plants (Tsuzuki
et al., 1983). A tetraploid variety Penn quad was relesed in
Pennsylvania (USA) in 1967 (Marshall 1967, 1968). Penn quad has
a grain weight approximately 40% greater than Tokyo but its yield
under Canadian conditions averaged 30% less than Tokyo
(Alikhan, 1970) Aduchi et aI. (1981) found that the yield of
induced autotetraploid buckwheat Miyadi No 1 was superior at
least 20-30% at th~ places studied by them. Some varieties that
have been developed recently in Japan include Miyazakioot-subu,
Miyazakizairai, Sando-Soba, Hashikamiwase and Shinano-ichigou
(Nishiyama et aI., 1983).
Although buckwheat is not well adapted for improvement
through breeding, yet several breeders have accepted the
challenge. Campbell and Gubbels (1978) cite instances of varieties
having been developed in Canada that include Tempest, Tokyo,
Man-can and Manor. The variety Tempest is taller, more finely
28

anched and possesses grains which are grey to light brown. The
variety Tokyo is a vigorously growing cultivars. the grains are
slightly larger than Tempest and are dark brown. The variety
Tokyo is a vigorously growing cultivars, the grains are slightly
larger than Tempest and are dark brown. The variety Man-can
possesses large dark brown grains, thicker stem and largr leaves.
Some of the grains possess wings which are paper like extensions
of hulls (Campbell and Ali-Khan 1983).
29

PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY
Buckwheat seedlings have been widely. employed as an
experimental material in physiological, phyto-chemical and
biochemical investigations. Seed germination conditins, fertility of
flowers, development of kernels, distribution of photosynthates and
other morphological and physiological problems relevant to
buckwheat yield have been reviewed. and discussed by Kreft.
(1986). Singh and Mall (1977) found that buckwheat seeds
germinated better in light than in darkness. Kefli and Amrhein
(1977) studied the primary growth reactions ~f hypocotyl in
buckwheat seedlings. Light caused straightening of hypocotyle
loop, activated the growth of this zone, stimulated the expansion of
cotyledons and inhibited growth of lower zones of the seeldings.
Besides, the synthesis of anthocyanins and other phenols was
stimulated by light. Treatment with IAA was found to supress
both the straight-ending of the hypocotyl loop and synthesis of
anthocyanins, when etiolated seedlings were exposed to light.
A comparative assessment of the toxic effects of certain heavy
metals has been made on buckwheat seedlings (Singh and
Mukhiya, 1980, Mukhiya and Singh, 1983). Mercury was found to
be more toxic than manganes and the toxic effects were more
pronounced when the metals were supplied as acetate than in the
inorganic from increasing. manganese concentrations were found to
decrease catalse activity in buckwheat seedlings (Mukhiya, and
Singh 1982).
Farooq and Hahir (1987) compared the growth attributes of the
four cultivated buckwheats of Kashmir and found that F.
esculentum attains maximum dry weight, leaf area and height
earlier as compared to F. sagittatum, F. kashmirianum and F.
tataricum. The higher productivity 'potential of F. tataricum was
attributed to its longer growth span higher biomass duration as
also leaf area duration. De Jong (1972) considers buckwheat to be
photoperiodically indeteminate. Pomeranz et aZ. (1975) have sho,wn
30

that the weight of hull and groat increased correspondingly where
as nitrogen content decreased as grain development progressed
toward maturity. Tsuzuki et al. (1977) found that the perennial
buckwheat F. cymosum exercised a marked allelopathic effect on
certain crops and weeds, the allelopathic effect was attributed to
certain inhibitory substances notably abscisic acid, chlorogenic
acid, caffeic acid and ferulic acid excreted by the roots (Tsuzuki
and Yamamoto 1983).
Several studies have indicated that the irradiation of buckwheat
grains results in stimulation of growth and Yield. The stimulation
of growth in buckwheat seedlings raised from X-or gamma
irradiated grains at 0.5 to 1.0 kr is accompanied by an increase in
their auxin and gibberellin content (Grebinskii et al. 1972).
Buckwheat plants grown from seeds irradiated with gamma rays
at 10 kr show a higher dry matter and grain yield but a
drecreased content of phenolic compounds. The stimulation of
growth in plants raised from gamma irradiated buckwheat grains
at 5 kr has been found to be accompanied by an increase in cell
size and stimulation in the development of stem parenchyma
(Kiseleva, 1972).
Spray application of an auxin, napthaleneacetic acid on
buckwheat is reported to have increased the yield (Enikeev, 1964).
\
Gubbels (1979) however, reported that the application of growth
regulators, Dani-nozide (N-dimethylamino succinamic acid);
chlormequat (2-chloroethyl trimethylammonium chloride) BAS
0660-W (N-dimethyl morpholinium chloride), napthaleneacetic acid,
gibberellic acid and 6-benzylamine purine did not improve yield in
F. esculentum. The antitransprints; phenylmercuric acetate WP
(Wilf-purf, a polyvinyl chlorid complex) and abscisic acid also were
not helpful in improving yield. (Gubbels 1979). Zebrowski (1983)
found a significant increase in buckwheat yield with the
application of agromax (a mixture of natural and commercial
fertilizer in chelated form to which essential growth substance
were adaed) and ergostin (a formulation containing L-cystein, folic
acid and a buffer). The increase in yield were related to seed set.
A good deal of work has been carried out with buckwheat on the
phenolic constituients and their biosynthesis. The hypocotyls of
buckwheat seedlings contain cyanidin (Karstens, 1939), Cyanidin
31

derivatives (Troyer, 1958) and rutin (Margna and Margna, 1969).
Margna and Margna, (1969) found that the cotyledons of buckwheat
in addition to containing anthocyanins also contain; rutin, orientin
homo-orientin, vitexin and saponaretin. The flavonoids, quercetin,
quercitrin, hyperin and rutin have been isolated and identified
from immature grains of F. esculentum (State and Sakamura,
1975). The flavonoids; quercitin, kaempferol, kaempferol-3-
rutionoside, rutin and quercitin-3-rutinoside-7gala-ctoside have
been isolated from the grains of F. tatarium (Sato et al. 1980).
Tahir and Farooq (1987) identified quercetin from the grains of F.
Kashmirianum.
Saunders and McClure (1976) reported : rutin, isovitexin,
orientin, homo-orientin and cyanidin-3-glycoside in isolated
chloroplasts of buckwheat. Sato (1974) obtained evidence for the
incorporation of 14 acetate into quercetin (3, 5, 7, 3, 4 pentahydroxy
flavone) in isolated buckwheat chloroplasts.
Buckwheat seedlings showed greater synthesis of rutin when fed
with various sugars, the content of rutin, vitexin, saponaretin and
homo-orientin (Margna et al., 1974). Glucose fed into isolated
buckwheat cotyledons caused an increase in hypocotyls and
cotyledons the accumulation of leucoanthocyanidins was stimulated
by glucose and phenylalanine. But incubation of isolated
cotyledons and hypocotyls in NH4 N03 resulted in decrease in the
content of leucoanthocyanidins and flavenoides, Amrthein (1979)
reported an inhibition of anthocyanin production in excised
buckwheat hypocotyls incubated in 0.5 mm aminoxyacetate. The
accumulation of flavonoids has been found to be markedly
influenced by various temperature and light-dark regimes (Margna
et al., 1973). From their studies on the C-glycosyl flavonoides
synthesized in vivo from endogenous or exogenous L­
phenylalanine, Margna and Margna (1978) concluded that
exogenously supplied L-phenylalamine does not mix up with the
-ndogenous pool of the precursor. Hollander et al. (1979) found no
evidence of a feed back control of phenylalanine and tyrosine
synthesis from shikimate, they, however, observed that
phenylalanine deamination in vivo has preferentially inhibited by
L-a-amino-xy-B-phenylloropionic acid.
32

Studies carried out by Krause (1978) suggest that the flavonoide
in buckwheat seedlings are synthesized mainly from the reserves
present in the endosperm for he found that C 14 02 feeding did not
result in incorporation of C14 into the flavonoids and that the
endosperm could be effectively substituted by glucose but not by
phenylalanine.
Buckwheat grains have been found to contain several novel
componds such as unique amino acid amides (Koyama et ai., 1973);
fagomine 1,3,4, dihydroxy-2-piperdine, methanol, glucosides,
salicylamine, and a new amino acid L-2 (2-furoyl) alanine. In
addition Yagi et al. (1982) isolated a substance BWDII-22-3 having
a molecular weight of 1600 daltons which according to them might
prove effective in the hyposensitization therapy of buckwheat
sensitive patients.
Grains and seedlings of buckwheat have provided materials for
the study of several enzymes especially a-glucosidase (Takahashi
and Shimomura, 1972; Chiba et ai., 1975 and Kanaya et al., 1979)
B-glucosidase, heteroglucosidase, rhamnodiastase, rhamnosidase,
phenylalanine ammonia-lyase and proteases.
A proteinaceous inhibitor of trypsin and chymotryp-sin has been
isolated from buckwheat seeds (Belozerskii, 1977). The inhibitor
shows polymorphicity, existing in three froms i.e. I, II and III of
which I and II are thermostable and III is thermolabile (Ikeda et
al., 1983).
Application of cycocel to plants of Faqopyrum esculentum by
Tahir and Farooq (1988) in the concentration range of 1000-5000
mgll caused stunting in growth, marginal chlorosis of leaves and
necrosis of leaf lamina. Thus the elevated levels of cycocel
concentration brought about a reduction both in vegetative growth
and yield, the effects were for more pronounced on yield attributes
than on growth attributes. Tahir and Farooq (1988) reported that
the most obvious visual effects of ethrel which appeared after 24
hours of treatment, in the two buckwheat cultivars, viz F.
esculentum and F. sagittatum included leaf epinasty and
abscission, besides, withering and necrosis of inflorescence, the
effects being more pronounced in F. esculentum than in F.
sagittatum. The increase of petiole length which occured due to
33

ethrel application was more marked in F. sagittatum than in F.
esculentum. Generally ethrel application brought about a reduction
in various growth and yield attributes in the two buckwheat
\
cultivars, the effects were generally more pronounced on vegetative
growth in F. sagittatum and on yield parameters in F. esculentum.
Thus the effects of ethrel application on the two buckwheat
cultivars were quantitative.
Growth and metabolic changes have been studied by Tahir and
Farooq (1988) during seed germination in four species of
Fagopyrum viz F. esculentum, F. sagittatum, F. tataricum and F.
kashmirianum. Germination, early seedling growth as also
solubilization and subsequent mobilization of reserves into
utilizable substrates is rapid in F. esculentum and slow in F.
tataricum. The accumulation of total sugars was most pronounced
in seedlings of F. esculentum and less so in F. tataricum compared
to F. sagittatum and F. Kashmirianum. In each of the four species,
almost 60% of starch was depleted during 72h of germination. The
soluble protein content increased progressively during germination.
Seedlings of F. esculentum maintained a higher total
carbohydrate/total protein ratio; however, the ratio decreased in
the seedlings of each of the four species during germination.
A comparative study has been made of the chemical composition
of grains in four buckwheat cultivars viz F. esculentum, F.
sagittatum, F. kashmirianum and F. tataricum. Grains of F.
esculentum had the lowest content of phenolics, relatively low fat,
free sugar and protein content but a higher starch content
compared to other three cultivars. F. esculentum had a lower
albumin-globulin content as also a lower glutelin content but a
higher content of residual soluble proteins. The content of
prolamins was generally low in each of the four cultivars. Low
content of phenolics in the groat fraction of F. esculentum accounts
for its better palatability compared to the other three cultivars
which possess astringent taste.
Pomeranz and Robbins (1972) determined protein content and
amino acid composition in whole grains and germ of ten
genetically diverse buckwheats (F. esculentum). The hull was found
to contain utpo 4%, the groats upto 16.4% and the whole grain
upto 13.8% protein suggesting that the groat is a good protein
34

supplement. Nicholson et al. (1976) reported that tartary
buckwheat contains about 10.2% protein. Buckwheat grains have
been found to contain a high carbohydrate content chiefly starch
(Javornik et al., 1981), (Tahir and Farooq, 1985). Sando (1956) has
recorded a high fat content in buckwheat flour. Belova et al.
(1970) found that palmitic, Oleic and linolenic acids constitute
about 95% of the total fatty acids in buckwheat grains.
Sokolov and Semihov (1968) fractionated grain proteins of
diploid and tetraploid buckwheats, globulins comprised the main
protein fraction in both. Buckwheat proteins contain relatively low
concentrations of glutamic acid and proline, but are rich in
arginine and aspartic acid (Pomeranz and Robbins, 1972). No
significant correlation was found between amino acid composition
and protein content indicating that increasing protien content
could not impair the excellent amino acid pattern of buckwheat
proteins. Eggum et al. (1981) reported that buckwheat protein
quality is high due to high concentration of most essential amino
acid especially lysine, threonine, tryptophan and the sulphar
containing amino-acids, however, due to a high con ten of' crude
fibre and tannin the true digestibility is below 80%, Ono et al.
(1978) observed that albumin fraction consisted of twelve proteins
but the molecular weights of these proteins were close to one
another ranging between 7000 and 8000 daltons in the presence of
2-mercaptoethanol. Albumins-globulins comprise the main protein
fraction in buckwheat grains (Javomik et al., 1981). They
concluded that low prolamin content in buckwheat corresponds to
favourable amino acid composition compared with other cereals.
Buckwheat foliage is an important source of the glucoside rutin
quercitin-3-rutinoside}. Rutin is used in medicine in the treatment
of increased capillary fragility with associated hypertension,
leading to haemorrhage, purpurea and bleeding from kidney. Rutin
has been shown to afford protection against harmful effects of X­
rays. It counteracts the effect of drugs such as salicylates,
thiocyanates and sulphadiazine which cause weakening of
capillaries. Clemetson (1976) has shown that rutin can act as an
antioxidant of ascorbic acid, since conversion of ascorbic acid into
dehydroscorbic acid could cause diabetes, mellitus, cardio-vascular
diseases and hypertension. The use of pure rutin from a natural
35

source such as buckwheat is considered safe and harmless. The
tartary buckwheat is richer in rutin than common buckwheat
(Shevchuk, 1983). Among different parts, leaves contain relatively
hlgher rutin content. The excessive consumption of buckwheat
cuases a disease known as fagopyrism (De Jong, 1972). The
pigment which causes the disorder is present only in the flowers
and hulls but not in the leaves, stem or flour ..
36

Climate and Adaptation
CULTIVATION
Buckwheat is a short duration crop (3-4 months) and requires
moist and cool temperate climate to grow. It is especially suited for
short summer season at higher altitudes. Freezing temperature is
injurious to buckwheat plants. Tartary buckwheat however, stands
cooler temperature and heat than common buckwheat and is
mostly grown at higher altitudes upto 4500m. Gaberscik et ai.
(1986) while studying the possibilities of laboratory determination
of resistance of buckwheat plants to freezing, reported that the
freezing resistance of Fagopyrum esculentum cv Bednjaun and
Siva, when tested in a climatic chamber at optimal humidity
(60-80%). The leaves became frozen at temperature of - 2°C to 3°C
when the latent heat of freezing was released and could be
detected by sensor attached to the leaves. The method was more
accurate than field observtions.
Buckwheat thrives best on a sandy well drained soil and also
grows in dry regions with very poor soils and drainage. When
moisture is scarce buckwheat is sensitive to high temperature and
hot dry winds. Krotov (1963) reported that flowering at temperture
above 30°C is accompanied by desciccation of fruit and lowering of
yield. Low moisture levels during the periods of high temperature
can aggravate the situation. Throughout the growing season, an
adequate soil moisture level seems essential. Veremeichik (1972)
and Gubbels (1978) found that the yield of common buckwheat
increased with high soil moisture although seed set remained
essentially the same. Buckwheat can be severely damaged by late
spring and early fall frosts. Frolov (1972) observed that there was
an increased loss of potassium and an increased uptake of calcium
by the plants during the first phase. If grown well under a wide
range of conditions but tends to lodge when subjected to high
winds or heavy rains and when grown on very fertile soils.
Ruszkowski and Zebrowski (1982) have found that in the same
37

climatic conditions, the productivity of buckwheat is higher on
heavier soils than on lighter soils. Trials conducted in Canada
have shown that yields are highest when the crop is seedeed soon
after the risk of frost has passed but decline sharply if seeding is
'delayed (Campbell and Gubbels, 1978) and because buckwheat
requires 10-12 weeks to produce an acceptable crop (Alikhan,
1972). Kiyoshi (1983) found an increase grain yield in summer
variety than in autumn variety of buckwheat:
Cultural Practices
The seed beds are prepared for effective control of weeds,
conservation of moisture and provision of firm soil near the
surface. Sowing dates vary from year owing to spring conditions
and may contribute to difference in yield. Marshall (1969) reported
that sowing before mid June, was of no advantage in Pennsylvania
(USA). In a two year study in Canada, Ali-Khan (1972) found that
yields were highest from mid June plantings. Gubbels (1977)
showed that an early sowing date was of considerable advantage
for higher yields in buckwheat. In northern India the seed is
usually broad casted after the field is ploughed and planked.
Usually the seed should reach about 4-6 cm of depth. The seed
rate varies from 35-40 kg/ha. Campbell and Gubbels (1978) also
recommended the seed rate of 35-40 kg/ha for optimum yield.
Alikhan (1973) observed that varying row spacing had no
appreciable effect on grain yield. He also recommended a seeding
depth of 4-6 cm. Although shallow seeding is desirable, yet it is
important to place the grain in moist soil. Flowering in buckwheat
begins 5 or 6 weeks, after the seed is sown and continues for at
least a month owing to the in-determinate nature of the
inflorescences. The sowing and harvesting schedule in different
parts of India is given in Table 5.
Table 5 : Sowing and Harvesting time of Buckwheat in India.
SI.No. Regions Sowing Harvesting
1. North-Western Hills June-July September-October
2. North-Eastern Hills August-September December-January
3. Nilgiris Hills April-May August-September
4. Palni Hills January April
38

Bogdanovic (1987) mentioned that in a trials with buckwheat at
Nevesinja during 1978-81 cv Krasnostveletskaya yielded 1.48 tlha.
when sown on 20th May and 1.58 tlha. when sown on 5th June,
corresponding figures for cv. Siva 1.01 and 1.04 tlha. respectively.
Hardly any inter cultural operations are carried out and it is
grown as a rainfed crop in the hills. Tartary buckwheat generally
gives 20% more yield than the common buckwheat.
Fetilizer Requirements
Buckwheat can thrive well in unfertile poorly tilled lands
provided the climate is favourable. It has excellent tolerance to
acid soils, slight application of lime is extremely beneficial.
Application of 200kg/ha. super phosphate and 50kg N is beneficial
for high yield. In the hills of India farm yard manure at the rate
of 15-20 qlha. is recommended to raise a good crop. When grown
on soils of poor fertility, buckwheat responds well to fertilizer
application. It has been estimated that a buckwheat crop removes
47 kg nitrogen, 22 kg phosphorus and 40 kg potassium from the
soil for each hectare planted and gives a yield of 1600 kg/ha.
(Campbell and Gubbels, 1978).
Application of nitrogenous fertilizers to buckwheat . promotes
vegetative growth and encourage lodging. Application of either
ammonium nitrate or urea increased the content of dry matter,
chlorophyll, proteins and soluble sugars while ammonium nitrate
increased the grain yield. urea was not effective (Ganyushina
1972). Sokolov et al. (1978) found that when N15 was supplied to
plant as amminum salt at maturity of grains, it accumulated
principally in the embryo, more accumulation of N15 occurred in
plants growing on a low level of nitrogen. Sokolov and Semihov
(1983) found that the local application of nitrogenous fertilizers in
the form of a band at a depth of 30 cm, prior to sowing, gave
maximum grain yield with minimal losses of nitrogen. Pofsyinskj
(1984) observed that NH4N03 applied at 40,80 and 120 kglha. had
no marked effect on the mineral components and amino acid
composition, but increasing level of NH4 N03 decreased the
arginine content of grains. Marciszewski et al. (1984) observed
some increase in the flavonoid content when nitrogen was given at
250 kglha. but further increase of nitrogen fertili~er decreased the
flavonoid content in buckwheat straw.
39

Bogdanovic (1987) reported that the average yield without
fertilizer application was 1.1 tlha; with 40N+45P+45K it was 1.25
tlha. and with 30N+60P+60K at sowing and 30N+30P as top
dressing it was 1.25 t/ha. The maximum yield of 1.36 tJha. was
ol:>tained when 50N+60P+60K was applied as basal doze alongwith
227 g boric acid mixed with 440 g urea in 650 litres of waterlha.
given as foliar spray which appeared to be the optimum doze for
obtaining maximum economic yield.
Several studies indicate that phosphorus is effeciently absorbed
by buckwheat and utilized in the production of dry matter (Kalra,
1971, Strong and Soper, 1973, 1974, Mclachlan, 1976. Thus,
uptake of total phosphorus by buckwheat plants treated with
phosphate fertilizer was about three times more than plants which
receivd no additional phosphate (Kalra, 1971). In calcareous soils
phosphorus was found to be absorbed better from pellet treatment
than from spread treatment (Kalra, 1973), reverse was, however,
true for non calcareous soils. Studies carried out by Strong and
Soper (1973) with excised roots of buckwheat indicte that these
could efficiently, absorb phosphorus even when the latter was
present in high concentration. Besides, a large portion of
phosphorus was taken up from pellet application and the roots
proliferated extensively within the zone of applied phosphorus
(Strong and Soper, 1974) presumably so because of the ability of
the roots to acidify the rooting medium (Mclachlan, 1976).
Gonchavik and Kozlova (1972) found that buckwheat plants
responded more favourably to potassium fertilizers applied as
sulphate than as chloride. Yarosh and Artemeva (1977) have
recommended NPK combination at 40,60 and 40kglha, where as
Singh and Atal (1982) recommended NPK application at 50, 40
and 40kg!ha. for high herbage yield and good grain quality.
Application of micronutrient elements has also been found to
favourably affect. the yield and quality of buckwheat Elagin and
Kargatsev, 1972, 1974, Vanow et al., 1975). Several reports
indicate that boron application improves grain yield (Shkolnik et
al. 1956, Shustova, 1962, Skvortsov and Akberdina, 1972, Elagin
and Kargaltsev 1972; Chertko et aI. 1974). But Gubbels (1980)
concluded that foliar application of boron and calcium to
buckwheat grown on soils containing adequte supply of these
elements has no effect on yield or weight per grain. In chloroplasts
40

isolated from magnesium deficient buckwheat plants, photosystem
II electron flow was not significantly affected but these
chloroplants had a markedly higher photosystem I activity
compared to chloroplasts from normal plants (Bas zynski et. al.,
1980).
Harvesting and Threshing.
Ripening of buckwheat seeds is not uniform and delayed
harvesting results in seed shattering. Due to an indeterminate
growth habit, flowers, green grains and mature grains are present
on the plants at the same time. Harvest is usually swathed first
and then threshed. Generally swathing is done when 75% of the
grains are mature. Careful handling of the crop is very impo.rtant
because grain shattering results in losses upto 22% (Camp..bell and
Gubbels, 1978). Buckwheat normally yields 800-1000 kglha.
although yield upto 2000 kglha. have been reported under
favourable conditions (Campbell and Gubbles1978). Under Shimla
conditions a grain yield of 1800 kg/ha. have been recorded during
1986 (Joshi, 1986). A moisture content of about 16% or less is
necessary for safe storage of buckwheat grains. Temperature
should not exceed 43°C if the grains require drying.
Pests and Diseases
Several fungi have been reported to attack buckwheat in India
and elsewhere. Ramakrishan (1951-1952) reported smut
(Sphacelotheca fagopyri) at Keti and leaf spot (Septoria
ploygonicola) at Ootacmund, in Nilgiris. Leaf blight (Cercospora
fgopyri), Phytopthora fagopyri on root and basal stem, powdery
mildew (Erysiphe polygoni) in China, brown leaf spot (Ascochyta
italica) in Japan, rust (Puccinia Fagopyri) in Korea and root and
collar rot (Sclerotinia libertiana) in Japan have been reported to
damage the crop. The other pathogenic disorders reported in ,
buckwheat crop are : aster yellows caused by Mycoplasma; stem
rot due to Botrytis cinerea; root rot due to Fusarium sp.; Botrytis
sp and Rhizoctonia.; Chlorotic leaf spot due to Alternaria alternata;
stipple spot disease caused by BipoZaris sorokiniana; downy
mildew caused by Peronosphora sp (Morrall and Mckenzie, 1975,
Zimmer 1974, 1978; Singh and Atal, 1982). Besides, a few virus
diseases are also reported. These include Brazilian curly top of
41

tobacco and tomato in Brazil. Aster yellow virus in Canada and
mosaic virus in USSR.
AJ"ekseeva et al. (1988) reported that on the basis of a 6 year
study of 2900 varieties and wild forms undr artificial infection
with fungal pathogens such as Peronospora fagopyri and with
viruses resistant material was identified together with traits
associated with resistance. Important to resistance to fungal
disease was the number of stomata in ~pithelial tissue of the
upper epidermis of leaves, while in resistance to viruses the
hairiness of plant organs was important. Varieties with fungus
resistance had 3-5 times less stomata/mm2 as compared to susceptible
ones. The stomata were more compact in resistance forms.
Sap of fungus resistance species Fagopyrum cymosum showed
phytoncidal activity against P. fagopyri when applied to leaves and
stems of F. esculentum Resistant forms had a relatively high rutin
(glucoside) contents in all plant parts.
Alekseeva et al. (1988) further reported that in the indicator
plant, electron microscopy and serological techniques were used in
the study of the virus disease. Symptoms included a reduction in
plant height by 36-52% and a reduction in yield by 75-85%, the
production of low quality grains, deformation of leaves, retarded
development of reproductive organs and the presence of necrotic
lesions on older leaves and chlorosis and mosaic or yellow leaves.
The virus was found to be rod-shaped rhabdovirus, The most
common vectors were Aphis Eunymi, Psammotethix striatus and
Aphalava exillis. Infection was most severe under late sowing
conditions when over 3000 breeding forms of buckwheat including
wild relatives, were screened for resistance. Immunity was
observed in Fagopyrum cymosum and F. tataricum sub species
himalianum. Among cultivars of F. esculentum high resistance was
observed in Aelita, Lada, Gallega, Kaliminskaya, Orbita,
Prikamskaya and Radekhovskaya and Uluchshennaya. Breeding
material obtained by mutagenesis was also resistant.
Some important pests of buckwheat are bruchid (Acanthecelids
obtectus), cutoworm (Cirphis sp), aphid (Myzus persicae), grain
moth (Cephitinea sp), and storage beetle (Mycetophagus sp) which
damage the crop and can be controlled with the periodic treatment
of any pesticides during the crop season.
42

Productivity Constraints in Buckwheat
The major productivity constraints of the crop identified in the
farmers fields are (i) non availability of improved variety for
cultivation (ii) lack of information on agro-techniques for high seed
production, (iii) heavy lodging and seed shattering (iv) little or no
use of inorganic fertilizer (v) lack of public awareness abut the
nutritive value of the grain and greens, (vi) uneven and sloppy
fields in the hills (vii) under exploitation as honey plant (viii) poor
soil and indequate plant stand and (ix) a high percentage of flower
abortion in common buckwheat (Joshi, 1988). The causative factors
underlying floral abortion are, however, not fully known.
Kusiorska and Koszykowska (1981) reported that the decay of
pollinated flowers and failure of seed set is a limiting factor in
grain yield. Factors which contribute to the low ,seed set in
buckwheat include; in compatibi'lity due to heterostyly,
defectiveness of embryosac development and failure of fertilization
(Adachi et al., 1983). Studies carried out by Morton (1966)
suggested that low grain yield is not attributable to lack of
pollination, inviable pollen or to self incompatibility mechanism.
Tatebe (1958) found that self compatibility was not enhanced by
spraying self-in-compatible plants with boron, Sugawara (1960)
believes that translocation of carbohydrates to the developing
ovaries could be a limiting factor in grain set.
43

RESEARCH NEEDS
In order to diversify the present narrow food base, there is need
to create greater awareness about the high nutritive value, very
good organoleptic taste of both grain and green of buckwheat
among consumers and its~ increased use, in general diet can make
a significant contribution to the people's physical and mental
health. The Government/private oraganisations involved in
standardisation and production of various agro-industrial food
products is essential to take advantages of this underutilized but
nutritionally significant food plant in preparation of different
products like bread, pastry, cake, biscuit and lysine rich baby food
to raise the standard of living.
In the high mountain areas, there is more radiation risk to
persons living there or to the mountainersltrackerslarmy and
Indo-Tibetan Boarder Security Force personals. Therefore, the
cultivation and sumption of buckwheat vegetable be encouraged in
these are-as by giving support price for its cultivation.
In order to build up and broaden genetic base it is important to
explore as mucb of the known areas of cultivation as possible. A
comprehensive germplasm collection is the only adequate way of
maintaining genes for future breedng needs. So far we have
buildup 539 collections and our ultjmate target is to assemble 5000
collections. It will represent the entire range of variability of the
crop on global perspective. Till now the senior author has covered
only coarse grid and finer grid explorations for locating genes for
(a) early maurity, (b) solid stem (c) bold seed, (d) non shattering,
(e) non lodging types, (0 plants with 2-3 branches and (g) early
leaf maturing and shadding types will be undertaken in the
Himalayas. High priority areas for collections are high mountain
ranges of Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Jammu and
Kashmir in the North West Himalayas. North Eastern hills,
Sikkim, Darjeeling, Nilgiris including Palni hills of Madurai
district in the south are other priorities for collection in India.
44

The exotic material in our buckwheat germplasm collections is
poorly represented. There is immediate need to acquire the
germplasm from Nepal, Bhutan, Japan, China ... S. Aftica and USSR
where very good diversity in this crop occurs. . ,
There is need to take up hybridization work on this
underutilized crop and varieties need to be standardised for high
yield and quality characters for different agricultural zones in the
hills having wider adaptability. There is need to have inter
national collaboration on collection, evaluation, maintenance and
exchange of genetic resources and information transfer in the
mountain regions of the globe will greatly help the buckwheat
researchers.
There is need to emphas!se to continue on increasing grain yield,
as there has been little improvement on this respect from most
breeding programmes. The present trend of breeding by mass
selection still seems to be fairly effective and will probably
continue. The higher inbreeding depression whcih occurs in the
first few generations makes it highly unlikely that the selfcompatible
lines now available, need to be utilized to any e~tent in
utilizing the heterotic capabilities~ of the crop. Any improvement in
disease or insect resistance will probably be accomplished by
introgression from desirable lines. Varieteis need to be
standardised for high rutin content and as a remedy for persons
exposed to high radiation hazards.
The photoperiodic response of the buckwheat species need to be
studied being one of the major factor that will probably affect·
breeding programme. Buckwheat h~~ been considered
indeterminate since it will produce flowers over a wide range of
photo-periods. However, the work of Shustora (1965) indicates that
the photoperiod influences the time and rate of flowering as well
as plant habit. Varieties responding to different photoperiods have
been developed and grown commercially in Japan and are being
utilized in other programmes in adapting lines to various regions.
In India, Bhutan and Nepal this crop is most staple food for
high mountain people, therefore, their is a strong need to have a
well organised breeding programme for the development of high
yielding varieties for cultivation in these tribal high mountain
regions of Himalayas.
45 .

The growers of these crops in the remote mountain areas need to
be encouraged to cultivate buckwheat landraces also by giving
them subsidy for in situ conservation so that further evolutions
1l\ay take place at the real centre of cultivation and diversity apart
from ex situ conservation.
In order to increase the seed set in common buckwheat, bee
keeping be encouraged in the hills. This will give additional yield
of 60-70 kg per hectare of honey and will add, to the income of the
farming community of the remote hi1ls. Bee keeping will also
increase apple production by way of pollinations.
There is need to have ethnobotanical studies which may throw a
great deal of light on still unknown uses of the plants to the
general mass/research workers but may be known to the growers
of these crops in the remote Himalayas.
Lastly there is need to encourage the cultivation of buckwheat
than the conventinonal cereal crops on the rolling slopes of the
hills because it provides a thick and close canopy on the top and
profuse rooting in the soil and does not allow soil erosion from the
hills. Tonnes of top fertile soils ... of the hills are washed away
during rainy seasons creating serious problems of silting and
floods in the plains.
46

EXPLORATION AND COLLECTION
Himalayas offer a wealth of diversity in terms of landrace
populations of buckwheat since the crop is cultivated in a large
stretch of land of higher hills of Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,
Jammu and Kashmir, Sikkim and North Eastern hills for
centuries. Therefore, they offer a great deal of variability in
various traits of economic importance. Diverse weather conditions
within short distances and even in the same hillock further makes
this diversity more complex. Large scale cultivation of this cold
resistant, early maturing and nutritionally important multipurpose
crop offer an excellent opportunity to collect the genetic wealth in
this crop.
Introducion of high yielding improved varieties of elite crops
giving higher economic returns has resulted in reduction of area in
this crop in some places. Before the wide variability is lost an
attempt was made to collect and conserve the genetic variability in
buckwheat from the Himalayas. The collection sites are presented
in Figure 3. Though crop specific explorations for buckwheat were
not undertaken by the Shimla Regional Station, however, in the
twenty five multicrop explorations and collection tours under taken
in the year 1974 to 1988 covering the diverse agro-ecological
regions of Shimla, Solan, Bilaspur, Kulu, Mandi, Lahaul and Spiti,
Hamirpur, Kinnaur, Chamba and Sirmour in Himachal Pradesh,
Pauri, Chamoli, Uttarkashi, Almora, Pithoragarh and Nainital of
Uttar Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir, the germplasm
collections of 441 accessions of buckwheat representing F.
esculentum. F. tataricum, F. esculentum var emarginatum, F.
tataricum var himalianum, and F. cymosum were collected. In
addition to above, buckwheat collections were also made from
Siliguri, Darjeeling, Sikkim, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh,
Meghalaya and Assam in the N.E. hills. The collection sites varied
from 600m to more than 4000 m above mean sea level.
The majority of collections in this study were made directly from
farmers's fields, threshingyards, backyards, farmer's stores and
47

Fig. 3 : Cclleetion sites in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar
Pradesh hills, West Bengal and North Eastern Hill region For Buckwheat
Germplasm.
1. l.eh 12. Uttarkashi
2. Pahal gaon 13. Chamoli
3. Srinagar 14. Pauli
4. Udhampur 15. Almora
5. Chamba 16. Pithoragarh
6. Kangra 17. Darjeeling
7. Lahaul & Spiti 18. Siliguri
8. Kinnaur 19. Assam
9. Mandi 20. Meghalaya
10. Kulu 21. Arunachal Pradesh
11. Shimla 22. Nagaland
23. Manipur
48

local markets during the harvest seasons. An effort was made to
collect seeds from 15-20 plants in case of F. tataricum F. tararicum
var himalianum (a self pollinated crop) and 20-30 plants in case of
F. esculentum from each populatIons. Notes were also recorded on
the locality, altitude local names and uses etc. The collections were
dried cleaned and processed for evaluation and conservation.
Buckwheat and grain amaranths are grown extensively whereas
chenoped was poorly represented in the farmers' fields. It was
observed that buckwheat is grown in monoculture whereas grain
amaranths and chen oped are mostly grown under mixed cropping
with maize, fingermillet, italian millet, blackgram, horsegram,
frenchbean and Colocasia (Joshi, 1980). A great deal of variability
was found with regard to plant height, number of branches per
plant, seed shape, size and colour and maturity. At the time of
maturity the ladder type fields on the hill mountains of buckwheat
gives beautiful view of the crop to the passerby from distance as if
the hillock has been artificially decorated with scarlet red flower
ga!dening.
Apart from indigenous collections, late Dr. Harbhajan Singh
under took exploration in Nepal and collected good variability from
there in buckwheat. A few introductions (133 accessions) were also
made from USSR, USA, Poland, Hungary and Italy to augment the
germplasm collections in this crop. Thus we have now 574
accessions of buckwheat builtup from various sources. Exploration
activities on buckwheat have also been reported from Bhutan,
Nepal, Japan, USSR and Yugoslavia. Bohanec et al. (1982)
reported that a systematic collection of germplasm in north
western area of Yugoslavia was undertaken in 1975 and a small
gene bank was setup. In 1981 two collections trips were made to
Siberia, Ontenegro and Boshnia and to Hercegoriva. During these t
trips 5 different samples of F. esculentum and three of F.
tataricum were collected which were morphologically different to
grey buckwheat (F. esculentum) and black - buckwheat (F.
tataricum) found in Slovania.
Gohil (1986) reported that 11 collections of buckwheat were
made from local landraces in Jammu and Kashmir for evaluation
study. of the crop. Matano et al. (1979) reported that 300 collections
were made in Japan and classified into 3 groups of ecotypes.
49

Komendra et al. (1986) collected and maintained 120 collections
made in Poland. Nikitin (1980) reported that 520 collections made
hl USSR were studied for different characters. Highest collection
numbering (2105) of buckwheat were collected and maintained at
the Vavilov Institute of Plant Industry in J-eningrad in USSR
(Vectzhnov et al., 1919).
50

CONSERVATION
Genetic variability accumulated and conserved in the form of
diverse plant type is immensely valuable to the mankind for its
present and future needs. The National Bureau of Plant Genetic
Resources (NBPGR) is concerned with the conservation of genetic
diversity in plant species, populations, genotypes, related varieties
and wild spices and advanced breeding lines which are actually or
potentially useful to develop new varieties of economic importance.
Conservation through seed is safe, as well as less expensive, if life
processes are reduced to a low lev~l. This is particularly true, in
case of species, which can be preserved by way of seeds. Harington
(1970) and Roberts (1975) reviewed the problem of long term
storage of seeds, which can be maintained under conditions of low
moisture content and low temperature. The rate of loss of Viability
is decreased, if moisture content and temperature are reduced to
5% moisture and 4°C for medium term, storage and - 20°C for
long term seed storage were the alternative procedure of
regeneration at interval of 3-5 years, is the avoidanee of genetic
drift in the population samples due to selections, small population,
natural hybridization, destruction by parasites or loss through
human error.
The National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, Regional
Station, Phagli, Shimla is currently conserving a germplasm of
more than 10,000 collections of different crops including 561
collections of Fagopyrum esculentum, F. tataricum, F. tataricum I
var himalianum F. esculentum var emarginatum, F. gigantium
and F. cymosum under natural conditions (Table 6) at temperature
- 20°C to ± 20°C. The seed remains viable for 4-50 years with a
germination percentage ranging from 65-85%. At the headquarter
of the Bureau (New Delhi) a total germplasm of 35,000 collections
representing over 70 different economic plants including 250
collections of buckwheat are conserved in the National Repository
for long term storage at -20°C. A medium term storage facility
with a capacity of 25,000 seed samples had been builtup at the
51

Shim la, Regional Station of the Bureau. The seed will be stored at
5% moisture content with controlled humidity at 25-35% RH and
temperature 5-10oC. All the germplasm including 539 collections
of buckwheat are planned'-fu be conserved in the long and medium
term stotages. Singh et al. (1977) observed that both ripe and
unripe seeds have'viviparous germination in F. esculentum. A high
degree of dormancy is normally exhibited by seeds of F. esculentum
and F. tataricum at harvest at 25°C. This period of dormancy was
observed -to 60-70 days whereas at 2-3°C as many as 6 months
may be necessary. However, Tahir and Farooq (1983) did not
observe any seed dormancy in any of the four species of the
buckwheat collections from high altitude areas of Kashmir. The
viability and germination percentage was relatively low in F.
tataricum compared to the other. The total germplasm conserved
at the station is presented in Table 6.
Table 6. Buckwheat Germplasm conserved at NBPGR,
Regional Station, Shimla.
S. No. Species
Indigenous *Exotic Total
collection collection collection
1. Fagopyrum esculentum
2. Fagopyrum tataricum
3. Fagopyrum emarginatum
4. Fagopyrum gigantium
5. Fagopyrum cymosum
6. Fagophrum himalianum
Total collections :
242
132
52
5
22
453
27 269
56 188
52
3 3
5
22
86 539
*USA (31), Hungary (1S), Nepal (14), USSR (11), Japan (S),
Italy(S), Poland (3) and GFR (1).
52

CHARACTERIZATION AND EVALUATION
The International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR)
defines characterization as highly heritable characters which vary
little when plants are grown in different environments.
Standardised methods for the observation and recording of these
characters in data banks are essential for the effective description
of germplasm, and for exchange of data between collections.
Characterization data provide a means for classifying germplasm
and for studying patterns of variability, and are useful during
regeneration of stocks.
By contrast, evaluation Tefers to the scoring of characters, which
may be influenced to a large extent by environmental factors. As a
list of possible evaluation descriptors is potentially unlimited, the
IBPGR recognized the category of 'preliminary evaluation', which
consists of a limited number of traits which are relatively' easy to
score and considered to be the most useful by plant breeders. Both
characterization and preliminary evaluation, which are often
difficult to distinguish clearly, are usually the responsibility of
curators. The meaningful description of plant genetic resources is
essential in order to study the spectrum of genetic variation within
cultivated species and their wild relatives and to facilitate the
selection from accessions in genebanks of germplasm for crop
improvement.
IBPGR gives high priority to descriptor lists. More than 60
IBPGR Descriptor lists have been published covering most of the
major and a number of minor crops. Buckwheat descriptors have
not been formulated so far. Therefore four hundred and eight I
collections were grown in single row observational plot. The
germplasm was evaluated for 31 descriptors for two years
(1985-1986) at the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources,
Regional Station, Phagli Shimla. These descriptors and descriptor
states were formulated at this station by the first author on the
basis of the degree of variation present in different characters.
Data were recorded on 3 representative randomly selected plants
53

each year and the average value of 6 plants have been further
classified and produced in the coded figure in this catalogue. The
whole germplasm of 408 collections has been classified into 6
groups of species based on planUleavelflowerlseed characters i.e. F.
\ esculentum, F. esculentum var emarginatum, F. tataricum, F.
tataricum var himalianum, F. gigantium and cymosum.
A great deal of variability was observed In the germplasm and
the range, mean and coefficient of variation for 11 important
characters are presented in Table 7. Fifty promising lines selected
on the basis of single plant yield were grown in one row plot
alongwith two checks IC 13374 and VHC-26. Out of 50 accessions,
highest plot yield was recorded in IC 13374 (140g) followed by IC
13376 (85g), IC 18990-1 (75g) and IC-17370 and IC-18890-1 gave
70 g seed yield. On the basis of high yield 13 elite lines were
selected and a multilocation trial was conducted at Shimla,
Almora, Sangla, Bajaura, Shillong and J & K. A local selection IC-
13374 topped in seed yield under Shimla conditions .
. Table 7. Range mean and coefficient of variation of
buckwheat germplasm (408 collections)
S. No. Characters Unit Range Mean C.V.
1. Plant height (cm) 60-181 120.28 24.64
2. Number of branches (no) 1-6 3.20 34.59
3. Number of internodes (no) 6-28 12.82 23.35
4. Number of leaves (no) 10-45 19.59 34.73
5. Leaf length (cm) 2.8-8.0 5.05 22.94
6. Leaf width (cm) 2.1-8.9 4.56 25.29
7. Days to flower (days) 24-78 43.62 36.92
8. Days to mature (days) 75-125 97.38 17.21
9. Number of seeds/cyme (no) 1-7 2.50 24.20
10. 100 seed weight (g) 1.2-5.0 3.00 27.60
11. Yield per plant (g) 2.3-20.0 9.00 47.28
54

000
000
mmo
OO..-l
..-l ..-l ..-l
lO~~"o:!'''o:!'t-O''o:!'lOO
"o:!'~~O')~O')lO..-lOO
mooa)...io...ia)O~
..-l..-l ..-l..-l..-l ..-l
~
o
ct5
~~~~~~~~~~
lcilciLci~LciLci~ct5MO')
ci
Z
ai
55

Table 9 : Promising genotypes of breeder's interest.
SI. No. Characters
Accessions
A High yielding IC 13141
15-20 g IC 13374
IC 13376
IC 13410
IC 41644
Kulu gangari
VHC-27
B Dwarf types IC 7819
65-85 cm IC 13375
IC 13411
IC 16554
IC 17970
IC 18719
C Bold seeded IC 26595
3.8 - 5 g IC 42417
NC 58517
NC 58522
EC 161416
D Early flowering IC 42408
IC 42419
IC 49678
IC 49679
IC 49681
E Early maturing IC 49369
NC 64041
NC 67097
NC 67098
NC 67102
VL-7
Under the All India Coordinated Research Project on underutilized
and under-exploited crop plants a multi location trial was
conducted in RBD during 1983 to 1989 under temperate hill zone
at 3 locations (Shimla, Almora and Ranichauri). Out of 13 varieties
56

selected, 10 represented the selections from this station, 3 entries
were from Vivekananda Parvatiya Krishi Anusandhan Shala,
Almora. On the basis of 7 years testing at Shimla, 3 years testing
at Almora and 2 years testing at Ranichauri, Selection IC 13374
(Himpriya) gave an average yield of 12.6 q/ha and stood first out of
all the 13 entries tested (Table 8). Himpriya has been identified for
release in the 7th annual Workshop on underutilized and
underexploited crop plants, held at UAS, Bangalore during May,
1990. Accordingly a proposal to Central Varietal Release
Committee has been submitted for its release for cultivation in the
entire North West and North east Himalayas. Considering the
immediate breeding needs, 30 collections were identified as
important donors for five major yield contributing characters and
are presented in Table 9.
Farooq and Tahir (1987) reported that the seperation of grains of
different species from various collections showed a frequent
predominance of F. sagittatum and to a lesser extent that of F.
esculentum. The proportion of each of the two species. F.
kashmirianum and F. tataricum was generally very low. The
seedling of all the four species emerged within ten days of sowing.
Per centage emergence and low viability recorded in laboratory
test is suggestive of a rather low percentage of viability in seeds.
The first leaf emerged in about twenty day~ in all the four species,
the appearance of first leaf was somewhat delayed in F. tataricum
due to slower initial growth. On set of flowering and subsequent
grain formation occurred first in F. esculentum and last of all in F.
tataricum indicating the early flowering and early maturing
character of F. esculentum. The growth span of F. tataricum was
the longest and extended over 15-16 weeks and formation of new
grains continued during this period. A relatively short growth
period of 10-12 weeks, however, characterized the remaining three
species. In F. tataricum the tallest of the four species owing to it{>
longer growth span. It is pertinent to record here that all the four
species possess indeterminate growth habit.
Although F. tataricum accumulated maximum dry inatter per
plant and also have the maximum number of inflorescence per
plant, yet grain yield was lesser compared to 'F. sagittatum and F.
ka$hmirianum. By and large F. sagittatum and F. Kashmirianum
57

closely resembled with each other in respect of their growth
characteristics.
\
The low harvest index of F, escuientum inspite of profuse
flowering is atributable primarily to a high incidence of flower
abortion. Gubbels (19BO) cites serverl authors who have studied
the phenomenon are not fully known. The low harvest index in F.
tataricum on the other hand, is due to grain shattering. In this
species, the grains are shed as they mature, a trait not suitable for
cultivated grain crop. Attempts made by Fesenko (1966) to develop
varieties of tartary buckwheat resistant to shedding suggest that
this problem is encountered also by Russian cultivators. Apart
from the above evaluation, characterization have also been
reported by the different authors from USSR, America, Canada,
Japan, Yugoslavia and Poland.
In USSR, Krotov (1976) reported that in the collection from
Soviet Union, forms were singled out with good values for
earliness, fruit size, husk content and resistance to cold, drought
and disease. Pak et ai. (1976) reported that among hybrid and
varieties evaluated in the seedling, flowering and fruiting states
under conditions of artificial and natural infections during
1967-72, no completely resistant forms were found. The most
resistant were Valik and Terethovka. Alekseeva et al. (1979)
reported that the intervarietal differences were found in rutin
content, the highest (6.5%) content occurring in Aelita and
Vicktoriya Podolskaya.
On the basis of trials involving a total of 2105 forms, list are
given of early forms, forms with uniform ripening, high yielding
foms and forms showing good resistance to lodging and to heat and
drought. Shedding of the grain was less severe in 4 x than 2 x
buckwheat; among 2 x forms the most resistant to shedding were
those from the eastern UK-raine (K380B), IC 3789 and IC 3823).
Fagopyrum tataricum and F. gigantium were more susceptible to
shedding than F. esculentum. The largest grain was found in 4 x
F. escuientum and the smallest in F. tataricum. Forms of 2 x F.
esculentum with large grain included K4292, K4250, K4293 and
K4324. F. gigantium, F. tataricum and perennial species showed
poor heat resistance some xx F. esculentum forms were
comparatively resistant. Tetraploid F. esculentum proved resistant
58

to lodging as did the diploids K4324, K4314 and K4315, F.
giganteum KI09 and the F. tataricum forms K13, K15, K17, K56,
K59, K80, K81, K82 and KI08 (Avezadzhanov et aI., 1979).
Kubiczek et aZ. (1980) reported that analysis of samples from
nine F. esculentum cultivars and F. tataricum revealed that the
tetraploid cultivars, Tetra Noteckis had the highest protein content
(21.3%) while 5 diploid cultivars had 7% lysine, as a percentage of
protein content, ranged from 6.5% in Brazyljska (Brazilian) to
7.7% in Victoria. Compared with the nutritional value (in terms of
amino acid components of proteins) of the low protein cultivars,
that of the high protein cultivars was not diminished.
In selected progenies of large-grained diploid, varieties obtained
by cross pollination, Petelina, 1980 reported that correlation, were
found between grain weight per plant and number of grains per
plant (r=0.94) and between 1000 grain weight and 1000 kernal
weight (r=0.95). ~ Number of grains per plant was also correlated
with number of branches of the first order (r=0.54), number of
leaves (r=0.54), number of inflorescence (r=0.71) and number of
grains per inflorescence' (r=0.60). Some 25% of the selected
progenies gave over 120 grains per plant and some 16% had a
1000 grain weight of 40.3 g.
Nikitin (1980) mentioned that the response of 520 varieties to
high doses of N.P fertilizer was tested during 1976-77. The
greatest incerease in yielding was shown by forms from UK raine,
viz Ie 1406 (Cherrigov provience) Ie 4262 (Volynka province), Ie
3890 (Poltava province) and K 1251 (Khar'kov province).
Out yielding the standard, Shatilovskaya 5, under normal and
increased fertilizet regimes are indicated.
In a study of seven morphological characters (some of them
affecting yield) and seven yield components in 14 varieties during I
1977-79, inter varietal differences in variation were found. The
least variation in the morpholoical characters was shown by
Bogatyr, Shatilovaskaya 5, Amurskaya Mestnaya, Ie 18 and K
1107 and in the yield components by Shatilovskaya 5, Bogatyr,
Skorospelaya 81 (Early ripening 81) K 2513 and K 1107 of the 14
character studied. The least variable in cross varieties and years
were number of internodes in the branching zone and on the main
59

stem, plant height, stem length in the branching zone and 1000
grain weight, while the most variable grain weight per branch and
p~r plant and number of grains per branch and per plant
(Pausheva et al.,1980).
Svyatova (1980) mentioned that in a study of grain quality in
one large grained and one small grained variety in relation to the
distribution of grain on branches of different order (1973-74), the
position of the grain on the plant affected grain quality. The
highest quality formed on the stem and on branches, the lower
were the lOOO-grain weight and the kernal yield and the higher
was the husk percentage of the grain formed on the old branches.
It is concluded that breeding for limited branching high quality
forms might improve grain quality.
Gohil et at. (1986) reported that eleven forms, dominently F.
sagittatum collected from 4 villages in Jammu and Kashmir were
studied for 5 characters. Except for days to maturity and branches
per plant, there was mU,ch vaFiability, even among flowers from a
single village, the variability was greatest for seed yield per plant
which was closely correlated with number of grains per plant.
In 1981-85, 120 varieties from different countries were studied
by Komendra et a1.. (1986). They reported marked differences for
leaf and stem type, height, number of inflorescence, pistil length
and flower size. Only Pen line 10 and some Japanese lines were
short irrespective of sowing conditions, Tall varieties tended to
have the most inflorescence. Pistil length differed among plants of
the same variety. It is n,oted that perianth size in pin types was
generally smaller than in thrum types but 1000 seed weight
tended to be greater in the latter. An ideotype is (1) few branches
(2) large foliage area, (3) self fertility and homostyly.
Ohnishi (1986) reported that genetic variability in F. cymosum
(diploid and tetraploid), F, tataricum (F, Kash mirianum) and F.
esculentum is discussed with special reference to morphology and
allozymes.
It is noted in particular that although F. tataricum is
morphologically very variable, no variability for any of 10 enzymes
was observed in any sample from the Himalayas and southern
China and in all the samples of this species studied, allelic
60

variation was oberved at only one location (isocitrate
dehydrogenase) samples from Europe and northern China had a
different allele from those in the Himalayas and S. China. It is
suggested that breeding in F. esculentum would benefit from
crossing varieties from other countries within one of the 2 major
groups (1) tall, vigorous late, short day types found in India, Nepal
and the Far east and (2) Short, early and insensitive to
photoperiod types found in Europe and N. China.
There is nothing new in the assertion that characterization is an
enormous task demanding considerable commitment in manpower
and material resources. However, for germplasm collections. to' be
of any value.. they must be precisely and reliably characterization
and systematicany documented. The deplorable and everincreasing
gap between large number of collections in the global
net work of genebanks and genetic resources centres, and their
utilization in breeding and research is attributable mainly to the
lack of appropriate characterization of existing accessions. For this
reason characterization of all available crop genetic resources
should be an integral component of crop genetic resources
conservation. Characterization should receive highest priority in
conservation activities on the present time. This will not only
reduce the intolerable gap between collection and utilization, but
also go a long way towards a much needed world survey of genetic
diversity in the crop species, and whenever possible in their wild
evolutionary relatives. Information available from a thorough
characterization will also be useful for formulating future
collection and conservation strategies.
The importance of characterization is frequently discussed and
widely acknowledged by IBPGR. However, because of the enormity
of the task, it is never undertaken with the seriousness it
deserves. One needs to takfl a more progmatic approach and settle
for a partial characterzation today, and further characterization in
the future. In the prevailing environment of high priority in I
conservation and low priority in research and development in
genetic conservation, one would do well by identifying a small
number of crop specific Characters that are most important in the
context of present day agriculture and embark on a comprehensive
evaluation programme only for these handful' of characters. At
61

some international agneultural reseaTch centre this practice is
followed but it requires more vigorous publicity and wider
application in third world countries.
The breeders cannot do the comprehensive evaluation because
usually he finds no time to do the job. Otherwise, there would not
be such an immense gap between collections and their utilization
of our hidden treasure today. During a recent international
symposium on barley genetics (Okayama, O~tober 1986), barley
breeders and geneticists interested in barley genetic resources
conservation repeatedly addressed this issue and always returned
to the two obvious conclusions appropriate evaluation should have
the pivotal place in all genetic conservation activities in the for
eseeable future, and some one other than the breeder must be
found to do the job. Keeping above view points in mind the
following descriptors were formulated in buckwheat and the entire
germplasm was studied which win be useful to curators and
breeders both for its present and future utilization.
62

BUCKWHEAT DESCRIPTORS AND
DESCRIPTOR STATES
1. Serial Number
This is the sequential order in which the entries were recorded.
2. Accession Number
It serves as a unique identify for accessions and is assigned by
the curator as and when the accession is received and entered into
his collection. Here this represents the entry number in the
National accession registers of the National Bureau of Plant
Genetic Resources, New Delhi and its regional station at Phagli,
Shimla (H.P.), India. The abbrevation IC, NC and EC represent
indigenous, national and exotic collections maintained at NBPGR.
Once assigned, this number is not reassigned to another accession
in the collection. Even when the accession is lost, its assigned
number is still not available for re-use for another accession.
3. Collector's Number
This represents the original number assigned by the collector's
name in abbreviated ego Bhairab Datt Joshi = BDJ 452 while
collecting the material in the fields.
4. Species
There are five species of Fagopyrum available in the world. The
entire collections have been classified into F. esculentum, F.
tataricum, F. escutentum var. emarginatum, F. tataricum var ..
himalianum, F. gigantium and F. cymosum in the catalogue and
presented in column four.
5. Source Country
This represents the country from where the material was
originally collected and a three letter abbreviations, for country
code recommended by IBPGR were used as follows : German
Federal Republic (DEU), Hungary (HUN), India (IND) Itlay (ITA),
Nepal (NPL), Poland (POL), Russia (SUN) and America (USA).
63

6. State
This represents the area of collections in which state it falls
wi~hin India. The code number for each state is given in the
brackets. Arunachal Pradesh (1), Assam (2), Himachal Pradesh (3),
Jammu and Kashmir (4), Manipur (5), Sikkim (6), Uttar Pradesh
(7) and West Bengal (8).
7. District
This represents the district in which the collection site falls. The
code number for each district within the states of India is given in
brackets as follows Chamba (1), Chamoli (2), Darjeeling (3),
Kangra (4), Kashmir (5), Kinnaur (6), Kulu (7), Ladakh (8), Lahaul
and Spiti (9), Mandi (10), Pithoragarh (11), Pauri (12), Shimla (13).
8. Plant Height
It was measured in centimetres from ground level to the highest
tip of the main shoot and was classified into three groups based on
their height :
1. Dwarf 60.0 cm - 90.0 cm
2. Medium tall 90.1 cm - 120.0 cm
3. Tall 120.1 cm - above
9. Number of Branches
The actual number of branches were counted and averaged and
classified into 3 groups as follow :
1. Low
2. Medium
3. High
1.0-2.0
2.1-4.0
4.1.-above
10. Number of Internodes
Number of internodes on the longest main shoot were counted
averaged and classified into 3 groups and presented below:
1. Low
2. Medium
3. High
6-10
11-14
15-above.
lL 2nd Interndoe Length
The second internode length of the main shoot was measured
(em), averaged and classified into 3 groups :
64

1. Short
2. Medium
3. Large
12. Colour of Stem
2-4
4.1-6
6. I-above
The colour of stem was either green (1), pink (2) or red (3). The
character was recorded at the time of full heading.
13. Number of Leaves
Number of leaves present on the main shoot were counted when
the plant was in full bloom and was classified as :
1. Small
2. Medium
3. High
14. Petiole Length
10-15
15.1-20
20.1-above
The petiole length, leaf length and breadth of the largest leaf
were measured in (em) and the average values were classified into :
1. Short
2. Medium
3. Long
15. Petiole Colour
1.2-4
4.1-6
6.1-above
The petiole colour was recorded as green (1), pink (2) or red (3).
The character was recorded at the time when the inflorescence was
in full bloom.
16. Leaf Length
The length of the largest leaf was measured in centimetres as
descriptor 14 :
1. ShoTt 2.8-4
2. Medium 4.1-6
3. Long
6.1-above
17. Leaf Breadth
This variable was recorded as no. 14 :
1. Narrow
2. Broad
3. Broadest
2.1-3.5
3.6-5
5.1-above
65

lB. Blade Shape
The shape of the blade was hastate (1), cordate (2) or acute (3).
~. Leaf Colour at Maturity
The colour of leaf (lamina) at the time of maturity was observed
either yellow (1), brown (2) or red (3).
20. Leaf Margin Colour
The leaf margin at the time of full blossom will either be green
(1) or red (2).
21. Flowering
The actual number of days from sowing to 50% flowering were
calculated, averaged and classified as follows :
1. Early
2. Medium
3. Late
22. Flower Colour
24-34
35-50
51-above
The colour of the flower was observed either pink (1) or white (2).
23. Maturity
The actual number of days from sowing to full maturity of the
seeds were calculated and classified as below :
1. Early
2. Medium
3. Late
24. Length of Cyme
87-90
91-110
ll1-above
The length of cyme was measured in em, averaged and grouped
into 3 classes:
1. Short
2. Medium
3. Long
2-3
3.1-4
4. I-above
25. Number of Clusters per Cyme
The actual number of clusters per cyme were counted and
classifed as :
66

1. Low
2. Medium
3. High
1-1.9
2-2.9
3-above
26. Seeds per Cluster
The actual number of seeds per cluster were counted and
classified into 3 groups as below :
1. Low
2. Medium
3. High
1-2
3-5
5.1-above
27. Seed Colour
The seed colour was observed either brown (1), mottled (2) or
greyish black (3).
28. Seed Shape
The shape of the seed was either triangular (1), conical (2) or
winged (3).
29. Seed Weight
Bulk seed was drawn and 100 seeds, were counted, weighed(g)
and classified into 3 groups :
1. Small
2. Medium
3. Bold
1.2-2
2.1-3
3.1-above
30. Seed Yield
The total seed yield per plant was weighed(g) and classified into
3 categories :
1. Low
2. Medium
3. High
2-6
7-12
l3-above.
3L Leaf Spot Disease
The accessions were screened fOT leaf spot disease under natural
conditions and the intensity of the spot was recorded as free to
traces (3) light to moderately susceptible (5) and highly susceptible
(7).
67

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100

GERMPLASM DISTRffiUTION AND EXCHANGE
Rapid transfer of germ plasm to the user agencies is the most
important follow up action after its collection, evaluation by any
organisation dealing with plant genetic resources activities. The
potential mechanism for germplasm and information on germplasm
exchange between different mountain systems need to be
promoted. At the same time, crops which are well adapted to one
mountain area may prove valuable in improving the agriculture in
other regions having similar climatic conditions.
As a national service organisation, one of the primary functions
of the Bureau and its regional stations has been to widen the
genetic base and to make available diverse germplasm to breeders
for crop improvement. The major recepients of the introductions
procured/collection made by the Bureau, have been the ICAR cropbased
Institutes, crop coordinated projects and scientists in
Agricultural Universities and State Departments of Agriculture.
Information on the exchange of plant materials has been
maintained in a national register since 1946 and from 1966
onwards, such information has been duplicated in Plant
Introduction Reporter, issued by the NBPGR. The exchange of
plant material under phytosanitary conditions between India and
other countries is encouraging. The Bureau maintanis exchange
links with about 70 different countries of the world. It also has
effective linkages with serveral international institutes. viz.
International Rice Research Institute (IRRI, Philippines); Centro
International Maiz de Mejoramiento de Trigo (CIMMYT, Mexico);
International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas
(ICARDA, Syria); International Institute for Tropical Agriculture
(UTA, Nigeria); Centro International de Agriculture Tropical
(CIAT, Colombia); Centro International de Pa Papa (CIP, Peru);
Asian Vegetable Research and Development Centre (A VRDC,
Taiwan); International Soybean Program (INISOY, USA); Council
of Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO,
102

Australia); N.I. Vavilov Institute of Plant Industry (VIR,
Leningrad, USSR); United States Department of Agriculture
(USDA, USA) and International Board for Plant Genetic Resources
(IBPGR, Rome Italy).
During the recent past a total gerrnplasm of 593 collections of
buckwheat representing F. esculentum, F. tataricum var.,
emarginatum, F. gigantium and F. cymosum were distributed to
more than 30 indentors for various research purposes within the
country. Fifty two exotic introductions were added in the
indigenous gerrnplasm collection from USA (24), Nepal (14), USSR
(5), Italy (5), Poland (3) and Hungary (1).
103

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