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Annals of “Dunărea <strong>de</strong> <strong>Jos</strong>” University of GALAŢI<br />
Fascicle XIII, New Series.<br />
Issue 28, XVI (XXVII), 2009<br />
pp. 5-10<br />
Language<br />
and<br />
Literature<br />
STRUCTURI ŞI FORME LITERARE/REPREZENTĂRI ALE FEMINITĂŢII<br />
ÎN NUVELA ROMÂNEASCĂ PAŞOPTISTĂ<br />
Simona Antofi<br />
În opinia lui Mihai Zamfir, proza intervalului 1830–1880 reprezintă „un mare <strong>text</strong><br />
relativ unitar, a cărui formulă internă <strong>de</strong> generare se modifică (...) foarte lent”, <strong>text</strong><br />
subsumabil binomului generalizator Memorie versus Imaginaţie – „un mo<strong>de</strong>l al prozei<br />
româneşti din secolul al XIX-lea”. Explicându-şi termenii, criticul arată că „memoria implică<br />
tot ceea ce se referă la asimilarea <strong>de</strong> formule epice antece<strong>de</strong>nte”, „la o memorie culturală”, în<br />
vreme ce Imaginaţia, o „minus memorie”, reprezintă, din punctul său <strong>de</strong> ve<strong>de</strong>re, „acea<br />
facultate epică a cărei acţiune tin<strong>de</strong> la producerea senzaţiei <strong>de</strong> noutate sub raport diegetic,<br />
dar şi sub acela al caracterelor, al <strong>de</strong>scripţiei” (Zamfir 1989: 70-71). Sub această umbrelă<br />
teoretică s-ar cuveni situată, prin urmare, multitudinea <strong>de</strong> manifestări concrete, plurimorfe,<br />
ale nuvelisticii româneşti în discuţie.<br />
Oarecum polemic la adresa opiniei citate, Liviu Papadima suplimentează binomul prin<br />
componenta Observaţie, respectiv cu preocuparea prozei şi a nuvelei paşoptiste <strong>de</strong> a<br />
cartografia şi <strong>de</strong> a ierarhiza realitatea vremii. Raportul concurenţial Memorie versus<br />
Imaginaţie explică invazia categoriilor literare ale memorialisticii în întreg teritoriul ficţiunii.<br />
Faptul este <strong>de</strong>monstrat <strong>de</strong> Mihai Zamfir şi este pus pe seama nevoii, resimţite <strong>de</strong> autorii<br />
vremii, <strong>de</strong> a-şi autentifica scrierile narative. Dat fiind statutul incert al prozei româneşti la<br />
începuturile ei, datorat, în principal, autorităţii mo<strong>de</strong>lului literar şi existenţial poetic,<br />
valoarea estetică se bizuie pe complementaritatea dintre emoţie, sinceritate, autenticitate şi<br />
autobiografie.<br />
Corelată cu incapacitatea aproape generală <strong>de</strong> invenţie epică, a scriitorilor români ai<br />
perioa<strong>de</strong>i, această stare <strong>de</strong> fapt a dus, în mod firesc, la umplerea tiparelor Memoriei literare<br />
cu încărcătură autobiografică implicit literaturizată. Instrumentarul favorit al literaturizării<br />
este cel melodramatic, bazat pe perspectiva maniheistă asupra lumii şi pe o retorică specifică:<br />
coinci<strong>de</strong>nţe numeroase (regimul coinci<strong>de</strong>nţelor poate fi investit cu funcţia <strong>de</strong> principal motor<br />
narativ şi diegetic, aşa cum se întâmplă în Buchetiera <strong>de</strong> la Florenţa, în cadrul căreia suita <strong>de</strong><br />
coinci<strong>de</strong>nţe face să progreseze naraţiunea şi, în parte, <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong> soarta eroilor), situaţii<br />
lacrimogene, lovituri <strong>de</strong> teatru şi posibilitatea amestecului <strong>de</strong> niveluri stilistice.<br />
Toate acestea ar ilustra, potrivit lui Nicolae Manolescu, apartenenţa prozei paşoptiste<br />
la romantismul <strong>de</strong> tip Bie<strong>de</strong>rmeier. Comentând punctul <strong>de</strong> ve<strong>de</strong>re al lui Virgil Nemoianu<br />
(Îmblânzirea romantismului), Manolescu (1990: 192) evi<strong>de</strong>nţiază principalele tipuri care se<br />
amestecă în Bie<strong>de</strong>rmeier Romanticism, şi-anume biograficul, melodramaticul şi istoricul, dar<br />
se <strong>de</strong>sparte <strong>de</strong> opina lui Zamfir făcând două observaţii categorice : „Nu cred că, totuşi, să se<br />
poată vorbi <strong>de</strong> o puritate a paradigmei, fiind mai <strong>de</strong>grabă vorba <strong>de</strong> o proză hibridă” chiar<br />
dacă „graniţele relativ discrete dintre speciile memorialistice sunt mai <strong>de</strong>s încălcate <strong>de</strong>cât<br />
aceea, mult mai netă, dintre memorialistică şi ficţiune” –ceea ce contrazice punctul <strong>de</strong> ve<strong>de</strong>re<br />
anterior, pentru care se poate accepta i<strong>de</strong>ea autonomizării memorialisticii, componentă<br />
principală a prozei româneşti <strong>de</strong> început, în raport cu celelalte forme literare narative; iar a<br />
5
doua observaţie slujeşte <strong>de</strong> minune <strong>de</strong>mersului nostru, căci evi<strong>de</strong>nţiază acuitatea spiritului<br />
critic al scriitorilor paşoptişti şi putinţa, ba chiar firescul existenţei meta<strong>text</strong>elor :<br />
„probabil că trăsătura cea mai remarcabilă a prozei noastre romantice (exceptând<br />
romanul) este alexandrinismul ei, faptul <strong>de</strong> a fi <strong>de</strong> la început bătrână ca mentalitate şi<br />
sofisticată stilistic” (Manolescu 1990: 192 şi 193).<br />
În această ordine <strong>de</strong> i<strong>de</strong>i, se cuvine amintită opinia lui Mircea Muthu, pentru care<br />
balcanitatea, respectiv „spiritul sud–estic” în literatură, se regăseşte ca stare <strong>de</strong> spirit<br />
<strong>de</strong>cantată şi <strong>de</strong>venită, „în evantaiul <strong>de</strong> motive, teme, tipologii, atitudini şi performanţe<br />
artistice”, balcanism literar. Configurat <strong>de</strong> un <strong>text</strong> cu multiple niveluri semantice, precum<br />
Istoria unui galben, balcanismul literar românesc îşi <strong>de</strong>zvăluie dubla sa dimensiune, parodică<br />
şi <strong>de</strong> evocare (Muthu 2002: 72 şi 79), în virtutea căreia nuvelele paşoptiste îşi asumă o dublă<br />
funcţie: <strong>de</strong> a reproduce/evoca artistic realitatea, conform convenţiei literare a epocii, şi <strong>de</strong> a<br />
pune în discuţie proce<strong>de</strong>ele <strong>de</strong> literaturizare ca şi formele literare aflate în circulaţie<br />
<strong>de</strong>monstrând, astfel, <strong>de</strong>schi<strong>de</strong>rea spre ironie şi spre parodie a prozatorilor vremii.<br />
Literatură a „memoriei restauratoare”, naraţiunea literară din secolul al XIX-lea şi<br />
scriitorul care-o compune relevă „«intenţia <strong>de</strong> a documenta», în limitele a<strong>de</strong>vărului şi,<br />
aproape întot<strong>de</strong>auna, în absenţa oricăror pretenţii <strong>de</strong> exprimare estetică <strong>de</strong>spre oameni şi<br />
întâmplări ştiute <strong>de</strong> scriitor prin sine însuşi sau prin alţii” (Curticăpeanu 1977: 13). La nivelul<br />
scriiturii, însă, cultura, spiritul critic, rezervele estetice, maliţiile şi ironiile prozatorilor<br />
români, familiarizaţi cu literaturile apusene, produc amestecuri inedite <strong>de</strong> realitate<br />
literaturizată, pe suport (auto)biografic cu funcţia <strong>de</strong> a legitima ficţiunea, şi reversul parodic,<br />
reacţia <strong>de</strong> disconfort intelectual provocată <strong>de</strong> nevoia <strong>de</strong> a apela la mo<strong>de</strong>le apusene mediocre<br />
şi <strong>de</strong> a le autohtoniza în limitele unei literaturi ce abia se năştea. Se adaugă ceea ce Liviu<br />
Papadima numeşte „miza lecturii «estetice» şi cea a persuasiunii i<strong>de</strong>ologice”, dirijate în<br />
conformitate cu întreg con<strong>text</strong>ul politic şi social paşoptist, care duce la „relaţia <strong>de</strong> solidaritate<br />
între ficţional şi nonficţional.” Mai mult, în condiţiile funcţionării precare a „instituţiei<br />
literaturii” şi într-o cultură marcată <strong>de</strong> efortul <strong>de</strong>finirii instituţionale a principalelor tipuri <strong>de</strong><br />
discurs–istoria, ştiinţa, morala, didactica, i<strong>de</strong>ologia–proza literară se ve<strong>de</strong> obligată să<br />
satisfacă două cerinţe distincte: să instruiască şi să se supună logicii naraţiunii literare,<br />
aceasta din urmă cu propria sa orientare dublă: cauzală, necesară pentru producerea<br />
efectului <strong>de</strong> verosimilitate, şi teleologică, cu misiunea <strong>de</strong> a asigura unitatea şi relevanţa<br />
<strong>text</strong>ului (Papadima 1989: 147 şi 151).<br />
De <strong>de</strong>parte cea mai prolifică specie literară a perioa<strong>de</strong>i paşoptiste, nuvela – şi formele<br />
sale concrete – se poate clasifica, în funcţie <strong>de</strong> dominanta tematică a fiecărui <strong>text</strong>, în patru<br />
categorii în cadrul cărora instrumentarul literar, strategiile şi tehnicile <strong>de</strong> lucru se amestecă,<br />
circulă <strong>de</strong> la o categorie la alta şi intră în combinaţii aproape neaşteptate pentru „tinereţea”<br />
prozei româneşti din epocă. Astfel, nuvelei istorice, celei sentimentale şi melodramatice,<br />
precum şi celei <strong>de</strong> moravuri, i se adaugă nuvela exerciţiu <strong>de</strong> stil, meta<strong>text</strong>ul care aspiră la a<br />
<strong>de</strong>construi, în special cu mijloacele parodiei, mo<strong>de</strong>lele <strong>de</strong> literaritate ale vremii.<br />
Fundamentat pe o restricţionare a strategiilor narative, pe favorizarea netă a relatării la<br />
persoana I singular şi facilitând, astfel, invazia biografismului şi asocierea acestuia cu latura<br />
documentară a <strong>text</strong>elor narative, mo<strong>de</strong>lul melodramatic asigură, totuşi, garanţia<br />
ficţionalităţii tocmai prin rigiditatea frustrantă – pentru spiritele luci<strong>de</strong> ale epocii – a reţetei<br />
sale literare. Emfatizând convenţia, melodramaticul acomodat nuvelistic permite elaborarea<br />
unei instanţe naratoare hibri<strong>de</strong>, „autonaratorul” care, pe <strong>de</strong> o parte, „intens personalizat”, îşi<br />
tematizează postura auctorială (Papadima 1989: 151), explicitându-şi intenţiile şi<br />
justificându-se, iar pe <strong>de</strong> alta, îşi asumă intenţiile specifice instanţei sale, în varianta Genette<br />
sau a altora. Ia naştere, astfel, ceea ce Nicolae Manolescu numeşte, în alt con<strong>text</strong>, „tirania<br />
semnificativului”.<br />
6
Naratorul a<strong>de</strong>sea intradiegetic şi cu veleităţi auctoriale se comportă <strong>de</strong> multe ori<br />
<strong>de</strong>spotic cu cititorul, dirijându-i cu autoritate lectura şi instaurând un pact <strong>de</strong> lectură univoc.<br />
Sprijinit, în <strong>de</strong>mersurile sale narative, <strong>de</strong> întreg angrenajul <strong>text</strong>ului, care anticipează ferm<br />
diegeza şi, mai ales, <strong>de</strong>znodământul, naratorul şi, prin el, scriitorul, cultivă „suprasaturarea<br />
informaţională a codurilor narative”, „hiper<strong>de</strong>terminarea”, ca instrumente ale<br />
„predictibilităţii” narative influenţate, <strong>de</strong> asemenea, <strong>de</strong> „indiciile privind încadrarea într-un<br />
gen anumit, sistemul personajelor, teme proeminente”. Ca mo<strong>de</strong>le literare apusene insistent<br />
valorificate în acest con<strong>text</strong>, „romanţul” <strong>de</strong> senzaţie, novella melodramatică sau povestirea<br />
<strong>de</strong> aventuri cultivă arbitrarul, la nivelul loviturilor <strong>de</strong> teatru, <strong>de</strong> pildă, dar îl şi „domesticesc”<br />
(Papadima 1989: 161 şi 167).<br />
La prima ve<strong>de</strong>re, Istoria unui galbân, aparţinând lui Alecsandri, ilustrează tendinţele<br />
romantice şi mo<strong>de</strong>lele literare apusene ale epocii, exploatând, prin tablouri şi scene <strong>de</strong><br />
moravuri, culoarea locală, dimensiunea etnografică şi sociologică a prozei Bie<strong>de</strong>rmeier. Pe<br />
baza personajului <strong>de</strong> tip picaro-conform tradiţiei literare <strong>de</strong> sursă spaniolă şi <strong>de</strong> secole XVI –<br />
XVII, un vagabond, un aventurier, un cerşetor care circulă dintr-o pătură socială în alta,<br />
dintr-o ţară în alta etc. –se investighează medii sociale şi moravuri şi se satirizează acid<br />
relaţiile sociale, ierarhiile, sistemul <strong>de</strong> valori, mijloacele <strong>de</strong> parvenire etc. din societatea<br />
românească a epocii.<br />
Actualizând strategic proce<strong>de</strong>ul alegoriei, scriitorul îşi etajează <strong>text</strong>ul, corelându-l cu<br />
două instanţe narative distincte, doi naratori care îşi asumă, fiecare, secvenţe distincte.<br />
Primul narator fixează cadrul – rama – istorisirilor celor <strong>de</strong>-al doilea şi asigură, prin relatarea<br />
la persoana întâi şi printr-o serie <strong>de</strong> similitudini biografice cu autorul (redactor la Propăşirea),<br />
prezumţia <strong>de</strong> autenticitate şi <strong>de</strong> credibilitate. Acest narator îşi recuză, însă, discursul satiric,<br />
punându-l pe seama celui <strong>de</strong>-al doilea narator, un galben olan<strong>de</strong>z cu certe veleităţi<br />
scriitoriceşti. Dubla schemă a comunicării, astfel instituită, antrenează un naratar prim –<br />
cititorul virtual – căruia i se adresează satira socială şi morală a timpului, şi un naratar<br />
secund, real în ţesătura <strong>text</strong>ului, o para turcească.<br />
Modalităţile narării diferă şi ele şi antrenează <strong>text</strong>ul într-un joc meta<strong>text</strong>ual <strong>de</strong><br />
autoreflectare ironică a „virtuţilor” naratoriale apreciate în epocă: mânat <strong>de</strong> o curiozitate cu<br />
iz ironic, primul narator – „autonaratorul” – se auto-ironizează în această postură şi<br />
ironizează, totodată, prin consimţirea tacită la sancţionarea, <strong>de</strong> către para, a „practicii<br />
literare” a galbenului, recuzita romantică a timpului şi mo<strong>de</strong>lele ei apusene. Găsind un<br />
echivalent alegoric strategiei narative a „manuscrisului găsit”, „autonaratorul” îşi îngăduie<br />
libertatea <strong>de</strong> a se pretin<strong>de</strong> un singur scriptor. La rândul său, galbenul–narator serveşte drept<br />
instrument pentru realizarea, la adăpostul unei binevenite obiectivităţi <strong>de</strong> suprafaţă, a satirei<br />
sociale multiplu orientate aşa încât, graţie unei secţiuni transversale prin societatea epocii se<br />
obţine o rudimentară „comedie umană” miniaturală şi se dă o rezolvare i<strong>de</strong>ologică pentru<br />
obligaţia <strong>text</strong>ului <strong>de</strong> a fi verosimil. Pe <strong>de</strong> altă parte, galbenul olan<strong>de</strong>z colaborează, împreună<br />
cu naratarul său a<strong>de</strong>sea recalcitrant, la un „manual al bunului povestaş” (Papadima 1989:<br />
195), trecând în revistă şi exemplificând, prin discurs, suficiente elemente negative ale<br />
literaturii epocii. Rezultă <strong>de</strong> aici un inventar <strong>de</strong> producţii literare sau (pseudo)literare – un<br />
meta<strong>text</strong> sui generis – care actualizează şi ju<strong>de</strong>că acid mo<strong>de</strong>lele literare ale epocii.<br />
Impresia <strong>de</strong> ansamblu pe care o lasă Istoria unui galbân, <strong>de</strong>opotrivă „poveste a vieţii”<br />
galbenului şi „istorisire”, este <strong>de</strong> „amestec <strong>de</strong> istorisire picarescă şi cronică <strong>de</strong> moravuri,<br />
abilă întreţesere <strong>de</strong> «popular» şi <strong>de</strong> «livresc»” (Papadima 1989: 245). Un efect imediat al<br />
acestei procedări este ceea ce Andrei Bodiu (2002: 26) numeşte „teatralizarea epicului” –<br />
formă <strong>de</strong> hibridizare a epicului şi a dramaticului , la care se adaugă jocul <strong>de</strong> scenă, bine<br />
intenţionat, şi cu scop parodic, al galbenului, precum şi hibridizarea cu secvenţe <strong>de</strong> discurs<br />
poetic „împrumutate” <strong>de</strong> autor personajelor sale şi, automat, <strong>de</strong>venite victime ale <strong>de</strong>riziunii.<br />
Exploatând avantajele povestirii cu sertare, care oferă galbenului întreaga gamă <strong>de</strong><br />
disponibilităţi şi <strong>de</strong> instrumente literare ale epocii, a<strong>de</strong>sea convertite în instrumentele<br />
7
autorului moralist (ca în povestea tragică – şi exemplu <strong>de</strong> nuvelă sentimentală cu recuzită<br />
melodramatică – a ţigăncii Zamfira), Istoria unui galbân nu mai blochează iniţiativele<br />
interpretative ale cititorului avizat ci, tocmai prin dramatizarea narării, pune în evi<strong>de</strong>nţă<br />
colaborarea interpretativă activă, „pe viu”, a naratorului-personaj cu naratarul său. Urmarea<br />
este aceea că repere <strong>de</strong> bază ale convenţiei melodramatice sunt scurtcircuitate ferm, precum<br />
tema „suferinţei în amor”, sau „mo<strong>de</strong>lul <strong>de</strong> sensibilitate” al vremii, portretul „canonic” al<br />
frumuseţii feminine, <strong>de</strong>construit cu precizie <strong>de</strong> galben, spre încântarea paralei (uşor geloasă<br />
pe obiectul presupus al adoraţiei galbenului) ş. a.<br />
În ţesătura istorisirii, dialogul inter<strong>text</strong>ual îşi face loc cu putere, printr-un lanţ <strong>de</strong><br />
parodii bine conturate: parodierea mo<strong>de</strong>lului melodramatic însuşi, actualizat ca istorie <strong>de</strong><br />
dragoste a celor două mone<strong>de</strong>, din care nu lipsesc lovitura <strong>de</strong> teatru, recunoaşterea<br />
spectaculoasă, <strong>de</strong>scrierea frumuseţii feminine şi a celei masculine şi confesiunea obligatorie;<br />
parodierea – prin prezenţa unor elemente ce fac posibilă recunoaşterea mo<strong>de</strong>lului apusean –<br />
romanul <strong>de</strong> capă şi spadă, sau parodia Desperarea, o <strong>de</strong>monstraţie pe dos <strong>de</strong> virtuozitate<br />
poetică ce sancţionează reţeta poetică a epocii. Pe lângă aceste elemente se cuvin amintite şi<br />
„reuşitele” literare ale galbenului – instantaneele realiste, dar ascultând <strong>de</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ologia socială<br />
romantică, rudimentele nuvelistice, nucleele nuvelistice autentice, autonome (povestea<br />
Zamfirei), precum şi fiziologiile ce creionează tipuri umane şi sociale - parazitul social<br />
(cartoforul), parvenitul prin femei, avarul (evreu), sau tipologii romantice încă active (hoţul<br />
<strong>de</strong> codru).<br />
Întrucât a<strong>de</strong>sea paraua intervine şi rupe coerenţa mo<strong>de</strong>lelor literare sau stilistice,<br />
refuzând „pactul <strong>de</strong> lectură” şi sancţionând, prin <strong>de</strong>sele ei avertismente, suspendarea<br />
nejustificată a naraţiunii şi parantezele digresive, se poate spune că ambii, naratorul şi<br />
naratarul, „se luptă pentru aproprierea «sujetului»” (Papadima 1989: 196). Având toate<br />
atributele necesare unui scriitor, paraua este, virtual, un contracandidat serios al galbenului<br />
şi jocul <strong>de</strong>-a uite-literatura-nu-e-literatura, din Istoria unui galben, susţine opinia potrivit<br />
căreia „învinuite <strong>de</strong> clişee romantice şi convenţionalism, scuzate oarecum prin tinereţea<br />
autorului, scrierile <strong>de</strong> început ale lui Alecsandri au, <strong>de</strong> fapt, un substrat polemic nu<br />
în<strong>de</strong>ajuns <strong>de</strong> evi<strong>de</strong>nt pentru toţi criticii scriitorului” (Curticăpeanu 1977 : 137).<br />
Nuvela lui Negruzzi, O alergare <strong>de</strong> cai, rescrie, meta<strong>text</strong>ual, acelaşi mo<strong>de</strong>l melodramatic,<br />
optând pentru proce<strong>de</strong>ul contrapunctării a două istorii şi a două istorisiri spuse <strong>de</strong> doi<br />
naratori distincţi. Cel dintâi, şi el un „autonarator” strategic, se înclină, ironic, gustului<br />
publicului şi dă <strong>text</strong>ului necesarul aspect memorialistic întrucât, afirmă Nicolae Manolescu<br />
(1990: 198) „ca să fie creditabilă povestea <strong>de</strong> amor, e nevoie <strong>de</strong> această mise-en-scène extrem<br />
<strong>de</strong> minuţioasă, în care îşi găseşte locul însuşi naratorul, introdus cât se poate <strong>de</strong> subtil”.<br />
Acest prim narator prezintă lumea bună a Chişinăului şi slujeşte <strong>de</strong> naratar celui <strong>de</strong>-al doilea<br />
narator, doamna B. Aceasta din urmă relatează povestea nefericită <strong>de</strong> dragoste a Olgăi –<br />
înţesată cu elemente ale recuzitei sentimentale şi melodramatice – asigurând <strong>text</strong>ului<br />
garanţia <strong>de</strong> autenticitate şi încărcătura emoţională obligatorie. Căci doamna B. a auzit<br />
povestea chiar <strong>de</strong> la Olga, care i s-a confesat <strong>de</strong> mai multe ori, iar „autonaratorul” îşi poate<br />
permite, şi <strong>de</strong> această dată, să pozeze în simplu scriptor, lipsit <strong>de</strong> responsabilităţi narative<br />
sau ... morale. De altfel, pe tot parcursul relatării doamnei B., maliţiosul „autonarator”<br />
întrerupe istorisirea contrapunctând-o cu ironii bine regizate, care reverberează în ţesătura<br />
<strong>de</strong> ansamblu a acestei „bijuterii <strong>de</strong> precizie tehnică” negruzziene (Manolescu 1990: 197).<br />
Istorisirea doamnei B, este încadrată, la nivelui ansamblului <strong>text</strong>ual, în naraţiunea cu<br />
aspect memorialistic a naratorului prim, ce se autoportretizează cu falsă candoare drept „un<br />
june brunet care, dupe barbetă şi musteţi, se conoştea că era străin” (Negruzzi 1983: 32) şi<br />
vizează, maliţios, clişeele literare ale ascun<strong>de</strong>rii i<strong>de</strong>ntităţii povestitorului. În acest mod,<br />
miezul melodramatic „îşi creează propriul con<strong>text</strong> situaţional” (Papadima 1989: 224) care, <strong>de</strong><br />
această dată, îl invali<strong>de</strong>ază, <strong>de</strong>structurându-i mecanismele.<br />
8
Senzaţia <strong>de</strong> artificialitate pe care o antrenează stereotipiile temei iubirii (ne)împărtăşite<br />
este eficient amendată <strong>de</strong> asumarea parodică a rolului îndrăgostitului nefericit (sau a<br />
seducătorului fără scrupule, dar numai aluziv astfel, aşa cum arată scrisoarea primită <strong>de</strong><br />
narator <strong>de</strong> la o tânără fată care îl iubeşte), completat cu autoaprecierea aerului melodramatic<br />
arborat intenţionat (Manolescu 1990: 198) şi cu trimiterea inter<strong>text</strong>uală la Balzac. În acest<br />
mod, povestea Olgăi, sinucigaşa îndrăgostită iremediabil <strong>de</strong> Ipolit, femeia fascinantă şi<br />
misterioasă ale cărei lecturi duc – ca într-un alt inter<strong>text</strong> celebru – cuplul Francesca da Rimini<br />
şi Paolo Malatesta din Divina Commedia – la îndrăgostire şi la formarea cuplului tragic, este<br />
situată într-un „mo<strong>de</strong>l interactiv <strong>de</strong> funcţionare a literaturii” (Papadima 1989: 215) care<br />
permite reacţiile cele mai diverse: fie acceptarea „pactului <strong>de</strong> lectură” cerut <strong>de</strong> convenţia<br />
melodramaticului (lecturile Olgăi au funcţie premonitorie şi <strong>de</strong>zvăluie pasionalitatea ascunsă<br />
a femeii, hărăzită din start unui final tragic), fie <strong>de</strong>taşarea lucidă şi ironică <strong>de</strong> convenţie şi <strong>de</strong><br />
clişeele literare în uz.<br />
Exploatând valoarea <strong>de</strong> document autentic a scrisorii, naratorul îşi joacă mai <strong>de</strong>parte<br />
rolul melodramatic şi, ca orice înşelat în dragoste, mimează actul retragerii din lume sau al ...<br />
călugăririi. Şi pentru ca ascuţimea critică a <strong>de</strong>mersului parodic să fie şi mai evi<strong>de</strong>ntă, se<br />
inserează în <strong>text</strong>, pe baza proce<strong>de</strong>ului mise en abîme, un rezumat al întâmplărilor şi al<br />
tipologiei literare a personajelor, ilustrate <strong>de</strong> nuvelă, precum şi al strategiilor <strong>de</strong>constructive<br />
ale noului tip nuvelistic exersat <strong>de</strong> Negruzzi. În acest fragment se regăsesc, concurenţial, mai<br />
multe registre stilistice, „în care funebrul se combină cu burlescul, patima Olgăi cu cochetăria<br />
doamnei B., oile pastoralei neoclasice cu vibratoul melodramei romantice” (Negruzzi 1983:<br />
47) şi, totodată, variantele „pozitive” ale frumuseţii feminine, Olga şi doamna B., cu<br />
imaginea ilar – grotescă a Saşei, cea căreia i s-a scurs un ochi, şchioapă <strong>de</strong> un picior, dar care<br />
„scrie, ceteşte groaznic” (Negruzzi 1983: 47).<br />
Epilogul (pseudo)istoriei <strong>de</strong> amor dintre narator şi doamna B. dă ultima lovitură<br />
eşafodajului melodramatic din centrul <strong>text</strong>ului. Întors în Chişinău, după douăzeci şi doi <strong>de</strong><br />
ani, naratorul face o vizită doamnei B. şi relatează :<br />
„Găsii o băbuţă zbârcită, înconjurată <strong>de</strong> căţei şi <strong>de</strong> motani, care, după ce cu politeţă<br />
mă invită lângă dânsa, îmi prezentă o priză <strong>de</strong> tabac! […].<br />
--Cum, doamna mea, porţi ochilari ?<br />
--Ce ? Ai pleşuvit ?<br />
--Tragi tabac ?<br />
--Ţ-au căzut dinţii ? ş. c. l., s. c. l. ”(Negruzzi 1983: 53-54)<br />
Pe nedrept uitată, eronat lecturată, nuvela exerciţiu <strong>de</strong> stil a lui Negruzzi este încă o<br />
dovadă a lucidităţii critice a actului <strong>de</strong> scriitură, luciditate care a însoţit mersul literaturii<br />
române <strong>de</strong> la începuturile acesteia.<br />
Referinţe<br />
Bodiu, A. (2002). Şapte teme ale romanului postpaşoptist, Piteşti: Paralela 45.<br />
Curticăpeanu, D. (1977). Vasile Alecsandri prozator, Bucureşti: Minerva.<br />
Manolescu, N. (1990). Istoria critică a literaturii române, vol. I, Bucureşti: Minerva.<br />
Muthu, M. (2002). Balcanismul literar românesc, III, Balcanitate şi balcanism, Cluj-Napoca: Dacia.<br />
Negruzzi, C. (1983). Păcatele tinereţelor, Bucureşti: Minerva.<br />
Papadima, L. (1989). Literatură şi comunicare. Relaţia autor–cititor în proza paşoptistă şi postpaşoptistă, Iaşi:<br />
Polirom.<br />
Zamfir, M. (1989). Din secolul romantic, Bucureşti: Cartea Românească.<br />
9
Abstact<br />
The Romanian literary production has for a long time witnessed a ten<strong>de</strong>ncy towards aligning with<br />
the literary phenomena of the western civilization. During the revolutionary year of 1848, the<br />
short story, for instance, which was one of the most prolific literary forms, was characterized by<br />
relative submissiveness to the European literary patterns accounted for in the ironic and parodic<br />
discourse overtones. The parodic style <strong>de</strong>veloped by Vasile Alecsandri or by Constantin Negruzzi<br />
in several varieties of literary proves the transparency of a critical spirit bearing upon the creative<br />
art of literary criticism performed during the same period.<br />
Résumé<br />
On a remarqué <strong>de</strong>puis longtemps la tendance <strong>de</strong> la littérature roumaine <strong>de</strong> se synchroniser avec la<br />
littérature européenne occi<strong>de</strong>ntale, ce qui met en évi<strong>de</strong>nce d’une façon particulière le statut <strong>de</strong> la<br />
femme du point <strong>de</strong> vue littéraire. Pendant l’époque <strong>de</strong> 1848, une <strong>de</strong>s plus fertiles formes littéraires,<br />
la nouvelle, se caractérise par la soumission relative aux modèles littéraires européens, aussi que<br />
par l’exercice ironique et parodique. La démarche parodique se développe, dans la pratique<br />
littéraire <strong>de</strong> Vasile Alecsandri ou <strong>de</strong> Constantin Negruzzi, en plusieurs variantes et prouve<br />
l’existence <strong>de</strong> la lucidité et <strong>de</strong> l’esprit critique qui accompagnent, à l’époque mentionnée, l’acte <strong>de</strong><br />
création littéraire.<br />
Rezumat<br />
S-a remarcat <strong>de</strong> multă vreme tendinţa literaturii române <strong>de</strong> a se sincroniza cu literatura europeană<br />
occi<strong>de</strong>ntală, fapt ce scoate în evi<strong>de</strong>nţă, într-o manieră cu totul specială, statutul femeii văzut prin<br />
prisma literaturii. În timpul perioa<strong>de</strong>i paşoptiste, una dintre cele mai fertile forme literare, nuvela,<br />
se caracterizează prin relativa supunere faţă <strong>de</strong> mo<strong>de</strong>lele literare europene precum şi prin<br />
exerciţiul ironic şi parodic. Demersul parodic se <strong>de</strong>zvoltă în mai multe variante în practica literară<br />
a lui Vasile Alecsandri sau a lui Constantin Negruzzi şi <strong>de</strong>monstrază existenţa spiritului critic şi<br />
a lucidităţii care însoţesc, în perioada menţionată, actul creaţiei literare.<br />
10
Annals of “Dunărea <strong>de</strong> <strong>Jos</strong>” University of GALAŢI<br />
Fascicle XIII, New Series.<br />
Issue 28, XVI (XXVII), 2009<br />
pp. 11-14<br />
FORMULA LIVRESCĂ A UMORULUI<br />
ÎN SCRIERILE LUI<br />
ION CREANGĂ<br />
Simona Antofi<br />
11<br />
Language<br />
and<br />
Literature<br />
Formula <strong>de</strong> umor creată prin scrisul literar al lui Ion Creangă stârneşte, şi azi, dacă nu<br />
controverse, în mod cert, <strong>de</strong>zbateri concentrate fie în jurul surselor folclorice ale comicului şi,<br />
implicit, ale umorului, fie pe problematica raportului dintre scriitorul aşa-zis poporal şi cel pe<br />
<strong>de</strong>plin conştient <strong>de</strong> actul său <strong>de</strong> creaţie. În felul său – discret metaforic, literar şi voit<br />
ambiguu – Călinescu remarcase natura aparent concurenţială, înşelătoare pentru neavizaţi, a<br />
scrisului, a umorului şi a plăcerii estetice provocate <strong>de</strong> opera lui Creangă: „plăcerea stârnită<br />
<strong>de</strong> audiţia scrierilor lui Creangă e <strong>de</strong> rafinament erudit. [...]. Creangă e un umanist al ştiinţei<br />
săteşti, scoţând din erudiţia lui un râs gros, fără a fi totuşi un autor vesel prin materie.<br />
Conţinutul poveştilor şi al amintirilor este indiferent în sine, ba chiar apt <strong>de</strong> a fi tratat liric ori<br />
fantastic, veselă este hohotirea interioară, setea nestinsă <strong>de</strong> vorbe, sorbite pentru ele însele<br />
dintr-o voluptate strict individuală” (Simion 2004 : 451).<br />
Criticul semnalează, <strong>de</strong> altfel, două aspecte esenţiale ale scriiturii lui Ion Creangă:<br />
centrarea asupra sa însăşi, într-o formă <strong>de</strong> autoreferenţialitate inedită şi greu <strong>de</strong> hotărât în ce<br />
măsură intenţionată <strong>de</strong> autor, şi figura complexă a spiritului creator. Dispus să-şi asume<br />
public, mai ales în cercul elitist al Junimii, rolul scriitorului popular, autor <strong>de</strong> ţărănii şi hâtru,<br />
gata oricând să înveselească prin anecdotele lui corosive, Ion Creangă a fost, în realitate, un<br />
forçat <strong>de</strong> la plume al literaturii române.<br />
Lupta continuă cu inerţiile şi capcanele limbii – a aceleia literare, pe care a predat-o<br />
învăţăceilor săi, şi a aceleia <strong>de</strong>prinse în Humuleşti – s-a dovedit a fi, în ultimă instanţă, şi o<br />
luptă cu sine. Lupta dintre răzeşul din Humuleşti, bun ştiutor <strong>de</strong> carte şi cu mintea limpe<strong>de</strong><br />
şi severă a dascălului, şi scriitorul în <strong>de</strong>venire, perfect conştient <strong>de</strong> riscurile meseriei şi <strong>de</strong><br />
talentul pe care-l avea.<br />
Pe <strong>de</strong> altă parte, (re)facerea lumii prin discurs refuncţionalizează, în cazul lui Ion<br />
Creangă, proce<strong>de</strong>e ale oralităţii şi <strong>de</strong> sorginte populară – probabil, singurele pe care scriitorul<br />
le simţea ca fiind ale sale – transformându-le în instrumente aducătoare <strong>de</strong> prospeţime ale<br />
literaturii culte. Reelaborarea imaginii satului Humuleşti se bizuie, în egală măsură, pe efecte<br />
<strong>de</strong> real menite să stabilizeze o referinţă ambiguizată constant <strong>de</strong> jocurile <strong>de</strong> limbaj, ca şi pe<br />
capacitatea discursului literar <strong>de</strong> a-şi construi un referent <strong>de</strong> al doilea grad, pe ruinele celui<br />
primar.<br />
Aşadar, lectura euristică simplifică, dar şi văduveşte scriitura lui Ion Creangă <strong>de</strong><br />
a<strong>de</strong>văratele ei valenţe. Lectura hermeneutică, însă, face posibilă sesizarea şi analizarea<br />
opţiunilor stilistice ale autorului, a arhitecturii <strong>de</strong> ansamblu a fiecărui <strong>text</strong> în parte şi a<br />
tuturor, împreună. În sensul acesta, umorul lui Ion Creangă poate corespun<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>finiţiilor<br />
<strong>de</strong>ja clasicizate, cu condiţia acceptării <strong>de</strong> către orice interpret a particularităţilor <strong>de</strong> scriitură<br />
care transferă sursa râsului în atitudinea auctorială şi în volutele <strong>text</strong>ului.<br />
Comparând umorul cu ironia, şi formula umorului lui Ion Creangă cu cele ale altor
scriitori din literatura universală, Todoran remarcă :<br />
“umorul rezultă dintr-o «integrare» a omului în lume, iar ironia dintr-o «distanţare» faţă<br />
<strong>de</strong> ea. Superioritatea umoristului este aparenta lui prostie, adică aparenta lui inferioritate,<br />
care se dove<strong>de</strong>şte o reală superioritate când înălţimea lumii imaginare este măsurată pe<br />
dimensiunea vieţii lui reale.”<br />
(Todoran 1985 : 64)<br />
Altfel spus, notele <strong>de</strong> ironie sau <strong>de</strong> autoironie din Amintiri, <strong>de</strong> pildă, sunt reacţii ale<br />
autorului însuşi, ale cărui intrări şi ieşiri din <strong>text</strong> sunt rapid cenzurate prin întoarcerea la<br />
literatură – „Hai mai bine <strong>de</strong>spre copilărie să vorbim, căci ea singură este veselă şi<br />
nevinovată.” Retragerea în literatură, sub zodia umorului atoatevin<strong>de</strong>cător reprezintă, fără<br />
îndoială, şi o soluţie <strong>de</strong> supravieţuire. Faptul a fost <strong>de</strong>ja remarcat în critica <strong>de</strong> specialitate.<br />
Efectul catarctic al scriiturii şi al umorului pe care-l înmagazinează transformă copilăria celui<br />
mai mare fiu al unei familii cu mulţi fraţi, <strong>de</strong>stul <strong>de</strong> înstărită, dar mereu cu grija zilei <strong>de</strong><br />
mâine, în copilăria copilului universal, iar satul Humuleşti într-un e<strong>de</strong>n infantil spre care<br />
gândurile adultului se întorc mereu, pentru o necesară regenerare afectivă, spirituală şi<br />
creatoare.<br />
Mereu luminoasă, imaginea mamei pare a fi unul dintre instrumentele privilegiate <strong>de</strong><br />
rescriere literară a istoriei proprii. Aşa se face că aparenta contradicţie dintre umorul – mereu<br />
ţărănesc şi proaspăt 1 – şi natura <strong>de</strong>osebit <strong>de</strong> elaborată a scriiturii din Amintiri dispare odată<br />
cu evi<strong>de</strong>nţierea statutului <strong>de</strong> roman indirect a <strong>text</strong>ului, în mod fundamental recreator al unei<br />
vieţi cu exemplaritate <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>stin.<br />
În fond, în termenii Mariei Corti, „pentru un scriitor, stilurile sau registrele oferă un<br />
mo<strong>de</strong>l formal”, iar „elementele care provin dintr-un tip <strong>de</strong> scriitură sau registru” „poartă în<br />
ele, împreună cu conţinutul semantic, o «informaţie suplimentară <strong>de</strong> registru».” 2 Aşa se<br />
explică faţada folclorică a eşafodajului arhitectural din Amintiri, ca şi din orice alt <strong>text</strong> al lui<br />
Ion Creangă.<br />
Mai mult <strong>de</strong>cât atât, aparenta contradicţie se regăseşte şi în structura spiritului creator.<br />
Conştientizându-şi, fără doar şi poate, latura ţărănească, sau, altfel spus, disponibilitatea<br />
intrinsecă pentru faptele literare pe care le numea, a<strong>de</strong>seori cu falsă mo<strong>de</strong>stie, ţărănii,<br />
scriitorul se <strong>de</strong>dublează, suprapunându-i originii sale ţărăneşti conştiinţa lucidă a creatorului<br />
<strong>de</strong> literatură care trebuie să vorbească <strong>de</strong>spre lume – <strong>de</strong>spre lumea sa – pe cât <strong>de</strong> bine poate.<br />
Şi dacă „la fiecare efort <strong>de</strong> construire al producătorului, aceasta [opera] suferă o alterare,<br />
opera îl modifică şi, odată terminată, reacţionează, încă o dată, asupra lui” (Negrici 1978 : 20).<br />
În această relaţie complexă a scriiturii cu autorul ei şi a acestuia cu sine pârghia<br />
umorului funcţionează ca soluţie <strong>de</strong> recalibrare a realităţii care, nu <strong>de</strong> puţine ori, a dat năvală<br />
peste scriitor. Episoa<strong>de</strong>le dureroase ale existenţei lui Ion Creangă, culminând cu <strong>de</strong>clanşarea<br />
epilepsiei, sunt binecunoscute. De aceea, scepticismul pare a fi „fondul <strong>de</strong> atitudine<br />
existenţială pe care se clă<strong>de</strong>şte umorul.” 3 Iar gratuităţii umorului i se adaugă acea atitudine<br />
înţelegătoare, îngăduitoare şi nota discretă <strong>de</strong> simpatie care supra<strong>de</strong>termină scepticismul. 4<br />
În Moş Nechifor Coţcariul, <strong>de</strong> exemplu, neajunsurile meseriei <strong>de</strong> harabagiu şi nu<br />
suficienta în<strong>de</strong>stulare care par a se ascun<strong>de</strong> în spatele existenţei prin cuvinte a personajului<br />
masculin pălesc simţitor în faţa aventurii erotice din limbaj, care o surclasează pe cea reală.<br />
Putând fi citită şi ca un discurs involuntar meta<strong>text</strong>ual, nuvela propune un dialog savuros,<br />
prin aluzii şi echivocuri, între harabagiu şi giupâneşica Malca, respectiv între un abil<br />
mânuitor al forţei persuasive şi creatoare a limbajului şi un interlocutor nu mai puţin dibaci<br />
la vorbe şi, cu siguranţă, priceput interpret.<br />
Mult mai aproape <strong>de</strong> umor <strong>de</strong>cât <strong>de</strong> obscen, expresia echivocă ascun<strong>de</strong> şi <strong>de</strong>scoperă, în<br />
acelaşi timp, un proces <strong>de</strong> negociere între Moş Nechifor şi giupâneşică, fie a disponibilităţii<br />
erotice a ambilor, fie a (in)discretei puteri a limbajului literar <strong>de</strong> a înlocui pe <strong>de</strong>-a-ntregul<br />
12
ealitatea. Drumurile săptămânale pe care Malca le va face, cu harabagiul, la socri, <strong>de</strong>notă,<br />
aşa cum s-a remarcat <strong>de</strong>ja, apropierea erotică a celor doi şi, totodată, obiceiurile – şi<br />
obişnuinţele – lingvistice comune.<br />
Cu sau fără ameninţarea vreunui lup, cu o căruţă (aparent) gata <strong>de</strong> a se <strong>de</strong>zmembra, cei<br />
doi călători vor înnopta <strong>de</strong> fiecare dată în aceeaşi pădure protectoare şi e <strong>de</strong> bănuit că vor<br />
prelungi mereu plăcerea dialogului ce pare a masca flirtul, pentru a-l crea un<strong>de</strong>va dincolo <strong>de</strong><br />
aparenţe. „Umorul povestitorului constând – remarca Eugen Todoran – tocmai în echivocul<br />
care ne scuteşte <strong>de</strong> urmărirea întâmplărilor până la ceea ce în realitate este obscen” (Todoran<br />
1985 : 62).<br />
Iar Mircea A. Diaconu semnalează, odată cu nenumăratele fire care-l leagă pe autor <strong>de</strong><br />
personajul său 5, dimensiunea inedit <strong>text</strong>ualistă a literaturii lui Ion Creangă, respectiv<br />
„spectacolul limbajului în sine, spectacol gratuit şi autonom”, căci „orice ierarhie se<br />
suspendă, orice convenţie este distrusă şi un sentiment al egalizării tuturor nivelurilor<br />
existenţei provoacă râsul «homeric»: conştiinţa plasează egalizarea sub semnul ludicului, al<br />
gratuităţii.” 6<br />
Se adaugă, aici, căutarea structurii sonore <strong>de</strong>săvârşite a limbajului, ca o garanţie a<br />
literaturităţii şi a acreditării răzeşului din Humuleşti ca scriitor. Acel „hermetism folcloric”<br />
<strong>de</strong> care vorbea Ion Negoiţescu înseamnă atât putinţa <strong>de</strong> a crea atmosferă la nivelul sugestiei<br />
sonore cât mai ales boicotarea voită a sensului referenţial, aşa încât personajele şi acţiunile<br />
lor să fie „cortina în spatele căreia inteligenţa, ironia, complexele scriitorului construiesc un<br />
alt semnificat”, estetic. 7 Şi un profil al autorului din <strong>text</strong> <strong>de</strong>ghizându-se în spatele<br />
anecdoticului şi luând pe rând locul fiecăruia dintre personajele sale, pe care le alimentează<br />
mereu, afectiv şi lingvistic.<br />
Restituindu-şi lumea copilăriei pe măsură ce o creează, Creangă se construieşte şi pe<br />
sine, „sceptic şi autoironic, histrion şi narcisist” 8, transformând o practică semnificantă într-un<br />
modus vivendi care nu face concurenţă stării civile, cum s-ar putea spune, pentru că o<br />
înlocuieşte, venind dinspre literatură, cu vocaţia autenticităţii.<br />
Note<br />
1. Eugen Todoran remarcă: „în comparaţie cu formule caracteristice ale umorului la diferiţii scriitori ai<br />
literaturii universale – în <strong>de</strong>zvoltarea ei istorică – umorul tragic la Cervantes, corosiv la Boccacio,<br />
in<strong>de</strong>cent la Rabelais, jovial la Chaucer, trist la Mark Twain, paradoxal la Bernard Shaw – umorul lui<br />
Creangă rămâne un umor ţărănesc, păstrând în el urmele originii lui folclorice” – în Secţiuni<br />
literare, 1985, p. 53<br />
2. Maria Corti, Principiile comunicării literare, Ed. Univers, Bucureşti, 1981, pp. 90 - 91<br />
3. Mircea A. Diaconu, Ion Creangă. Nonconformism şi gratuitate, Ed. Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 2002, p. 103<br />
4. I<strong>de</strong>m, p. 105<br />
5. „Moş Nechifor e un alter ego al autorului pentru că el înspăimântă parodiind spaima şi seduce<br />
parodiind seducţia în aceeaşi măsură în care naratorul acestei nuvele mimează inocenţa” – Mircea<br />
A. Diaconu, op.cit., p. 116<br />
6. Ibi<strong>de</strong>m<br />
7. I<strong>de</strong>m, p. 139. De altfel, la p.123, criticul enumeră principalele strategii <strong>de</strong> articulare lingvistică a unei<br />
imago mundi unice: „proza ritmată şi rimată, ironia, discursul alert, cu enumerări ingenioase,<br />
nesofisticata plăcere a inventării, toate acestea excelează într-o serie <strong>de</strong> sinonime la nivelul<br />
antroponimelor sau chiar al toponimelor. Prin fluxul care pare involuntar, <strong>de</strong>şi este atât <strong>de</strong> studiat,<br />
al asociaţiilor lingvistice, Creangă face dovada geniului său lingvistic.”<br />
8. I<strong>de</strong>m, p. 157<br />
Bibliografie<br />
Corti, M. (1981). Principiile comunicării literare, Bucureşti: Univers.<br />
Diaconu, M. A. (2002). Ion Creangă. Nonconformism şi gratuitate, Cluj-Napoca : Dacia.<br />
Negrici, E. (1978). Figura spiritului creator, Bucureşti: Cartea românească.<br />
Simion, E. (coord.) (2004). Dicţionarul General al Literaturii Române, C/D, Bucureşti: Univers<br />
13
Enciclopedic.<br />
Todoran, E. (1985). Secţiuni literare, Timişoara: Facla.<br />
Abstract<br />
Unjustly consi<strong>de</strong>red a „folk writer” by the Romanian critical tradition, Ion Creangă created a<br />
structured „illusion of reality” <strong>de</strong>eply rooted in his <strong>text</strong>ual humour. Relying on his active writing<br />
conscience and the expectations of his contemporary and forthcoming rea<strong>de</strong>r’s concerns, Ion<br />
Creangă’s work valued the sense of humour not as an end in itself but as a means of gaining<br />
supremacy over his rea<strong>de</strong>rs crossing over time and spac by paving the way for different types of<br />
reading. nto mean of gaining over the rea<strong>de</strong>r – the real and the future ones – opening the way<br />
toward different types of reading. Thus, beyond the surface reading and the overt humoristic<br />
structures, the aesthetic category of humour generates the construction of a specific kind of<br />
discourse, to which reality is only a starting point.<br />
Résumé<br />
Considéré, en vertu <strong>de</strong> la tradition critique roumaine, écrivain populaire, Ion Creangă met en<br />
oeuvre une illusion <strong>de</strong> réel parfaite, fondée, entre autres, sur la composante humoristique <strong>de</strong> son<br />
écriture. L’oeuvre <strong>de</strong> Ion Creangă – élaborée à l’ai<strong>de</strong> d’une conscience créatrice luci<strong>de</strong> et fondée sur<br />
l’évaluation correcte <strong>de</strong> l’horizon d’attente <strong>de</strong> l’époque – utilise l’humour en tant que stratégie <strong>de</strong><br />
gagner l’adhésion du lecteur contemporain et <strong>de</strong> la postérité. De ce point <strong>de</strong> vue, en <strong>de</strong>hors <strong>de</strong> la<br />
perception superficielle <strong>de</strong>s informations <strong>text</strong>uelles, et <strong>de</strong>s effets immédiats <strong>de</strong> l’humour, cette<br />
catégorie esthétique prend part, par ses éléments concrets, à l’élaboration d’un univers <strong>de</strong> discours<br />
spécifique, pour lequel la réalité n’est que le point <strong>de</strong> départ.<br />
Rezumat<br />
Pe nedrept numit, în virtutea unei în<strong>de</strong>lungate tradiţii critice, „scriitor poporal”, Ion Creangă<br />
construieşte o impecabilă iluzie <strong>de</strong> real fundamentată, printre altele, pe componenta umoristică a<br />
scriiturii sale. Rod al unei conştiinţe scriitoriceşti <strong>de</strong>osebit <strong>de</strong> active, şi al aprecierii corecte a<br />
aşteptărilor publicului cititor din vremea sa, opera lui Ion Creangă face din umor pârghia necesară<br />
câştigării a<strong>de</strong>ziunii cititorului – a celui real şi a posterităţii – permiţând, totodată, o lectură<br />
diferenţiată. În această ordine <strong>de</strong> i<strong>de</strong>i, dincolo <strong>de</strong> percepţia superficială a datelor <strong>text</strong>ului, şi <strong>de</strong><br />
efectele imediate ale componentei umoristice, categoria estetică a umoristicului participă, prin<br />
elementele ei concrete, la elaborarea unui univers <strong>de</strong> discurs specific, pentru care realitatea<br />
reprezintă doar punctul <strong>de</strong> plecare.<br />
14
Annals of “Dunărea <strong>de</strong> <strong>Jos</strong>” University of GALAŢI<br />
Fascicle XIII, New Series.<br />
Issue 28, XVI (XXVII), 2009<br />
pp. 15-22<br />
STRATEGIA<br />
ACHIZIŢIEI PROPRIETĂŢILOR SEMANTICE LA<br />
PREŞCOLARI<br />
Filip Cristian Bacalu<br />
15<br />
Language<br />
and<br />
Literature<br />
Evoluţia semantică este strâns legată <strong>de</strong> evoluţia cognitivă. Sensul se <strong>de</strong>zvoltă cu<br />
ajutorul experienţei, al predispoziţiilor înnăscute şi al oportunităţilor disponibile. În timpul<br />
evoluţiei pre-lingvistice, copiii îşi însuşesc înţelesuri pentru evenimentele trăite prin<br />
intermediul altor membri. În timpul jocului şi al altor evenimente care necesită atenţie, se<br />
stabilesc legături bine <strong>de</strong>finite între acţiuni, obiecte şi vocalizări.<br />
Înţelegerea limbajului nu presupune doar înţelegerea aspectelor limbajului în sine,<br />
precum intonaţia şi situarea temporală care ajută la i<strong>de</strong>ntificarea cuvintelor şi frazelor, ci şi<br />
crearea <strong>de</strong> legături între semnificat şi semnificant cu referire la evenimentele din jur<br />
(Veneziano 1989; Veneziano, Sinclair şi Berthoud 1990). Semnele lingvistice sunt arbitrare; <strong>de</strong><br />
exemplu, obiectul caracterizat prin lungime şi aspect subţire care conţine grafit este folosit<br />
pentru scriere şi poartă <strong>de</strong>numirea <strong>de</strong> „creion.” L-am fi putut <strong>de</strong>numi simplu „goo,” <strong>de</strong>şi<br />
aceasta înseamnă ca toţi să îl numească astfel.<br />
Relaţia dintre semnificant şi semnificat este, <strong>de</strong> asemenea, una abstractă. Unele obiecte,<br />
precum creioanele şi pietrele, sunt entităţi concrete, dar alte concepte, precum libertatea şi<br />
iubirea, sunt abstracte. Piaget a propus trei scheme pentru inteligenţa senzorial-motorie –<br />
previziunea (abilitatea <strong>de</strong> a anticipa următorul eveniment dintr-o activitate în <strong>de</strong>sfăşurare),<br />
intenţionalitatea şi recunoaşterea relaţiilor dintr-o frază – scheme care ajută copiii să<br />
folosească sistemele simbolice. În momentul în care tutorii adulţi reacţionează la vocalizările<br />
copiilor, aceştia <strong>de</strong>monstrează copiilor că vocalizările lor au un înţeles, fie că aceştia din<br />
urmă au intenţionat un anume lucru, fie că nu. Copiii <strong>de</strong>vin astfel conştienţi <strong>de</strong> importanţa şi<br />
înţelesul evocat <strong>de</strong> vocalizările lor.<br />
Limbajul folosit în preajma copiilor poate <strong>de</strong>termina şi semnificaţia comunicativă şi<br />
socială a limbajului. Limbajul dintre adulţi şi copii („mămos”) are caracteristici distincte,<br />
diferite faţă <strong>de</strong> limbajul dintre adulţi. În general, „mămoşenia” se distinge printr-o<br />
intensitate ridicată, frecvenţe variate, <strong>de</strong>bit scăzut al verbalizării, intonaţie variată, enunţuri<br />
mai scurte, repetiţie, structură simplă a propoziţiei, verbalizare concentrată pe momentul<br />
prezent şi folosirea <strong>de</strong> diminutive, precum ursuleţ, nani, păpică. „Mămoşenia” se orientează<br />
către interesele şi nivelurile <strong>de</strong> conştientizare, jucând un rol important în evoluţia lingvistică<br />
şi a comunicării, <strong>de</strong>şi cre<strong>de</strong>m că trebuie evitate.<br />
În jurul vârstei <strong>de</strong> 9 luni, copiii încep să <strong>de</strong>vină familiari cu cei din jur, în special cu<br />
părinţii. La scurt timp după aceasta, ei folosesc idiomorfisme (Werner şi Kaplan 1963).<br />
Idiomorfismele (vocabule sau forme fonetice constante) sunt sunete unice pe care le atribuie<br />
copiii, în mod constant, unui obiect sau acţiuni. Deşi aceste idiomorfisme nu sunt cuvinte şi<br />
nu sunt recunoscute astfel, ele au rol <strong>de</strong> cuvinte idiosincretice pentru copil. Unele<br />
idiomorfisme pot avea punctul <strong>de</strong> plecare în imitaţie, precum „rrr” pentru a face referire la o<br />
maşină sau la un câine. În genere, tutorii i<strong>de</strong>ntifică uşor înţelesul idiomorfismelor folosite,
<strong>de</strong>şi alţii nu au această capacitate. Stabilitatea fonetică se poate mări, un proces <strong>de</strong>numit<br />
asociere în lanţ (Vygotsky 1962). De asemenea, idiomorfismele reflectă creativitatea lingvistică<br />
a copilului. În mod frecvent, idiomorfismele sunt combinate cu primele cuvinte (Reich 1986).<br />
1. Vorbirea pentru sine<br />
Teoria <strong>de</strong>zvoltării propusă <strong>de</strong> Vygotsky menţionează achiziţia mentală a limbajului<br />
social şi ajutorul acestuia în rezolvarea problemelor şi în raţionament. Între 2 şi 4 ani,<br />
vorbirea pentru sine capătă un caracter pronunţat, care sca<strong>de</strong> însă pe măsură ce este<br />
convertit în limbaj mental propriu. Furrow (1984) a sugerat că vorbirea pentru sine serveşte<br />
funcţiilor <strong>de</strong> reglare lingvistică proprie, <strong>de</strong>scriere şi expresivitate. Frawley şi Lantolf (1986)<br />
însă, au accentuat faptul că toate formele <strong>de</strong> vorbire pentru sine sunt reglatoare, iar<br />
neapariţia limbajului în efectuarea unei sarcini nu afectează funcţionalitatea. Deşi<br />
<strong>de</strong>scoperirile sunt variate, există o teorie care susţine viziunea lui Vygotsky adaugând că<br />
vorbirea pentru sine este o funcţie cognitivă cu orientare din partea utilizatorului. Aceste<br />
<strong>de</strong>scoperiri atestă şi faptul că funcţiile limbajului sunt în acest punct într-o perioadă <strong>de</strong><br />
tranziţie.<br />
O culegere <strong>de</strong> lucrări <strong>de</strong>spre vorbirea pentru sine editată <strong>de</strong> Diaz şi Berk (1992) se<br />
concentrează asupra lărgirii şi testării perspectivei teoretice propuse <strong>de</strong> Vygotsky. Cele două<br />
mari direcţii prezente în lucrările lui Vygotsky – importanţa vorbirii pentru sine ca stadiu<br />
cognitiv intermediar între colaborarea cu alţii şi propria activitate cerebrală şi, pe <strong>de</strong> altă<br />
parte, natura <strong>de</strong> reglare proprie a vorbirii pentru sine a copiilor – au parte <strong>de</strong> un sprijin<br />
marcat. Lucrările lui Vygotsky oferă, <strong>de</strong> asemenea, o perspectivă în istoria socio-culturală<br />
proprie copiilor şi a evoluţiei cognitive, astfel încât legăturile create între mediu, pe <strong>de</strong> o<br />
parte, şi creşterea şi <strong>de</strong>zvoltarea copilului, pe <strong>de</strong> altă parte, pot fi analizate mai atent<br />
(Behrend, Rosengren şi Perimutter 1989, Smolucha şi Smolucha 1992).<br />
2. Primele cuvinte<br />
De obicei, primele cuvinte apar între 9 şi 12 luni şi se referă la oameni importanţi<br />
pentru copil (mama sau tata) sau la obiecte. Cuvintele pentru obiecte mişcătoare (ex.: maşini)<br />
sau care pot fi manipulate (ex.: suc) sunt mai frecvente <strong>de</strong>cât cuvintele <strong>de</strong> acţiuni (ex.: pa-pa).<br />
Funcţiile asociate cu primele cuvinte sunt, în general, numirea, afirmarea şi cererea.<br />
Denumirile date <strong>de</strong> copii reflectă <strong>de</strong>numiri <strong>de</strong> categorii, „căţeluş,” şi nu <strong>de</strong> entităţi separate,<br />
cum ar fi „câine mare, câine rău” (Baldwin şi Markman 1989). S-a observat o preferinţă a<br />
copiilor pentru primele tipuri <strong>de</strong> cuvinte achiziţionate; copiii care achiziţionează multe<br />
substantive comune sunt <strong>de</strong>numiţi referenţiali, iar cei care îşi însuşesc alte tipuri <strong>de</strong> cuvinte,<br />
expresivi. În timpul folosirii primelor cuvinte, copiii folosesc cuvintele în mod frecvent, fie în<br />
forma fonetică, fie făcând referire la semnificat. În acest stadiu, ei percep cuvintele ca parte<br />
din sistemul lingvistic şi conştientizează valoarea comunicativă a acestora.<br />
Copiii referenţiali sunt consi<strong>de</strong>raţi mai avansaţi în <strong>de</strong>zvoltarea lexicală din punctul <strong>de</strong><br />
ve<strong>de</strong>re al înţelegerii şi producerii, fiind capabili să folosească cuvintele în con<strong>text</strong>e variate.<br />
Deşi copiii expresivi prezintă expresii fixe şi un vocabular eterogen, copiii referenţiali se<br />
concentrează asupra <strong>de</strong>numirii obiectelor şi folosirea substantivelor şi a atributelor acestora.<br />
Copiii se folosesc <strong>de</strong> mai multe strategii pentru achiziţionarea primelor cuvinte. Un<br />
principiu important este contrastul. Conform acestuia, copilul presupune că un termen nou<br />
nu se referă la obiectul menţionat anterior (Markman şi Wachtel 1988). Alt principiu este<br />
presupoziţia că un termen nou cuprin<strong>de</strong> toate părţile constitutive ale unui obiect, şi nu doar<br />
o parte din acesta; acest principiu este <strong>de</strong>numit principiul scopului obiectului (Taylor şi<br />
Gelman 1988). Un alt studiu semnat Taylor şi Gelman menţionează că un copil <strong>de</strong> 2 ani se<br />
foloseşte atât <strong>de</strong> categoria lingvistică formală (ex.: substantiv sau adjectiv), cât şi <strong>de</strong><br />
16
contrastul lexical pentru interpretarea cuvintelor noi. A treia strategie, schiţarea rapidă,<br />
adună informaţii <strong>de</strong>spre înţelesul cuvântului, folosindu-se <strong>de</strong> modul <strong>de</strong> întrebuinţare în<br />
propoziţie şi <strong>de</strong> cuvintele cu care este comparat; această strategie oferă informaţii rapi<strong>de</strong>, dar<br />
incomplete, <strong>de</strong>spre noile cuvinte. Heibeck şi Markman (1987) au arătat că, la 2 ani, copiii pot<br />
îngusta sfera semnificatului cu ajutorul celei <strong>de</strong>-a treia strategii. În plus, copiii cuprind<br />
frecvent noile cuvinte în vocabularul propriu prin formarea <strong>de</strong> ierarhii lingvistice în care<br />
cuvintele noi sunt subordonate unei categorii <strong>de</strong>ja stabilite (Taylor şi Gelman 1989).<br />
Alte investigaţii au format legături între <strong>de</strong>zvoltarea semantică şi cea cognitivă în<br />
timpul etapei enunţurilor formate dintr-un singur cuvânt. Gopnik şi Meltzoff (1986)<br />
formulează teoria specificităţii, care propune conexiuni specifice între anumiţi termeni<br />
lingvistici şi anumite stadii <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>zvoltare cognitivă în etapa enunţurilor formate dintr-un<br />
singur cuvânt.<br />
Sensurile primelor cuvinte pe care copiii şi le formează, <strong>de</strong>şi constante, au tendinţa <strong>de</strong> a<br />
exagera sau minimiza folosirea categorială. Minimizarea survine atunci când copilul observă<br />
că multitudinea <strong>de</strong> semnificaţii aferente unui cuvânt este mai restrânsă <strong>de</strong>cât cea a unui<br />
adult. De exemplu, ceea ce copilul înţelege prin minge ar putea fi restrâns la mingea favorită,<br />
şi nu la mingi în general, cu atât mai mult la mingea <strong>de</strong> rugby. Exagerarea folosirii<br />
categoriale survine atunci când copiii folosesc excesiv un anumit cuvânt – numirea tuturor<br />
bătrânilor „bunic.” Această exagerare este răspândită atât în vorbire, cât şi în înţelegerea<br />
vorbirii altora.<br />
Primele cuvinte rostite au iscat divergenţe <strong>de</strong> opinie cu privire la caracterul simbolic<br />
sau <strong>de</strong> specificare a intenţiilor copilului. Aceasta naşte întrebarea: cuvintele reflectă concepte<br />
fundamentale sau servesc ca mijloc alternativ <strong>de</strong> atingere a unui scop? Piaget susţine că<br />
primele cuvinte nu au caracter simbolic, ci sprijină <strong>de</strong>zvoltarea <strong>de</strong> noi scheme <strong>de</strong> acţiuni în<br />
ve<strong>de</strong>rea stabilirii <strong>de</strong> noi meto<strong>de</strong> pentru atingerea unui scop. Acest proces are loc între 12 şi 18<br />
luni. Unii specialişti susţin ipoteza şi afirmă că aceste vocalizări reprezintă acţiunile care<br />
reflectă direct intenţiile copilului. Acţiunile sunt, <strong>de</strong> obicei, protoenunţiative (comentarii<br />
informative) sau protoimperative (ordine). În continuare, pentru o mai bună înţelegere a<br />
producerii primelor cuvinte, se vor <strong>de</strong>talia explicaţii teoretice alternative <strong>de</strong>spre primele<br />
cuvinte şi <strong>de</strong>spre folosirea acestora.<br />
3. Explicaţii alternative pentru concepte şi primele cuvinte<br />
Owens (1992) susţine că semantica face referire la un sistem <strong>de</strong> reguli care dictează<br />
conţinutul cuvintelor şi combinaţiile dintre cuvinte. Cuvintele nu sunt oglinda realităţii, ci<br />
numai conceptele şi credinţele oamenilor <strong>de</strong>spre realitate. Cunoaşterea cognitivă reflectă<br />
cunoaşterea realităţii – modul în care oamenii împart experienţele şi conceptele în categorii.<br />
Oamenii stochează informaţii <strong>de</strong>spre experienţele trăite (memorie episodică), simboluri,<br />
reguli şi legăturile dintre acestea (memorie semantică). Memoria episodică şi cea semantică<br />
au o bază comună <strong>de</strong> informaţii şi experienţe; formarea conceptelor fiind consi<strong>de</strong>rată cel mai<br />
important proces cognitiv. Când un concept este asociat cu un cuvânt, rezultă cunoaşterea<br />
semantică, luând naştere, în felul acesta, fundamentele înţelesului lingvistic.<br />
Pentru caracteristicile care stau la baza cunoştinţelor semantice au fost propuse câteva<br />
explicaţii:<br />
ipoteza trăsăturilor semantice,<br />
ipoteza nucleului funcţional şi<br />
învăţarea prototipică.<br />
Fiecare dintre aceste perspective susţine că diferitele caracteristici ale referentului sunt<br />
însuşite <strong>de</strong> copii, dar nimeni nu cunoaşte ce se ascun<strong>de</strong> în gândurile altora; oamenii pot doar<br />
<strong>de</strong>duce înţelesuri din cuvinte sau presupuneri.<br />
17
4. Ipoteza trăsăturilor semantice<br />
Eve Clark (1973a, 1973b) argumentează că un copil învaţă un set <strong>de</strong> trăsături universale<br />
care caracterizează toţi referenţii, ca <strong>de</strong> exemplu uman / non-uman, neînsufleţit / însufleţit,<br />
etc. Copiii află înţelesuri noi prin i<strong>de</strong>ntificarea particularităţilor mai importante ale unui<br />
referent. Spre exemplu, o minge poate fi caracterizată prin rotunjime şi proprietatea <strong>de</strong> a<br />
sări. Pe măsură ce copilul creşte, criteriile se pot schimba, putându-se adăuga sau şterge<br />
unele caracteristici, spre exemplu, mărimea, materialul, etc. Clasificarea conform acestor<br />
particularităţi este gradată <strong>de</strong> la trăsăturile cele mai largi la cele mai specifice (Ingram, 1991).<br />
Pentru unii termeni, spre exemplu antonimele, doar unul este consi<strong>de</strong>rat a fi <strong>de</strong> bază,<br />
subliniind dimensiunea semantică. De exemplu, în cazul antonimelor „înalt” şi „scund,”<br />
dimensiunea semantică <strong>de</strong>finitorie este conceptul <strong>de</strong> „înălţime.” Când se doreşte cunoaşterea<br />
înălţimii unei persoane, se întreabă cât <strong>de</strong> înaltă este persoana în cauză; astfel, înălţimea este<br />
dimensiune semantică <strong>de</strong>finitorie şi fundamentală. Dimensiunea <strong>de</strong>finitorie este consi<strong>de</strong>rată<br />
marcată, înţelesul acesteia fiind cel dintâi element achiziţionat (Clark 1973a, 1973b). Alte<br />
categorii, precum pipăitul sau auzul sunt achiziţionate la început. Backschei<strong>de</strong>r, Shatz şi<br />
Gelman (1993) evi<strong>de</strong>nţiază că între 3 şi 4 ani, copiii înţeleg genul ontologic; aceştia<br />
conştientizează că plantele şi animalele pot creşte, dar că obiectele nu au această capacitate.<br />
Unii critici au înaintat presupunerea că această ipoteză nu specifică exact care sunt<br />
caracteristicile cele mai importante. Aceştia susţin că referenţii abstracţi sau cei care implică<br />
ju<strong>de</strong>căţi relative, precum „mai mult,” nu sunt explicaţi <strong>de</strong> această ipoteză.<br />
5. Ipoteza nucleului funcţional<br />
Kathryn Nelson (1974) afirmă că proprietăţile funcţionale ale referentului, şi nu<br />
proprietăţile statice, sunt cele care <strong>de</strong>finesc înţelesul referentului. Copiii încep prin a numi<br />
termenii <strong>de</strong> acţiune; Nelson susţine <strong>de</strong>finirea obiectelor <strong>de</strong> către copii în funcţie <strong>de</strong> calităţile<br />
funcţionale şi adăugarea ulterioară <strong>de</strong> proprietăţi perceptive relevante. Nucleul<br />
semnificatului îl reprezintă folosirea funcţională a unui obiect. Conceptul se achiziţionează;<br />
apoi se adaugă proprietăţile funcţionale, iar la final, proprietăţile nucleului referentului sunt<br />
distinse <strong>de</strong> alte relaţii. De exemplu, mărul reprezintă ceva digerabil, care poate fi aruncat, şi<br />
este, <strong>de</strong> obicei, rotund şi roşu. La un moment dat, faptul că mărul poate fi aruncat este<br />
consi<strong>de</strong>rată o calitate funcţională importantă. Deşi Nelson a adunat dovezi practice, ipoteza<br />
nucleului functional nu a fost susţinută <strong>de</strong> mulţi.<br />
6. Învăţarea prototipică<br />
Bowerman (1978) a criticat atât ipoteza proprietăţilor semantice, cât şi cea a nucleului<br />
funcţional ca fiind limitate în ceea ce priveşte capacitatea copilului <strong>de</strong> a <strong>de</strong>osebi relaţia<br />
constantă dintre referenţi. Teoria susţine existenţa unui mo<strong>de</strong>l sau prototip central pe care<br />
copiii îl asociază cuvintelor; <strong>de</strong> obicei, acest mo<strong>de</strong>l se suprapune, i<strong>de</strong>ntificându-se cu<br />
referentul care a fost folosit cel mai <strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> adulţi în asociere cu un anumit cuvânt care l-a<br />
<strong>de</strong>numit în primă instanţă. Învăţarea prototipică permite extin<strong>de</strong>rea continuă şi adaptarea<br />
conceptelor. De exemplu, cuvântul „scaun” poate face referire, în primul rând, la taburetul<br />
folosit <strong>de</strong> copil, dar, gradual, <strong>de</strong>numirea va cuprin<strong>de</strong> şi scaunele <strong>de</strong> la masă sau balansoarul<br />
tatălui. Treptat, taburetul va căpăta un înţeles <strong>de</strong> sine stătător, fără a-l mai inclu<strong>de</strong> în<br />
categoria scaunelor <strong>de</strong>oarece nu <strong>de</strong>ţine suficiente caracteristici asemănătoare cu cele ale<br />
semnificaţiei principale <strong>de</strong> „scaun.” Iniţial, toate animalele blănoase, cu patru picioare erau<br />
<strong>de</strong>numite „căţeluş,” dar treptat câinii, pisicile, caii şi veveriţele <strong>de</strong>vin creaturi distincte, <strong>de</strong>şi<br />
toate poartă <strong>de</strong>numirea comună <strong>de</strong> „animal.”<br />
Noţiunea <strong>de</strong> prototipie se bazează pe i<strong>de</strong>ea lui Wittgenstein (1958) potrivit căreia toate<br />
sensurile lexicale nu reprezintă caracteristici invariabile, ci asemănări <strong>de</strong> familie sau un grup<br />
18
<strong>de</strong> proprietăţi. Referenţii care împart caracteristicile <strong>de</strong>finitorii ale unui concept sau obiect<br />
vor <strong>de</strong>veni prototipul respectivului concept sau obiect.<br />
Potrivit ipotezei caracteristicii semantice, copiii <strong>de</strong>zvoltă înţelesuri prin adăugarea <strong>de</strong><br />
proprietăţi; ei au tendinţa <strong>de</strong> a lărgi sfera cuvintelor la început pentru ca ulterior să fie<br />
corespunzătoare cu întrebuinţarea corectă. Pe <strong>de</strong> altă parte, ipoteza nucleului funcţional<br />
susţine existenţa unui nivel conceptual între referent şi cuvânt. Ambele ipoteze sunt<br />
asemănătoare, prin evaluarea înţelesului ca organizat în jurul proprietăţilor invariabile<br />
(Ingram, 1991). Spre <strong>de</strong>osebire <strong>de</strong> aceasta, învăţarea prototipică presupune <strong>de</strong>finirea <strong>de</strong> către<br />
un prototip central a înţelesului principal, alţi referenţi fiind evaluaţi în funcţie <strong>de</strong> prototip.<br />
Deşi nu există o limită bine <strong>de</strong>finită în <strong>de</strong>celarea mecanismelor cognitive, apare totuşi o<br />
abilitate <strong>de</strong>finitorie <strong>de</strong> clasificare a experienţelor, <strong>de</strong> recunoaştere a asemănărilor şi<br />
<strong>de</strong>osebirilor, <strong>de</strong> aplicare a noilor cunoştinţe situaţiilor familiare şi a regulilor familiare<br />
situaţiilor noi.<br />
7. Achiziţia proprietăţilor semantice selectate<br />
Această secţiune va formula câteva concluzii generale şi va analiza unele cuvinte<br />
achiziţionate în anii preşcolari; copiii au nevoie <strong>de</strong> câţiva ani pentru a stăpâni aceşti termeni.<br />
După cum am menţionat anterior, primele cuvinte sunt <strong>de</strong> obicei nominale, în special<br />
cele care fac referire la obiectele <strong>de</strong>s întâlnite în jur, sau la persoanele familiare. Cuvintele<br />
care exprimă acţiuni sunt comune, dar sunt mai puţin frecvente. Nominalele sunt<br />
achiziţionate, <strong>de</strong> asemenea, la început, în cadrul nivelului intermediar <strong>de</strong> generalizare. De<br />
exemplu, la nivelul intermediar, „câine” poate <strong>de</strong>veni termen abstract şi general şi poate fi<br />
înlocuit <strong>de</strong> „animal” sau poate <strong>de</strong>veni specific, fiind înlocuit <strong>de</strong> „câinele lup.” Nivelul<br />
intermediar este, probabil, generic şi folositor pentru clasificare, astfel încât ar părea<br />
rezonabil ca acesta să fie printre primele însuşite.<br />
Cuvintele englezeşti care încep cu wh- folosite în propoziţiile interogative sunt<br />
achiziţionate în ordinea aparentului caracter abstract. What, who şi where (ce, cine, un<strong>de</strong>) sunt<br />
primele achiziţionate; acestea privesc, în general, referenţi concreţi prezenţi în interacţiunea<br />
zilnică, în consecinţă nu au un grad <strong>de</strong> abstractizare atât <strong>de</strong> ridicat, precum how, why sau<br />
when (cum, <strong>de</strong> ce, când). „How” are un caracter mai concret, în sensul că se poate ve<strong>de</strong>a cum<br />
ceva se produce, dar why şi when sunt cele mai abstracte. Alţi factori care contribuie la<br />
achiziţia acestor termeni sunt funcţiile sintactice ale diferitelor forme verbale care conţin<br />
grupul wh, verbele din propoziţiile interogative care cuprind elemente din grupul wh şi<br />
utilizarea interogaţiilor wh în discurs (Bloom, Merkin şi Wootten, 1982). Alte studii<br />
anterioare arată că preşcolarii nu <strong>de</strong>ţin raţionament bidirecţional, fiind limitaţi din punct <strong>de</strong><br />
ve<strong>de</strong>re al ordinii (ex.: răspun<strong>de</strong>au mai corect la întrebări ca “Ce s-a întâmplat după x” faţă <strong>de</strong><br />
întrebări ca “Ce s-a întâmplat înainte <strong>de</strong> x”). Însă, French (1989) observă că preşcolarii<br />
răspund mai ferm la întrebările conţinând „după” <strong>de</strong>cât la întrebări <strong>de</strong>spre evenimente<br />
petrecute la care s-a făcut referire prin „când.” Acesta a mai observat că dacă se oferă un<br />
con<strong>text</strong> a<strong>de</strong>cvat, răspunsurile bidirecţionale sunt posibile şi relevante în circumstanţele<br />
respective.<br />
Aceste constatări dovedind influenţele complexităţii cognitive (sau gradul <strong>de</strong><br />
conceptualizare cognitivă) asupra însuşirii semnificatului, pot constitui o ipoteză plauzibilă<br />
în cazul achiziţiei cuvintelor <strong>de</strong> relaţie („mare,” „mic”), <strong>de</strong> schimbare („acesta,” „acela” referitor<br />
la distanţa dintre referent şi vorbitor) şi gra<strong>de</strong>le <strong>de</strong> ru<strong>de</strong>nie („unchi,” „văr”). Coley şi Gelman<br />
(1989) afirmă că utilizarea cuvântului „mare” <strong>de</strong>pin<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> factorii con<strong>text</strong>uali, şi <strong>de</strong><br />
inter<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nţa factorilor semantici şi cognitivi. În studiul acestora, copiii mai mari se bazau<br />
pe înălţime în <strong>de</strong>terminarea obiectului cel mai mare; copiii <strong>de</strong> 3 ani se foloseau <strong>de</strong> înălţime în<br />
ceea ce priveşte oamenii, nu <strong>de</strong> lăţime / grosime, însă toţi subiecţii se ghidau după spaţiul în<br />
care se aflau pentru <strong>de</strong>terminarea obiectului celui mai mare.<br />
19
Însuşirea conceptelor şi reprezentările lingvistice respective ar trebui să fie paralele. De<br />
exemplu, copiii care folosesc corect expresia „în faţa” ar trebui supuşi testelor <strong>de</strong> nonverbalitate<br />
pentru conceptele <strong>de</strong> apropiere şi <strong>de</strong> caracteristici ale obiectelor, pentru a dovedi<br />
stăpânirea conceptelor şi caracteristicilor obiectelor înainte <strong>de</strong> folosirea acestei forme<br />
lingvistice; ei ar trebui să <strong>de</strong>monstreze însuşirea înţelesurilor formei „în faţa” în aceeaşi<br />
ordine ca în cazul achiziţiei <strong>de</strong> concepte relaţionate non-verbale. Astfel, ordinea <strong>de</strong>zvoltării<br />
cognitive conceptuale ar trebui să preceadă şi, respectiv, să se regăsească în formele<br />
lingvistice aferente. Retrospectiva formulată <strong>de</strong> Johnston (1986) arată că frecvenţa<br />
întrebuinţării şi complexitatea lingvistică şi semantică pot influenţa ordinea achiziţiei<br />
termenilor relaţionaţi. Urmând o i<strong>de</strong>e similară, E. Clark (1980) spune că „sus” este cel dintâi<br />
cuvânt folosit corect din perechea „sus-jos,” iar abia mai apoi „jos,” la fel şi în cazul perechii<br />
„faţă-spate.” Ea argumentează că aceste înţelesuri sunt achiziţionate în ordinea <strong>de</strong>terminată<br />
<strong>de</strong> strategiile non-lingvistice anterioare folosite <strong>de</strong> copii pentru aceiaşi termeni.<br />
8. Termenii <strong>de</strong> schimbare<br />
Termenii <strong>de</strong> schimbare sunt termeni ai căror referenţi se schimbă în funcţie <strong>de</strong> vorbitor,<br />
<strong>de</strong> un<strong>de</strong> şi când se adresează vorbitorul. Termenii reprezentând gra<strong>de</strong>le <strong>de</strong> ru<strong>de</strong>nie,<br />
pronumele, „acesta” sau „acela” provoacă schimbarea referentului în funcţie <strong>de</strong> vorbitor.<br />
Pronumele <strong>de</strong> persoana întâi şi a doua nu sunt însuşite <strong>de</strong>cât după anii preşcolari (Reich,<br />
1986). Referinţele anaforice, în care un pronume poate fi ataşat la mai mult <strong>de</strong>cât un singur<br />
substantiv, ca în propoziţia „Bogdan i-a spus lui Nae că îl cunoaşte pe Batman,” sunt<br />
stăpânite în timp, pe măsură ce copiii pot alterna între perspective (Smyth, 1995).<br />
Diferenţierea între „aici” şi „acolo” şi „acesta” şi „acela” se <strong>de</strong>finitivează abia în jurul vârstei<br />
<strong>de</strong> 7 ani. Astfel, termenii <strong>de</strong> schimbare şi <strong>de</strong> relaţie sunt achiziţionaţi <strong>de</strong>-a lungul unei întinse<br />
perioa<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> timp. Înţelegerea acestor termeni presupune localizarea obiectelor cu referire la<br />
sine sau la punctul <strong>de</strong> ve<strong>de</strong>re al vorbitorului.<br />
9. Termenii psihici<br />
Termenii psihici ca „a gândi,” „a cunoaşte,” încep a fi folosiţi între 2 şi 3 ani. Wellman<br />
şi Estes (1987) spun că acest tip <strong>de</strong> termeni au fost mai întâi utilizaţi drept funcţii ale<br />
conversaţiei, majoritatea fiind folosiţi pentru referinţe psihice distincte, explicite. Copiii au<br />
abilitatea <strong>de</strong> a face diferenţa între termeni <strong>de</strong> ordin psihic şi planul real. Până la 4 – 5 ani ei<br />
înţeleg întrebuinţarea termenilor <strong>de</strong> ordin psihic, precum „a cunoaşte,” „a gândi” pentru<br />
acţiuni sigure. Până la 4 ani, copiii fac distincţia între „a cunoaşte” şi „a gândi” şi „a ghici” şi<br />
percep termenul „a cunoaşte” ca o ju<strong>de</strong>cată sigură (Moore, Bryant şi Furrow 1989).<br />
Evoluţia semantică, în special a primelor cuvinte, este o sarcină complicată care<br />
<strong>de</strong>pin<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> maturitatea şi complexitatea cognitivă, <strong>de</strong> frecvenţa utilizării şi a oportunităţii.<br />
Copiii folosesc o gamă variată <strong>de</strong> strategii lingvistice şi non-lingvistice pentru achiziţionarea<br />
înţelesului. Proprietăţile semantice joacă, <strong>de</strong> asemenea, un rol important în enunţurile din<br />
perioa<strong>de</strong>le <strong>de</strong> tranziţie. Enunţurile formate din două cuvinte se construiesc, în mod frecvent,<br />
pe conexiunile semantice constituite înainte <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>zvoltarea şi formarea relaţiilor sintactice.<br />
Referinţe<br />
Backschei<strong>de</strong>r, A.G., Shatz, M., Gelman, S.A. (1993). Preschoolers’ ability to distinguish living kinds as<br />
a function of self-healing, in Child Development, 64, 1242–1257.<br />
Baldwin, D.A., Markman, E.M. (1989). Establishing word-object relations: A first step, in Child<br />
Development, 60, 381–398.<br />
Bloom, L., Merkin, W., Wootten, J. (1982). Wh-questions: Linguistic factors that contribute to the<br />
sequence of acquisition, in Child Development, 53, 1084-1092.<br />
Bowerman, M. (1978). Systematizing semantic knowledge: changes over time in the child’s<br />
20
organization of word meaning, in Child Development, 41, 977-987.<br />
Clark, E.V. (1973a). What’s in a word? On the child’s acquisition of word meanings, in Cognition, 161-<br />
182.<br />
Clark, E. (1973b). What’s in a word? On the child’s acquisition of semantics in his first language, in T.<br />
Moore (ed.), Cognitive <strong>de</strong>velopment and the acquisition of language, New York: Aca<strong>de</strong>mic Press, 267-<br />
278.<br />
Coley, J., Gelman, S. (1989). The effect of object orientation and object type on children’s interpretation<br />
of the word big, in Child Developmen, 60, 372-380.<br />
Diaz, R., Berk, L. (1992, pp 706-708). Private speech, Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.<br />
Frawley, W., Lantolf, J. (1986). Private speech and self-regulation: A commentary on Frauenglass and<br />
Diaz, in Developmental Psychology, 22.<br />
French, L. (1989). Young children’s responses to ”when” questions: Issues of directionalities, in Child<br />
Development, 60, 225-236.<br />
Furrow, D. (1984). Social and private speech at two years, in Child Development, 55, 355-362.<br />
Gopnik, A., Meltzoff, A.N. (1986). Words, plans, things, and locations: Interactions between semantic<br />
and cognitive <strong>de</strong>velopment in the one-word stage, in S.A. Kuczaj, M. Barrett (eds.), The <strong>de</strong>velopment<br />
of word meaning, New York: Springer-Verlag, pp390-401.<br />
Heibeck, T.H., Markman, E.M. (1987). Word learning in children: an examination of fast mapping, in<br />
Child Development, 58, 1021-1034.<br />
Ingram, D. (1991, pp 21-39). First language acquisition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.<br />
Johnston, J. (1986). Cognitive prerequisites: The evi<strong>de</strong>nce from children learning English, in D. Slobin<br />
(ed.) Cross-linguistic study of language acquisition, Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp 257-<br />
277.<br />
Markman, R., Wachtel, C. (1988). Children’s use of mutual exclusivity to constrain the meaning of<br />
words, in Cognitive Psychology, 20, 121-157.<br />
Moore, C., Bryant, D., Furrow, D. (1989). Mental terms and the <strong>de</strong>velopment of certainty, in Child<br />
Development, 60, 167-171.<br />
Nelson, K. (1974). Concept, word and sentence: Interrelations in acquisitions and <strong>de</strong>velopment, in<br />
Psychological Review, 81, 267-285.<br />
Owens, S. (1992, pp 87-90). Language <strong>de</strong>velopment, New York: Macmillan.<br />
Piaget, J. (1980, pp 146-183). Les formes élémentaires <strong>de</strong> la dialectique, Paris: Gallimard.<br />
Reich, P. (1986, pp 56-71). Language <strong>de</strong>velopment, Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.<br />
Smolucha, L., Smolucha, F. (1992). Vygotskian theory: An emerging paradigm with implications for a<br />
synergistic psychology, in Creativity Research Journal, 5, 87–96.<br />
Smyth, J. (1995, pp 25-32). Aca<strong>de</strong>mic work: The changing labour process in higher education, Buckingham:<br />
Open University Press.<br />
Taylor, M., Gelman, S.A. (1989). Incorporating new words into the lexicon: Preliminary evi<strong>de</strong>nce for<br />
language hierarchies in two-year-old children, in Child Development, 60, 625-636.<br />
Veneziano, E. (1989). Les proto-conversations et les actes <strong>de</strong> langage : <strong>de</strong> l’alternance <strong>de</strong>s tours <strong>de</strong><br />
rôles aux significations partagées, in Revue Internationale <strong>de</strong> Psychologie sociale, T. 2 – 1, 23-36.<br />
Veneziano, E., Sinclair, H. & Berthoud, I. (1990). From one word to two words. In Journal of Child<br />
Language, 17, 633.<br />
Vygotsky, L. (1962, pp 55-70). Thought and language, Cambridge: MIT Press.<br />
Wellman, H.M., Estes, D. (1987). Children's early use of mental verbs and what they mean, in<br />
Discourse process, 10, 141-156.<br />
Werner, H., Kaplan, B. (1963). Symbol Formation in An Organismic-Developmental Approach to Language<br />
and the Expression of Thought, New York: Wiley, pp 21-25.<br />
Wittgenstein, J. (1958, pp 127-133). Philosophical Investigations, Oxford: Blackwell.<br />
Abstract<br />
In the con<strong>text</strong> of an ever-growing globalization and multiculturalism, the present paper wishes to<br />
analyze the methods that evince the acquisition of the native linguistic structures in the case of the<br />
Romanian and English preschoolers. We shall also try to <strong>de</strong>monstrate the link between cognitive<br />
21
<strong>de</strong>velopment and lexical complexity as well as the different strategies adopted by the preschoolers<br />
for the production of idiosyncratic words. We consi<strong>de</strong>r that it is precisely these primary methods<br />
that form a reliable basis for the later acquisition of other complex techniques of lexical<br />
<strong>de</strong>velopment.<br />
The semantic evolution, especially of the first words, is a complicated task that <strong>de</strong>pends on the<br />
cognitive complexity and maturity, on the frequency of use and con<strong>text</strong>. Children use a wi<strong>de</strong> range<br />
of linguistic and non-linguistic strategies in or<strong>de</strong>r to acquire meaning. The semantic properties are<br />
surely of great importance in the productions of this transition period. Two-word productions<br />
usually rely on the semantic links that have been formed before the <strong>de</strong>velopment and establishment<br />
of the syntactic relations.<br />
Résumé<br />
Dans le con<strong>text</strong>e d’une globalisation et d’un multiculturalisme en plein essor, ce papier se propose<br />
d’analyser les métho<strong>de</strong>s qui mettent en évi<strong>de</strong>nce l’acquisition <strong>de</strong>s structures linguistiques<br />
maternelles, dans le cas <strong>de</strong>s préscolaires roumains et anglais. Nous essayeront <strong>de</strong> démontrer la<br />
relation entre le développent cognitif et la complexité lexicale aussi comme les différentes stratégies<br />
adoptées par les préscolaires pour la production <strong>de</strong> quelques mots idiosyncratiques. Nous<br />
considérons que ces métho<strong>de</strong>s primaires jouent le rôle le plus important dans la formation d’une<br />
base pour l’acquisition, plus tard, <strong>de</strong>s autres techniques complexes du développement lexical.<br />
L’évolution sémantique, surtout, celle <strong>de</strong>s premiers mots est une tâche compliquée et dépendante<br />
<strong>de</strong> la complexité et maturité cognitive, <strong>de</strong> la fréquence <strong>de</strong> l’utilisation et du con<strong>text</strong>e. Les enfants<br />
utilisent une gamme large <strong>de</strong>s stratégies linguistiques et non-linguistiques pour acquérir du sens.<br />
Les propriétés sémantiques sont, certainement, très importantes surtout dans le cas <strong>de</strong>s<br />
productions <strong>de</strong> cette pério<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> transition. Les productions qui contiennent <strong>de</strong>ux mots, d’habitu<strong>de</strong>,<br />
se basent sur les relations sémantiques formées avant le développement et l’établissement <strong>de</strong>s<br />
relations syntactiques.<br />
Rezumat<br />
În con<strong>text</strong>ul unei globalizări şi al unui multiculturalism în continuu progress, lucrarea <strong>de</strong> faţă îşi<br />
propune să analizeze meto<strong>de</strong>le care evi<strong>de</strong>nţiază dobândirea structurilor lingvistice materne în<br />
cazul preşcolarilor români şi englezi. Vom încerca să <strong>de</strong>monstrăm şi legătura dintre <strong>de</strong>zvoltarea<br />
cognitivă şi complexitatea lexicală precum şi strategiile diferite adoptate <strong>de</strong> preşcolari pentru<br />
producerea unor cuvinte idiosincretice. Consi<strong>de</strong>răm că aceste meto<strong>de</strong> primare joacă rolul cel mai<br />
important în alcătuirea bazei pentru însuşirea, mai târziu, a celorlalte tehnici complexe ale<br />
<strong>de</strong>zvoltării lexicale. Evoluţia semantică, mai ales a primelor cuvinte, este o sarcină complicată şi<br />
care <strong>de</strong>pin<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> gradul <strong>de</strong> complexitate şi maturitate cognitivă, <strong>de</strong> frecvenţa utilizării şi <strong>de</strong> con<strong>text</strong>.<br />
Copiii folosesc o gamă largă <strong>de</strong> strategii lingvistice şi non-lingvistice pentru a-şi însuşi sensuri.<br />
Proprietăţile semantice sunt, <strong>de</strong>sigur, <strong>de</strong>osebit <strong>de</strong> importante în cazul producţiilor acestei perioa<strong>de</strong><br />
<strong>de</strong> tranziţie. Producţiile alcătuite din două cuvinte se bazează, <strong>de</strong> obicei, pe legăturile semantice<br />
formate înaintea <strong>de</strong>zvoltării şi consolidării relaţiilor sintactice.<br />
22
Annals of “Dunărea <strong>de</strong> <strong>Jos</strong>” University of GALAŢI<br />
Fascicle XIII, New Series.<br />
Issue 28, XVI (XXVII), 2009<br />
pp. 23-14<br />
A FEW CONSTRAINTS ON STUDENT QUESTIONING<br />
Anca Cehan<br />
23<br />
Language<br />
and<br />
Literature<br />
In education, it is believed that much of the learning that takes place in the classroom is<br />
the result of the questions asked by the teachers, and that the better the teacher’s questions,<br />
the better the teacher’s teaching and the class learning. Aristotle, in Posterior Analitics, 89b<br />
(quoted by Dillon 1988: 7) says ‘These, then, are the kinds of questions we ask, and it is in the<br />
answers to these questions that our knowledge consists’. In other words, stu<strong>de</strong>nt questions<br />
prece<strong>de</strong> teacher questions in the learning process, and when stu<strong>de</strong>nts ask questions, learning<br />
follows in answer. According to Aristotle, questions arise in ignorance and perplexity, and<br />
the stu<strong>de</strong>nt’s un<strong>de</strong>rstanding is shaped by the relation s/he builds between question and<br />
answer as questions and answers conjoin to form knowledge and un<strong>de</strong>rstanding. Questions<br />
invite both a search for answers and other questions which follow from these answers. The<br />
stu<strong>de</strong>nt’s knowledge consists in the proposition that s/he forms of question and answer.<br />
Even if asking questions is believed to stimulate thoughtfulness and to encourage<br />
expression, education is in many ways, an activity similar to other fields where questioning<br />
is an exercise of power and control. James Dillon (1988) showed that in fields that encourage<br />
both talking and thinking, such as counselling and personal interviewing, practitioners avoid<br />
questions. In other fields, such as courtroom advocacy and public opinions surveying, where<br />
the goal is to limit thoughtfulness and to control the utterances of the people being<br />
questioned, the practitioners are highly skilled in asking questions. In other words, social<br />
superiors ask questions and subordinates answer them. This pattern where the questions of<br />
the social subordinates are rare or miss altogether is normal practice: physicians seldom<br />
answer questions from patients, lawyers are never questioned by witnesses, adults do not<br />
always answer questions from children. In the classroom, the stu<strong>de</strong>nt has years of experience<br />
with only the teachers asking questions and answers being given by self and classmates.<br />
Although stu<strong>de</strong>nt questions are often mentioned in theory, there is small room for them in<br />
classroom practice.<br />
Since Aristotle and before him, questioning by the stu<strong>de</strong>nts has been wi<strong>de</strong>ly regar<strong>de</strong>d<br />
by pedagogues as the starting point for effective education. In reality, questioning by<br />
teachers seems to actually be an exercise of power and control, as it is in other fields, where<br />
questions limit authentic discussion. In theory, stu<strong>de</strong>nt questioning and questions, together<br />
with the answers given to them, are encouraged and supported in the classroom, and no<br />
teachers would admit that they do not <strong>de</strong>sign lessons which encourage stu<strong>de</strong>nts’ questions<br />
and answers. However, although as Aristotle showed, learning follows in answer to a<br />
question, few stu<strong>de</strong>nt questions are asked aloud in the classroom.<br />
In normal classroom practice, classes in which no question is asked by stu<strong>de</strong>nts are not<br />
the exception but the rule. This is explained by the fact that stu<strong>de</strong>nts have few opportunities<br />
or reasons to ask questions, as they are busy giving answers to teacher questions. Classroom<br />
activities are organised in ways that do not motivate stu<strong>de</strong>nts to formulate questions, while<br />
the classroom setting gives stu<strong>de</strong>nts reasons not to ask many questions.
We have never walked into a classroom, irrespective of the level of English of the<br />
stu<strong>de</strong>nts, where the stu<strong>de</strong>nts asked a lot of questions 1. In fact, the ol<strong>de</strong>r the stu<strong>de</strong>nts get, the<br />
fewer questions they ask, although their level of proficiency in a foreign language gets<br />
higher. Apparently, children ask a lot of questions, but not in the classroom. In 26 classroom<br />
recordings 2, with approximately 600 pupils participating, only one genuine stu<strong>de</strong>nt<br />
information question could be heard (“What’s the English for roabă?”), while the questions<br />
from the teachers account for over 60% of the teacher’s talking time. Such features are not<br />
uncommon for foreign language classroom practice or for classroom practice in general.<br />
Even if one could argue that most of class recordings mentioned were done in primary and<br />
lower secondary schools (18), and that most of these classes were taught in countrysi<strong>de</strong><br />
schools (14), still we have to admit that this is the rule and not the exception. In fact, the<br />
teacher’s asking a lot of questions does not by any means guarantee the stimulation of the<br />
stu<strong>de</strong>nts’ interaction by the latter asking questions. Actually, certain types of teacher<br />
questions may discourage interactive learning (Kinsella 1991, quoted by Brown, D.H. 2001):<br />
display questions, obvious questions that may insult the stu<strong>de</strong>nts’ intelligence, vague or<br />
abstract ones, questions that are too wordy or too complex, rhetorical and random questions<br />
(i.e., questions that do not fall into a well-planned sequence).<br />
Although not represented in the corpus mentioned, besi<strong>de</strong>s information, knowledge<br />
and comprehension questions, stu<strong>de</strong>nts use other interrogative strategies, such as<br />
application, inference, analysis and synthesis, evaluation and procedural questions and<br />
<strong>de</strong>vices (Dillon, 1988). Procedural questions (e.g.: Is this going to be on the test?) are the most<br />
strategic, as they are used effectively by stu<strong>de</strong>nts to solve their problems, to execute routines<br />
and to negotiate over obligations. Conversational questions can also be heard formulated in<br />
Romanian (e.g. What? I didn’t hear, Poftim?). Self-answered and rhetorical questions are not<br />
uncommon during stu<strong>de</strong>nt project presentations, used to express some feeling or to make<br />
some point. They have the role of statements, and a common response to them is a remark<br />
such as ‘Good point’ or ‘Yeah, but…’ These other interrogative strategies are completely absent<br />
in the corpus mentioned.<br />
One can argue that in the classroom, many of the questions that the stu<strong>de</strong>nts formulate<br />
and keep in their minds, remaining unasked, are answered by something said by the teacher<br />
or another stu<strong>de</strong>nt later on, as the discussion proceeds. In the same way, an unasked<br />
question that comes to a stu<strong>de</strong>nt’s mind may be asked in the next part of the lesson.<br />
However, in classroom interaction, in the talk between teacher and stu<strong>de</strong>nts, it is sensible<br />
that stu<strong>de</strong>nts ask questions: the non-asking <strong>de</strong>nies the very purpose of interacting. To refrain<br />
from asking is not to join in the discussion. Questions are due to arise and be shared, and it is<br />
a failing for a participant in the interaction not to speak his / her mind on the current issue,<br />
by withholding the questions instead of contributing them. On the other hand, it is true that<br />
some people learn just by listening and following along, but in a discussion, this <strong>de</strong>fines nonparticipation,<br />
and is just an alibi. Some unspoken questions may be answered, others are not;<br />
in either case the answering is acci<strong>de</strong>ntal. This thwarts the essence of the pedagogical<br />
activity, whose aim is to teach and to make the stu<strong>de</strong>nt learn that which is taught. The nonasking<br />
impairs the activity of teaching, turning it into something else.<br />
Paradoxically, classroom teaching involves planned behaviour, adjusted in the process<br />
of enacting it. When planning a lesson, the teacher needs to anticipate the questions in the<br />
stu<strong>de</strong>nts’ minds. If s/he is unable to do so, the teacher can neither plan nor act in accordance.<br />
In this process the teacher cannot know whose questions will be answered and whose will<br />
not, or which ones. However, when stu<strong>de</strong>nts do not ask questions, both teaching and<br />
learning suffer, and classroom interaction is affected.<br />
However, it is normal and un<strong>de</strong>rstandable for the stu<strong>de</strong>nts not to ask questions in<br />
class. A stu<strong>de</strong>nt’s question may be an exceptional event as there are many powerful factors<br />
accounting for the rarity of stu<strong>de</strong>nt questions. Although all these factors operate in the<br />
24
classroom, they do not necessarily originate in the classroom; nor are they located in either<br />
the stu<strong>de</strong>nt or the teacher. They operate systematically, and have to do with the structures<br />
and conditions of society and schooling, with rules of socialisation in schools and with<br />
situational authority rules. They inclu<strong>de</strong> the whole complex of ways that other classrooms<br />
use with the same stu<strong>de</strong>nts, the curriculum itself, the nature of the subject-matter and the<br />
character of materials and <strong>text</strong>books.<br />
Of all these factors, we will examine only the constraints of classroom discourse on<br />
stu<strong>de</strong>nt questions, showing that stu<strong>de</strong>nt questions are almost exclu<strong>de</strong>d by the cycles of<br />
interaction, rules, and norms of classroom discourse.<br />
1. The IRF cycle<br />
Typical classroom interaction leaves little room for the stu<strong>de</strong>nts to ask questions as<br />
they find it hard to fit a question into the ongoing IRF cycle. When a stu<strong>de</strong>nt bids for a<br />
question, the teacher has to think how to stop everything in or<strong>de</strong>r to let the stu<strong>de</strong>nt start in.<br />
However, most of the time the teacher has no reason to stop the ongoing cycle, since no one<br />
seems to have a question when they are all engaged in the ongoing interaction. The teacher<br />
and stu<strong>de</strong>nts are talking back and forth, and the cycle of talk is closed to everything but<br />
stu<strong>de</strong>nts’ answers. The cycle typically begins with (a) a teacher’s question, then turns to (b) a<br />
stu<strong>de</strong>nt’s answer, and then to (c) the teacher’s evaluation of answer plus (a) next question.<br />
Stu<strong>de</strong>nts can do nothing but answer in this cycle, and there is no turn at talk for them.<br />
However, when a stu<strong>de</strong>nt asks a question, the cycle turns quite differently. The cycle<br />
does not begin with a stu<strong>de</strong>nt question, as in his subordinate position, the stu<strong>de</strong>nt must first<br />
gain permission to ask a question. To do that, the stu<strong>de</strong>nt must first gain the floor. Therefore,<br />
before the stu<strong>de</strong>nt can formulate a question, two exchanges are required:<br />
1. Stu<strong>de</strong>nt’s bid for the floor<br />
Teacher’s nomination of stu<strong>de</strong>nt<br />
2. Stu<strong>de</strong>nt’s request to ask a question<br />
Teacher’s permission to stu<strong>de</strong>nt<br />
These preliminary exchanges are not easy to get going from the position of the stu<strong>de</strong>nt.<br />
This is because when a stu<strong>de</strong>nt bids for the floor, the teacher’s assumption is that s/he wants<br />
to give an answer. On the other hand, when the stu<strong>de</strong>nt does get the floor, s/he is in the<br />
awkward position of having to substitute an answer with a question at that juncture, and<br />
therefore switch things around. However, the preliminary exchanges are usually smoothly<br />
executed:<br />
1. Stu<strong>de</strong>nt’s bid<br />
Teacher’s nomination: Yes, Anda.<br />
2. Stu<strong>de</strong>nt’s question: What is the English for ‘roabă’?<br />
The stu<strong>de</strong>nt may be waving a hand for bidding and the teacher may nod or say the<br />
stu<strong>de</strong>nt’s name. Permission to ask might be asked for and granted parenthetically instead of<br />
in actual words. Even so, everyone knows that permission is involved. In our example, the<br />
question was prece<strong>de</strong>d by a non-verbal bid from the stu<strong>de</strong>nt. Although we haven’t found<br />
any example in our limited corpus, such exchanges may also involve the stu<strong>de</strong>nt specifically<br />
asking for permission to ask a question, using formulas like Can I ask (you) a question?, I want<br />
to ask a question, or even Romanian formulas to the same effect. The teacher’s accord can also<br />
be verbal or non-verbal: OK, Yes, Go ahead, What is it? or a simple nod.<br />
While after a teacher question, the next move is always a stu<strong>de</strong>nt’s answer, after a<br />
stu<strong>de</strong>nt’s question, the next move always belongs to the teacher. This move is more<br />
unpredictable: it can be either a reply or a non-reply to the question. In the reply, the teacher<br />
25
may answer the question, but other replies may involve a counter-question, a redirection, a<br />
reformulation, or even a disparaging of the question or of the stu<strong>de</strong>nt who asked the<br />
question. This shows why asking a question may sometimes be a <strong>de</strong>motivating move for the<br />
stu<strong>de</strong>nt.<br />
After a stu<strong>de</strong>nt’s answer, the next move is teacher’s feedback. This is most often, the<br />
evaluation of the stu<strong>de</strong>nt’s answer, which is then followed by the next question. After a<br />
teacher’s answer to a stu<strong>de</strong>nt’s question, the next move always belongs to the teacher.<br />
Optionally, the teacher may allocate this turn to the stu<strong>de</strong>nt who asked the question, but if<br />
the stu<strong>de</strong>nt takes it, s/he can only acknowledge the answer and never evaluates it. More<br />
typically, the teacher keeps the floor and continues with the next move, which is another<br />
teacher’s question, and the cycle repeats itself: teacher initiates / asks – stu<strong>de</strong>nt answers –<br />
teacher provi<strong>de</strong>s feedback / evaluation. By contrast, the cycle for a stu<strong>de</strong>nt question turns<br />
uncertainly at every turn:<br />
1. Stu<strong>de</strong>nt’s bid<br />
T’s nomination<br />
2. (Stu<strong>de</strong>nt’s request to ask question)<br />
T’s permission)<br />
3. Stu<strong>de</strong>nt’s question<br />
4. Teacher’s move<br />
a. reply<br />
b. non-reply<br />
5a. Stu<strong>de</strong>nt’s acknowledgement (optional)<br />
5b. Teacher’s move (question)<br />
2. IRF and politeness rules<br />
General rules of politeness, learnt both at home and in the years of schooling, also<br />
govern talk in the classroom. These rules do not encourage stu<strong>de</strong>nt questions, either. The<br />
cycle involving a stu<strong>de</strong>nt question takes remarkable tact and <strong>de</strong>licacy to find a suitable<br />
moment to begin, although no teacher would ever institute a rule against the stu<strong>de</strong>nt’s<br />
questions. A general politeness rule says ‘one speaker at a time’, meaning that a stu<strong>de</strong>nt may<br />
not interrupt a speaker, whether the teacher or another stu<strong>de</strong>nt, with a question. On the<br />
other hand, a superordinate school rule holds that the teacher can talk at any time and that<br />
the teacher can interrupt the stu<strong>de</strong>nt, typically with a question. In other words, the teacher<br />
always has the floor, and the next turn at talk, and a stu<strong>de</strong>nt cannot take it to ask a question.<br />
In<strong>de</strong>ed, the next turn at talk always belongs to the teacher, even when a stu<strong>de</strong>nt is speaking,<br />
as it is the teacher who allocates the turn to a stu<strong>de</strong>nt, and can take it back at any time.<br />
Unlike other interactions where speakers negotiate turns and topics, in the classroom<br />
interaction, the turns are allocated by the teacher, who <strong>de</strong>signates both the next speaker and<br />
the topic. A consequence of this is that a stu<strong>de</strong>nt cannot, as a rule, interrupt with a question<br />
when the turn is already taken, and the speaker and topic are <strong>de</strong>signated. As the cycle<br />
follows its course, it is a real feat for a stu<strong>de</strong>nt to break it and ask a question. The corollary to<br />
these rules is that a stu<strong>de</strong>nt does not have a right to speak unless s/he is <strong>de</strong>signated to do so<br />
by the teacher, and then s/he has the obligation to address the teacher and the topic<br />
specified. In other words, the stu<strong>de</strong>nt is supposed to answer the teacher’s question and then<br />
stop and wait for the teacher’s evaluation of the answer followed by the next question.<br />
To conclu<strong>de</strong>, in or<strong>de</strong>r for the stu<strong>de</strong>nt to ask a question, s/he must locate an appropriate<br />
juncture, make a bid to talk, gain the floor, obtain permission to ask the question, and, very<br />
often, change the topic. This kind of move, <strong>de</strong>termines a change in classroom dynamics,<br />
which reverses the usual one: from passivity, reactivity, expectancy and <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nce to<br />
26
initiative, in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nce, proactive attitu<strong>de</strong>, energetic action, and even aggression. All these<br />
are contrary to habit and violate the norms of classroom behaviour.<br />
3. Stu<strong>de</strong>nt behaviour norms<br />
Although not written, the norms of class behaviour are also very powerful. These<br />
norms do not support the stu<strong>de</strong>nt in the act of asking either, as displaying ignorance in<br />
school is against the norms. Even when the stu<strong>de</strong>nt has followed all the rules of talk and<br />
entered the cycle of interaction in the right way, s/he must ask the right question at the right<br />
time. If the stu<strong>de</strong>nt asks a question too soon or too late, the teacher’s reaction will be We’ll get<br />
to that later or We have already <strong>de</strong>alt with that. Moreover, the question should be about<br />
something that nearly everyone does not know. Otherwise, the stu<strong>de</strong>nt who asks the<br />
question will lose face when sighs or comments of What a dumb question! will be heard. One<br />
strategy to avoid this, used by some more advanced stu<strong>de</strong>nts is to <strong>de</strong>precate self in the<br />
asking, prefacing the question by I was just won<strong>de</strong>ring or This may be kind of dumb,<br />
but…Moreover, the stu<strong>de</strong>nt must take care not to ask one question too many or two<br />
questions in a row.<br />
A stu<strong>de</strong>nt’s question is expected to meet with negative reactions on the part of both<br />
classmates and teacher. A negative reaction may consist in a non-reply or a reprimand from<br />
the teacher and / or <strong>de</strong>preciation from classmates. Perplexity, incomprehension and the need<br />
for asking are disapproved, especially when the topic at hand seems so simple to everyone<br />
else and only the questioner still does not un<strong>de</strong>rstand. Moreover, in many classes, it is<br />
against the group rules to display interest in the subject-matter or the teacher.<br />
To conclu<strong>de</strong>, powerful social forces insi<strong>de</strong> and outsi<strong>de</strong> the classroom make difficult the<br />
asking of questions by the stu<strong>de</strong>nts. These forces involve peers, teacher, status, language<br />
proficiency, the IRF cycle and norms of discourse, class dynamics and years of school<br />
experience. Stu<strong>de</strong>nts have every reason but one not to ask the questions that occur to them in<br />
class. This one reason is <strong>de</strong>sire of knowledge and un<strong>de</strong>rstanding.<br />
Notes<br />
1. We do not refer here to the practice of foreign language interrogative structures.<br />
2. The recordings were done in the lessons taught in February and March 2008 by the participants in<br />
the MA in ELT Programme at the English Department, “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iaşi.<br />
References<br />
Brown, D. H. (2001). Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach of Language Pedagogy, Addison<br />
Wesley Longman Inc.<br />
Clark, M. (1972). Perplexity and knowledge: An inquiry into the structures of questioning, The Hague:<br />
Mouton.<br />
Dillon, J.T. (1988). Questioning and Teaching. A Manual of Practice, New York: Teachers College Press.<br />
Malamah-Thomas, A. (1988) Classroom Interaction, Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
Abstract<br />
This paper presents the constraints which complicate and restrict the questions the learners<br />
formulate during the foreign language class. These concern the other participants in interaction,<br />
the status of the one who risks asking one question, the structure of the cycle initiation – response<br />
– feedback, the dynamics of the class as well as the general norms of politeness and those of school<br />
conduct.<br />
27
Résumé<br />
L’article présente les contraintes qui ren<strong>de</strong>nt difficile et qui limitent la formulation <strong>de</strong>s questions<br />
par les élèves pendant une leçon. Celles-ci se réfèrent aux autres participants à l’interaction, au<br />
statut <strong>de</strong> celui qui risque une question, à la structure du cycle Initiation–Réponse–Feedback, à la<br />
dynamique <strong>de</strong> la classe aussi comme aux normes générales <strong>de</strong> politesse et <strong>de</strong> conduite scolaire.<br />
Rezumat<br />
Lucrarea prezintă constrângerile care îngreunează şi limitează formularea întrebărilor <strong>de</strong> către<br />
elevi în timpul lecţiei. Aceste constrângeri se referă la ceilalţi participanţi la interacţiune, la<br />
statutul acelui participant care riscă şi formulează o întrebare, la structura ciclului Iniţiere–<br />
Răspuns–Feedback, la dinamica lecţiei precum şi la normele generale <strong>de</strong> politeţe şi <strong>de</strong> conduită<br />
şcolară.<br />
28
Annals of “Dunărea <strong>de</strong> <strong>Jos</strong>” University of GALAŢI<br />
Fascicle XIII, New Series.<br />
Issue 28, XVI (XXVII), 2009<br />
pp. 29-34<br />
IRONIE ET ALLEGORIE POLITIQUE<br />
DANS L’ŒUVRE DE<br />
GRIGORE ALEXANDRESCU<br />
Ana-Elena Costandache<br />
29<br />
Language<br />
and<br />
Literature<br />
Située à la jonction avec <strong>de</strong>s éléments <strong>de</strong> l’Ouest, d’une part, et <strong>de</strong>s éléments <strong>de</strong>s<br />
Balkans, d’autre part, à une époque où il y avait <strong>de</strong> nombreuses sources d’inspiration, la<br />
littérature roumaine a subi <strong>de</strong>s changements <strong>de</strong>s formes en fonction <strong>de</strong>s événements<br />
politiques <strong>de</strong> la première moitié du XIX e siècle (la Révolution, l’Union), mais aussi en<br />
fonction <strong>de</strong>s affinités <strong>de</strong>s auteurs pour les exemples culturels déjà renommés. Dans ce<br />
con<strong>text</strong>e, ce qui a attiré l’attention a été l’abondance <strong>de</strong>s genres et leur influence, alors que les<br />
troubles sociaux et politiques <strong>de</strong> l’époque ont fait une marque décisive sur les écrits, en<br />
dévoilant “<strong>de</strong>s changements imprévus dans la conscience <strong>de</strong>s écrivains”. 1<br />
Vrai pionnier du genre, confronté avec les difficultés spécifiques aux débuts littéraires,<br />
surtout celles qui tenaient à la modalité d’expression poétique du XIX e siècle, Grigore<br />
Alexandrescu aspirait, dès le commencement <strong>de</strong> son écriture, “à enrichir la langue<br />
roumaine”. En valorisant la simplicité et la sobriété, en alliant le classicisme et le<br />
romantisme, l’auteur a été en mesure <strong>de</strong> se différencier <strong>de</strong>s autres auteurs romantiques<br />
Roumains <strong>de</strong> l’époque, mais aussi <strong>de</strong>s romantiques occi<strong>de</strong>ntaux.<br />
Lucia Simona Dinescu, suite à ses étu<strong>de</strong>s culturelles expliquées dans <strong>de</strong>s discours<br />
prononcés sur la mo<strong>de</strong>rnité, a conclu qu’ “en Roumanie, la culture s’est formée à la suite <strong>de</strong><br />
différentes influences [...] et a servi à la politique”. 2 Pourtant, les interdictions brutales et les<br />
thèmes imposés ont été dépassés <strong>de</strong> manière diplomatique:<br />
“En 1840, les principautés étaient trop intégrés dans le domaine intellectuel ou<br />
économique <strong>de</strong> l’Europe, et leur développement comprenait trop d’éléments <strong>de</strong> rupture<br />
avec l’ordre féodal pour qu’une politique rétrogra<strong>de</strong>, étroite et hostile à l’intérêt national<br />
ne puisse avoir <strong>de</strong>s chances <strong>de</strong> réussite”. 3<br />
Le discours politique <strong>de</strong> l’époque en question (celle <strong>de</strong> ’48) a été particulièrement<br />
connu dans la vie culturelle, dans les œuvres littéraires, par l’intermédiaire <strong>de</strong> la promotion<br />
<strong>de</strong>s idéologies libérales et révolutionnaires. Les réactions <strong>de</strong>s groupes d’intellectuels à tout ce<br />
qui représentait la vie politique n’ont pas retardé, que ce soit au niveau <strong>de</strong>s thèmes et <strong>de</strong>s<br />
raisons littéraires, ou au niveau <strong>de</strong>s espèces visées. Les variantes étaient multiples: certaines<br />
satirisaient, comme dans le cas d’Ion Ghica “les mœurs <strong>de</strong> la société et <strong>de</strong>s pratiques<br />
rétrogra<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> l’époque, [...] la phraséologie et la démagogie politique, les arrangements en<br />
coulisses, le carriérisme, le faux démocratisme et la corruption <strong>de</strong>s médias” 4, tandis que<br />
d’autres discours proposaient aux lecteurs un langage assez violent. Parmi les écrivains qui<br />
ont agi d’une manière où d’autre, Alexandrescu s’est fait remarquer, en proposant <strong>de</strong>s types<br />
<strong>de</strong> politiques, mais surtout en créant <strong>de</strong>s “types d’intrigue d’où sa propre imagination<br />
pourrait tirer les éléments nécessaires à la création d’une histoire, d’un conte...” 5
En participant à la vie politique <strong>de</strong> l’époque, mais sans une implication particulière<br />
dans les mouvements révolutionnaires <strong>de</strong> 1848, Alexandrescu s’est révélé être un simple<br />
observateur politique et surtout morale. “Esprit Gaulois” 6, (surnom attribué par N.<br />
Manolescu), Alexandrescu a fait partie <strong>de</strong> la génération qui<br />
“a créé <strong>de</strong>ux <strong>de</strong>s paradigmes durables <strong>de</strong> la poésie roumaine, celui dérivé du latin (sous<br />
les influences italienne et française, lamartinisme, alexandrin iambique, élégiaque,<br />
méditation, mélancolie, etc.) et celui du folklore autochtone (mythe national et passé<br />
historique, militantisme, etc.), sans réduire la valeur <strong>de</strong> la langue littéraire, restée jusqu’à<br />
présent sous la même forme, mais en introduisant <strong>de</strong>s espèces et <strong>de</strong>s genres mo<strong>de</strong>rnes”. 7<br />
Grigore Alexandrescu n’a pas excellé en reliant les rimes, mais les espèces littéraires<br />
qu’il a promues à cette époque-là étaient différentes: l’élégie (Minuit, Adieux. A Târgovişte),<br />
la méditation (L’ombre <strong>de</strong> Mircea. A Cozia), la satire (Satire. A mon esprit), la fable (La<br />
hache et la forêt, Le chien et le chiot, La justice du lion). L’attention du lecteur est attirée<br />
par les œuvres qui versifient l’esprit politique <strong>de</strong> l’époque, en particulier la fable et la satire<br />
et, par conséquent, les œuvres <strong>de</strong> l’écrivain roumain “sont variées et très précieuses. Sa<br />
composition est réussie et tout à fait claire. Pourtant, la versification n’est pas parfaite”. 8<br />
Que ce soit <strong>de</strong> la satire ou <strong>de</strong> la fable comme espèces prises par connexion française, ou<br />
que ce soit <strong>de</strong>s productions originales, Alexandrescu a été en mesure d’y ajouter <strong>de</strong>s notes<br />
personnelles: “Dans ces productions didactiques, le poète démontre une constante affinité<br />
pour le classicisme plutôt que pour le romantisme français.” 9 Parmi les modèles que la<br />
littérature occi<strong>de</strong>ntale a proposés comme une catégorie d’espèces littéraires à part et<br />
auxquelles Alexandrescu a accordé une attention particulière s’inscrivent les espèces<br />
cultivées par La Fontaine. En effet, le fabuliste roumain doit beaucoup au grand poète<br />
français par certains éléments <strong>de</strong> technique artistique. Les faits politiques <strong>de</strong> l’époque ont<br />
“mis en forme” sa poésie et la fable d’Alexandrescu est tributaire à la fable <strong>de</strong> La Fontaine,<br />
quant au niveau <strong>de</strong>s données techniques du genre. Le poète, lui-même, avait dévoilé les<br />
significations politiques et satiriques, les physionomies et les moralités, par l’intermédiaire<br />
<strong>de</strong> certaines <strong>de</strong> ses œuvres, ce qui lui avait donné l’occasion d’une longue méditation. Mais<br />
l’allusion satirique est justement une caractéristique du genre, dont le développement est<br />
soumis à <strong>de</strong>s régimes stricts <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>spotisme et d’interdiction <strong>de</strong> la liberté d’expression. Ainsi,<br />
La Fontaine est actuel par ses fables en présentant, <strong>de</strong> façon dramatique, les réalités <strong>de</strong> sa<br />
nation. Son œuvre constitue la “source” <strong>de</strong>s situations politiques et sociales locales,<br />
caractéristiques aux réalités <strong>de</strong> Roumanie à cette époque-là: “Les fables sont aussi célèbres<br />
dans notre littérature que celles <strong>de</strong> La Fontaine dans la littérature française ou celles <strong>de</strong><br />
Krîlov dans la littérature russe”. 10<br />
L’ironie d’Alexandrescu est celle d’un esprit qui se moque <strong>de</strong> tout et <strong>de</strong> tous dans <strong>de</strong>s<br />
épîtres et <strong>de</strong>s satires (dans L’Union <strong>de</strong>s principautés): “Dans leurs tombeaux, Bogdan et<br />
Mircea ont convenu / D’unir les Roumains…” 11 et sa satire est, par excellence, politique.<br />
D’ailleurs, la fable était, à cette époque-là, un moyen <strong>de</strong> contourner la censure et l’ironie<br />
d’Alexandrescu s’avérait être insensible à l’art <strong>de</strong>s contemporains. Sa prédilection pour la<br />
fiction est expliquée par les nombreuses possibilités <strong>de</strong> satiriser les événements politiques.<br />
Sous le masque <strong>de</strong> la versification, on pourrait tout dévoiler et, par l’humour, l’auteur<br />
affirme ce qu’il semble nier - dans L’épître à M. Majeur Voinescu II. 12 Silvian Iosifescu<br />
appréciait que “le scepticisme adopté dans L’épître D.V.II était en accord avec son style<br />
ironique. Le poète défend, <strong>de</strong>rrière un sourire, l’innocence <strong>de</strong> ses fables”. 13 Par ailleurs, dans<br />
la correspondance, Alexandrescu préfère dissimuler discrètement l’ironie, le dégoût et<br />
l’amertume qui lui a inspiré le déni, tout aussi que les concessions morales <strong>de</strong> l’époque. Dans<br />
son œuvre, l’ironie est une sorte <strong>de</strong> déguisement <strong>de</strong> la fable et la “la censure la plus sage”,<br />
rappelée dans L’Epître à M. Voinescu 14 suggère une telle qualification.<br />
30
En plus <strong>de</strong> la mission d’éduquer et <strong>de</strong> former, la fable a le rôle <strong>de</strong> divertir. Le conflit<br />
présenté a un résultat immédiat, ce qui fait que la fable soit presqu’une comédie. Chez<br />
Alexandrescu, l’histoire est spécifique aux premiers écrits désignés comme <strong>de</strong>s fables,<br />
prenant la forme d’une croquis <strong>de</strong> mœurs et <strong>de</strong> caractères et en culminant dans <strong>de</strong>s écrits<br />
bien rédigés tels que Le chien et le chiot ou Le bœuf et le veau: “Quoi! Nous, tes frères! / Je<br />
vais te donner un coup…” 15 Le veau, arrivé chez son oncle, “un bœuf comme tous les<br />
autres”, mais qui occupait une bonne place «aidé par le <strong>de</strong>stin», reste surpris qu’un parent a<br />
changé ses habitu<strong>de</strong>s. “Quoi! Il dort, maintenant? / […] il a changé, le monsieur…, non pas<br />
comme vous le savez…” 16<br />
Le “spectacle” <strong>de</strong> la fable est mis en scène avec un excellent sens <strong>de</strong> la morale et <strong>de</strong>s<br />
situations, car l’auteur est bien conscient <strong>de</strong> la “manipulation” par sa langue.<br />
Habituellement, ses écrits commencent par une mise en question directe du sujet, en attirant<br />
l’attention par la formule <strong>de</strong> début, tout comme dans les contes <strong>de</strong> fées: “Dans les temps<br />
anciens, toutes les bêtes, / Dégoûtées du Roi lion...” (L’éléphant) ou comme une réflexion:<br />
“je ne vois plus <strong>de</strong> miracles à nos jours”. (La hache et la forêt). Parfois, Alexandrescu utilise<br />
le ton du narrateur, comme un conseiller d’enfants: “Le loup, <strong>de</strong> toute la bêtise / Gouvernait<br />
le pays”. (Le chien pourchassé).<br />
Les animaux personnages mettent en évi<strong>de</strong>nce les aspects du comportement humain,<br />
en particulier la conduite négative. L’éléphant - “tête dure”, chef du royaume, désigne le<br />
loup comme “ministre <strong>de</strong>s moutons”. Quand les autres animaux viennent se plaindre chez le<br />
maître que ”les moutons sont mala<strong>de</strong>s“ et que ”les agneaux sont abattus“, le roi écoute son<br />
ministre qui répond sincèrement qu’il ne prend qu’ [...] ”une peau <strong>de</strong> mouton, comme<br />
d’habitu<strong>de</strong>“. 17 (L’éléphant)<br />
Dans une autre fable, Le loup moraliste, le roi loup convoque «une réunion publique»,<br />
car il a entendu que ”les responsables poilus“ font rages et que ”la loi est faite à l’ai<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>s<br />
griffes“, puis il commence à prêcher sur la modération et les bonnes mœurs, mais portant<br />
lui-même ”une veste <strong>de</strong> mouton écorché.“ Ainsi, le loup est <strong>de</strong>mandé par un autre, plus<br />
vieux, qui ”faisait l’éloge du travail“, d’où il avait acheté ”son manteau en peau <strong>de</strong> mouton»,<br />
occasion pour l’auteur <strong>de</strong> conclure: ”Quand votre manteau est en peau <strong>de</strong> mouton, /<br />
Assurez-vous ensuite que les juges tirent les boutons. “ 18<br />
La démagogie est un autre objectif <strong>de</strong>s fables. Le renard dans Le renard libéral parle<br />
sur le manque <strong>de</strong> raison, mais il est ”mis au service au département <strong>de</strong>s volailles“ et il cesse<br />
alors toute critique. Par ailleurs, la morale <strong>de</strong> la fable d’Alexandrescu concernait directement<br />
ses contemporains: ”Je sais que beaucoup <strong>de</strong> libéraux parlent en vain / Mais d’un os ils se<br />
noient à la fin.“ 19<br />
La fable La hache et la forêt révèle, <strong>de</strong> manière allégorique, les circonstances<br />
répréhensibles <strong>de</strong> l’époque. Les actes patriotiques, tels que ceux liés à la Révolution <strong>de</strong> 1848<br />
et le syndicat ont été sapés non seulement par les étrangers, mais aussi par <strong>de</strong>s ”citoyens<br />
d’entre nous, <strong>de</strong>venus <strong>de</strong>s traîtres“. 20<br />
Un thème <strong>de</strong> prédilection <strong>de</strong> Gr. Alexandrescu est représenté par l’arrogance. Le bœuf<br />
<strong>de</strong> la fable Le bœuf et le veau ne reconnaît plus son neveu, le veau arrivé pour <strong>de</strong>man<strong>de</strong>r<br />
”un peu <strong>de</strong> foin“, en déclarant qu’il n’a pas <strong>de</strong> tels parents. Alors, il ordonne à ses sujets <strong>de</strong><br />
”l’éloigner.“ 21<br />
L’égalité entre les adultes <strong>de</strong> la court est tenue par le grand chien Samson, qui est prêt<br />
d’appliquer la peine la plus sévère au chiot Samurache; ce <strong>de</strong>rnier avait osé lui s’adresser par<br />
l’appellation ”frère“ : ”Quoi ! Nous, tes frères! / Je vais te donner un coup…“ 22 (Le chien et<br />
le chiot)<br />
Le caractère dominant <strong>de</strong>s fables d’Alexandrescu est représenté par le comique <strong>de</strong><br />
caractère et <strong>de</strong> situation. Les personnages sont bien individualisés et l’action est bien située.<br />
L’individualisation est cependant limitée par les espèces spécifiques en jeu, allégoriques. Les<br />
personnages font partie du mon<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>s animaux auxquels le folklore et le discours normal,<br />
31
populaire, offrent certains traits (le lion symbolise la force, le renard - la ruse, l’âne et le bœuf<br />
- la bêtise). Pourtant, il y a dans les fables d’Alexandrescu une telle individualisation et un<br />
langage comique qui placent les personnages dans une époque différente : les conseillers du<br />
roi lui s’adressent <strong>de</strong> manière fausse élégante, ”Vous, monsieur le bœuf“ et, ce <strong>de</strong>rnier, ”au<br />
cours du Carême“ apprend que son neveu est venu lui rendre visite: il s’agit du fils <strong>de</strong> Mme<br />
la Vache.<br />
Le changement <strong>de</strong> registre langagier se réalise dans certaines fables qui proposent<br />
comme thème la presse officielle <strong>de</strong> l’époque. Ce thème se retrouve comme symbole dans Le<br />
peintre et le portrait: ”Lorsque le beau <strong>de</strong>vient laid, le peintre prend un bon salaire: / T’es<br />
noir, il te fait blanc; t’es faible, il te fera grossir…“ 23<br />
Une place différente occupe Satire. A mon esprit où le commentaire satirique refait<br />
fidèlement l’image <strong>de</strong>s salons <strong>de</strong> 1840. Le raffinement du mon<strong>de</strong> occi<strong>de</strong>ntal – concrétisé en<br />
jeu <strong>de</strong> cartes, flirt, danse, mo<strong>de</strong> – est refusé: les dames jouent au whist, conscientes que ”la<br />
vie passe“. Un jeune homme galant et élégant porte <strong>de</strong>s vêtements cousus à Paris. Le<br />
bavardage et le snobisme sont propres aux salons; les <strong>de</strong>moiselles prétentieuses ne parlent à<br />
personne pendant toute une semaine lorsqu’elles ont l’occasion et l’honneur d’être<br />
remarquées par un jeune homme ”<strong>de</strong> bonne famille“. Dans ce con<strong>text</strong>e, la critique <strong>de</strong> l’auteur<br />
prend la forme <strong>de</strong>s reproches faits d’une manière humoristique. Ainsi, le poète fait preuve<br />
d’une bonne conduite en société: au whist (ou ”vist“), il gagne toujours, tandis qu’à la danse<br />
il séduit toutes les dames. Au contraire, il ne peut pas ignorer les situations ridicules partout<br />
où il y en a le cas. 24 Ainsi, la satire <strong>de</strong>vient une série <strong>de</strong> scènes: les cartes à jouer, le jeune<br />
homme qui se moque <strong>de</strong>s dames, la danse, la conversation, tout dans le même décor – les<br />
salons bourgeois d’autrefois.<br />
La contribution <strong>de</strong> Gr. Alexandrescu au développement <strong>de</strong>s moyens artistiques est<br />
incontestable. La critique littéraire a été d’avis que ”son travail a conduit à l’enrichissement<br />
<strong>de</strong> la langue roumaine, mais d’une manière négative au niveau <strong>de</strong> la versification“ 25 ;<br />
pourtant, le poète s’est avéré être un chercheur <strong>de</strong> la langue et du langage artistique. Sa<br />
contribution la plus gran<strong>de</strong> a été au niveau stylistique, sur les moyens comiques, par la<br />
manipulation <strong>de</strong> l’ironie et <strong>de</strong> l’humour, compte tenant <strong>de</strong> la place que le langage occupe<br />
dans les versets satiriques écrits à la première personne. D’ailleurs, le comique tient à la<br />
manière <strong>de</strong> savoir raconter et d’apprécier, tout aussi que le comique est fourni par<br />
l’utilisation inattendue du ton familier, léger.<br />
Pour conclure, on peut affirmer que l’œuvre d’Alexandrescu reste le témoignage d’un<br />
travail assidu. Son rôle a été important pour ”le <strong>de</strong>stin“ du XIX e siècle, en restant un poète<br />
toujours actuel.<br />
Notes<br />
Şerban Cioculescu, Istoria literaturii române mo<strong>de</strong>rne, Eminescu, Bucureşti, 1985, p. 10<br />
2 Vatra (L’Âtre), no 4/ avril 2008, p. 21<br />
3 Paul Cornea, Originile romantismului românesc, Cartea românească, Bucureşti, 2008, p. 370-371<br />
4 Teodor Vârgolici, Aspecte ale romanului românesc din secolul al XIX-lea, Eminescu, Bucureşti, 1985,<br />
p. 32<br />
5 Nicolae Iorga, Istoria literaturii româneti. Arta şi literatura românilor, Editura Fundaţiei Culturale<br />
Române, Bucureşti, 1999, p. 161<br />
6 Nicolae Manolescu, Poeţi romantici, Editura Fundaţiei Culturale Române, Bucureşti, 1999, p. 76<br />
7 Al. Piru, Istoria literaturii române <strong>de</strong> la început până azi, Univers, Bucureşti, 1981, p. 63<br />
8 Ghe. Adamescu, Istoria literaturii române, Eminescu, Bucureşti, 1998, p. 136<br />
9Şerban Cioculescu, Vladimir Streinu, Tudor Vianu, Istoria literaturii române mo<strong>de</strong>rne, Eminescu,<br />
Bucureşti, 1985, p. 45<br />
10 Nicolae Manolescu, œuvre citée, p. 92<br />
11 Gr. Alexandrescu, Satiră. Duhului meu, Porto-Franco, Galaţi, 1993, p. 44<br />
32
12 Ibi<strong>de</strong>m, p. 63<br />
3 Silvian Iosifescu, Gr. Alexandrescu, Editura tineretului, Bucureşti, 1965, p. 100<br />
4 Gr. Alexandrescu, œuvre citée, p. 45<br />
5 Gr. Alexandrescu, œuvre citée, p. 84<br />
6 Ibi<strong>de</strong>m, p. 89<br />
7 Ibi<strong>de</strong>m, p. 76<br />
18 Ibi<strong>de</strong>m, p. 88<br />
19 Ibi<strong>de</strong>m, p. 91<br />
20 Gr. Alexandrescu, Opere, volumul I, Editura <strong>de</strong> stat pentru literatură şi artă, Bucureşti, 1957, p. 75<br />
2 Ibi<strong>de</strong>m, p. 89<br />
22 Ibi<strong>de</strong>m, p. 84<br />
23 Ibi<strong>de</strong>m, p. 324<br />
24 Ibi<strong>de</strong>m, pp. 190-191<br />
25 Ibi<strong>de</strong>m, p. 36<br />
Bibliographie sélective<br />
Adamescu, Gh. (1998). Istoria literaturii române, Bucureşti: Eminescu.<br />
Alexandrescu, Gr.(1957). Opere, tom I, Bucureşti: Editura <strong>de</strong> Stat pentru Literaturǎ şi Artǎ.<br />
Alexandrescu, Gr.(1993). Satiră. Duhului meu, Galaţi: Porto-Franco.<br />
Cioculescu, Ş., Streinu, V., Vianu, T. (1985). Istoria literaturii române, Bucureşti: Eminescu.<br />
Cioculescu, Ş. (1985). Istoria literaturii române mo<strong>de</strong>rne, Bucureşti: Eminescu.<br />
Cornea, P. (2008). Originile romantismului românesc, Bucureşti: Cartea Româneascǎ.<br />
Iorga, N. (1999). Istoria literaturii româneşti. Arta şi literatura românilor, Bucureşti: Editura Fundaţiei<br />
Culturale Roumâne.<br />
Iosifescu, S. (1965). Gr. Alexandrescu, Bucureşti: Editura Tineretului.<br />
Manolescu, N. (1999). Poeţi romantici, Bucureşti: Editura Fundaţiei Culturale Roumâne.<br />
Piru, Al. (1981). Istoria literaturii române <strong>de</strong> la început până azi, Bucureşti: Univers.<br />
* * * * * Vatra, no 4/ avril 2008<br />
Vârgolici, T. (1985). Aspecte ale romanului românesc din secolul al XIX-lea, Bucureşti: Eminescu.<br />
Abstract<br />
Grigore Alexandrescu played an important role in the lyrical <strong>de</strong>stiny of the 19 th century, being<br />
consi<strong>de</strong>red as the poet of his time. The content of his work was not only meant to outline opinions<br />
and to educate but also to entertain. Obviously influenced by La Fontaine’s literary creation, the<br />
Romanian author succee<strong>de</strong>d in creating a political satire of his times, presenting a conflict of i<strong>de</strong>as<br />
(usually as a dialogue) or imagining dramatic political confrontations which had an immediate<br />
impact, being, most frequently, unexpected for the rea<strong>de</strong>r. The refined allusions and the poetical<br />
language intertwined with satirical notes reveal an important element peculiar to Alexandrescu:<br />
the irony of a witty person who knows how to make jokes by means of puns.<br />
Résumé<br />
Grigore Alexandrescu a joué un rôle important dans le <strong>de</strong>stin lyrique du XIX e siècle, étant<br />
considéré comme un poète à l’époque actuelle. Le contenu <strong>de</strong> son travail a, en plus <strong>de</strong> la mission <strong>de</strong><br />
former et d’éduquer un rôle différent, plus important encore: celui <strong>de</strong> divertir.<br />
Visiblement influencé par l’œuvre <strong>de</strong> La Fontaine, l’écrivain roumain a réussi à réaliser une satire<br />
politique <strong>de</strong> son temps, en présentant un conflit d’idées versifiées (habituellement sous la forme du<br />
dialogue) ou en imaginant <strong>de</strong>s affrontements politiques dramatiques, mais avec un résultat<br />
immédiat et, le plus souvent, inattendu pour le lecteur. Les allusions fines et le langage poétique<br />
entrecoupé <strong>de</strong> notes satiriques „trahissent” un élément important d’Alexandrescu: l’ironie d’un<br />
homme d’esprit qui sait plaisanter par <strong>de</strong>s jeux <strong>de</strong> mots.<br />
33
Rezumat<br />
Grigore Alexandrescu a jucat un rol important în <strong>de</strong>stinul liric al secolului al XIX-lea, fiind<br />
consi<strong>de</strong>rat un poet al epocii actuale. Conţinutul lucrărilor sale are, pe lângă misiunea <strong>de</strong> a forma si<br />
educa, un rol mai important, acela <strong>de</strong> a distra.<br />
Vizibil influenţat <strong>de</strong> opera lui La Fontaine, scriitorul român a reuşit să realizeze o satiră politică a<br />
timpului său, prezentând, în formă versificată, un conflict <strong>de</strong> i<strong>de</strong>i (cel mai frecvent, sub forma<br />
unui dialog) sau imaginând confruntări politice dramatice, cu rezultat imediat şi, cel mai a<strong>de</strong>sea,<br />
neaşteptat pentru cititor. Aluziile fine şi limbajul poetic întretăiat <strong>de</strong> note satirice «tră<strong>de</strong>ază» un<br />
element important al operei lui Alexandrescu : iromia unui om <strong>de</strong> spirit care ştie să glumească<br />
prin intermediul jocurilor <strong>de</strong> cuvinte.<br />
34
Annals of “Dunărea <strong>de</strong> <strong>Jos</strong>” University of GALAŢI<br />
Fascicle XIII, New Series.<br />
Issue 28, XVI (XXVII), 2009<br />
pp. 35-38<br />
FRACTAL EXTENSIONS WITHIN THE LITERARY TEXT<br />
Nicoleta Ifrim<br />
Language<br />
and<br />
Literature<br />
The fractal theory relates to a specific view on the "natural consciousness", now<br />
focused on as inherently fractal, fragmented and broken up into irregular fragments.<br />
For a fractal as a geometric figure not only does it have irregular shapes - the zig-zag<br />
world of nature - but a hid<strong>de</strong>n or<strong>de</strong>r of these irregular shapes is lurking in that disor<strong>de</strong>r. The<br />
irregular patters are self-similar over scales. The overall pattern of a fractal is repeated, with<br />
similarity, and sometimes even with exactitu<strong>de</strong>, when one looks at a small part of the figure.<br />
It ren<strong>de</strong>rs recursive structures. For instance, if one looks at the irregular shape of a mountain,<br />
and then he looks closer at a small part of the mountain, he will find the same basic shape of<br />
the whole mountain repeated on a smaller scale. When you look closer still you see the same<br />
shape again, and so on to infinity. This happens within the Man<strong>de</strong>lbrot itself where there is<br />
an infinite number of smaller Man<strong>de</strong>lbrot shapes hid<strong>de</strong>n everywhere within the zig-zaggy,<br />
spiral edges of the overall form.<br />
As Man<strong>de</strong>lbrot points out, this i<strong>de</strong>a of recursive self-similarity was originally <strong>de</strong>veloped<br />
by the philosopher Leibniz, but it also can be related to Goethe’s organicist view. Another<br />
basic principle that gives essence to the fractalic perspective is that entropic disor<strong>de</strong>r plays a<br />
constructive way in creating or<strong>de</strong>r. A new approach has been born, as it requires, as N.<br />
Katherine Hayles says, ”a shift from the individual unit to recursive symmetries between<br />
scale levels” (Hayles 1990: 13). That means that the reserch discourse is now focused on the<br />
similarities which are replicated across the scale levels of a system, be it existential, social or<br />
cultural. The phenomena associated to the scale-<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt symmetries are characteristic to a<br />
fractal point of view.<br />
Therefore, the necessary coexistence of the two ways of approaching fractals in<br />
literature brings about the concept of continuity in rupture which appears to be the only<br />
productive critical pattern suiting the purposes of our approach. Thus, what mathematics<br />
and the science of fractals have finally revealed can be applied in interpreting literature,<br />
namely that: the "microcosm" (the literary <strong>text</strong>) which is smaller or drawn at a lower-level, is<br />
essentially similar to the "macrocosm" (the real world) which is larger and/or levelled<br />
higher; the latter is not somehow superior to the former by virtue of size or level; the<br />
dynamics of literary <strong>de</strong>velopment are such that the macrocosm springs from and is<br />
groun<strong>de</strong>d in the microcosm, not the other way around (the fictionalised real world). What<br />
Blaise Pascal, the French mathematician and philosopher, observed over three centuries ago<br />
can now be truly noted: "Nature (n.b. literature) imitates herself. A grain thrown onto good<br />
ground brings forth fruit; a principle thrown into a good mind brings forth fruit. Everything<br />
is created and conducted by the same Master - the root, the branch, the fruits, the principles,<br />
the consequences."<br />
In our view, literature is a fractal object due to the following arguments: it is subjected<br />
to specific tensional fields such as unforeseeability, <strong>de</strong>viation, ambiguity, its critical<br />
interpretation displays rea<strong>de</strong>r-centrism and hazard, being structured as a fragment ma<strong>de</strong> up of<br />
fragments, the literary work creates a fluctuating geometrical space (different interpretations,<br />
open ends, puzzle-like structures, disseminated characters), the fractal potentiality can be<br />
35
applied in re-interpreting classical works, the contemporary literature becomes an<br />
intermediate fractality within the infinite possible fractalities such as the historical, cultural<br />
or artistic ones.<br />
One can also notice that fractality is complementarily bi-dimensional. There is an overt<br />
fractal literarity as well as a covert one. The former occurs especially in the postmo<strong>de</strong>rn<br />
literature, where the skeptical solution of the mo<strong>de</strong>rnists, who witnessed the failuire of their<br />
utopias, is replaced by the resurrection of the secondary, the fragment and the marginal, by<br />
disregarding hierarchies so that new sensibility might be said to be fractal, post-dichotomist and<br />
post-reductive (Monica Spiridon). The latter is implied by literature in general as its intrinsec<br />
feature.<br />
Un<strong>de</strong>r these circumstances, the literary work reveals itself as a continuum which<br />
ren<strong>de</strong>rs the multiplication of the same root-theme, also structured by means of a collage of<br />
mises en abyme that can make up a liminal sub<strong>text</strong> <strong>de</strong>veloping the main <strong>text</strong>ual i<strong>de</strong>a in<br />
infinite variations and inversions. Being a „major mechanism of <strong>text</strong>ual self-reflection”, as<br />
Stephanie Sieburth puts it, the mise en abyme technique can be <strong>de</strong>fined as a „ <strong>text</strong>ual segment<br />
which constitutes a microcosm, a schematic, con<strong>de</strong>nsed version of the entire <strong>text</strong> as<br />
macrocosm” (Sánchez 1992: 259). This concept is compatible with the i<strong>de</strong>a of a fractal, as both<br />
relate to a <strong>text</strong>ual representation whose complexity can be best approached by regarding at<br />
its inner self-similarity across <strong>text</strong>ual levels. The recursive symmetries of the <strong>text</strong>-system turn<br />
into a puzzle of mutually referential fragments with no dominating voice. From this point of<br />
view, Sieburth <strong>de</strong>scribes the novel as a dynamic, non-liniar system, predominantly fractal, as<br />
it grows out of the infinite replicas of the main story, thematic variations that always reflect<br />
the <strong>text</strong>ual whole. The critic illustrates these i<strong>de</strong>as within Clarín’s novel, La Regenta, where<br />
she notes that<br />
”the meaning of any given fragment constantly shifts, changes, even inverts, <strong>de</strong>pending<br />
on which other fragment is juxtaposed with it (...). Continual dialectic of diversity and<br />
similarity, and the freedom of juxtaposition resulting from the breakdown of the <strong>text</strong>’s<br />
liniarity, cause La Regenta to be a constantly changing body, whose meaning is never<br />
static and <strong>de</strong>terminable, but always being created and dissolving as different segments<br />
are juxtaposed.” (Sánchez 1992: 260)<br />
Dällenbach’s second type of mise en abyme comes into discussion here, namely the<br />
repeated reflection, as the inner <strong>text</strong>ual secquence not only reflects the enclosing <strong>text</strong>, but in its<br />
turn inclu<strong>de</strong>s a fragment which reflects infinitly the reflecting level. Man<strong>de</strong>lbrot’s fractals are<br />
ma<strong>de</strong> up in the same way, as they can be projecting a multitu<strong>de</strong> of specular metaphors that<br />
share the infinite return of cvasi-i<strong>de</strong>ntical forms.[1] Elisabeth Sánchez says that<br />
”the internal mirror, regardless of the aspect of the <strong>text</strong> at which it is aimed, may create<br />
the impression of a faithful copy, but the duplication will always be inexact – a bare<br />
outline, a con<strong>de</strong>nsation, a partial reflection, perhaps even a polar opposite. The <strong>text</strong>ual<br />
mirror provi<strong>de</strong>s only the suggestion of i<strong>de</strong>ntity, but minds bent on finding i<strong>de</strong>ntical<br />
structures will in<strong>de</strong>ed find them, perhaps at the expense of noting the differences. For<br />
this reason, I think that the difference I outlined between the self-reflecting <strong>text</strong> as<br />
<strong>de</strong>fined by the mise en abyme and the quasi-self-similar, mind-boggling structures which<br />
constitute a typical fractal is not so much a difference in kind as one of emphasis. The<br />
shift in emphasis, I believe, corresponds to the transition between structuralism and<br />
poststructuralism. Because our un<strong>de</strong>rstanding of literary <strong>text</strong>s has evolved since the time<br />
Dällenbach pinned down the mise en abyme, our use of the term has also evolved, and it<br />
has evolved in the direction of the fractal. Our <strong>text</strong>ual mirrors are no longer smoothsurfaced,<br />
static reflectors emitting images of unified, regularly self-embedding and<br />
enclosed structures. They have become turbulent and fractured, and the images they<br />
project are of a <strong>text</strong> which is fragmented, dynamic, unpredictable, in<strong>de</strong>terminate, open,<br />
36
and much more complex than many of us had once imagined. Fractal, then may be the<br />
better term (...). Within these <strong>text</strong>ual bounds, an infinite number of <strong>text</strong>s is possible. This<br />
is the beauty of the fractal: it allows for the possibility of infinitu<strong>de</strong> circumscribed within<br />
a finite area.” (Sánchez 1992:261-2)<br />
Or, in the same sense,<br />
”All elements in the novel are part of a network of relations and not entities complete in<br />
themselves. Characters are shown to be merely particular instances of recurring patterns,<br />
while the <strong>text</strong> can be seen to break up into mutually reflecting segments which, like the<br />
characters, participate in an interrelated whole. I realize, of course, that all literary <strong>text</strong>s<br />
are networks of relations, but [...] La Regenta invites us to become aware of its reflexive<br />
structure as well as of the relational nature of its characters.” (Sánchez 1996:6)<br />
Another novel, Pedro Páramo, makes Elisabeth Sánchez note that<br />
”In such a novel as Pedro Páramo, where boundaries dissolve and imagined wholes break<br />
up into fragments that echo each other and one another without ever quite connecting<br />
(except, perhaps, in the mind of the rea<strong>de</strong>r), the notion of fractal spaces – spaces that lie<br />
in the interstices of our thought categories – is ma<strong>de</strong> to or<strong>de</strong>r. We might say that Rulfo<br />
has produced an artistic object that looks very much like a fractal in its unwieldy surface<br />
structure, and that he has intentionally increased the complexity of his work by first<br />
breaking the story into bits and pieces, which in turn may contain smaller, self-similar<br />
bits and pieces, and then or<strong>de</strong>ring the segments in such a manner that they reveal much<br />
more about his story, and in fewer words, than a traditional sequential or<strong>de</strong>ring would.<br />
Whereas it is possible to view the novel as a mosaic to be pieced toghether, or as a broken<br />
mirror, I prefer the metaphor of the fractal, precisely because it brings the i<strong>de</strong>a of the<br />
mirror into play by inviting rea<strong>de</strong>rs to look for recursive symmetry, at the same time that<br />
it suggests a comparison with the mosaic, whose fractured pieces rea<strong>de</strong>rs must reor<strong>de</strong>r<br />
one by one if they hope to discover a recognizable form hid<strong>de</strong>n within fragments.”<br />
(Sánchez 1996: 232)<br />
The act of reading itself seems to bear spectral and fractal features as well. In this<br />
perspective, the <strong>text</strong> to be interpreted surpasses its traditional linear and static characteristics<br />
to turn into a process,<br />
”a fractal in motion, an evolving shape (...). Whether we are attempting to represent our<br />
diachronic movement through the <strong>text</strong> or our synchronic overview of its parts, we always<br />
must do so by imagining or drawing forms in space, and, as we have seen, the form that<br />
best captures the temporal doubling (the spiral) is much more complex than it first<br />
seemed. It is more complex because we have become aware that it is possible to focus on<br />
different aspects or levels of the <strong>text</strong> and to chart their behavior over time. When we<br />
recognize the correspon<strong>de</strong>nces in behavior between the parts and levels (the repetitions<br />
with variations), we return to a synchronic reading. In this we are very much like the<br />
fractal geometricians who likewise have shifted their attention to consi<strong>de</strong>r what is going<br />
on between scale levels.” (Sánchez 1993: 203)<br />
Or<br />
„we can draw maps of our temporal movement through the <strong>text</strong>, following the<br />
plot of a novel, for example, or tracing patterns of imagery or recurring themes; or we can<br />
draw a mo<strong>de</strong>l of relationships among parts or between parts and the whole. There are<br />
many ways that a literary <strong>text</strong> can be represented as a form moving through space or as a<br />
form that the critic has frozen momentarily in or<strong>de</strong>r to examine the relationships between<br />
37
its parts. We should not forget, however, that our diagrams will be mere approximations<br />
of the infinitely rich and complex process of reading–of constructing a world through our<br />
interpretation of verbal signs and continually restructuring that world as our reading<br />
progresses.” (Sánchez 1993: 198-9)<br />
Note<br />
1) See also Antofi S.: The Poetical Discourse – Galati: Europlus, 2005<br />
References<br />
Hayles, N.H. (1990). Chaos Bound: Or<strong>de</strong>rly Disor<strong>de</strong>r in Contemporary Literature and Science, Ithaca:<br />
Cornell University Press.<br />
Sánchez, E. (1992). ”La Regenta as Fractal” in Revista <strong>de</strong> Estudios Hispánicos, 26, 259.<br />
Sánchez, E. (1992). ”Or<strong>de</strong>r/Disor<strong>de</strong>r and Complexity in La Regenta: A Case for Spiraling Outward<br />
and Upward”, in South Central Review. The Journal of the South Central Mo<strong>de</strong>rn Language Association,<br />
13, 4, 6.<br />
Sánchez, E. (1993). ”Spatial Forms and Fractals: A Reconsi<strong>de</strong>ration of Azorín’s Doña Inés”, in Journal of<br />
Interdisciplinary Literary Studies: Innovative Approaches to Hispanic Literature, 5, 2, 203.<br />
Abstract<br />
Against the background of contemporary morphogenetic sciences, the theory of fractals brings up a<br />
new perspective on natural objects generating different processes which can no longer be discussed<br />
in terms of the Eucli<strong>de</strong>an geometry. B.Man<strong>de</strong>lbrot, the foun<strong>de</strong>r of this theory, said that various<br />
natural forms have irregular, fragmented structures so that Nature bears a higher qualitative level<br />
of intrinsec complexity than the one ren<strong>de</strong>red by the Eucli<strong>de</strong>an geometry. Thus, the theory of<br />
fractals bears a <strong>de</strong>eper level of structuring world which turns into a multi-faceted complexity of<br />
forms and meanings. Man<strong>de</strong>lbrot shows mathematically and graphically how nature uses the<br />
fractal dimensions and what he calls self-constrained chance to create the complex and irregular<br />
forms of the real world.<br />
Résumé<br />
Dans le con<strong>text</strong>e général <strong>de</strong>s sciences morphogénétiques contemporaines, la théorie <strong>de</strong>s fractales<br />
ouvre une nouvelle perspective sur les objets naturels, en générant <strong>de</strong>s procès qu’on peut plus<br />
analyser dans les termes <strong>de</strong> la géométrie euclidienne. B. Man<strong>de</strong>lbrot, le créateur <strong>de</strong> cette théorie,<br />
soutient que les différentes formes naturelles ont une structure fragmentaire et irrégulière, et que<br />
l’espace naturel relève un niveau qualitatif intrinsèque <strong>de</strong> complexité tout à fait différente <strong>de</strong> celui<br />
montre par le filtre euclidien. Ainsi, la théorie <strong>de</strong> fractales développe une image ordonnée du<br />
mon<strong>de</strong> dans un univers avec <strong>de</strong>s multiples facettes <strong>de</strong>s formes et significations. Man<strong>de</strong>lbrot<br />
démontre a l’ai<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>s mathématiques et graphiquement la manière dans laquelle la nature utilise la<br />
dimension fractale pour re-créer les formes complexes et irrégulières <strong>de</strong> l’univers.<br />
Rezumat<br />
În con<strong>text</strong>ul general al ştiinţelor morfogenetice contemporane, teoria fractalilor oferă o nouă<br />
perspectivă asupra obiectelor naturale, generând diferite procese care nu mai pot fi analizate în<br />
termenii geometriei euclidiene liniare. B.Man<strong>de</strong>lbrot, fondatorul acestei teorii, afirmă ca variatele<br />
forme naturale au structură fragmentară şi iregulată, încât spaţiul natural relevă un nivel<br />
calitativ intrinsec <strong>de</strong> complexitate total diferit <strong>de</strong>cât cel evi<strong>de</strong>nţiat prin filtrul euclidian. Astfel,<br />
teoria fractalilor <strong>de</strong>zvoltă o imagine a lumii ordonată într-un univers multifaţetat <strong>de</strong> forme şi<br />
semnificaţii. Man<strong>de</strong>lbrot <strong>de</strong>monstrează matematic şi grafic modul în care natura foloseşte<br />
dimensiunea fractală pentru a re-crea formele complexe şi iregulate ale universului.<br />
38
Annals of “Dunărea <strong>de</strong> <strong>Jos</strong>” University of GALAŢI<br />
Fascicle XIII, New Series.<br />
Issue 28, XVI (XXVII), 2009<br />
pp. 39-42<br />
39<br />
Language<br />
and<br />
Literature<br />
DAS BILD NAPOLEONS IN DER DEUTSCHEN LITERATUR<br />
Gabriel Isto<strong>de</strong><br />
“Egal wie stark sie meine Verdienste vermin<strong>de</strong>rn, ob sie mich<br />
beiseitezuschaffen o<strong>de</strong>r zu verstümmeln versuchen, es wird sehr schwer sein,<br />
mich ganz und gar zum Verschwin<strong>de</strong>n zu bringen. Der französische Historiker<br />
wird verpflichtet sein, sich mit <strong>de</strong>m Kaiserreich zu beschäftigen und, wenn er ein<br />
Herz haben sollte, wird er gezwungen sein, mir etwas zurückzugeben, und mir<br />
mein Recht zu gewähren. “<br />
Napoleon I. Bonaparte<br />
Epos, Drama und Lyrik haben sich mit <strong>de</strong>m Leben Napoleons beschäftigt, sowohl in<br />
<strong>de</strong>r Zeit seines Lebens als auch nach seinem To<strong>de</strong>. Wenn zur Zeit seines Lebens ein<br />
Hassgefühl bei <strong>de</strong>n feindlichen Völkern sich leicht bemerkbar macht, schon mit <strong>de</strong>m To<strong>de</strong><br />
<strong>de</strong>s großen Menschen vermin<strong>de</strong>rt und eben verliert sich dieses Gefühl zugunsten <strong>de</strong>s Hel<strong>de</strong>n<br />
und <strong>de</strong>s Genies: “ … die Musen wer<strong>de</strong>n bessere Sänger zum Feier ihres Lieblings begeistern,<br />
und wenn einst Menschen verstummen, so sprechen die Steine…“<br />
Hellere o<strong>de</strong>r düstere Farben spiegeln Napoleon nach <strong>de</strong>r politischen Richtung <strong>de</strong>s<br />
Autors: Einerseits bleiben die begeisterten Dichter Italiens und Polens, die ihn für ein Symbol<br />
<strong>de</strong>s nationalen Freiheitskampfes hielten, dann die, die in ihm <strong>de</strong>n Mann mit einem Herz für<br />
sein Volk und für seine getreuen Grenadiere und Invali<strong>de</strong>n sahen und nicht letzendlich die,<br />
die das Genie und <strong>de</strong>n großen Hel<strong>de</strong>n <strong>de</strong>s Jahrhun<strong>de</strong>rts verstan<strong>de</strong>n und ehrlich schätzen<br />
wollten.<br />
Zu dieser III. Kategorie könnten wir auch Heine zählen, wenn man nicht so stark in<br />
Anbetracht nimmt - wie einige behaupten - dass er Napoleon verehrte, weil er <strong>de</strong>n Ju<strong>de</strong>n<br />
seiner Heimat die bürgerliche Gleichberechtigung gebracht hätte.<br />
An<strong>de</strong>rerseits stan<strong>de</strong>n Bourbonentreue, Liberale und Napoleons Gegner, Anhänger <strong>de</strong>r<br />
Revolution (in Frankreich) und meistens englische o<strong>de</strong>r politisch gegnerisch - orientierte<br />
Schriftsteller. Lyriker <strong>de</strong>r Befreiungskriege, wie Kleist, Körner, Arndt, Rückert und<br />
Schenkendorf entwickelten in Preußen dieses negative Napoleon-Bild. So wur<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>r Held,<br />
das Genie, <strong>de</strong>r Titan mit seinen großen Leistungen, <strong>de</strong>r Volkskaiser mit seinem Mythos, <strong>de</strong>r<br />
Sieger und <strong>de</strong>r Herrscher, <strong>de</strong>m Renegaten, <strong>de</strong>m Immoralisten, <strong>de</strong>m Attila und Tamerlan, <strong>de</strong>m<br />
Tyrannen, Nationalfeind, Gotteslästerer und Menschenverächter entgegengestellt.<br />
Die Zeit und die Geschichte haben doch – so wie es aussieht – <strong>de</strong>n zuerst genannten<br />
Kombatanten mehr Achtung und Anerkennung erwiesen.<br />
In <strong>de</strong>r <strong>de</strong>utschen Literatur belegen Höl<strong>de</strong>rlins Hymnen: Bonaparte und Dem<br />
Allgenannten (1798), wie sehr <strong>de</strong>r Aufstieg <strong>de</strong>s Generals die Miterleben<strong>de</strong>n blen<strong>de</strong>te. Wie<br />
weit sich auch in <strong>de</strong>r jüngst wie<strong>de</strong>rgefun<strong>de</strong>nen Frie<strong>de</strong>nsfeier das Bild <strong>de</strong>s Völkerbezwingers<br />
spiegelt, ist umstritten. Die Lyriker <strong>de</strong>r Befreiungskriege entwickeln das negative Napoleon<br />
Bild zu einer gewissen literarischen Höhe und zu schärferen Umrissen. Das Bild behielt aber
die einseitig gesteigerten Züge <strong>de</strong>s Nationalfein<strong>de</strong>s und Tyrannen, <strong>de</strong>s Menschenverchters<br />
und Gotteslästerers, <strong>de</strong>ssen militärischer Größe man, nach Kleist, erst Bewun<strong>de</strong>rung zollen<br />
könne, wenn er gestürzt sei.<br />
Diesem negativen Bild stehen entgegen das zwischen Tyrannenhass und Geniekult<br />
schwanken<strong>de</strong> Napoleon-Porträt Lord Byrons - “Du mehr als Mensch, im Schlimmen wie im<br />
Guten” - (O<strong>de</strong> to Bonaparte, 1814 ) sowie Goethes Auffassung von <strong>de</strong>m “Bändiger <strong>de</strong>r<br />
Revolution” und einem <strong>de</strong>r “produktivsten Menschen”.<br />
Gedichte auf <strong>de</strong>m Tod <strong>de</strong>s großen Kaisers entstan<strong>de</strong>n mit <strong>de</strong>r Nachricht von seinem<br />
En<strong>de</strong> (F. Grillparzer, 1821; A.v. Chamisso). Byron (O<strong>de</strong> to Napoleon, 1814 und The Age of<br />
Bronce,1823) benutzter Vergleich Napoleons mit Prometheus, <strong>de</strong>r an <strong>de</strong>n Felsen geschmie<strong>de</strong>t<br />
wur<strong>de</strong>, ist häufig wie<strong>de</strong>rholt wor<strong>de</strong>n und er erscheint auch bei Heine in seiner Reise von<br />
München nach Genua:<br />
„Vielleicht nach Jahrtausen<strong>de</strong>n, wird ein spitzfindiger Schulmeister beweisen, daß<br />
<strong>de</strong>r Napoleon Bonaparte ganz i<strong>de</strong>ntisch sei mit jenem an<strong>de</strong>rn Titane, <strong>de</strong>r <strong>de</strong>n Göttern<br />
das Licht raubte und für dieses Vergehen auf einem einsamen Felsen, mitten im Meere<br />
angeschmie<strong>de</strong>t wur<strong>de</strong>, preisgegeben einem Geier, <strong>de</strong>r täglich sein Herz zerfleischte”.<br />
Ein richtiger Napoleon - Kult wird <strong>de</strong>utlich in Heines Buch Le Grand (1827) und<br />
Nordseebil<strong>de</strong>r (1827). Die großartige Persönlichkeit von Napoleon Bonaparte hat Heine<br />
eigentlich während seines ganzen Lebens beschäftigt. Das Bild <strong>de</strong>s Kaisers erscheint mit<br />
einer unablässigen Beharrlichkeit in <strong>de</strong>n verschie<strong>de</strong>nsten Werken <strong>de</strong>s Dichters: Dieses fängt<br />
mit <strong>de</strong>r berühmten Balla<strong>de</strong> Die Grenadiere (1820) an, und geht weiter mit I<strong>de</strong>en. Das Buch Le<br />
Grand (1826), Reisebil<strong>de</strong>r (1862-1831), Französische Maler (1831), Französische Zustän<strong>de</strong> (1832),<br />
Deutschland. Ein Wintermärchen (1844), Geständnisse (1854) und die monumentale Lutetia, die<br />
zwischen <strong>de</strong>n Jahren 1840 - 1846 verfasst wur<strong>de</strong> und 1854 vollständig erschienen ist. Der<br />
<strong>de</strong>utsche Schriftsteller macht <strong>de</strong>m Kaiser in einer seiner Werken ein Bild, das Napoleon uns<br />
fast zum Gott vorstellt :<br />
“…neue Geschlechter wer<strong>de</strong>n aus <strong>de</strong>r Er<strong>de</strong> hervorwachsen, wer<strong>de</strong>n schwin<strong>de</strong>lnd an<br />
jenes Bild hinaufsehen und sich wie<strong>de</strong>r in die Er<strong>de</strong> legen; -und die Zeit, unfähig, solch<br />
Bild zu zerstören, wird es in sagenhafte Nebel zu hüllen suchen, und seine ungeheure<br />
Geschichte wird endlich ein Mythos .“<br />
Das sind aber nur die be<strong>de</strong>utendsten Werke <strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong>utschen Schriftstellers, in <strong>de</strong>nen<br />
dieser sukzessive und obsessive Auftritt Napoleons o<strong>de</strong>r seines Namens eine Art Leitfa<strong>de</strong>n<br />
bil<strong>de</strong>t; es gibt aber noch viele von Heines Schriften, in <strong>de</strong>nen von Zeit zu Zeit <strong>de</strong>r Name <strong>de</strong>s<br />
großen Mannes mit Bezug auf verschie<strong>de</strong>ne Aspekte und Situationen erscheint.<br />
Es ist doch nicht nur so, dass Napoleon in <strong>de</strong>n obengenannten Werken erscheint,<br />
son<strong>de</strong>rn er wird in<strong>de</strong>ssen zu einem wahren Wertkriterium seiner Epoche.<br />
Und wo <strong>de</strong>r Kaiser Napoleon vor unseren Augen in <strong>de</strong>n ersten Schriften Heines wie<br />
Die Harzreise, I<strong>de</strong>en. Das Buch Le Grand, Die Reise von München nach Genua und Englische<br />
Fragmente unter solchen epopeischen Dimensionen enthüllt wird, wo er sich immer<br />
irgendwo zwischen einer überschwenglichen und einer pathetischen mit “mythischem<br />
Fa<strong>de</strong>n” gewebten Verherrlichung fin<strong>de</strong>t, da zeigt Heine später in seinen Französischen<br />
Zustän<strong>de</strong>n und Lutetia nur eine abweisen<strong>de</strong> Haltung, die eine stark ausgeprägte Nüchternheit<br />
bewies.<br />
So wird Napoleon “<strong>de</strong>r eiserne Mann, fußend auf seinen Kanonenruhm”, so wird er<br />
nur ein “Genie, in <strong>de</strong>ssen Haupte die Adler <strong>de</strong>r Begeisterung horsteten, während in seinem<br />
Herzen die Schlangen <strong>de</strong>s Kalküls sich ringelten”, so wird seine “Religion am En<strong>de</strong><br />
langweilig wie je<strong>de</strong> an<strong>de</strong>re”, so wird er “Feind <strong>de</strong>r Freiheit”, “Despot und gekrönte<br />
40
Selbstsucht”, und so wird <strong>de</strong>r “große Kaiser”, “stockblind für je<strong>de</strong> Erscheinung”, worin sich<br />
die Zukunft ankündigt.<br />
Das Bild <strong>de</strong>s Volkskaisers, an <strong>de</strong>n sich anekdotische Züge heften, wur<strong>de</strong> weiter in<br />
Balla<strong>de</strong> (H. Heine, Die Grenadiere, 1827; Frhr. v. Zedlitz, Die nächtliche Heerschau; F.v. Gandy,<br />
Kaiserlie<strong>de</strong>r, 1835) in Erzählung (W. Hauff, Das Bild <strong>de</strong>s Kaisers, 1828) und im Roman (F. Stolle,<br />
Napoleon in Ägypten, 1813, Elba und Waterloo, 1838–1844) verbreitet.<br />
Die Gestalt <strong>de</strong>s französischen “empereur” war bald sieghafter General, bald grimmiger<br />
Unterdrücker o<strong>de</strong>r einsamer Träumer. Die Dramatiker haben aber einerseits wegen<br />
Rücksicht auf die Zensur, an<strong>de</strong>rerseits wegen <strong>de</strong>s mangeln<strong>de</strong>n Abstan<strong>de</strong>s, <strong>de</strong>n Kaiser nur in<br />
historischer Verkleidung o<strong>de</strong>r Verschlüsselung darzustellen gewagt (Z. Werner, Attila, 1808;<br />
A. Müllner, Yngurd, 1817; F. Grillparzer, König Ottokars Glück und En<strong>de</strong>, 1825).<br />
Die erste wesentliche Dramatisierung <strong>de</strong>s Napoleon Schicksals gelang in Grabbes<br />
Napoleon o<strong>de</strong>r die hun<strong>de</strong>rt Tage (1881).<br />
Hebbel verzichtete nach langem Durch<strong>de</strong>nken <strong>de</strong>s Stoffes auf eine Gestaltung; er<br />
glaubte nicht, <strong>de</strong>m Stoff einen “i<strong>de</strong>ellen Gehalt” einimpfen zu können.<br />
Nietzsche sah in Napoleon eine Verkörperung seines Übermenschen - I<strong>de</strong>als; K.<br />
Bleibtreu zeigt in <strong>de</strong>r Tragödie Der Übermensch (1896) Napoleons glücks - tragen<strong>de</strong>s<br />
Geheimnis: seine Verbindung mit <strong>Jos</strong>éphine; die Trennung von ihr wird <strong>de</strong>m Kaiser die<br />
Wen<strong>de</strong> seiner Laufbahn bringen.<br />
Der Übermensch Napoleon präsentiert sich bei R.Voss in <strong>de</strong>m Drama Wehe <strong>de</strong>m<br />
Besiegten (1888) als sentimentaler Schwärmer, als tragischer, in <strong>de</strong>n Gegensatz von<br />
politischem Genie und leiten<strong>de</strong>m Menschen aufgespaltener Dul<strong>de</strong>r bei E. Ludwig (1906) und<br />
als seelenvoller bei C. Hauptmann in <strong>de</strong>r Dramen Bürger Bonaparte; Kaiser Napoleon (1911).<br />
Das Bild <strong>de</strong>s legendären französischen Kaisers, die dominante Figur im Werk Heinrich<br />
Heines, enthält eine Vielfältigkeit von Eigenschaften: von einem wahren Wertmassstab für<br />
die Kontemporaneität zu einem “Despoten” und einem “Feind <strong>de</strong>r Freiheit”. Am Anfang<br />
war er “je<strong>de</strong>r Zoll ein Gott”, er war <strong>de</strong>r “teure Prometheus”, einer <strong>de</strong>r “Großen dieser Er<strong>de</strong>”,<br />
<strong>de</strong>r Gulliver in unsriger “Liliput”-Welt, “<strong>de</strong>r große Kaiser”, “<strong>de</strong>r Riese unseres<br />
Jahrhun<strong>de</strong>rts”, <strong>de</strong>r “Mann, worin diese Zeit so leuchtend sich abspiegelt, daß wir dadurch<br />
fast geblen<strong>de</strong>t wer<strong>de</strong>n” und <strong>de</strong>r Mann <strong>de</strong>ssen Namen “ein Losungswort unter <strong>de</strong>n Völkern”<br />
gewor<strong>de</strong>n ist. Er war <strong>de</strong>r “sterben<strong>de</strong> Löwe”, wobei ein Gegner zum “preußischen Esel” wird.<br />
Auf <strong>de</strong>r an<strong>de</strong>ren Seite aber, H. Essig sieht in Napoleon nur einen Stellvertreter <strong>de</strong>s<br />
Teufels in seinem Drama Napoleons Aufstieg (1912). 1926 fand B.Blum das Böse nicht in<br />
Napoleons Charakter, son<strong>de</strong>rn in seinen Wirkungen, und 13 Jahre später stellt ihn uns A.<br />
Zweig in Bonaparte in Jaffa als Verräter an <strong>de</strong>n I<strong>de</strong>en <strong>de</strong>r Französischen Revolution. So ist es<br />
leicht eine Enti<strong>de</strong>alisierung <strong>de</strong>r Gestalt im 20. Jahrhun<strong>de</strong>rt zu erkennen, und Napoleon wird<br />
- wie gezeigt - als ein Unterdrücker und Räuber <strong>de</strong>r menschlichen Freiheit und ein<br />
Verhöhner <strong>de</strong>r sittlichen Werte charakterisiert.<br />
Die privaten menschlichen Züge <strong>de</strong>s großen Mannes wer<strong>de</strong>n ebenfalls gezeigt,<br />
beson<strong>de</strong>rs in K. Biesenthals Stern <strong>de</strong>s Korsen (1890), H. Bohrs <strong>Jos</strong>efine (1898), R.H. Bartschs<br />
Wenn Majestäten lieben (1949) und K. Bartzs Benimm dich, Paulette (1952); die Gestalt wur<strong>de</strong><br />
aber auch ironisch umspielt bei W. Hasenclever (Napoleon greift ein, 1929), G. Kaiser (Napoleon<br />
in New Orleans, 1941) und H. Menzel (Noch einmal Napoleon ?, 1943).<br />
Das Napoleon - Epos bil<strong>de</strong>t eine reiche, unerschöpfbare Inspirationsquelle für eine<br />
große Zahl von <strong>de</strong>n Schriftstellern <strong>de</strong>utscher, wie auch französischer, italienischer,<br />
polnischer und russischer Zunge. Die Weltliteratur - man darf es sagen - ist viel reicher<br />
gewor<strong>de</strong>n nach dieser Napoleon - Ära und vielleicht wird Name Napoleon noch lange Zeit<br />
an von nun an in Schriften vieler Län<strong>de</strong>r erscheinen. Man kann heutzutage ruhig behaupten,<br />
dass die Zahl <strong>de</strong>r Werke, in <strong>de</strong>nen Napoleon als Vor<strong>de</strong>rgrunds-, Rand- o<strong>de</strong>r Neben- und<br />
Hintergrundsfigur auftritt, kaum erstellbar ist.<br />
Und wenn wir doch die positiven beziehungsweise die negativen Bezüge auf die<br />
41
Persönlichkeit Napoleons in <strong>de</strong>r ganzen <strong>de</strong>utschen Literatur auf Waageschalen setzen<br />
wür<strong>de</strong>n, dürfte man ruhig behaupten, dass man <strong>de</strong>n Ersteren von umfassen<strong>de</strong>n Größen - nur<br />
viel zu wenig entgegensetzen könnte, dass man die ersteren positiven Bezüge kaum<br />
aufwiegen kann.<br />
Referenzen:<br />
Frenzel, E. (1970). Stoffe <strong>de</strong>r Weltliteratur, Stuttgart:Alfred Kröner Verlag.<br />
Castelot, A. (1970). Napoleon Bonaparte, Bucureşti: Editura Politică.<br />
Pigeard, A. (2000). L' armée <strong>de</strong> Napoléon : 1800 - 1815 organisation et vie quotidienne, Paris: Tallandier.<br />
Broers, M. (1996). Europe un<strong>de</strong>r Napoleon, 1799 – 1815, London: Arnold.<br />
Tarle, (1964). Napoleon, Bucureşti: Editura pentru Literatură Universală.<br />
Goethe, J. W. (1962). “Kampagne in Frankreich 1792“, in Goethes Werke, Band 27, München: Deutscher<br />
Taschenbuch Verlag.<br />
Carlyle, T. (1921). Napoleon und Cromwell, Freilassing: Panonia Verlag.<br />
Descotes, M. (1967). L'obsession <strong>de</strong> Napoléon dans le 'Cromwell' <strong>de</strong> Victor Hugo, Paris: Minard.<br />
Fuerst, R. (1926). Heinrich Heines Leben, Werke und Briefe, Leipzig: Tempel-Verlag.<br />
Heine, H. 1972). Heinrich Heine - Werke und Briefe, 10 Bän<strong>de</strong>r, Verlag Berlin, Weimar.<br />
Heine, H. (Hrsg. Walzel, O.), (1972). Heinrich Heines Sämtliche Werke, in zehn Bän<strong>de</strong>n, Insel-Verlag,<br />
Leipzig.<br />
Abstract<br />
This work intends to display one of Napoleon’s pictures in the German literature. The reason<br />
un<strong>de</strong>rlying our choice is accounted for by Napoleon’s all-pervasive personality in what has come to<br />
be known as the Napoleonic and post-Napoleonic era. We could say that for writers as well as their<br />
literary en<strong>de</strong>avours, Napoleon was an obsession that they tried to dispose of yet, return over and<br />
over again. No matter how excessive it may sound, Napoleon’s controversial personality is certain<br />
to have had a great impact upon the social or<strong>de</strong>r in Europe, in his time as well as ever after,<br />
implying the political and the socio-cultural environment, the world literature being, in fact,<br />
highly in<strong>de</strong>bted to his life experience as a great emperor.<br />
Résumé<br />
Ce papier a l'intention <strong>de</strong> présenter l‘image <strong>de</strong> Napoleon dans la littérature alleman<strong>de</strong>. Nous<br />
traitons ici l‘image <strong>de</strong> Napoleon parce qu'il nous apparaît une figure dominante dans la littérature<br />
entière <strong>de</strong>s temps <strong>de</strong> Napoleon et après lui. On pourrait dire, cette figure est une obsession dont les<br />
auteurs sortent et auquel ils reviennent à maintes reprises. Pourtant, cela peut sembler comme un<br />
peu excessif. Quand même, grâce à nombreux refferences sur la personnalité <strong>de</strong> Napoleon et<br />
l'impact <strong>de</strong> Napoleon sur l'ordre social européen entier (avec la relation implicite sur la politique<br />
et l'environement socio-culturel), est certain que la littérature mondiale entière est hautement<br />
en<strong>de</strong>tté "à l'empereur" et à les événements <strong>de</strong> sa vie.<br />
Rezumat<br />
Lucrarea <strong>de</strong> faţă intenţionează să prezinte imaginea lui Napoleon în literatura germană. Tratăm<br />
aici imaginea lui Napoleon <strong>de</strong>oarece aceasta apare ca o figură dominantă în întreaga literatură<br />
napoleoniană şi post-napoleoniană. S-ar putea spune că această figură este o reală obsesie <strong>de</strong> la care<br />
autorii pornesc şi la care se reîntorc permanent. Desigur, acest lucru ar putea suna puţin exagerat.<br />
Cu toate acestea, datorită numeroaselor referinţe la personalitatea lui Napoleon precum şi<br />
impactului produs <strong>de</strong> acesta asupra întregii ordini sociale (cu referire implicită la mediul politic şi<br />
socio-cultural), rămâne cert faptul că întreaga literatură mondială îi este datoare „împăratului“<br />
precum şi vieţii acestuia.<br />
42
Annals of “Dunărea <strong>de</strong> <strong>Jos</strong>” University of GALAŢI<br />
Fascicle XIII, New Series.<br />
Issue 28, XVI (XXVII), 2009<br />
pp. 43-46<br />
IRONISATION DE LA FICTION ET THEMATISATION<br />
DES<br />
REFERENCES LITTERAIRES<br />
Doinita Milea<br />
Language<br />
and<br />
Literature<br />
Lire un <strong>text</strong>e littéraire par rapport à un genre littéraire ou à un autre <strong>text</strong>e qu’on peut<br />
ou qu’on pourra reconnaître, a pour fonction essentielle <strong>de</strong> soutenir et d’orienter l’acte <strong>de</strong><br />
lecture par <strong>de</strong>s régularités structurales ou thématiques, qui laissent peu <strong>de</strong> liberté au lecteur<br />
,,modèle’’. Les étu<strong>de</strong>s critiques mettent en évi<strong>de</strong>nce les efforts <strong>de</strong>s écrivains pour mettre en<br />
évi<strong>de</strong>nce les effets <strong>de</strong> l’inter<strong>text</strong>ualité qui puissent offrir à un public dont l’horizon d’attente<br />
a été touché, la séduction du plaisir <strong>de</strong> reconnaître les figures <strong>de</strong>s héros, <strong>de</strong>s thèmes ou <strong>de</strong>s<br />
stratégies issus du dialogue avec les anciennes lectures. Umberto Eco dans La mystérieuse<br />
flamme <strong>de</strong> la reine Loana, 2005, semble vouloir expliquer son <strong>text</strong>e puisque le syntagme<br />
„roman illustré” désigne en général les productions romanesques <strong>de</strong>stinés aux enfants,<br />
ban<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong>ssinées, histoires illustrées, mais Eco envoie le lecteur à l'univers romanesque, ainsi<br />
qu’il l’avait déjà fait en 1992 , en Diario minimo, quand il avait commenté ses stratégies<br />
d’écriture dans la préface , comme une clé <strong>de</strong> lecture pour le lecteur qui en aurait besoin.<br />
La <strong>de</strong>marche comparatiste permet la mise en relation, dans l’acte <strong>de</strong> lecture, et le<br />
dépassement du <strong>text</strong>e en faveur <strong>de</strong>s modèles qui fonctionnent comme <strong>de</strong>s archi<strong>text</strong>es pour<br />
les attentes et les compétences génériques. Les métho<strong>de</strong>s qui visent la superposition <strong>de</strong>s<br />
<strong>text</strong>es, l’exploitation <strong>de</strong>s principes <strong>de</strong>s <strong>text</strong>es secon<strong>de</strong>s, <strong>de</strong> la parodie et <strong>de</strong> la pastiches, <strong>de</strong>s<br />
invariants et <strong>de</strong>s stéréotypes, a permis un changement <strong>de</strong> la réception et <strong>de</strong> l’intérpretation<br />
<strong>de</strong> l’espace littéraire.<br />
Les romans métafictionnels <strong>de</strong> David Lodge, les dialogues inter<strong>text</strong>uels <strong>de</strong> John Fowles<br />
(The French Lieutenant's Woman ,Magus), les colages littéraires inter<strong>text</strong>uels <strong>de</strong> Salman<br />
Rushdie (Haroun and The Sea of Stories), les livres d’un téoricien tel Umberto Eco( Le Nom <strong>de</strong> la<br />
Rose),fonctionnent par la reconnaisance <strong>de</strong>s co<strong>de</strong>s littéraires, au XXe siècle,tout comme<br />
Orlando furioso au XVIe siècle ou Madame Bovary au XIXe siècle.<br />
Les formes évoluent dans le temps, les thèmes et le goût du public aussi, <strong>de</strong> nouvelles<br />
œuvres synthétisent ces transformations pour générer <strong>de</strong> nouvelles formes. Des parodistes<br />
comme Cervantes exploitent cette procédure qui transforme les <strong>text</strong>es du roman <strong>de</strong><br />
chevalerie par la réalité quotidienne, donnant naissance à Don Quichotte. Rabelais, dans son<br />
Gargantua et Pantagruel propose un dialogue explicite avec les <strong>text</strong>es et les clichés <strong>de</strong><br />
l’Antiquité, ainsi qu’avec les espaces <strong>de</strong> la réalité sociale et politique du temps, supposés,<br />
reconnaissables par ses lecteurs. Le contraste héroï-comique est fondé sur une structure<br />
imitative, manière qui produit Le Télémaque travesti, parodie du roman pédagogique <strong>de</strong><br />
Fénelon. Au Moyen Âge, aux stratégies parodiques qui opèrent dans le Roman <strong>de</strong> Renart,<br />
parodie du mon<strong>de</strong> chevaleresque et courtois, on ajoute l’allégorie, tout comme par<br />
l’allégorie, en Espagne, au XVIe siècle, Cervantes parodie les romans <strong>de</strong> chevalerie du<br />
Moyen Âge, et leurs clichés ; En France, au XVIIe siècle, la mo<strong>de</strong> du burlesque offre en usant<br />
ces stratégies une parodie, tel le Virgile travesti <strong>de</strong> Scarron. La parodie, dans ces cas, pourrait<br />
être le signe qu'une forme ou qu'une convention est en train <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>venir usée. Dans Tristram<br />
43
Shandy, Sterne transmet au lecteur la conscience <strong>de</strong>s clichés <strong>de</strong> la forme romanesque, par un<br />
renvoi explicite aux conventions <strong>de</strong> ce genre, donnant naissance à une autre forme narrative,<br />
qu'on appelle aujourd'hui ,,métafiction’’, ou la narration est présentée comme un artifice<br />
démonstratif. En fait, le métaroman, parfois, reprend et commente ses propres thèmes et<br />
motifs, thèmes et motifs communs à maints <strong>text</strong>es, comme est le cas d’Alain Robbe-Grillet(<br />
La Reprise),qui propose ses thèmes à variations: le thème <strong>de</strong> l’errance dans les rues (et dans le<br />
labyrinthe), le thème <strong>de</strong> la pièce, <strong>de</strong> maisons où le récit prend naissance, toiles, dont les<br />
personnages semblent traverser la vie réelle en réunissant le passé au présent et aboutissant à<br />
l’effacement complet <strong>de</strong>s traces <strong>de</strong> chronologie. À mesure que l’histoire avance, on a le<br />
sentiment <strong>de</strong> plusieurs déjà-vu, qui dépasse ses <strong>text</strong>es, en opérant les stratégies<br />
inter<strong>text</strong>uelles: la montée dans le train et le compartiment rappellent Michel Butor (l’incipit<br />
<strong>de</strong> la Modification); les <strong>de</strong>ux personnages masculins i<strong>de</strong>ntiques évoluent selon la formule <strong>de</strong><br />
Poe <strong>de</strong> William Wilson; l’atmosphère du compartiment <strong>de</strong> train évoque la sale du procès <strong>de</strong> K,<br />
l’obsession <strong>de</strong>s yeux <strong>de</strong> poupée et les frayeurs <strong>de</strong> l’enfance déplacées dans ce mon<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong><br />
l’adulte; les femmes – poupée redisent L’homme <strong>de</strong> sable, commenté par Freud. D’autres<br />
séquences renvoient explicitement à l’univers proustien, commenté par Freud, “ une tasse<br />
d’infusion <strong>de</strong> tilleul ‘’, ,, le baiser inespéré <strong>de</strong> la mère’’, le baiser dont le petit garçon a besoin<br />
comme <strong>de</strong> l’air pour retrouver son calme. L’adolescente – sœur, petite fille, fille qui nourrit<br />
les rêveries érotiques, renvoie explicitement par <strong>de</strong>s reprises obsessives sexuelles à Lolita <strong>de</strong><br />
Nabokov. Les cauchemars où le narrateur reconnaît les thèmes récurrents <strong>de</strong>s rêves qu’il fait<br />
dès l’enfance: <strong>de</strong>s toilettes introuvables pendant une recherché déroutante et inquiétante,<br />
l’escalier en colimaçon auquel il manque <strong>de</strong>s marches, peuplent ces jeux <strong>text</strong>uels, comme si<br />
au narrateur étendu sur le canapé du psychanalyste et parlant <strong>de</strong> ses obsessions, on<br />
corrigerait et annoterait les relations. Les couvertures extérieures offrent plusieurs miroirs<br />
dans lesquels le roman peut se voir (au-<strong>de</strong>là du résume sommaire présenté par l’auteur<br />
comme le schéma d’une histoire d’espionnage et <strong>de</strong> souvenir nostalgiques. Les chroniques<br />
<strong>de</strong> signal <strong>de</strong> l’édition roumaine y voient soit ,,une reprise” <strong>de</strong> certains thèmes – fantasmes<br />
<strong>de</strong>s <strong>text</strong>es <strong>de</strong> l’écrivain (le double, l’inceste, Œdipe, l’érotisme) soit un grand roman qui défie<br />
l’idée que le Nouveau Roman et le mouvement Tel Quel auraient tué la littérature française.<br />
Dans l’antiroman peut apparaître une transformation <strong>text</strong>uelle à fonction ludique, si l’on<br />
prend en compte, d’une part le choix littéraire (transformation, fonction ludique) <strong>de</strong> l’auteur<br />
dans la création d’un tel roman, d’autre part, la dimension métadiégétique où<br />
la transformation ludique repérée par le lecteur est une rupture <strong>de</strong> l’illusion fictionnelle<br />
voulue et exhibée par le parodiste. La dimension méta<strong>text</strong>uelle <strong>de</strong> la parodie a été mise en<br />
<strong>text</strong>e par les romanciers dans les pays anglo-saxons, afin <strong>de</strong> rendre compte <strong>de</strong>s pratiques<br />
parodiques mo<strong>de</strong>rnistes (Joyce) et post-mo<strong>de</strong>rnes (J. Fowles, J. Barth).<br />
Dans la pratique, on distingue la parodie du pastiche, bien que le mécanisme ait un<br />
coté commun, se referant au fait que tant le pastiche que la parodie produisent <strong>de</strong>s <strong>text</strong>es<br />
issus <strong>de</strong>s transformations d'un original. La différence consiste dans l’effet particulier du<br />
décalage comique du <strong>text</strong>e dérivé par rapport au <strong>text</strong>e base. L'imitation parodique était<br />
souvent considérée vulgaire, au Moyen Age ou à la Renaissance, parce qu'elle ne montrait<br />
pas <strong>de</strong> respect envers ses modèles, n'hésitant pas à utiliser <strong>de</strong>s procédés comiques assez<br />
grossiers (tel étant le cas <strong>de</strong> Rabelais). Les pastiches, en revanche, imposent une compétence<br />
culturelle, d’autant plus que l'imitation <strong>de</strong>s classiques, à travers les époques, à eu souvent<br />
une fin pédagogique, travaillant sur l'amplification <strong>de</strong> <strong>text</strong>e, la transposition d'un style dans<br />
un autre, ou la réécriture d'un <strong>text</strong>e versifié en prose. Dans ces cas, les exercices qui tombent<br />
sur les pastiches sélectionnent les <strong>text</strong>es et les auteurs célèbres, dont l'écriture es particulière,<br />
comme est le cas <strong>de</strong>s démonstration <strong>de</strong> Prévert dans son poème Cortèges, ou <strong>de</strong> la<br />
présentation <strong>de</strong> la vie idyllique <strong>de</strong> bergers chez Cervantes, autant <strong>de</strong> traits pertinents,<br />
reconnaissables. En parlant du dialogisme et du plurilinguisme propres au roman, Bakhtine<br />
(Du discours romanesque p. 83), définit la parodie comme un type particulier <strong>de</strong> stylisation<br />
44
qui fait partie intégrante <strong>de</strong> l’écriture romanesque, la stylisation parodique. Selon Bakhtine,<br />
les discours <strong>de</strong>s personnages caricaturaux, satirique et comique, ainsi que <strong>de</strong>s jargons<br />
professionnels, comme discours littéraires, entrent dans le champ <strong>de</strong> la parodie, d’où sa<br />
conception sur le carnavalesque dans le discours du roman, <strong>de</strong> Rabelais à Dostoïevski.<br />
Dans Palimpsestes, G. Genette propose une classification <strong>de</strong>s pratiques qui mettent en<br />
relation <strong>de</strong>s <strong>text</strong>es, qu’il appelle ,,hyper<strong>text</strong>uelles’’, dont la parodie n’est qu’un cas<br />
particulier. Les critères analysés par Genette sont <strong>de</strong> types structuraux, mais il prend en<br />
compte aussi l’intention ou l’effet, qui peut être ludique, satirique ou sérieuse, et la différence<br />
entre une transformation et une imitation. La parodie est, dans ces termes, une<br />
transformation <strong>text</strong>uelle à fonction ludique (Genette 1982 : 40, Détournement <strong>de</strong> <strong>text</strong>e à<br />
transformation minimale, Transformation ludique d’un <strong>text</strong>e singulier, Genette 1982 : 202).<br />
Genette décrit et étudie ces transformations à partir du Télémaque travesti <strong>de</strong> Marivaux, 1714.<br />
(Une analyse similaire appartient à Daniel Sangsue, dans son essai sur la parodie, 1982).<br />
Linda Hutcheon parle <strong>de</strong> la parodie (Theory of Parody, 1986), en analysant les stratégies<br />
postmo<strong>de</strong>rnes. Dans la parodie, le terme relation est important, parce qu’il rappelle que la<br />
parodie repose sur la relation d'une oeuvre base à une oeuvre secon<strong>de</strong>, dérivée, et qu'elle<br />
n'existe que lorsque cette relation est reconnue par le lecteur (ou le spectateur), car le genre<br />
se trouve également au théâtre. Au-<strong>de</strong>là <strong>de</strong> tout indice <strong>text</strong>uel ou <strong>de</strong> toute source générique,<br />
souvent difficiles à i<strong>de</strong>ntifier, la parodie, notamment celle théâtrale, se définit par un espace<br />
où se jouent les polémiques <strong>de</strong> l’actualité. Les pièces <strong>de</strong> Molière sont remplies <strong>de</strong> parodies<br />
ponctuelles où l’auteur se moque du jargon <strong>de</strong>s mé<strong>de</strong>cins, <strong>de</strong>s femmes savantes, <strong>de</strong>s<br />
précieuses. Chapelle, Racine et Boileau parodient le Cid <strong>de</strong> Corneille (le Chapelain décoiffé,<br />
1665) et Adrien-Thomas Perdou <strong>de</strong> Subligny, acteur, écrivain et dramaturge du XVIIe siècle,<br />
parodie Andromaque <strong>de</strong> Racine (la Folle Querelle, 1668). Au XVIIIe siècle, Voltaire utilise le<br />
genre dans ses pamphlets. Pangloss, dans son Candi<strong>de</strong> (1759), est une parodie <strong>de</strong> philosophe<br />
optimiste. Les parodies <strong>de</strong> drames <strong>de</strong> Victor Hugo apparaissent au siècle suivant: par<br />
exemple, celle d’Hernani réalisée par le vau<strong>de</strong>villiste Augustin Théodore <strong>de</strong> Lauzanne<br />
(Harnali ou la Contrainte par cor) est bien connue.<br />
Les œuvres <strong>de</strong> Laurence Sterne, suivent les techniques romanesques pour dialoguer<br />
par la parodie et la pastiche, les <strong>text</strong>es <strong>de</strong> voyages cachent la satire chez Jonathan Swift, et<br />
James Joyce,propose par Ulysse (1922) une parodie allégorique <strong>de</strong> l’épopée grecque, trouvant<br />
un écho au XXe siècle chez Samuel Beckett et Harold Pinter (par absur<strong>de</strong> et par la dérision).<br />
La transformation parodique répond, chaque fois, à <strong>de</strong> nouveaux horizons d’attente,<br />
par rapport à <strong>de</strong>s conventions d’écriture qui commencent à vieillir, et par cela, elle<br />
s’apparente aux fêtes carnavalesques qui reprennent une figure déjà usée. La parodie,<br />
postmo<strong>de</strong>rne, dont parle Linda Hutcheon, est à la fois un hommage respectueux et ironique<br />
à la tradition. C'est ce qu'ont fait Fowles, Barth, Borges, Nabokov, pour lesquels la parodie<br />
est un acte d'incorporation.<br />
John Fowles, dans The French Lieutenant's Woman, romancier narrateur, juxtapose les<br />
conventions du roman victorien et du roman mo<strong>de</strong>rne, pour détruire la classique illusion<br />
mimétique d'authenticité, le jeu <strong>de</strong>s conventions,la réorganisation <strong>de</strong> ces conventions<br />
littéraires étant doublée par une reconstruction, qui laisse au lecteur la liberté <strong>de</strong> choisir une<br />
variante <strong>de</strong> l’organisation du sujet, à travers les conventions qu’il aime. La pratique littéraire<br />
<strong>de</strong> la réécriture postmo<strong>de</strong>rne, ou la littérature du second <strong>de</strong>gré, selon la formule déjà<br />
classique <strong>de</strong> Genette, supposent un <strong>text</strong>e <strong>de</strong> base qui s’ouvre dans un nouveau <strong>text</strong>e par les<br />
jeux allusives qui s’appuient sur les procédés <strong>de</strong> l’inter<strong>text</strong>ualité, du palimpseste<br />
(superposition <strong>de</strong> <strong>text</strong>es), et, évi<strong>de</strong>ment, la métafiction, comme stratégie qui mette en<br />
évi<strong>de</strong>nce les modèles, délestés <strong>de</strong> leur sens premier, et leur transplantation. Comme tout<br />
<strong>text</strong>e littéraire, une transformation réclame également un lecteur, mais un collaborateur<br />
particulier. En d'autres termes, outre la reconnaissance <strong>de</strong>s co<strong>de</strong>s littéraires usuels d’un<br />
genre, le lecteur doit aussi reconnaître que ce qu'il est en train <strong>de</strong> lire est un <strong>text</strong>e dérivé, qu’il<br />
45
soit parodie ou autre type, et qu’il doit également accepter le pacte <strong>de</strong> lecture, pour s’en<br />
réjouir.<br />
Bibliographie<br />
Aron, P. (2005). Histoire du pastiche, Paris : Presses universitaires <strong>de</strong> France.<br />
Bakhtine, M. (1978). Du discours romanesque, dans Esthétique et théorie du roman, Paris : Gallimard.<br />
Compagnon, A. (1979). La secon<strong>de</strong> main, ou le travail <strong>de</strong> la citation, Paris: Seuil.<br />
Genette, G. (1982). Palimpsestes. La littérature au second <strong>de</strong>gré, Paris: Seuil.<br />
Hutcheon, L. (1986). A Theory of Parody, London: Methuen.<br />
Sangsue, D. (1994). La Parodie, Paris: Hachette Supérieur.<br />
Tomachevski, B. (1965). Thématique, dans Théorie <strong>de</strong> la littérature, <strong>text</strong>es <strong>de</strong>s formalistes russes réunis,<br />
présentés et traduits par T. Todorov, Paris: Seuil.<br />
Abstract<br />
As literature has evolved along the centuries, literary conventions have played their crucial role in<br />
the <strong>de</strong>velopment of new literary mo<strong>de</strong>ls accepted through the perspective of innovation. The<br />
intensification of the parodic exploitation of literary forms, the parody itself is a strategy which<br />
eventually culminates in Postmo<strong>de</strong>rnism, where the author may choose to emphasize the<br />
“literarity” of the illusion created by the <strong>text</strong>, making use of a certain type of value minimization.<br />
Against the <strong>text</strong> background there will always be examples of irony, the main rhetorical<br />
mechanism which draws the rea<strong>de</strong>r’s attention to the possibility of actualization, which in its<br />
essence, is a kind of process, neither parody nor irony being able to function as such, but creating<br />
actions and strategies inten<strong>de</strong>d for the rea<strong>de</strong>r to interpret and assess the <strong>text</strong>s according to the<br />
author’s intention.<br />
Résumé<br />
Les conventions littéraires au cours <strong>de</strong> l'évolution littéraire ont leur rôle crucial dans le<br />
développement <strong>de</strong> nouveaux mo<strong>de</strong>s littéraires, par leur rapport avec le désir d’innovation.<br />
L'intensification <strong>de</strong> l’exploitation parodique <strong>de</strong>s formes littéraires, stratégie déjà usée elle-même,<br />
culmine avec le Postmo<strong>de</strong>rnisme où l'auteur peut choisir <strong>de</strong> mettre en relief la ,,littérarité’’ <strong>de</strong><br />
l'illusion provoquée par son <strong>text</strong>e, en usant d'un certain type <strong>de</strong> dévalorisation. À l'arrière-plan <strong>de</strong><br />
son <strong>text</strong>e sera, toujours, l'ironie –principal mécanisme rhétorique qui attire l'attention du lecteur<br />
sur cette actualisation, qui est en elle-même, aussi, une sorte <strong>de</strong> procédé d'actualisation; ni la<br />
parodie ni l'ironie ne peuvent pas fonctionner comme telle, mais en donnant naissance à <strong>de</strong>s<br />
actions, à <strong>de</strong>s stratégies <strong>de</strong>stinées à permettre au lecteur d'interpréter et d’évaluer, en relation,<br />
<strong>de</strong>s <strong>text</strong>es, peut- être selon l’intention <strong>de</strong> l’auteur.<br />
Rezumat<br />
Convenţiile literare <strong>de</strong>-a lungul evoluţiei literare îşi au rolul crucial în <strong>de</strong>zvoltarea noilor mo<strong>de</strong>le<br />
literare, acceptate prin prisma dorinţei <strong>de</strong> inovare. Intensificarea exploatării parodice a formelor<br />
literare, ea însăşi o strategie <strong>de</strong>ja culminează cu Postmo<strong>de</strong>rnismul, un<strong>de</strong> autorul poate alege<br />
punerea în relief a “literarităţii” iluziei provocate <strong>de</strong> <strong>text</strong>, utilizând un anume tip <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>valorizare.<br />
In planul secund al <strong>text</strong>ului se va afla tot<strong>de</strong>auna ironia, principalul mecanism retoric, care atrage<br />
atenţia cititorului asupra acestei actualizări, care este, în esenţă, un fel <strong>de</strong> proce<strong>de</strong>u <strong>de</strong> actualizare;<br />
nici parodia nici ironia nu pot funcţiona ca atare, ci dând naştere acţiunilor, strategiilor <strong>de</strong>stinate<br />
să permită lectorului să interpreteze şi să evalueze <strong>text</strong>ele conform intenţiei autorului.<br />
46
Annals of “Dunărea <strong>de</strong> <strong>Jos</strong>” University of GALAŢI<br />
Fascicle XIII, New Series.<br />
Issue 28, XVI (XXVII), 2009<br />
pp. 47-52<br />
47<br />
Language<br />
and<br />
Literature<br />
SOME THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS ON IMAGOLOGY<br />
Ioana Mohor-Ivan and Michaela Praisler<br />
Since the nineteenth century, originating from the German concept of a “psychology of<br />
the peoples”, there has been a long-standing interest in “national characters”. For the most<br />
part, this interest has been essentialist, stemming from the belief that “nations” were discrete<br />
and distinguishable groups, each characterised by its own character that could be analysed<br />
from that “nation’s” cultural activity. In the course of the twentieth century, the essentialist<br />
implications of “national characteristics” have attracted criticism, and, especially in the field<br />
of Comparative Literature, they have come to be studied as subjective terms, un<strong>de</strong>rstood as<br />
attitu<strong>de</strong>s and perceptions that affect cultural and social praxis. In the 1950s, imagology<br />
crystallised as a specialization in Comparative Literature in France, and has since gained<br />
currency among scholars and journalists interested in studying the discursively constructed<br />
nature of many social and cultural values, as a means of counter-acting re-emergent<br />
nationalisms.<br />
Imagology (imago=image + logos=word, account, study) may be <strong>de</strong>fined as the study<br />
of intercultural relations in terms of mutual perceptions, images and self-images, i.e. the<br />
ways in which perceived national / ethnic / racial / cultural characters and i<strong>de</strong>ntities – both<br />
one’s own and that of others–are expressed in a wi<strong>de</strong> range of discourses, including<br />
literature, film and the media. Because stress is laid on perception and not on the “truth” or<br />
accuracy of an image, the aim of imagology is to un<strong>de</strong>rstand the structures of images and<br />
<strong>de</strong>monstrate their conventional nature, by focusing on the intersection between linguistic<br />
(aesthetic / rhetorical) and historical (i<strong>de</strong>ological / socio-cultural) aspects of discourse<br />
(Moyle, 2004: 9).<br />
In recognizing the i<strong>de</strong>ological character of images and drawing attention to their sociocultural<br />
differences and similarities, imagology consi<strong>de</strong>rs this mo<strong>de</strong> of reciprocal<br />
characterization as pivotal in un<strong>de</strong>rstanding national perception and representation in terms<br />
of the self-other dichotomy, which also un<strong>de</strong>rlies the dialectic of i<strong>de</strong>ntity and alterity<br />
(Voestermans 1991: 219). As the i<strong>de</strong>ntity of a human <strong>de</strong>velops along the line of<br />
differentiation between (what is consi<strong>de</strong>red to be) the ‘self’ and everything which is not the<br />
self, the two are thus mutually <strong>de</strong>pendable, investing each other with meaning. The same<br />
dialectic characterises the articulation of cultural and national i<strong>de</strong>ntities, because<br />
“all human cultures articulate, situate themselves by categorizing the world […], a<br />
predicative act [which] involves a distinction between that which is allowed into the<br />
sphere of culture and that which is exclu<strong>de</strong>d” (Corbey and Leerssen 1991: vi).<br />
“Otherness” is thus created as both the contrastive as well as the cognitive background<br />
against which a cultural or national i<strong>de</strong>ntity is circumscribed.<br />
As its name asserts, image is the main working concept in the field. On the one hand,<br />
image is un<strong>de</strong>rstood as communication, especially visual communication or presentation; on<br />
the other hand, image is un<strong>de</strong>rstood as a “mental picture” or i<strong>de</strong>a. Imagology has adopted
the latter meaning, whereby image is “the mental or discursive representation or reputation<br />
of a person, group, ethnicity or ‘nation’” (Leerssen 2003: 342.) In this, it resembles a cognitive<br />
“knowledge structure” or schema that controls our opinion and behaviour towards the<br />
“other”. A fundamental distinction is ma<strong>de</strong> between auto-image (or ‘self-image’) and heteroimage:<br />
the first one refers to a characterological reputation current within and shared by a<br />
group, the latter to the opinion that others have about a group’s purported character. Apart<br />
from these, imagemes, a term coined by Joep Leerssen, would refer to ambivalent images<br />
that can be applied to different kinds of situations (Leerssen, 2000). If images change, they do<br />
so not because the character of the nation changes, but because the attitu<strong>de</strong> towards the<br />
nation changes, as cultural discontinuities and differences (in the form of languages,<br />
mentalities, everyday habits, and religions) trigger positive or negative judgements and<br />
attitu<strong>de</strong>s.<br />
When an image remains constant <strong>de</strong>spite historical changes, it turns into a stereotype<br />
or cliché (Schnei<strong>de</strong>r, 2005). According to a dictionary <strong>de</strong>finition, a stereotype is “a<br />
standardized mental picture that is held in common by members of a group and that<br />
represents an oversimplified opinion, prejudiced attitu<strong>de</strong>, or uncritical judgement” (Webster<br />
1996: 1394) about a person or an entire group of people. In the absence of ‘the total picture’ of<br />
an environment which is “too big, too fleeting for direct acquaintance” (Lippman 1922: 16),<br />
we build up ‘intellectual images’ that create simplified representations, categories or values<br />
which help us orient through and make sense of the world. In addition to this, stereotypes<br />
also play an important role in i<strong>de</strong>ntity building, because if an individual’s sense of self is<br />
closely related to the group to which he or she belongs – which may extend from school<br />
affiliation to race and nationality -, i<strong>de</strong>ntifying with this ‘in-group’ means internalizing its<br />
own stereotypes. As such, the same as in the case of “image”, stereotypes may be classified<br />
into auto-stereotypes (evolved at ‘in-group’ level) and hetero-stereotypes (relating to ‘outgroups’,<br />
i.e. the other groups to which the individual does not belong or i<strong>de</strong>ntify with.) The<br />
dialectic of the two is often based on contrastive stereotyping, because the ten<strong>de</strong>ncy is to<br />
assign negative characteristics to the out-group in or<strong>de</strong>r to create positive auto-stereotypes.<br />
National stereotypes, which involve the assignation of specific characteristics to members of<br />
a given nation, exhibit the same binary nature, often occurring in the oppositional pairs of<br />
auto- versus hetero-stereotypes, or positive versus negative ones. Because national<br />
stereotypes transcend the individual, they may be modified by changes in the group<br />
experience or the con<strong>text</strong> of intergroup relations ranging from conflict to alliances. When<br />
economic and political rivalry characterizes the relations between two countries, there is a<br />
marked negativity in hetero-stereotyping, which gives rise to xenophobia. The reverse,<br />
when positive terms are employed to characterize a national group, leads to exoticism or<br />
xenophilia.<br />
Though closely related to the concept of stereotype, the term cliché does not always<br />
connote the moral and metaphysical implications of the latter, referring rather to stylistic<br />
turns of phrase, images or gestures that have nothing to do with the expression of racism or<br />
ethnocentrism, nor do they give rise to prejudice.<br />
Originally a judicial term, prejudice has become another key concept in imagology,<br />
referring to “any preconceived and unsupported opinion and attitu<strong>de</strong> that influences our<br />
perception, <strong>de</strong>scription and judgement of others” (Beller 2003: 404). Though in recent<br />
literature, prejudice and stereotype tend to be used interchangeably, “stereotypes are beliefs<br />
or opinions about attributes of a social group or members, whereas prejudice is<br />
conceptualized as a negative intergroup attitu<strong>de</strong>” (Moyle 2004: 22; Stroebe and Insko 1989:<br />
8). As such, prejudice plays an important part in hetero-stereotyping, being a key to<br />
<strong>de</strong>ciphering intergroup attitu<strong>de</strong>s and relations.<br />
In point of the methodology that a critical study of cultural representations and of<br />
images of national i<strong>de</strong>ntity presupposes, critics agree that the imagological approach blends<br />
48
different aims in an integrative type of analysis, sharing thus its concerns with anthropology,<br />
cultural studies and literary criticism.<br />
� In common with Cultural Anthropology, imagology starts from the premise that<br />
groups and cultures differ. One mo<strong>de</strong>l for assessing differences among national<br />
cultures consi<strong>de</strong>rs that four aspects (namely, power distance; collectivism/<br />
individualism; femininity / masculinity; uncertainty avoidance) variously combine to<br />
differently mark mentalities within a given group (Hofste<strong>de</strong>, 1991, Gavriliu, 2002). The<br />
specific question that an imagologist asks relates then to how these differences are<br />
treated in mutual imagery.<br />
� In common with the field of Cultural Studies, imagology views culture as dynamic, a<br />
process through which a particular group of people constructs or <strong>de</strong>constructs a series<br />
of maps of meanings to make sense of everyday practices and experience (Mohor-Ivan,<br />
2004: 4). Given that an image is one means of “mapping” experience, an imagologist<br />
would be interested in surveying the representational terrain of a given culture,<br />
investigating the form and function of the image within its discursive con<strong>text</strong> and<br />
signalling changes in the perception of both in- and out-groups as markers of<br />
historical/political/social relativity in inter-cultural relations.<br />
� Given its literary ancestry, imagology works primarily on “imagined discourse”, i.e.<br />
discourse that lies outsi<strong>de</strong> the area of verifiable report statements (Leerssen 2003: 28).<br />
While the literary <strong>text</strong> is a primary resource to investigate the formation, perpetuation<br />
and dissemination of images, other more recent “poetically-ruled and fictionalnarrative<br />
media” – such as film or some genres of journalism – which “often work[s]<br />
on the presupposition of a suspension of disbelief and some (at least aesthetic)<br />
appreciative credit among the audience” (Leerssen 2003: 26) can be searched into for<br />
patterns of national characterization.<br />
In analysing such “imagined discourse”, Leerssen (2003: 26-30) consi<strong>de</strong>rs that other<br />
methodological assumptions are likely to be at work. According to his survey of the history<br />
and method of the field:<br />
� Imagology adheres to a theory of cultural or national stereotypes, concerning itself<br />
with representations as <strong>text</strong>ual strategies and as discourse, with referentiality<br />
contained within a <strong>text</strong>ual and inter<strong>text</strong>ual frame and not vis-à-vis empirical reality.<br />
� Imagology acknowledges the subjectivity of its sources and takes it into account in the<br />
analysis of the dynamics between auto- and hetero-images, by placing it in the<br />
perspectival con<strong>text</strong> of the representing <strong>text</strong> or discourse. Moreover, such images,<br />
usually categorized in national terms, do not reflect empirical real-world collectives,<br />
but possible i<strong>de</strong>ntifications for such groups.<br />
� Imagology consi<strong>de</strong>rs that images work effectively in the cultural and communicative<br />
field because they are tropes, commonplaces turned familiar by repetition and<br />
resemblance. As such, one must uncover the tradition of a given trope by establishing<br />
its inter<strong>text</strong>. The trope becomes thus doubly con<strong>text</strong>ualized: within a background<br />
tradition, which is echoed, reinforced or negated in the <strong>text</strong> of its occurrence, and<br />
within the latter itself, by analysing the given <strong>text</strong>-based function of the image.<br />
� Imagology is also interested in con<strong>text</strong>ualizing the image in its socio-cultural con<strong>text</strong>,<br />
by resorting to a pragmatic-functionalist perspective through which it aims to<br />
investigate the way in which the rhetoric and <strong>de</strong>ployment of stereotypes is geared<br />
towards a target audience, or the critical reception and the impact that a certain image<br />
has.<br />
� Imagology goes beyond the self-other dichotomy that plays an important role in<br />
i<strong>de</strong>ntity formation when it focuses on the role played by auto-images, which thematise<br />
the filiations between past and present through historical remembrance and cultural<br />
49
memory, in the maintenance of a sense of national i<strong>de</strong>ntity.<br />
� Nevertheless, imagology remains a comparative enterprise, addressing cross-national<br />
relations by drawing attention to the fact that any image is constructed in accordance<br />
to a differential principle which restricts i<strong>de</strong>ntity to particularism. When studied as a<br />
multicultural phenomenon, dichotomic coordinates like those established between the<br />
pragmatic North vs. the sensuous South, the backward periphery vs. the mo<strong>de</strong>rn<br />
centre, or the masculine West vs. the feminine East become nationally unspecific,<br />
helping us realize that i<strong>de</strong>ntity should <strong>de</strong>fine one as part of, and not in<br />
contradistinction to, humanity as a whole.<br />
As such, the following are meant as practical gui<strong>de</strong>lines for the integrative type of analysis<br />
that the critical study of our mental images of national character (expressed in terms of the<br />
Other / Self dichotomy) presupposes.<br />
� I<strong>de</strong>ntify the type of <strong>text</strong> chosen for analysis. The distinction between fictional (e.g.<br />
literary works and feature films) and factual (e.g. newspaper articles and<br />
documentaries) <strong>text</strong>s is important in establishing “the <strong>de</strong>gree of referential reliability of<br />
the reality communicated by the <strong>text</strong>” (Gavriliu, 2002: 101).<br />
� I<strong>de</strong>ntify the author of the <strong>text</strong> and the audience s/he is addressing. Are they members<br />
of the same in-group, or are they differentiated along gen<strong>de</strong>r, class, i<strong>de</strong>ological, ethnic,<br />
etc. criteria? This helps clarify the position that the author and her/his <strong>text</strong> take in<br />
relation to the target audience: e.g. solidarity/disaffiliation/discord.<br />
� I<strong>de</strong>ntify the type of images constructed by the <strong>text</strong> in terms of the distinction<br />
between auto- and hetero-images. This distinction is useful in assessing both the <strong>text</strong>based<br />
function of an image (how the author handles the self-other dialectic in her / his<br />
<strong>text</strong>) and its extra-<strong>text</strong>ual one (what the author wants to achieve by employing a given<br />
image) (Moyle, 2004: 11). It may be further employed to distinguish between the force<br />
lines un<strong>de</strong>rlying the respective cultural groups, which “account for the how and the why<br />
of a certain representation” (Gavriliu, 2002: 6) of the self vs. the Other in Hofste<strong>de</strong>’s<br />
mo<strong>de</strong>l (1991).<br />
� Focus on the <strong>text</strong>’s hetero-images. How is alterity constructed by the <strong>text</strong>?<br />
o Isolate the linguistic/visual elements which help circumscribe the Other (e.g.<br />
consi<strong>de</strong>r the distribution of lexical/auditory/visual signs in terms of the rate of<br />
occurrence of certain units, clusters.)<br />
o Assess the terms in which Otherness is articulated (national, ethnic, gen<strong>de</strong>r, etc.)<br />
o I<strong>de</strong>ntify the un<strong>de</strong>rlying attitu<strong>de</strong>s (e.g. xenophilia, tolerance, cosmopolitanism vs.<br />
xenophobia, ethnocentrism) which lead to positive or negative attribution of<br />
characteristics to the Other. Such valorisation is also indicative of attitu<strong>de</strong>s such<br />
as: assimilation, i.e. the appropriation of the Other by turning it into the familiar,<br />
or rejection, i.e. the exclusion of the Other “into utopia, dystopia or irreducible<br />
marginalisation” (Gavriliu 2002: 7).<br />
o Consi<strong>de</strong>r the extent to which hetero-images are recognisable as stereotypes.<br />
Because stereotypes are inter<strong>text</strong>ual constructs, i.e. the referential signification<br />
process takes place not between <strong>text</strong> and reality, but between <strong>text</strong> and <strong>text</strong><br />
(Leerssen 1998), establish their <strong>text</strong>ual tradition. Refer to the function that<br />
stereotypes play in the <strong>text</strong> at hand: e.g. a starting point for characterisation;<br />
ironic markers; i<strong>de</strong>ntifiers for alterity; invested with symbolic value; used to ‘go<br />
against the grain’ (Moyle 2004:11). This helps establish the role played by<br />
stereotypes either in sustaining tradition (e.g. reinforcing myths of otherness or<br />
prejudices) or, by contrary, in un<strong>de</strong>rmining it.<br />
o I<strong>de</strong>ntify the dichotomic coordinates which un<strong>de</strong>rlie the representation of the<br />
Other. Phenotypical features, gestures, speech (e.g. foreign vocabulary or<br />
onomastic preferences marked by caricatural intentions) may be employed to<br />
50
cast characters as statements of alterity, triggering oppositions as those<br />
established between self / other; civilian / barbarian; human / beastly; good /<br />
evil; superior / inferior (Gavriliu, 2002: 101, Mohor-Ivan, 2004: 19). Indicators of<br />
place and time may similarly point to contrasts like: North / South, West/ East,<br />
urban / pastoral, centre / margin, which further connote oppositions such as<br />
progress / primitivism; pragmatic / spiritual; individualist / collectivist; prosaic<br />
/ idyllic, <strong>de</strong>velopment / backwardness, or<strong>de</strong>r / chaos (Leerssen 1988, Mohor-<br />
Ivan, 2004: 86.) Such structural i<strong>de</strong>ntifications may reveal the extent to which<br />
alterity is exclu<strong>de</strong>d, ascribed a negative role as a manifestation of disor<strong>de</strong>r and<br />
cultural inadaptability in the out-group or the emitting culture, or, by contrary,<br />
conceived in more congenial terms, appropriated and inclu<strong>de</strong>d into the patterns<br />
of the in-group or the receiving culture. Moreover, they may help discern<br />
whether alterity is represented as continuous and homogeneous, similar to other<br />
instances of Otherness, discontinuous and contradictory, able thus to become<br />
fluid and incorporate the Self.<br />
� Corroborate the investigation of the form and function of images within the <strong>text</strong><br />
with a macro-con<strong>text</strong>ual analysis. Placing an image in its cultural and historical<br />
con<strong>text</strong> is indicative of political, economic, or diplomatic circumstances that condition<br />
the apparition of the <strong>text</strong> (Gavriliu, 2002: 102). As images shift with changing<br />
con<strong>text</strong>ual circumstances, the i<strong>de</strong>ntification of the cultural line forces that govern a<br />
certain period may explain why a particular representation is favoured over a range of<br />
possible alternatives. It also ensures a clarification of the referential frame, as well as of<br />
the cultural values and presuppositions that both author and audience involve in the<br />
communication process in or<strong>de</strong>r to enco<strong>de</strong>/<strong>de</strong>co<strong>de</strong> a given image. Finally, disclosing<br />
the properties of the con<strong>text</strong> that makes an image available as a pattern of i<strong>de</strong>ntification<br />
for a group of people may prompt a better un<strong>de</strong>rstanding of the difference between<br />
“an ‘image’ and objective information” (Leerssen 1988), by explaining its role as a<br />
subjective construct which influences and is influenced by the cultural, historical and<br />
social praxis.<br />
Though a specialism rooted in the field of Comparative Literary Study, this technical<br />
neologism referred to as imagology in many languages has come to transcend the field of<br />
literary analysis and to provi<strong>de</strong> “a viable and fruitful approach to neighbouring specialisms<br />
(from cultural studies to postcolonial studies, and from social psychology and anthropology<br />
to art history)” (Beller 2003, xv). Because it shares the interests in i<strong>de</strong>ntity constructs and<br />
cultural stereotypes with so many disciplines within the wi<strong>de</strong>r and interdisciplinary area of<br />
human and social studies, the task of pinpointing the outlines of the field would remain an<br />
open-en<strong>de</strong>d one, as the on-going dialogue between imagology and its neighbours can only<br />
enrich both theoretical premises and practical research in the study of different forms of<br />
cultural representation.<br />
References<br />
Beller, M., Leerssen, J. (eds). (2003). IMAGOLOGY: a Handbook on the Literary Representation of National<br />
Characters, Amsterdam: Rodopi.<br />
Corbey, R., Leerssen, J. (1991). “Studying Alterity: Backgrounds and Perspectives” in Alterity, I<strong>de</strong>ntity,<br />
Image: Selves and others in society and scholarship. Amsterdam: Rodopi, vi-xviii .<br />
Gavriliu, E. (2002). Theory and Practice of Imagology. Experiencing the Other in Anglo-Romanian Cultural<br />
Encounters, Galaţi: Editura Fundaţiei Universitare “Dunărea <strong>de</strong> <strong>Jos</strong>”.<br />
Hofste<strong>de</strong>, G. (1991). Cultures and Organisations. Intercultural Cooperation and Its Importance for Survival.<br />
Software of the Mind. London: Harper Collins Publishers.<br />
Leerssen, J. (2003). “Imagology: History and Method” in Beller, M., Leerssen, J. (eds). IMAGOLOGY: a<br />
Handbook on the Literary Representation of National Characters, Amsterdam: Rodopi, 17-32.<br />
51
Leerssen, Joep (2000) “The Rhetoric of National Character: A Programmatic Survey.” in Poetics Today,<br />
Porter Institute for Poetics and Semiotics.<br />
Leerssen, J. (1998). National I<strong>de</strong>ntity and National Stereotype, retrieved from http://cf.hum.uva.nl/<br />
images/info/leers.html<br />
Mohor-Ivan, I. (2004). Representations of Irishness: Culture, Theatre and Brian Friel’s Revisionist Stage,<br />
Bucuresti: EDP.<br />
Moyle, L. M. (2004). An Imagological Survey of Britain and the British and Germany and the Germans in<br />
German and British Cartoons and Caricatures: 1945-2000. Retrieved from http:// elib.ub.uniosnabrueck.<strong>de</strong>/publications/diss/E-Diss389_thesis.pdf<br />
Schnei<strong>de</strong>r, D. J. (2005). The Psychology of Stereotyping, New York: The Guildford Press.<br />
Stroebe, W., Insko, C. (1989). “Stereotype, Prejudice and Discrimination: Changing Conceptions in<br />
Theory and Research” in Stereotype and Prejudice. Changing Conceptions, New York: Spinger (3-34)<br />
Voestermans, P. (1991). “Alterity/I<strong>de</strong>ntity: A Deficient Image of Culture” in Alterity, I<strong>de</strong>ntity, Image:<br />
Selves and Others in Society and Scholarship. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 219-50.<br />
Abstract<br />
The paper attempts to facilitate research in different forms of cultural representations by supplying<br />
a basic outline of imagology, a technical neologism which, though rooted in Comparative Literary<br />
Studies, has increasingly come to be positioned in the wi<strong>de</strong>r and interdisciplinary area of cultural<br />
and social studies. As such, after some preliminary consi<strong>de</strong>rations on the history, <strong>de</strong>finition and<br />
basic assumptions un<strong>de</strong>rlying the field of image studies, the paper enlists and briefly explains its<br />
basic concepts, to conclu<strong>de</strong> with both theoretical and practical gui<strong>de</strong>lines for the integrative type of<br />
analysis that the critical study of our mental images of national character (expressed in terms of<br />
the Other/Self dichotomy) presupposes.<br />
Résumé<br />
Cet ouvrage se propose <strong>de</strong> faciliter l’analyse <strong>de</strong> divers aspects <strong>de</strong>s représentations culturelles et<br />
offre un bref exposé sur l’imagologie. Bien qu’émergeant <strong>de</strong>s étu<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong> littérature comparée,<br />
l’imagologie est <strong>de</strong> plus en plus souvent incluse dans le domaine plus large et interdisciplinaire <strong>de</strong>s<br />
étu<strong>de</strong>s sociales et culturelles. Ainsi, après quelques considérations préliminaires sur l’histoire, la<br />
définition et les prémisses fondamentales <strong>de</strong>s étu<strong>de</strong>s d’images, l’ouvrage indique et explique<br />
brièvement les concepts principaux <strong>de</strong> l’imagologie et s’achève par un gui<strong>de</strong> qui inclus <strong>de</strong>s aspects<br />
théoriques et pratiques pour l’analyse intégrative que l’étu<strong>de</strong> critique <strong>de</strong> nos images mentales du<br />
caractère national (exprimé en termes dichotomiques par l’opposition Moi/ L’Autre) implique.<br />
Rezumat<br />
Lucrarea îşi propune să faciliteze analiza diverselor reprezentări culturale, prezentând, succinct,<br />
principalele direcţii <strong>de</strong> cercetare ale imagologiei. Avându-şi originea în domeniul literaturii<br />
comparate, imagologia este din ce în ce mai <strong>de</strong>s inclusă în sfera <strong>de</strong> interes mai largă şi<br />
interdisciplinară caracteristică studiilor sociale şi culturale. Aşadar, după o introducere privind<br />
istoricul, <strong>de</strong>finiţia şi premisele care se află la baza studiului imaginilor, lucrarea trece în revistă şi<br />
explică pe scurt conceptele sale fundamentale. În ultima parte sunt avansate o serie <strong>de</strong> consi<strong>de</strong>raţii<br />
teoretice dar şi practice asupra modalităţilor <strong>de</strong> explorare, din perspectiva critică, ale<br />
reprezentărilor i<strong>de</strong>ntitare asociate unui caracter naţional.<br />
52
Annals of “Dunărea <strong>de</strong> <strong>Jos</strong>” University of GALAŢI<br />
Fascicle XIII, New Series.<br />
Issue 28, XVI (XXVII), 2009<br />
pp. 53-55<br />
CULTURAL DECONSTRUCTIONS OF<br />
TRANSLATED LITERATURE<br />
Lidia Mihaela Necula<br />
53<br />
Language<br />
and<br />
Literature<br />
Merely translating literal meaning from one language to another can prove difficult.<br />
However, translating literature that is written into a certain source language and that is<br />
naturally and culturally enco<strong>de</strong>d into it is, in some ways, an unattainable venture.<br />
Literature is an art that exploits words as its tool, as confined to the language, and so to<br />
the culture in which they exist: one cannot have one without the other: language is culture.<br />
Consequently, translating a culturally construed piece of art work removes it from what it is.<br />
Translation is the process of changing something into what it is not so that it will be itself -<br />
but for another audience, in another time.<br />
Language is culture, and hence, to translate literature often means to inappropriately<br />
translate culture. As cultural interpreters, translators are the first to <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong> what gives<br />
literature impact in its native language, and then find some analogous way to convert that<br />
(adapting and altering) into the inten<strong>de</strong>d language. According to Bassnet (1989), much of the<br />
outcome of cultural interpreters <strong>de</strong>pends on how they un<strong>de</strong>rstand and value not only<br />
aspects of the original work but also the work itself as a whole in its original language.<br />
It is known that <strong>de</strong>construction challenges limits of language, writing and reading by<br />
pointing how the <strong>de</strong>finitions of the very terms used to discuss concepts set boundaries for<br />
the specific theories they <strong>de</strong>scribe. Therefore, while not offering a specific cultural translation<br />
theory of its own, <strong>de</strong>construction does use translation often both to raise questions regarding<br />
the nature of language and being-in-language / culture, as well as to suggest that in the<br />
process of translating <strong>text</strong>s, one can come as close as possible to that elusive notion or<br />
experience of (cultural) différence, which un<strong>de</strong>rlies their approach. Both Roland Barthes and<br />
Jacques Derrida (Culler, 1979) started out in the belief that structuralist methodology could<br />
explain and examine the whole range of cause and effect through language and culture<br />
implicitly.<br />
What transpires from <strong>de</strong>constructionist translation theory, of course, is the renewed<br />
pre-eminence of the critic, not only as the almost divinely intuitive cultural interpreter of the<br />
literary work but also as an artist himself.<br />
It takes art to talk about art (Lodge, 1966), that is, art cannot be paraphrased or<br />
translated into any other form. Besi<strong>de</strong>s, Barthes’ view that it is the rea<strong>de</strong>r and not the author<br />
who finds meaning in a <strong>text</strong> leads logically to the conclusion that it is the translator / critic /<br />
rea<strong>de</strong>r that acquires the cultural meaning of a given work. The <strong>de</strong>constructionist cultural<br />
interpreter and critic feel and <strong>de</strong>scribe their feelings but there is no objective standard<br />
measurement with which to state that their feelings are true or illusory. And in the end, the<br />
cultural translator is left to <strong>de</strong>lineate true from illusory feelings.<br />
The originality of the initial <strong>text</strong> is called into question and most importantly, the<br />
meaning of a <strong>text</strong> is reconsi<strong>de</strong>red and silenced: the process of cultural conversion resists<br />
systems of categorization which separate source <strong>text</strong> from target <strong>text</strong> or language from
meaning and <strong>de</strong>nies the existence of un<strong>de</strong>rlying forms in<strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt of culture. (Holeton,<br />
1992).<br />
In English through Translations (2004), Croitoru mentions that in translating literary<br />
<strong>text</strong>s, both translation theories, on the one hand, and translation criticism, on the other, have<br />
to consi<strong>de</strong>r a criterion for the analysis of the ST and TT, covering both extralinguistic and<br />
linguistic factors that are very important in interpreting and translating the <strong>text</strong>. Due to the<br />
fact that among the most important coordinates of literary translation, intentionality<br />
<strong>de</strong>termines the translator’s choices, the author’s intention being as important as the recipient<br />
that <strong>de</strong>fines the communicative situation and the function of the <strong>text</strong>, Derrida’s translation<br />
theory according to which one thinks less in terms of copying or reproducing, and more in<br />
terms of how languages relate to each other seems to apply to the culture conversion<br />
phenomenon of translating / translated literature.<br />
Clearly, there are many drawbacks to face with when translating literature because the<br />
material is actually a sample of the culture ren<strong>de</strong>red through the language of that source <strong>text</strong><br />
that, most often than not, does not have a correspon<strong>de</strong>nt into the cultural labels of the target<br />
<strong>text</strong>. For most of the cases these cultural conversions are so different from the original <strong>text</strong><br />
that the new translated <strong>text</strong> writes back its translator as a cultural construal: the final result is<br />
a différent <strong>text</strong>, a culturally re-created original <strong>text</strong> subjected to a translational individuality<br />
principle and as such, basically an unrepeated event.<br />
In a wi<strong>de</strong>r sense, this re-creation of the SLT in the TL by different means, reminds of R.<br />
Jakobson’s likeness in difference. The translators may have a greater or lesser <strong>de</strong>gree of<br />
competence, but their work also reflects an inevitable element of subjectivity or style which<br />
can be traced through certain lexical usages and syntactic forms, <strong>de</strong>velopment of<br />
mannerisms or a certain approach to translating, i.e. different reactions to the same <strong>text</strong> or to<br />
the contact with reality. In general, during such a cultural conversion it is impossible to<br />
observe one fundamental translation principle, namely, that the translation should<br />
accurately reflect the meaning of the original <strong>text</strong>s and nothing should be ad<strong>de</strong>d or removed<br />
arbitrarily, though occasionally part of the meaning can be transposed.<br />
A (cultural) recreation of the SLT would impose an interpretation of the author’s<br />
universe (the <strong>de</strong>notations and the connotations of the TL and the meaning they convey) as<br />
well as a categorization of the author’s universe in the TL system.<br />
In Con<strong>text</strong>s in Translating (2001), Nida distinguishes between the referential or cognitive<br />
meaning of translation, related to the extralinguistic object in its cultural con<strong>text</strong>, and the<br />
emotive meaning, related to the subjective reactions. A very important aspect in translating,<br />
interpreting and analyzing literature from a cultural standpoint is that the specific flavor of<br />
the works, the genius of the language, and the richness of the culture prevents translation<br />
operators from analyzing the specific source <strong>text</strong> characteristics, and leads to a conclusion of<br />
cultural untranslatability. In most cases, untranslatability is somehow supplemented for by<br />
invented and / or re-created constructions that would fit into the cultural background of the<br />
SL because culture is a specific collection of features which need examining in each<br />
translation situation.<br />
Besi<strong>de</strong>s, <strong>de</strong>construction and translation prove to be inexorably interconnected,<br />
intimating that the process of translation, that elusive impossible presence Derrida refers to<br />
as cultural différence, may be visible: cultural interpreters are challenged to think and<br />
rethink every moment a translation solution is posed, an item named, an i<strong>de</strong>ntity fixed or a<br />
sentence inscribed. With each naming gesture the cultural interpreter might feel compelled<br />
to provi<strong>de</strong> explanations for each solution chosen. Thus, the process of cultural conversion of<br />
literary <strong>text</strong>s offers a mo<strong>de</strong> of differing / <strong>de</strong>ferring that subverts mo<strong>de</strong>s of traditional<br />
thinking. By applying the <strong>de</strong>constructive translation method to literary <strong>text</strong>s it is possible to<br />
separate source <strong>text</strong> from target <strong>text</strong> or language from meaning: eventually, the discourse of<br />
the <strong>text</strong> reveals the <strong>de</strong>/re-structured cultural discontinuities as brought together un<strong>de</strong>r the<br />
54
cover of a unified, ahistorical, transcen<strong>de</strong>ntal, original <strong>text</strong>. In addition (im)possible<br />
meanings are returned to words, but covered up by the nature of the evolution of the<br />
discourse.<br />
Cultural equivalence is a fluid and relative concept, for it has the notion of difference<br />
inscribed in it, alongsi<strong>de</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntity (Rosaldo, 1992). Thus, a process of cultural conversion<br />
rejects the <strong>de</strong>finition of translation as transporting, reproducing, representing or<br />
communicating the meaning of the original: cultural translation/ projection is viewed as one<br />
instance in which language can be seen as always in the process of modifying the original<br />
<strong>text</strong>, of <strong>de</strong>ferring and displacing for ever any possibility of grasping that which the original<br />
<strong>text</strong> <strong>de</strong>sired to name.<br />
To conclu<strong>de</strong>, different approaches to culturally translated literature may have a<br />
positive or a negative feedback, i.e. the TT resulted might be original in its treatment of the<br />
translation and thus tend to break down the power of the transcen<strong>de</strong>ntal signified and free<br />
the field from evaluating translations in terms of their proximity to pure cultural<br />
equivalence.<br />
References<br />
Bassnet, S. (1989). “Translation, Tradition, Transmission” in Beyond Translation, New Comparison, 8<br />
(Autumn).<br />
Croitoru, E. (2004). English Through Translations, Galati: Editura Fundatiei Universitare ‘<strong>Dunarea</strong> <strong>de</strong><br />
<strong>Jos</strong>’.<br />
Culler, J. (1979). Structuralism and Science, From Lévi-Strauss to Derrida, London: Oxford University<br />
Press.<br />
Holeton, R. (ed.) (1992). Encountering Cultures. Reading and Writing in a Changing World, New Jersey:<br />
Prentice Hall.<br />
Lodge, D. (1966). The Language of Fiction, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.<br />
Nida, E. (2001). Con<strong>text</strong>s in Translating, Amsterdam and Phila<strong>de</strong>lphia: John Benjamins Publishing<br />
Company.<br />
Rosaldo, R. (1992). “Culture and Truth: The Erosion of Classic Norms” in Encountering Cultures,<br />
Reading and Writing in a Changing World, Holeton, R. (ed.), New Jersey: Prentice Hall.<br />
Abstract<br />
The article aims at investigating the translation of literature from un<strong>de</strong>r a cultural lens, with<br />
particular emphasis on <strong>de</strong>constructionist translation theories, according to which not only do<br />
languages (source and target) relate to each other but also they apply to and are mediated towards<br />
an entire culture(al) conversion phenomenon.<br />
Résumé<br />
L’article se propose d’investiguer la traduction <strong>de</strong> la littérature d’une perspective culturelle, tout<br />
en s’appuyant sur <strong>de</strong>s théories <strong>de</strong> traduction déconstructivistes dont le principe fondamental est<br />
que les langues (source et cible) se trouvent dans une relation <strong>de</strong> réciprocité.<br />
Rezumat<br />
Articolul investighează procesele <strong>de</strong> traducere ale literaturii dintr-o perspectivă culturală,<br />
acordând atenţie <strong>de</strong>osebită teoriilor <strong>de</strong>constructiviste <strong>de</strong> traducere conform cărora limbile (sursă şi<br />
ţintă) nu doar relaţionează ci se şi pretează unui fenomen şi sunt mediate către un fenomen <strong>de</strong><br />
conversie culturală.<br />
55
Annals of “Dunărea <strong>de</strong> <strong>Jos</strong>” University of GALAŢI<br />
Fascicle XIII, New Series.<br />
Issue 28, XVI (XXVII), 2009<br />
pp. 56-60<br />
ON IDENTITY, ALTERITY AND HYBRIDITY WITH<br />
ENGLISH EPONYMS IN CHEMISTRY<br />
Floriana Popescu and Carmen Opriţ-Maftei<br />
Language<br />
and<br />
Literature<br />
Introduction<br />
Lexicographical approaches to English eponyms may be found in the form of<br />
dictionaries, encyclopedia, pocket gui<strong>de</strong>s and handbooks, most of them <strong>de</strong>scribing medical<br />
eponyms. Since eponymization has also been active in other sciences whose terminologies<br />
may probably be <strong>de</strong>dicated specialized dictionaries or glossaries in the future, the current<br />
paper focuses on one category of such eponyms ‘in waiting’ for an a<strong>de</strong>quate lexicographic<br />
explanatory volume, i.e., the eponyms in chemistry (chemical eponyms from now on).<br />
Defined as overlapping three meanings (in McArthur 1996: 350), an eponym refers<br />
either to (a) “a personal name from which a word has been <strong>de</strong>rived”, or to (b) “the person<br />
whose name is so used” (also eponymist, in the recent literature on eponyms) or to (c) “the<br />
word so <strong>de</strong>rived” (the recent terminology has suggested the use of eponymism for this<br />
meaning). For the last thirty years, English eponyms have interested linguists (Hellweg 1995,<br />
Crystal 1995, Crystal 2007), lexicographers (Manser 1996, Manser 2005), medical doctors<br />
(Matteson and Woywodt 2006, Whitworth 2007), and specialists in ethics (Cubelli and Sala<br />
2008).<br />
That eponymization tends to become a consi<strong>de</strong>rably productive word creating process<br />
is obvious in the case of LSP. Nevertheless, little has been stated in this regard in the<br />
lexicological literature.<br />
In addition, specialized terminologies of sciences (mathematics, physics and chemistry)<br />
abound in eponyms (most of them became operative in the 19 th and 20 th centuries).<br />
Specialized eponyms were observed to be either peculiar to one science or to be shared by<br />
two or all of the three sciences (viz., Boolean geometry is useful both in mathematics and<br />
physics). Despite the eponym field-specific high frequency of occurrence, none of these<br />
sciences has benefitted from the compiling of a<strong>de</strong>quate lexicographic instruments to <strong>de</strong>scribe<br />
them.<br />
The current interpretive perspective will consi<strong>de</strong>r the nationality of the eponymist<br />
whose name was recategorized into a common noun or an element in a set phrase to be used<br />
in the vocabulary of chemistry, for we think that speaking in terms of i<strong>de</strong>ntity or alterity with<br />
respect to the eponymist ensures the hybridity 1 of the English chemical eponyms. The paper<br />
is the result of joint research carried out on the basis of a long-term research project<br />
un<strong>de</strong>rtaken by the two authors and which has materialized into a lengthy series of<br />
conference reports and publications (27 studies and articles on specific-field eponyms).<br />
1. A terminological framework<br />
The three key terms un<strong>de</strong>rlying our linguistic en<strong>de</strong>avour, i<strong>de</strong>ntity, alterity and hybridity,<br />
56
originate in cultural studies, which at a quick glance would seem improper to our research<br />
background. Nevertheless, language not only “… gives meaning to material objects and<br />
social practices that are brought into view and ma<strong>de</strong> intelligible to us”, but it is equally “the<br />
medium for the formation and transfer of values, meanings and forms of knowledge” and<br />
“…the privileged medium in which […] meanings are […] communicated” (Barker 2005: 88).<br />
Hence, our inspiration in attributing them a linguistic bias.<br />
Paraphrasing Barker (2005: vii) who assigns the following three meanings to hybridity,<br />
we shall admit that i<strong>de</strong>ntity as well as alterity may and will, in our current interpretation,<br />
stand for “(a) discursive formations, (b) frameworks for intercultural communication” and<br />
“(c) agenda for research”, i.e., linguistic research, in our case. Historically un<strong>de</strong>rstood, all the<br />
three concepts have contributed to the <strong>de</strong>velopment of vocabularies, specialist terminologies<br />
inclu<strong>de</strong>d.<br />
Defined as “… the affirmation of those who we are by contrasting nearly every element<br />
of our way of life with that of the others” (Voestermans 1991: 220), in what follows, i<strong>de</strong>ntity<br />
will apply to eponyms of English extraction, for irrespective of the geographical varieties of<br />
English (be it British or American), scientific English shows but fuzzy boundaries.<br />
Alterity, which “came to be broadly <strong>de</strong>fined as discourse on the otherness of people,<br />
particularly outsi<strong>de</strong> one’s domestic ken” (Voestermans 1991: 220), will refer to all those<br />
eponymisms originating in other cultures but which were adopted by English as well.<br />
“At its core, hybridity involves the mixing together of previously discrete cultural<br />
elements to create new meanings and i<strong>de</strong>ntities” (Barker 2004: 89). We share Kraidy’s (2005:<br />
1) opinion that “hybridization is one of the emblematic notions of our era […] which<br />
captures the spirit of the time”. Although most frequently, hybridity refers to culture, as we<br />
use it from now on, it relates to language, in general and to field-specific vocabularies in<br />
particular.<br />
We aim to show that eponymy is transcultural and it etymologically reveals three main<br />
classes of eponymisms, viz., those originating in the names of famous native eponymists, or<br />
in the names of those coming from other cultures or in several types of associations between<br />
eponymists of the otherness and those of the native scientific background.<br />
2. Materials and methods<br />
To make a comprehensive inventory of chemical eponyms, four English volumes<br />
(Holtzclaw and Robinson, 1988a, Holtzclaw and Robinson, 1988b, Pauling, 1964, Chang,<br />
1984) were scanned and a list of such terms was drawn which resulted in a corpus of fieldspecific<br />
items to inclu<strong>de</strong> over 400 illustrations.<br />
They were etymologically classified to comply with the key words of the current<br />
approach. The classification consi<strong>de</strong>red the structure of eponyms as an element of particular<br />
interest. This is due to the fact that in the case of set phrases their structure is always the<br />
same, i.e., chemists will always use the Moseley diagram, the Parkes process or the rule of<br />
Dulong and Petit and never in any other word sequence. It is worthwhile pointing to the<br />
practicality of the corpus which was not <strong>de</strong>signed for this research exclusively. In addition to<br />
its being useful for an intercultural analysis, our multipurpose corpus of chemical eponyms<br />
will serve for lexicological, lexicographical and translational research, teaching and<br />
evaluating purposes.<br />
3. Findings<br />
The investigation of the chemical eponyms showed common structural features,<br />
irrespective of their originating in English or other languages. Personal names may be used<br />
as one-word terms or as combinations including one or more personal names and at least<br />
57
one common word, most frequently, a noun.<br />
Our linguistic analysis revealed eponyms which come from British and American<br />
eponymists to suggest i<strong>de</strong>ntity. Out of a rich number of examples several are mentioned<br />
here: brookite (
expressed by personal names without any <strong>de</strong>rivational ornaments and which also preserve<br />
their capital initial (i.e., London force < Fritz London, who first explained the intermolecular<br />
force, in Holtzclaw and Robinson, 1988a: 288) and those which behave as the base for the<br />
process of suffixation with -ite (to <strong>de</strong>note minerals) and -(i)um (to <strong>de</strong>note chemical elements).<br />
Structurally, the eponyms which point to the presence of the ‘other’ in the English<br />
chemical terminology <strong>de</strong>velop the same two types of pattern, i.e., (elements of the)<br />
<strong>de</strong>termination (system) and suffixation, whose particularity lies in the loss of capital initials.<br />
Determiners may refer to simple nouns, as in the Arrhenius equation (Pauling 1964: 499), or<br />
in compound structures as in the Arrhenius reaction-rate (
signed by Woywodt and Matteson and entitled “Should Eponyms Be Abandoned? Yes”, in British<br />
Medical Journal, 335, 424 and the latter presented in the bibliography below.<br />
Bibliography<br />
Barker, C. 2004 The Sage Dictionary of Cultural Studies, London: Sage Publications Ltd.<br />
Barker, C., 2005 Cultural Studies: Theory and Practice, Oxford: Al<strong>de</strong>n Press Ltd.<br />
Chang, R. 1984, Chemistry, New York: Random House<br />
Crystal, D. 1995, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language, Cambridge: Cambridge University<br />
Press.<br />
Cubelli, R., Sala, S.D. (2008). Eponyms to Forget, in Cortex, 44, 9, 1137 – 8<br />
Hellweg, P. 1995. The Wordsworth Book of Intriguing Words, Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Edition Ltd.<br />
Holtzclaw, H.F. jr., Robinson, R.W. 1988a. General Chemistry, Lexington: D.C. Heath and Company<br />
Holtzclaw, H.F. jr., Robinson, R.W., 1988b. College Chemistry, Lexington: D.C. Heath and Company<br />
Kraidy, M. 2005, Hybridity or the Cultural Logic of Globalization, Phila<strong>de</strong>lphia: Temple University<br />
Press<br />
Manser, M. 1996. The Wordsworth Dictionary of Eponyms, Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Reference<br />
Manser, M. 2005. Chambers Dictionary of Eponyms, Chambers Harrap Publishers<br />
Matteson, E.L, Woywodt, A. 2006. Eponymophilia in Rheumatology, in Rheumatology, 45, 1328 – 1330.<br />
McArthur, T. (ed.) 1996. The Oxford Companion to the English Language, Oxford: Oxford University Press<br />
Pauling, L. 1964. College Chemistry, San Francisco and London: W.H. Freeman and Company<br />
Voestermans, P., 1991, Alterity/i<strong>de</strong>ntity: A Deficient Image of Culture, in Corbey, R., Leerssen, J.<br />
(eds.), Alterity, I<strong>de</strong>ntity, Image: Selves and Others in Society and Scholarship, Amsterdam: Rodopi, 219-<br />
50.<br />
Whitworth, J. 2007. Should Eponyms Be Abandoned? No, in British Medical Journal, 335, 425<br />
Abstract<br />
The problem of eponyms has been constantly investigated against the background of English for<br />
specific purposes for several years. This paper continues the series of field-specific observations and<br />
presents a few remarks regarding the presence of the ‘other’ as compared to the presence of the<br />
‘national i<strong>de</strong>ntity’ in the vocabulary of chemistry.<br />
Rezumat<br />
Problema eponimelor, amplasate pe fundalul limbii engleze pentru scopuri specifice a fost cercetată<br />
în mod constant pe o perioadă <strong>de</strong> câţiva ani. Lucrarea <strong>de</strong> faţă continuă seria observaţiilor privind<br />
domenii specifice şi prezintă unele remarci privind prezenţa alterităţii comparativ cu prezenţa<br />
‘i<strong>de</strong>ntităţii’ naţionale în vocabularul specific domeniului chimiei.<br />
Résumé<br />
Le problème <strong>de</strong>s éponymes a été constamment investigué entre les frontières <strong>de</strong> l’anglais sur<br />
objectifs spécifiques <strong>de</strong>puis quelques années. Ce papier continue la série <strong>de</strong>s observations sur la<br />
terminologie propre à un objectif spécifique et présente quelques remarques sur la présence <strong>de</strong><br />
l’altérité en comparaison avec l’élément d’i<strong>de</strong>ntité nationale dans le vocabulaire <strong>de</strong> la chimie.<br />
60
Annals of “Dunărea <strong>de</strong> <strong>Jos</strong>” University of GALAŢI<br />
Fascicle XIII, New Series.<br />
Issue 28, XVI (XXVII), 2009<br />
pp. 61-65<br />
STYLISTIC FOCUS ON E.M. FORSTER<br />
Daniela Şorcaru<br />
61<br />
Language<br />
and<br />
Literature<br />
Foster is noted for his use of symbolism as a technique in his novels, and he has been<br />
criticized for his attachment to mysticism. The characters of Mrs. Wilcox and Mrs. Moore in<br />
A Passage to India have a mystical link with the past and a striking ability to connect with<br />
people from beyond their own circles.<br />
Although he always remained to some extent an Edwardian, E. M. Forster embodied<br />
more <strong>full</strong>y than any other imaginative writer of his generation a mo<strong>de</strong>rn gay-liberation<br />
perspective.<br />
Forster’s homosexuality manifested itself in an erotic preference for foreigners and for<br />
men of the lower social classes. Reflecting an appreciation of the natural vitality he<br />
connected with working-class men and ambivalence about his own over-civilized<br />
temperament, this preference helps account for his ten<strong>de</strong>ncy to romanticize the lower classes<br />
and for his sensitivity to the injustices of the class system at home and to the effects of<br />
imperialism abroad.<br />
Perhaps because of his erotic preference for working-class men, Forster was also<br />
<strong>de</strong>eply affected by the belief that homosexuality could serve a positive social function by<br />
helping to bridge the barriers that separate the classes.<br />
Forster’s acute consciousness of gay oppression, as epitomized in the persecution of<br />
Wil<strong>de</strong>, haunted his imagination throughout his life, fueling his anger at social and political<br />
injustices of all kinds.<br />
But notwithstanding his difficulties in making a sexual adjustment and <strong>de</strong>spite recent<br />
attempts to characterize his attitu<strong>de</strong> toward homosexuality as guilt-rid<strong>de</strong>n and self-loathing,<br />
the fact is that Forster never felt shame for his sexual orientation.<br />
What he did feel were a sense of wariness and vulnerability and that sensation of<br />
standing ‘at a slight angle to the universe’ that he <strong>de</strong>tected in the poetry of C. P. Cavafy.<br />
Forster’s sensitivity to the pervasive homophobia of his age probably accounts for that tinge<br />
of sadness so characteristic of the Forsterian voice. His fiction embodies a consistent system<br />
of values centered on issues of self-realization, individualism, and responsiveness to life,<br />
nature, and the unseen.<br />
Forster began writing A Passage to India in 1913, just after his first visit to India. The<br />
novel was not revised and completed, however, until well after his second stay in India, in<br />
1921, when he served as secretary to the Maharajah of Dewas State Senior. Published in 1924,<br />
A Passage to India examines the racial misun<strong>de</strong>rstandings and cultural hypocrisies that<br />
characterized the complex interactions between Indians and the English toward the end of<br />
the British occupation of India.<br />
A Passage to India was the last in a string of Forster’s novels in which his craft<br />
improved markedly with each new work. After the novel’s publication, however, Forster<br />
never again attained the level of craft or the <strong>de</strong>pth of observation that characterized his early<br />
work.
With a view to analyzing E. M. Forster’s role as a precursor of the stream-ofconsciousness<br />
linguistic techniques at <strong>text</strong> level, we embark upon a parallel task, namely that<br />
of proving that the pleating of stylistic functions in literary discourse creates a complex<br />
network of linguistic <strong>de</strong>vices, no matter the perspective at the core of the analysis.<br />
Text 1. “So the leave-taking began. Every one was cross or wretched. It was as if irritation<br />
exu<strong>de</strong>d from the very soil. Could one have been so pretty on a Scotch moor or an Italian<br />
alp? Fielding won<strong>de</strong>red afterwards. There seemed no reserve of tranquility to draw upon<br />
India. Either none, or else tranquility swallowed up everything, as it appeared to do for<br />
Professor Godbole. Here was Aziz all shoddy and odious, Mrs. Moore and Miss Quested<br />
both silly, and he himself and Heaslop both <strong>de</strong>corous on the surface, but <strong>de</strong>testable<br />
really, and <strong>de</strong>testing each other.<br />
‘Good-bye, Mr. Fielding, and thank you so much. …What lovely College buildings!’<br />
‘Good-bye, Mrs. Moore.’<br />
‘Good-bye, Mr. Fielding. Such an interesting afternoon. …’<br />
‘Good-bye, Miss Quested.’<br />
‘Good-bye, Dr. Aziz.’<br />
‘Good-bye, Mrs. Moore.’<br />
‘Good-bye, Dr. Aziz.’<br />
‘Good-bye, Miss Quested.’” (Forster, 1991:67)<br />
The vocabulary of Text 1 observes the canon of formal discourse, not only at the level of<br />
individual words, but also at that of collocations specific to formal English. The absence of<br />
any intrusions of the informal results in clear un<strong>de</strong>rstanding on the part of the rea<strong>de</strong>r,<br />
whereas the stylistic effect created is that of ‘nice and proper’ language that is meant to<br />
characterize both the situation at hand and the characters.<br />
The nouns in the <strong>text</strong>, whose scarcity is to be noted, as they yield frequency to<br />
adjectives in this excerpt, reveal a stylistic interplay between the concrete and the abstract.<br />
Such a linguistic <strong>de</strong>vice serves the stylistic function of supporting the i<strong>de</strong>a of tension at <strong>text</strong><br />
level: irritation, soil, moor, alp, reserve, tranquility, College, buildings, surface.<br />
The i<strong>de</strong>a of tension is enhanced and characterized by the large number of adjectives<br />
employed with a view to creating a stylistic play upon reality and appearance. Thus, they<br />
qualify reality as hid<strong>de</strong>n and appearance as out in the open, a type of antonymic social<br />
prejudice that all characters tolerate, e.g. cross, wretched, pretty, shoddy, odious, silly, <strong>de</strong>corous,<br />
<strong>de</strong>testable, lovely, interesting.<br />
Enhancing this gap between truth and social mask, the adverbs in the <strong>text</strong> mostly make<br />
up superlatives, meant to draw the rea<strong>de</strong>r’s attention to the exaggeration of appearance, e.g.<br />
very , so, Such, with only two intrusions of space and time, e.g. afterwards, Here.<br />
Moreover, the verbs in the fragment obey the same interplay of reality and appearance,<br />
as seemed and appeared are contrasted to verbs <strong>de</strong>noting actions (physical or verbal), e.g.<br />
began, to draw, swallowed up, to do, thank. The transition is ren<strong>de</strong>red by such ‘intermediating’<br />
verbs as those <strong>de</strong>noting states or mental processes, e.g. was, exu<strong>de</strong>d, Could have been, won<strong>de</strong>red.<br />
The sentence structure seems to obey a tension towards end of tension axis, as the<br />
beginning of the excerpt is ma<strong>de</strong> up of simple, short sentences, e.g.<br />
So the leave-taking began. Every one was cross or wretched. It was as if irritation exu<strong>de</strong>d<br />
from the very soil. Could one have been so pretty on a Scotch moor or an Italian alp?<br />
Fielding won<strong>de</strong>red afterwards. There seemed no reserve of tranquility to draw upon<br />
India,<br />
that evolve into longer, compound and complex sentences as the tension dissipates<br />
with the leave-taking, e.g.<br />
62
Either none, or else tranquility swallowed up everything, as it appeared to do for<br />
Professor Godbole. Here was Aziz all shoddy and odious, Mrs. Moore and Miss Quested<br />
both silly, and he himself and Heaslop both <strong>de</strong>corous on the surface, but <strong>de</strong>testable<br />
really, and <strong>de</strong>testing each other.<br />
The repetitive use of Good-bye may be interpreted as stylistically summing up and<br />
marking the moment when tension diminishes and disappears, as well as completing the<br />
formal dimension of the language employed when associated with elliptical sentences that<br />
are characteristic of formal social conversation, e.g. […] thank you so much. … What lovely<br />
College buildings! Such an interesting afternoon. …<br />
Text 2. “‘[…] I have had twenty-five years’ experience of this country’ – he paused, and<br />
‘twenty-five years’ seemed to fill the waiting-room with their staleness and ungenerosity<br />
– ‘and during those twenty-five years I have never known anything but disaster result<br />
when English people and Indians attempt to be intimate socially. Intercourse, yes.<br />
Courtesy, by all means. Intimacy – never, never. The whole weight of my authority is<br />
against it. I have been in charge at Chandrapore for six years, and if everything has gone<br />
smoothly, if there has been mutual respect and esteem, it is because both peoples kept to<br />
this simple rule. New-comers set our traditions asi<strong>de</strong>, and in an instant what you see<br />
happens, the work of years is undone and the good name of my District ruined for a<br />
generation. I – I – can’t see the end of this day’s work, Mr. Fielding. You, who are imbued<br />
with mo<strong>de</strong>rn i<strong>de</strong>as – no doubt you can. I wish I had never lived to see its beginning, I<br />
know that. That a lady, that a young lady, engaged to my most valued subordinate – that<br />
she – an English girl fresh from England – that I should have lived – –’” (pp. 147-148)<br />
Text 2 continues the same cultural clash that permeates the entire novel, but it <strong>de</strong>velops<br />
the perspective of the accuser, as it consists in a plea of the ‘ruler’ against the ‘ruled’. The<br />
vocabulary in this case is blatantly formal, obeying and exaggerating the norms of high<br />
society members being appalled at the behaviour of the lower classes or ‘savages’ in foreign<br />
lands.<br />
The power of the accuser’s beliefs permeates all linguistic levels of the <strong>text</strong>,<br />
manipulating language into stylistically supporting the i<strong>de</strong>as expressed by artful pleating of<br />
stylistic functions of language. The clash of two cultures that are very different is to be seen<br />
in the dominance of nouns marked [+ABSTRACT], e.g. years, experience, country, staleness,<br />
ungenerosity, disaster, Intercourse, Courtesy, Intimacy, weight, authority, respect, esteem, rule,<br />
traditions, instant, work, name, generation, i<strong>de</strong>as. The few intrusions of nouns marked<br />
[+CONCRETE] seem to merely support the battle of i<strong>de</strong>as by appointing concrete entities to<br />
keep the ‘combat’ going, e.g. waiting-room, people, New-comers, District, lady, subordinate, girl.<br />
In their turn, the adjectives unfold a similar axis of i<strong>de</strong>as, an axis that may be regar<strong>de</strong>d<br />
as threefold, namely the accuser <strong>de</strong>fining a) himself and the culture he stands for, <strong>de</strong>eply<br />
<strong>de</strong>pendant on tradition, e.g. whole, mutual, simple, good; b) the change that comes with people<br />
who are open-min<strong>de</strong>d to embrace social <strong>de</strong>velopment, e.g. imbued, mo<strong>de</strong>rn; c) the innocent<br />
victim, still part of the accuser’s culture, e.g. young, valued, fresh. As it can be easily noticed,<br />
all adjectives serve a clear stylistic function, that of qualifying characters and what they<br />
symbolize in the complex background of the novel.<br />
Consi<strong>de</strong>ring the fact that there are only four adverbs present in the fragment, e.g.<br />
never, socially, smoothly, asi<strong>de</strong>, mention must be ma<strong>de</strong> that their scarcity seems to be ma<strong>de</strong> up<br />
for by the repetitive use of never (4 instances), which may semantically express the accuser’s<br />
refusal to accept the situation at hand or to reconsi<strong>de</strong>r the angle of analysis of the respective<br />
situation.<br />
Similar to the previous <strong>text</strong>, the great variety of verbs, as well as their consi<strong>de</strong>rable<br />
number, account for the stylistic impression of actual conversation taking place, of<br />
63
conversation dynamics, of discourse vitality, e.g. have had, paused, seemed, to fill, have never<br />
known, result, attempt, to be, is, have been, has gone, has been, kept, set, see, happens, ruined, can’t<br />
see, can, wish, had never lived, to see, know, should have lived.<br />
The formality and appropriateness of long sentences in discourse is disrupted<br />
strategically by elliptical sentences, meant to dramatize what is being said at the moment the<br />
disruption occurs. Such stylistic manipulation of language is obvious in:<br />
‘I have had twenty-five years’ experience of this country’–he paused, and ‘twenty-five<br />
years’ seemed to fill the waiting-room with their staleness and ungenerosity–‘and during<br />
those twenty-five years I have never known anything but disaster result when English<br />
people and Indians attempt to be intimate socially. Intercourse, yes. Courtesy, by all<br />
means. Intimacy–never, never. The whole weight of my authority is against it. I have<br />
been in charge at Chandrapore for six years, and if everything has gone smoothly, if there<br />
has been mutual respect and esteem, it is because both peoples kept to this simple rule.’<br />
The same stylistic effect is created by breaking the canon of well-formed sentences,<br />
with a view to expressing the speaker’s indignation consi<strong>de</strong>ring the present state of affairs,<br />
e.g.<br />
‘New-comers set our traditions asi<strong>de</strong>, and in an instant what you see happens, the work<br />
of years is undone and the good name of my District ruined for a generation. I – I – can’t<br />
see the end of this day’s work, Mr. Fielding. You, who are imbued with mo<strong>de</strong>rn i<strong>de</strong>as –<br />
no doubt you can. I wish I had never lived to see its beginning, I know that. That a lady,<br />
that a young lady, engaged to my most valued subordinate –that she– an English girl<br />
fresh from England–that I should have lived – –’<br />
The <strong>text</strong> is thus clearly subjective at all levels and the i<strong>de</strong>as and the concepts expressed<br />
are, at all times, supported by artful pleating of stylistic functions of language.<br />
When consi<strong>de</strong>ring the stylistic peculiarities of the <strong>text</strong>s analyzed, we cannot <strong>de</strong>ny<br />
Forster his rightful place as one of the precursors of the stream-of-consciousness. His clever<br />
combining tradition and innovation resulted in high-quality prose that already displays<br />
(violent or less violent) disruptions of the formality of the vocabulary used, of the strict rules<br />
of morphology, syntax, semantics and logics, as already proved in the passages discussed.<br />
References<br />
Forster, E. M. (1991). A Passage to India, London: David Campbell Publishers Ltd.<br />
Abstract<br />
E. M. Forster’s discourse in A Passage to India may be accepted as subjective at all levels; the<br />
i<strong>de</strong>as and the concepts are always supported by the mastery assembling of the stylistic functions of<br />
language. Taking into consi<strong>de</strong>ration the stylistic particularities of the <strong>text</strong>s in focus, Forster’s<br />
being a forerunner of the stream-of-consciousness can hardly be <strong>de</strong>nied. His witty juxtaposition of<br />
tradition and innovation resulted in a high quality prose which already reveals (more or less<br />
violent) discrepancies regarding the formality of the vocabulary, the strict rules of morphology,<br />
syntax, semantics and logic, as the analysis of excerpts shows it.<br />
Résumé<br />
Le discours d’E. M. Forster dans A Passage to India peut être regardé comme étant subjectif à tous<br />
les niveaux; les idées et les concepts exprimés sont toujours supportés <strong>de</strong> l’assemblage artistique<br />
<strong>de</strong>s fonctions stylistiques du langage. En considérant les particularités stylistiques <strong>de</strong>s <strong>text</strong>es à<br />
analyser, nous ne pouvons nier la place méritée <strong>de</strong> Forster comme l’un <strong>de</strong>s précurseurs du<br />
“stream-of-consciousness.” Ses combinaisons intelligentes <strong>de</strong> tradition et innovation ont produit<br />
64
une prose <strong>de</strong> haute qualité qui montre déjà les discor<strong>de</strong>s (plus or moins violentes) <strong>de</strong> la formalité<br />
du vocabulaire utilisé, <strong>de</strong>s règles stricts <strong>de</strong> la morphologie, <strong>de</strong> la syntaxe, <strong>de</strong> la sémantique et <strong>de</strong> la<br />
logique, comme les fragments investigués prouveront.<br />
Rezumat<br />
Discursul lui E. M. Forster în romanul A Passage to India poate fi privit ca subiectiv, la orice<br />
nivel ; i<strong>de</strong>ile şi conceptele exprimate sunt tot<strong>de</strong>auna consolidate <strong>de</strong> îmbinarea artistică a funcţiilor<br />
stilistice ale limbajului. Având în ve<strong>de</strong>re particularităţile stilistice ale <strong>text</strong>elor analizate, nu putem<br />
nega locul meritat <strong>de</strong> Forster, ca precursor al scrierilor marcate <strong>de</strong> tendinţele curentului “streamof-consciousness”<br />
sau al fluxului conştiinţei. Alăturarea inteligentă a tradiţiei şi a inovaţiei au<br />
creat o proză <strong>de</strong> înaltă calitate care arată <strong>de</strong>ja discrepanţe (mai mult sau mai puţin violente) ale<br />
vocabularului utilizat, ale regulilor stricte ale morfologiei, sintaxei, semanticii şi logicii, aşa cum<br />
<strong>de</strong>monstrează fragmentele analizate.<br />
65
Annals of “Dunărea <strong>de</strong> <strong>Jos</strong>” University of GALAŢI<br />
Fascicle XIII, New Series.<br />
Issue 28, XVI (XXVII), 2009<br />
pp. 66-71<br />
EXISTENTIAL CHALLENGES.<br />
A SORESCU-LARKIN INTERCULTURAL CASE<br />
Daniela Ţuchel<br />
66<br />
Language<br />
and<br />
Literature<br />
1. Introduction<br />
Postmo<strong>de</strong>rn man needs ‘metaknowledge’ – knowledge acquired through the<br />
inferential mo<strong>de</strong>. The following is a free transposition of Nora Iuga’s (2005) statement at the<br />
Neptun International Festival (“Zile şi Nopţi <strong>de</strong> Literatură”) in September 2005. She says: let<br />
us think of the stubbornness of a writer in search of a perfect match between written<br />
expression and the form of the thought not yet taught to speak out. Just imagine the<br />
economy. Anything useless would be left out, every ‘noise’ would be retired, every ‘că’,<br />
‘cum’, ‘care’, ‘căci’, ‘acum’, ‘atunci’, and so forth. We might be floating, continually ellipting<br />
and spinning out a language pierced like a lace. Rea<strong>de</strong>rs would be enabled to pull through a<br />
coloured string off their own silence. It could be unimaginably beautiful! (“Dar ce să facă un<br />
scriitor care se încăpăţînează să scrie, nu cum se vorbeşte, ci cum se gîn<strong>de</strong>şte: să scrii ca întrun<br />
amor perfect cînd forma scrisă a gîndului s-ar suprapune total peste forma gîndului care<br />
n-a învăţat încă să vorbească. Vă daţi seama ce economie s-ar face? Am elimina tot ce e <strong>de</strong><br />
prisos, am scoate la pensie toţi paraziţii care ne bruiază emisia, pe ‘că’ şi pe ‘cum’ şi pe ‘care’<br />
şi pe ‘căci’ şi pe ‘acum’ şi pe ‘atunci’ şi cîte altele; am pluti într-o elipsă continuă – o limbă cu<br />
găurele ca o dantelă prin care orice cititor îşi poate trasa panglica colorată a propriei tăceri.<br />
Nici nu vă daţi seama cît ar putea fi <strong>de</strong> frumos!”)<br />
The present paper has left behind history and traces contemporary stories and<br />
i<strong>de</strong>ntities born out of compactness and not expansion, out of lacunar economy and not of<br />
periphrastic, reiterated, appositely or appositionally functional pieces.<br />
By means of the parallel addressed in this article, we will try to manage a “site” in the<br />
spirit of Christopher Tindale from whom we quote (2004: 3):<br />
“As a ‘site’, the argumentative situation is a nongeographical space, located in and<br />
created by discourse. We inhabit such spaces with different facility, some of us with ease,<br />
others with discomfort. Yet they are crucial to our self-un<strong>de</strong>rstanding and our<br />
un<strong>de</strong>rstanding of others.”<br />
So much for the operation preliminary to un<strong>de</strong>rstanding and interpreting space. In<br />
time, the basic operation suggested by the <strong>text</strong> of the two poems reproduced below is<br />
syncopation in a cognitive sense. That means to say that the experience reduces the number of<br />
events in the temporal string. Marin Sorescu chooses to represent one’s last biographical<br />
stage by the emergence of the spi<strong>de</strong>r’s web, of the bodily weakness and of the soul’s<br />
separation – an evolutionary <strong>de</strong>velopment compressed to three moments of observation.<br />
Philip Larkin has a time-line of two longer and one shorter mid-positioned spans recording<br />
processes: of darkness setting in, of a sheet slowly drawn over and of hands loa<strong>de</strong>d down.<br />
These notable process occurrences are compressed by syncopation. Now let us consi<strong>de</strong>r the
poetic material:<br />
M(arin) S(orescu) Scară la cer<br />
1 Un fir <strong>de</strong> păianjen<br />
2 Atîrnă <strong>de</strong> tavan,<br />
3 Exact <strong>de</strong>asupra patului meu.<br />
4 In fiecare zi observ<br />
5 Cum se lasă tot mai jos.<br />
6 Mi se trimite şi<br />
7 Scara la cer - zic,<br />
8 Mi se aruncă <strong>de</strong> sus.<br />
9 Deşi am slăbit îngrozitor <strong>de</strong> mult,<br />
10 Sînt doar fantoma celui ce am fost,<br />
11 Mă gîn<strong>de</strong>sc că trupul meu<br />
12 Este totuşi prea greu<br />
13 Pentru scara asta <strong>de</strong>licată.<br />
14 – Suflete, ia-o tu înainte,<br />
15 Pîş! Pîş!<br />
P(hilip) L(arkin) Going<br />
1 There is an evening coming in<br />
2 Across the fields, one never seen before,<br />
3 That lights no lamps.<br />
4 Silken it seems at a distance, yet<br />
5 When it is drawn over the knees and breast<br />
6 It brings no comfort.<br />
7 Where has the tree gone, that locked<br />
8 Earth to the sky? What is un<strong>de</strong>r my hands,<br />
9 That I cannot feel?<br />
10 What loads my hands down?<br />
2. Cognition as unfol<strong>de</strong>d in these poems<br />
We are asking ourselves what recovery of non-explicit material occurs in Marin<br />
Sorescu (MS) and Philip Larkin (PL). The shared topic is the passage from closed systems<br />
(extinction closes upon itself and is studied here as covertness) to open systems, heading<br />
upward (MS) or heading downward (PL), while the linguistic stuff will be shown to<br />
outwardly bloom into hosts of meanings. An almost limitless number of presuppositions,<br />
entailments and implicatures spring up in pragmatic ways.<br />
On an experiential basis, the poems explored here make use of metaphors groun<strong>de</strong>d<br />
in the nature of one’s everyday interactions with the world. The process which operates as a<br />
vital relation is called ‘compression’ in cognitivism (Evans 2007: 30). Let us expand: an outer<br />
space relation in a distinct input space is ‘shortened’. The connection between counterparts<br />
67
gets tighter in the process, but this is also contained in the cognitive meaning of ‘vitality’, a<br />
<strong>de</strong>scription with which connectors occur across input spaces and manage the projection onto<br />
a blen<strong>de</strong>d space. In the two poems about extinction, scaled time and syncopated time are the<br />
effects of time compression. When time in the outer space is compressed in the latter variant<br />
– see MS’s case – a sequential scanning will serve the mentioned poet towards distinguishing<br />
between temporal and atemporal relations in the end. The bias shown by PL, instead, is<br />
towards summary scanning, giving rise to a static scene in a unified final whole. As for<br />
conceptualized <strong>de</strong>ath, MS applies the reverse of the relation between vertical elevation and<br />
quantity (going ‘up’ is less, contradicting the typical view that ‘up’ is ‘more of it’), whereas<br />
PL applies vertical <strong>de</strong>scent-and-quantity in reverse (doing ‘down’ is more than ever<br />
anticipated). And this estimation of quantities <strong>de</strong>velops against a qualitative truth: verticality<br />
is a movement upwards which points to divinity, whereas the downward movement leads<br />
the way to darkness (in sus spre Dumnezeu, in jos spre tenebre).<br />
The study of the two poems can persua<strong>de</strong> the stu<strong>de</strong>nt that a ‘cognitive environment’<br />
signaled by Sperber and Wilson (1986) is by necessity created when audiences assess<br />
arguments and make their judgements (it is our position now, as rea<strong>de</strong>rs of MS and PL). We<br />
may share a physical environment, but our differences are obvious: we represent the world<br />
differently. Our perceptual and inferential abilities vary. We have different sets of memories.<br />
We possess different belief structures, and so on. Thus, a Romanian’s cognitive environment<br />
would be different from an Englishman’s. What is manifest to one is not manifest to the<br />
other. What phenomena are in our visual field at a particular time may be the same even<br />
though we may not notice them all. In consequence of Sperber and Wilson’s <strong>de</strong>monstration,<br />
we can discard the catchwords ‘mutual knowledge’ or ‘shared information’ and use instead<br />
the reference to a shared – or not shared – cognitive environment. Thinking of two distinct<br />
persons, Tindale (2004: 22) says: “Insofar as their cognitive environments intersect, then that<br />
intersection is itself a cognitive environment.” Nevertheless, the analysis below will reveal<br />
that for our large communities of Romanians and Britons, respectively, there is no overlap of<br />
cognitive environments.<br />
Both <strong>text</strong>s display logical sequentiality while opposed action takes place: one self<br />
unwraps (MS) and the other wraps up (PL). The same feeling – sadness – is coupled with<br />
opposed emotion: relief (MS) and puzzlement (PL). The passage we have already allu<strong>de</strong>d to<br />
bears contrary but not contradictory conclusive experiences: SEEING IS KNOWING (line 4 ff<br />
in MS) versus NOT SEEING IS NOT KNOWING (line 3 ff in PL). Hence, the foreseeable<br />
differentiation in foregrounding <strong>de</strong>vices. MS makes salient the gradability of situations as<br />
often as he can, being shocked with (a ten<strong>de</strong>ncy towards) extremes in lines 5, 9, 12, whereas<br />
PL works out nothing gradable as long as his semantic <strong>de</strong>scription stagnates around a zero<br />
of the level recording neither an excess nor a <strong>de</strong>ficit. We will further point out that the zero<br />
of negation prevails with him.<br />
In ancient Greek ‘allegoria’ means ‘other speaking’ and <strong>de</strong>notes figurative language,<br />
something other than what one says. Do we have an allegory (one and the same) in the two<br />
poems? We answer in the affirmative. MS writes about a man lying on his back. The plot is<br />
that a spi<strong>de</strong>r comes and a soul goes, goes up in all probability. In PL the evening comes and a<br />
lying man goes down, or simply goes, according to the title. In MS, the allegory<br />
accommodates a symbol, the lad<strong>de</strong>r. In PL, the allegory is set up between the man, the tree<br />
and Earth, while ‘evening’ is an abstract personification at first, only to melt next into an<br />
allegorical object, the silken sheet. Allegories in the past centuries were suitably turned into<br />
representations in painting. We believe the most ekphrastic components visualising for us<br />
the poetic situation are the lad<strong>de</strong>r and whatever that is which is being drawn over knees and<br />
breast, perhaps a shroud. Again within the allegory, if the concept of ‘symbol’ carries a<br />
quasi-religious revelation of the Infinite, the most eligible candidates for it are the spi<strong>de</strong>r’s<br />
thread in MS and the tree in PL. And this interplay of figures can be prolonged. Ultimately,<br />
68
we need to quote an opinion (Crisp, 2005: 329) in which ‘terms’ should be read ‘figures of<br />
speech’: “It is not unusual for terms to display instabilities and reversals of meaning in a<br />
period of semantic change” - and we seem to be spanning such a period now.<br />
If we make a cognitive claim upon these poems, we can start from an explanation<br />
envisaging some everyday form of embodied experience, such as climbing a lad<strong>de</strong>r to get<br />
rescued or to get a reward, and also the experience of making oneself comfortable un<strong>de</strong>r a<br />
blanket. The moment metaphorical thinking is activated, the projection of the source domain,<br />
more experientially accessible, occurs onto the target domain. If we consi<strong>de</strong>r, however, that<br />
the allegorical meaning is foregroun<strong>de</strong>d rather than the symbolic and the metaphorical,<br />
allegory in the light of human cognition opens up a challenging perspective which probably<br />
accounts for the ‘revival’ of allegory in present-day culture.<br />
3. Ancillary grammar<br />
To us, MS saliently handles the dash and the exclamation mark. The former occurs<br />
once for introducing the rephrasing intention (line 7) and the second time for setting up the<br />
possibility of the double (see Pârvu, 2005: 47) in line 14, with a cognizing I-subject evincing<br />
the split self: the body-like-a-shadow addressing the soul-like-an-alter-ego. The exclamatory<br />
punctuation in line 15 clashes with the hushing message of the onomatopoeia, yet manages<br />
to suggest the passionate drive animating the self. In PL, there is a synecdochically split<br />
body: knees and breast (line 5) and then hands (lines 8 and 10) in a more intimate fusion with<br />
the self being accompanied by the possessive <strong>de</strong>terminative. Both MS and PL place in focus<br />
their last stanzas through their diminished size to two lines and one line, respectively. It is<br />
also worth noting that both poems allow the blank which is silence to reign supreme at the<br />
end.<br />
Additionally, ‘mi se trimite’(line 6) and ‘mi se aruncă’ (line 8) in MS are the Romanian<br />
instances of reflexivity with the zero-agent to be found in English too with ‘it is drawn’ in PL<br />
(line 5). They all represent an option for pointing to a taboo, in a situation in which it is<br />
inappropriate to give a name to the one who saves you or to the one who protectively covers<br />
you.<br />
Another grammatical comment is that in MS the zero article for ‘scară’ in the title<br />
stands out when compared to the same noun with <strong>de</strong>finite <strong>de</strong>termination in lines 7 and 13. It<br />
could be the progression from something unknown and abstract to the familiarity given by<br />
the mentioned daily observations. This progression is recor<strong>de</strong>d in PL in the treatment of the<br />
noun ‘evening’, from the in<strong>de</strong>finite <strong>de</strong>scription of the routine phenomenon (line 1) to<br />
uniqueness of manifestation (line 2). Then we should note that the present tense encroaches<br />
into past time territory in MS and equally in PL. The <strong>de</strong>ictic zero-level of here-and-now<br />
confer a permanent and spatially unlimited perspective to the experience. The vocative (MS,<br />
line 14) is functional in splitting the individuality of the experiencer, while the unanswered<br />
self-turned questions in PL (lines 8, 9, 10) set up a split ego as well. In MS, two cases of<br />
incongruent positioning (lines 6 and 7 with the items ‘şi’ and ‘zic’) are indicative of extreme<br />
emotion which prolongs its <strong>de</strong>familiarizing syntactic jumbling of the clauses constituting<br />
lines 9, 10 and 11. In PL, the frequency of negative patterns (lines 2, 3, 6, 9), only one of them<br />
being verbal negation, can trigger an interpretation going through Zero in the direction<br />
shown by Laurence Horn (1989), namely to take negation as a positive assertion about the<br />
existence of a relevant difference. The first form of negation is a rejection of external entities.<br />
Horn says that the fifth form of negation (known as ‘scalar negation’) is the first form, after<br />
all, but it must necessarily be <strong>de</strong>tached, that is used against an absent entity. Since a<br />
recognized absence only exists in contrast to a recalled presence, such a form of negation is<br />
necessarily <strong>de</strong>pen<strong>de</strong>nt upon memory. Memory enables what is present to shift attention to a<br />
stimulus that is not present. In reacting to absence, what was previously ground must now<br />
69
e interpreted as figure. ‘Evening’, ‘lamps’ and ‘comfort’ are now figure in cognitivism, by<br />
the si<strong>de</strong> of another effect they bring about, a renewed ability to symbolize in PL. It is actually<br />
their very role in negative patterns that helped increase their power as symbols.<br />
In processing the information supplied by grammar arrangements in the two poems,<br />
we find that through those grammar <strong>de</strong>vices the announcement of a few gaps happens, at<br />
the same time with a focalized intensity of thought peculiar to the subjectivity of the genre.<br />
Conclusions<br />
MS and PL have a novel way of using the adversarial or contentious aspect of<br />
arguments which are important to an un<strong>de</strong>rstanding of their poetry.<br />
Most of the implicatures are found to explore not so much time as the relation<br />
between space and body. Wavering between positions within a space is an issue of power,<br />
and also of scale, not to mention the issue of interiority and exteriority. Hence, the interesting<br />
experience of i<strong>de</strong>ntification through one viewer being ma<strong>de</strong> to go out of himself.<br />
Eventually, the major distinction between MS and PL is that the former <strong>de</strong>ci<strong>de</strong>s on a<br />
course of action and the latter cannot do so because he finds out that knowledge and proof<br />
are lacking in what he is concerned.<br />
We can recast the i<strong>de</strong>a of dialogue (present sub<strong>text</strong>ually in these poems) as a<br />
conventional situation when two parties reason together for some purpose. The actuality of<br />
the poems puts forward only arguments by one party. Thus, we are faced with a one-si<strong>de</strong>d<br />
argumentation in a natural-language setting, a practical and applied task that will make<br />
legitimate any response as <strong>de</strong>fen<strong>de</strong>d by informal logic.<br />
For his invisible respon<strong>de</strong>nt in both cases, the questioner resorts to different kinds of<br />
sophistical arguments. In MS’s case, the argumentum ad misericordiam (an appeal to<br />
sympathy) is generated by the wretched situation of a sufferer losing bodyweight. To this,<br />
the argumentum ad populum draws upon the popular opinion that the weightless soul should<br />
perform the action of rising to heaven because people say that this is the right thing to do.<br />
On the other hand, PL has a sophistical way of pressing presumptions ahead in an<br />
aggressive tactic of many questions – what is known as “the fallacy of complex question” so<br />
that “any direct answer will trap a respon<strong>de</strong>nt into damaging concessions” (Walton, 1998:<br />
26). In PL’s case, it appears that the questions themselves can be fallacies due to the fact that<br />
the questions contain presumptions that, in a subtle manner, implicate conclusions tripping<br />
up the respon<strong>de</strong>nt. By pressing the i<strong>de</strong>a of dying as ‘going down into the ground’, the<br />
answer is contained in the question, but may not be the commitment of a respon<strong>de</strong>nt<br />
resembling, for instance, MS.<br />
We cannot conclu<strong>de</strong> without remembering the cautious tone of David Crystal (1992:<br />
386) when assessing that too many zeros or absences in an analysis weaken its plausibility.<br />
We must hope that our paper has not been excessive in that respect.<br />
We tried to get a grasp on the two poets’ insight in terms of purpose versus play,<br />
hierarchy versus anarchy, presence versus absence, epistemology versus ontology. This<br />
strategy of approach may yield the objectivised differences in the poets’ cultural<br />
backgrounds, instead of pon<strong>de</strong>ring about the genuineness of their personal grasp. PL poses<br />
questions that cannot be easily answered. MS takes an orientation that is appealing because it<br />
discharges us of the duty to give answers. We are all philosophers by dabbling, the argument<br />
of God awaiting us may impress us or may fail to do so. Truth is nee<strong>de</strong>d, but the notion of<br />
truth is not at all a perspicuous one.<br />
References<br />
Crisp, P. (2005). “Allegory and symbol – a fundamental opposition?” in Language and Literature. Vol.<br />
70
14, no. 4 / November. Sage Publications.<br />
Crystal, D. (1992). A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. Blackwell Publishers.<br />
Evans, V. (2007). A Glossary of Cognitive Linguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press Ltd.<br />
Horn, L. (1989). Natural History of Negation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.<br />
Iuga, N. (2005). “Dacă inspiri numai ce expiri, mori”, in România literară nr. 39/5-11 oct., p. 3.<br />
Pârvu, S. (coord.) (2005). Postmo<strong>de</strong>rnism. Iaşi: Institutul European.<br />
Sperber D. & D. Wilson (1986). Relevance. Communication and Cognition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard<br />
University Press.<br />
Tindale, C. W. (2004). Rhetorical Argumentation. Sage Publications, Inc.<br />
Walton, D. (1998). The New Dialectic. Conversational Con<strong>text</strong>s of Argument. Toronto, Buffalo, London:<br />
University of Toronto Press.<br />
Abstract<br />
This intercultural study is backed up by current competing motivations in discourse, such<br />
as economy, clarity, routinization or expressivity. The analysis is hinged on arguments<br />
about non-geographical space, time compression, metaphysical extinction in two cognitive<br />
environments: one distinctly Romanian and the other one distinctly British.<br />
Résumé<br />
Cette approche, soutenue par <strong>de</strong>s thèmes d’interculturalité, invoque <strong>de</strong>s motivations<br />
discursives qui concurrent pour assurer les principes <strong>de</strong> l’économie, <strong>de</strong> la clarté <strong>de</strong><br />
l’expression, <strong>de</strong> l’expressivité du message et <strong>de</strong> son aspect quotidien. On présente <strong>de</strong>s<br />
arguments en ce qui concerne l’espace qui dépasse la géographie, le temps comprimé,<br />
l’extinction métaphysique. Le tout est généré par <strong>de</strong>s milieux cognitifs distincts, l’espace<br />
roumain et l’espace britannique.<br />
Rezumat<br />
Abordarea <strong>de</strong> faţă, susţinută <strong>de</strong> teme ale interculturalităţii, invocă motivaţii discursive ce<br />
concură pentru a asigura principial economia exprimării şi claritatea ei, expresivitatea<br />
mesajului şi formularea lui rutinieră. Se aduc argumente în legătură cu spaţiul<br />
transgresând geografia, timpul comprimat, extincţia metafizică, totul fiind generat <strong>de</strong> medii<br />
cognitiv distincte, unul românesc şi celălalt britanic.<br />
71
Annals of “Dunărea <strong>de</strong> <strong>Jos</strong>” University of GALAŢI<br />
Fascicle XIII, New Series.<br />
Issue 28, XVI (XXVII), 2009<br />
pp. 72-77<br />
LA DIMENSION INTERCULTURELLE DE L’HUMOUR<br />
- PISTES PEDAGOGIQUES -<br />
Angelica Vâlcu<br />
Tentative <strong>de</strong> définir l’humour.<br />
72<br />
Language<br />
and<br />
Literature<br />
Selon l’Encyclopédie libre Wikipedia, l’humour pourrait être défini comme “une forme<br />
d’expression permettant <strong>de</strong> dégager certains aspects cocasses ou insolites <strong>de</strong> la réalité,<br />
<strong>de</strong>stinée généralement à provoquer le rire, soit en se moquant <strong>de</strong>s autres, soit en se moquant<br />
<strong>de</strong> ses semblables ou <strong>de</strong> soi-même (autodérision).” 1<br />
L’humour est un moyen d’expression qui vise la vérité sans la nommer, étant en même<br />
temps la meilleure possibilité <strong>de</strong> s’exprimer lorsqu’il est impossible <strong>de</strong> le faire d’une autre<br />
manière. L’humour est une forme d’esprit qui se cache sous un air sérieux, pleine d’ironie et<br />
d’imprévu, et qui consiste à dégager les aspects plaisants <strong>de</strong> la réalité avec un certain<br />
détachement.<br />
Dans son essai sur l’humour, Robert Escarpit 2 donne une définition <strong>de</strong> l’humour à<br />
partir <strong>de</strong> la théorie humorale d'Hippocrate <strong>de</strong> Cos et <strong>de</strong> Galien. La notion d’humour apparaît<br />
dans la littérature avec Ben Jonson (Anglais d’origine), qui définit “le sens of humour”<br />
comme une “conscience intuitive mais luci<strong>de</strong> et délibérément souriante <strong>de</strong> son propre<br />
personnage caractériel au milieu d'autres personnages” 3. L’humour serait, selon Escarpit, un<br />
état d’esprit et un comportement qui fonctionne “par un arrêt <strong>de</strong>s jugements affectif, moral<br />
et philosophique” et qui se concrétise sous la forme d’une interruption (en trois phases) <strong>de</strong>s<br />
évi<strong>de</strong>nces:<br />
a) la confrontation soudaine entre l’évi<strong>de</strong>nt et l’absur<strong>de</strong>;<br />
b) suspension volontaire <strong>de</strong> l'évi<strong>de</strong>nt, tout en continuant à adopter un raisonnement<br />
formellement logique;<br />
c) rôle important <strong>de</strong> la réception et <strong>de</strong>s paramètres culturels.<br />
Ces trois phases forment un tronc commun avec le fantastique considéré comme un écart par<br />
rapport au vraisemblable.<br />
À partir <strong>de</strong> l’ouvrage <strong>de</strong> T. Todorov 4, Said Laqabi 5, dans sa thèse <strong>de</strong> doctorat “Aspects<br />
<strong>de</strong> l’ironie dans la littérature maghrébine d’expression française <strong>de</strong>s années quatre-vingts ” soutenue<br />
à l’Université Paris XIII en 1996, considère que l’humour se définit par un certain côté<br />
comique dont le grand trait distinctif consiste dans l’ancrage idiomatique et culturel.<br />
Par le biais <strong>de</strong> l’humour comme forme supérieure <strong>de</strong> l’ironie, on peut dire avec plus <strong>de</strong><br />
force ce qui est saisi d’une manière moins ferme, d’une manière traditionnelle ou stéréotypée<br />
“Elle [l’ironie] déjoue donc un ensemble <strong>de</strong> conventions <strong>de</strong> lecture et <strong>de</strong> communication,<br />
pour permettre la transmission du singulier. D'une part, elle met à distance le proche et<br />
permet <strong>de</strong> le voir, en lui donnant forme. D'autre part, elle bloque le passé d'attentes et<br />
ouvre un moment d'inspiration dans l'auditeur, comme un présent absolu. ” 6<br />
Le <strong>text</strong>e humoristique est un phénomène, par excellence, culturel et son interprétation
prétend la référence à un cadre d’expériences commun aux <strong>de</strong>ux interlocuteurs.<br />
Il est assez difficile <strong>de</strong> découvrir la signification d’un <strong>text</strong>e humoristique. «La<br />
traduction», l’explication <strong>de</strong>s mots et <strong>de</strong>s référents ne récupère pas entièrement le sens du<br />
<strong>text</strong>e en question<br />
“les intentions <strong>de</strong> l’auteur et les données du <strong>text</strong>e se mêlent en général à un ensemble <strong>de</strong><br />
connotations ou <strong>de</strong> références incluant l’histoire, la politique, les attitu<strong>de</strong>s, les mo<strong>de</strong>s <strong>de</strong><br />
vie, les traditions, la littérature, la science, et toutes sortes <strong>de</strong> domaines dans lesquels les<br />
locuteurs natifs sont immergés en permanence et qui varient <strong>de</strong> contrée à contrée, donc<br />
<strong>de</strong> langue à langue dans la mesure où la géographie et la linguistique sont solidaire. ” 7<br />
Par leur thématique, les différents genres <strong>de</strong> l’humour, blague, anecdote, satire, etc.<br />
cherchent à raffermir et réaffirmer l’i<strong>de</strong>ntité du groupe, la spécificité du groupe et donnent<br />
les preuves <strong>de</strong> leur vouloir <strong>de</strong> vivre ensemble:<br />
“La pratique la plus répandue est alors le choix d'un bouc émissaire qui donne à chacun la<br />
vision péjorative <strong>de</strong> l'autre, <strong>de</strong> celui qui n'est pas partie intégrante <strong>de</strong> la collectivité<br />
revendiquée. L'i<strong>de</strong>ntité mise en exergue varie selon les blagues, elle peut être<br />
professionnelle, sexuelle, régionale, nationale, ethnique, religieuse... ” 8<br />
II. Culture et interculture dans l’enseignement du FLE.<br />
Le concept <strong>de</strong> culture peut être défini comme une manière <strong>de</strong> penser et d’être, plus<br />
précisément comme “un ensemble <strong>de</strong> significations, valeurs et croyances <strong>de</strong> nature collective<br />
et dotées d’une certaine durabilité qui caractérisent un groupe d’individus sur une base<br />
nationale, ethnique ou autre et orientent leurs conduites. ” 9<br />
Marie-Thérèse Claes 10, dans l’article cité ci-<strong>de</strong>ssous, définit la culture comme un<br />
système <strong>de</strong> significations partagées: lorsque les significations différent, <strong>de</strong>s ambigüités<br />
apparaissent. L’auteure mentionnée donne l’exemple du mot «mariage» tel qu’il est perçu<br />
dans différentes cultures: les Américains du Nord associent le mot mariage à l’idée d’amour<br />
et <strong>de</strong> partenariat, les Japonais l’associent à la confiance et même au compromis, aux<br />
restrictions, aux obligations, tandis que les Français associent le mariage à l’amour, à la<br />
passion et au sexe. Les associations dont parle M. Th. Claes démontrent le fait que chacun<br />
d’entre nous dispose d’un dictionnaire mental structuré d’une manière particulière et que<br />
dans ce dictionnaire se trouvent <strong>de</strong>s mots disponibles à n’importe quel stimulus extérieur.<br />
Le socioculturel est une composante essentielle - à coté <strong>de</strong>s composantes linguistiques,<br />
paralinguistiques, sociolinguistiques, référentielles, discursives - <strong>de</strong> la compétence <strong>de</strong><br />
communication. L’enseignement <strong>de</strong>s langues étrangères favorise usuellement la composante<br />
linguistique au détriment <strong>de</strong>s autres composantes et surtout, <strong>de</strong>s composantes<br />
sociolinguistique et socioculturelle. Or, on le sait très bien: ces <strong>de</strong>rnières <strong>de</strong>ux composantes<br />
constituent la dimension interculturelle <strong>de</strong> la compétence <strong>de</strong> communication et représentent<br />
un phénomène essentiel dans ce mon<strong>de</strong> interculturel et globalisé <strong>de</strong> plusieurs points <strong>de</strong> vue.<br />
La conscientisation <strong>de</strong> l’existence <strong>de</strong>s différences inter-cultures est <strong>de</strong> plus en plus<br />
obligatoire.<br />
La compétence interculturelle n’est pas l’aptitu<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> décrire la culture <strong>de</strong> l’Autre<br />
comme discipline d’étu<strong>de</strong> mais la capacité <strong>de</strong> se mo<strong>de</strong>ler en modifiant justement ses propres<br />
critères et ses repères.<br />
73
III. Le décodage <strong>de</strong> l’image i<strong>de</strong>ntitaire.<br />
L’image i<strong>de</strong>ntitaire <strong>de</strong>s Français qui circule dans les manuels <strong>de</strong> FLE, découle <strong>de</strong><br />
l’imaginaire patrimonial 11 engendré par un con<strong>text</strong>e, une histoire, etc. Ces images peuvent<br />
être produites soit par les sociétés elles-mêmes (autoreprésentation / stéréotype) ou par le<br />
regard <strong>de</strong>s autres (hétéro représentation / stéréotype). Les stéréotypes <strong>de</strong>s manuels et <strong>de</strong>s<br />
imaginaires collectifs s’alimentent réciproquement. Par exemple, les blagues sont en même<br />
temps vecteurs et témoins <strong>de</strong> ces images et permettent <strong>de</strong> comprendre pourquoi un<br />
stéréotype peut être vrai (ou non).<br />
L’image i<strong>de</strong>ntitaire <strong>de</strong>s Français est associée, dans beaucoup <strong>de</strong> <strong>text</strong>es étudiés en classe<br />
<strong>de</strong> FLE, à <strong>de</strong>ux emblèmes: le premier, le drapeau tricolore qui permet d’i<strong>de</strong>ntifier la France<br />
comme unité nationale, et le second, le coq gaulois qui n’est pas un symbole officiel <strong>de</strong> l’Etat<br />
mais le symbole <strong>de</strong> la prédilection pour représenter la France et les Français. Le coq gaulois<br />
accentue “un trait typiquement français, à savoir la fierté nationale, pour ne pas dire l’arrogance”.<br />
(Goethe Institut).<br />
Les Français sont un peuple fier. Ils s’enorgueillissent <strong>de</strong>s nombreux succès que<br />
comporte leur histoire et <strong>de</strong> leurs contributions au mon<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> la culture. Leurs dirigeants<br />
les plus importants ont toujours compris l’importance que revêtait la fierté et l’estime <strong>de</strong><br />
soi pour le Français moyen. De Gaulle, en particulier, a très bien su jouer <strong>de</strong> cette fibre. Il<br />
a su les flatter, les cajoler, les motiver, et partant obtenir qu’ils coopèrent et obéissent.<br />
(Pu Zhihong 2008 : 161) 12<br />
Prenons ces <strong>de</strong>ux blagues 13 qui pourraient figurer dans un chapitre du manuel <strong>de</strong> FLE,<br />
chapitre <strong>de</strong>stiné à l’étu<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> la culture et <strong>de</strong> la civilisation françaises. On y peut distinguer<br />
quelques traits qui caractérisent les Français, tels que: la fierté l’orgueil même l’arrogance.<br />
a) Comment fait un Français pour se suici<strong>de</strong>r ?<br />
- Il se tire une balle à 15 centimètres au-<strong>de</strong>ssus <strong>de</strong> la tête en plein dans son complexe<br />
<strong>de</strong> supériorité.......<br />
b) Comment appelle-t-on quelqu'un qui parle trois langues ? - Un trilingue..<br />
Comment appelle-t-on quelqu'un qui parle <strong>de</strong>ux langues ? - Un bilingue.<br />
Comment appelle-t-on quelqu'un qui ne parle qu'une langue ? - Un Français.<br />
A une premiere analyse <strong>de</strong>s <strong>text</strong>es ci-<strong>de</strong>ssus nous nous rendons compte que<br />
l’apprenant roumain se trouve face à une représentation, disons négative, <strong>de</strong> l’i<strong>de</strong>ntité <strong>de</strong><br />
l’Autre, du Français. Mais, selon Nathalie Auger «plus on se côtoie, moins les stéréotypes<br />
émergent.» 14 Cela veut dire que plus les rencontres sont fréquentes plus les stéréotypes sont<br />
éliminés (nous comprenons par rencontre non seulement la rencontre face à face <strong>de</strong>s jeunes<br />
<strong>de</strong> nationalités différentes mais aussi celle par le biais <strong>de</strong>s livres, <strong>de</strong> la presse, etc.).<br />
“Lorsqu’un message quitte la culture dans laquelle il était codé, il contient le sens<br />
donné par le co<strong>de</strong>ur... Quand un message atteint la culture où il doit être décodé, il subit<br />
une transformation dans laquelle l’influence <strong>de</strong> la culture décodante <strong>de</strong>vient une partie<br />
<strong>de</strong> la signification du message. Le contenu du message d’origine est modifié durant la<br />
phase du décodage <strong>de</strong> la communication interculturelle, car le répertoire culturellement<br />
différent <strong>de</strong>s comportements et <strong>de</strong>s significations communicationnelles possédé par le<br />
déco<strong>de</strong>ur ne contient pas les mêmes significations culturelles possédées par le co<strong>de</strong>ur. » 15<br />
Dans l’enseignement / apprentissage d’une langue - culture étrangère, l’étu<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>s<br />
documents authentiques a une importance particulière car les énoncés <strong>de</strong> l’énonciateur-<br />
auteur permettent, le plus souvent, <strong>de</strong> légitimer les marques valorisantes et/ou<br />
74
dévalorisantes que l’auteur met en discours (il s’agit d’une autoreprésentation <strong>de</strong> l’Autre).<br />
Nous considérons le terme Autre dans sa double acception: d’opposition et <strong>de</strong> similitu<strong>de</strong>.<br />
Pour qu’une i<strong>de</strong>ntité se réalise, elle doit avoir en vue cette double dimension <strong>de</strong> l’Autre.<br />
Les spécialistes en didactique <strong>de</strong>s langues soutiennent que le discours pédagogique,<br />
quel que soit son contenu, prétend la vérité. Le stéréotype, sous pré<strong>text</strong>e <strong>de</strong> vérité du<br />
discours, peut être infiltré n’importe où dans la séquence didactique, non seulement dans le<br />
cours <strong>de</strong> civilisation. Il s’agit <strong>de</strong> la création <strong>de</strong>s séquences dialogiques qui mettent en<br />
situation divers actes <strong>de</strong> parole, <strong>de</strong> l’analyse <strong>de</strong>s documents authentiques, (écrits par <strong>de</strong>s<br />
Français à <strong>de</strong>s fins non didactiques) qui peuvent enchaîner <strong>de</strong>s stéréotypes.<br />
En ce qui concerne les stratégies pédagogiques que nous pouvons mettre en œuvre<br />
pour que nos étudiants prennent conscience <strong>de</strong>s modèles <strong>de</strong> la culture d’arrivée, plusieurs<br />
voies peuvent être envisagées selon une méthodologie progressive. Nous n’en citons que<br />
quelques unes: le travail sur les stéréotypes, le travail sur la comparaison et troisièmement,<br />
les cheminements thématiques. Le problème majeur qui peut intervenir dans tous ces types<br />
<strong>de</strong> stratégies est celui du risque du préjugé. Pour l’éviter, il faut savoir “comment approcher<br />
une culture étrangère et évaluer les écarts <strong>de</strong> façon dépassionnée sans être aveuglé par nos<br />
références et jugements <strong>de</strong> valeur” 16. Dans leur démarche <strong>de</strong> découvrir les réalités <strong>de</strong> la<br />
culture française nos apprenants suivront diverses étapes: l’observation <strong>de</strong> la réalité,<br />
l’analyse <strong>de</strong> la réalité et la transformation <strong>de</strong> la réalité.<br />
Conclusion.<br />
La connaissance <strong>de</strong> la culture <strong>de</strong> l’Autre est essentielle pour la compréhension, le<br />
décodage d’un <strong>text</strong>e/discours en langue étrangère. Dans la didactique <strong>de</strong>s langues-cultures,<br />
discerner les valeurs d’une culture ai<strong>de</strong> à discerner ce qu’on accepte comme beau, bon et<br />
juste et ce qui ne l’est pas. La connaissance <strong>de</strong>s valeurs culturelles permet <strong>de</strong> relativiser ses<br />
aprioris car la rencontre avec une autre culture offre <strong>de</strong>s images et <strong>de</strong>s situations multiples<br />
qui sont absorbées dans la représentation unifiante et la construction <strong>de</strong> l’i<strong>de</strong>ntité <strong>de</strong><br />
l’individu.<br />
Notes<br />
1. http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humour<br />
2. Escarpit R. 1981, L’Humour, Paris - P.U.F. Que sais-je ?- n° 877 -<br />
3. I<strong>de</strong>m p. 26<br />
4. Todorov T. 1970, Introduction à la littérature fantastique, Paris – Seuil, apud note 5, p. 28<br />
5. Laqabi, Said, « Aspects <strong>de</strong> l’ironie dans la littérature maghrébine d’expression française <strong>de</strong>s années quatrevingts<br />
» communication soutenue à l’Université Paris XIII en 1996, (voir l’adresse Internet<br />
http://www.google.fr/search?q=Said+Laqabi&sourceid=navclient-ff&ie=UTF-8&rlz= 1B2GGFB_en<br />
RO216RO217, p 27)<br />
6. Marie De Gandt, (2001). «Poétique <strong>de</strong> l'ironie», in Pierre Schoentjes, Poétique <strong>de</strong> l'ironie, Paris, coll.<br />
Points/Essais-Inédits, 2001, 347, adresse Internet : http://www.fabula.org/revue/cr/180.php, site<br />
consulté le 15 oct. 2009<br />
7. Anne Marie Laurian, CNSR, France, «Humour et traduction au contact <strong>de</strong>s cultures», Méta, vol. 34,<br />
n.1, 1989, 5-14, http://id.erudit.org/i<strong>de</strong>rudit/003418ar<br />
8. Mercier, Arnaud, Laboratoire Communication et Politique, CNRS, Paris/Université <strong>de</strong> Nice,<br />
Introduction, «Pouvoirs <strong>de</strong> la dérision, dérision <strong>de</strong>s pouvoirs», Hermès 29, 2001, 12<br />
9. Faure, Guy, Olivier et Rubin, 1993, «Approcher la dimension interculturelle en négociation<br />
internationale», http://www.philippepierre.com/_media/negociation_internationale_et_dimension_<br />
interculturelle_rfg.pdf, site consulté le 2 octobre 2009<br />
10.<br />
Claes, Marie-Thérèse, «La dimension interculturelle dans l’enseignement du français langue <strong>de</strong><br />
spécialité», www.francparler.org/articles/interculturel_claes.doc, site consulté le 15 sept.2009<br />
75
11. Debyser F. apud N. Auger, Auger, N., «Du stéréotype à la compréhension <strong>de</strong> la relation<br />
interculturelle : autour <strong>de</strong>s manuels <strong>de</strong> FLE en usage dans l’Union Européenne», communication<br />
soutenue au Colloque organisé à Paris le 4 et 5 novembre 2005 par le Forum <strong>de</strong>s langues<br />
européennes, http://www.forum<strong>de</strong>slangues.net/forum/manifF.htm, site consulté le 15 sept.2009<br />
12. Pu Zhihong, Université Sun Yat-sen <strong>de</strong> Chine, «L’implicite culturel et sa place dans l’enseignement<br />
d’une langue étrangère», Synergies, Chine, n. 3, 2008, 161-167<br />
13. http://sireli.canalblog.com/archives/2006/08/29/2565753.html<br />
14 . Auger, N., «Du stéréotype à la compréhension <strong>de</strong> la relation interculturelle : autour <strong>de</strong>s manuels <strong>de</strong><br />
FLE en usage dans l’Union Européenne», communication soutenue au Colloque organisé à Paris le<br />
4 et 5 novembre 2005 par le Forum <strong>de</strong>s langues européennes, http://www .forum <strong>de</strong>s langues .net<br />
/forum/manifF.htm, site consulté le 15 sept.2009<br />
15. Hall, E.T, p. 197, apud Martineau, Emmanuelle, Maîtrise F.L.E UFR <strong>de</strong> Nantes, «Les stéréotypes<br />
franco-allemands dans la caricature», http://pagespersoorange.fr/chevrel/dossiers/martineau.htm, site<br />
consulté le 2 décembre 2009<br />
16. http://www.auf.org/docs/1/pol-ling-edu-2003-07.pdf, site consulté le 2 décembre 2009<br />
Bibliographie<br />
Bre<strong>de</strong>ndiek, M. (2000). “ Le développement <strong>de</strong> la reconstruction <strong>de</strong> l’autre culturel. Vers la réflexion<br />
anthropologique <strong>de</strong> l’autrui dans l’interculturel”, in M.Bre<strong>de</strong>ndiek et B. Krewer : La dynamique <strong>de</strong> la<br />
reconstruction <strong>de</strong> l’autre culturel dans les situations <strong>de</strong> coopération interculturelle. Université <strong>de</strong> la Sarre,<br />
2000, apud Thomas, M., - Mémoire DESS P.A.I., “Acquérir une compétence interculturelle. Des<br />
processus d’apprentissages interculturels au quotidien“ http://www.mediationinterculturelle.com,<br />
p. 30<br />
Mercier, A. (2001). Laboratoire Communication et Politique, CNRS, Paris/Université <strong>de</strong> Nice,<br />
Introduction, «Pouvoirs <strong>de</strong> la dérision, dérision <strong>de</strong>s pouvoirs”, Hermès, 29<br />
http://humour-blague.com/blague/belge.php<br />
www.francparler.org/articles/interculturel_claes.doc<br />
Thomas, M., - Mémoire DESS P.A.I., “Acquérir une compétence interculturelle. Des processus<br />
d’apprentissages interculturels au quotidien” http://www.mediation-interculturelle.com, p.37,<br />
site consulté le 2 oct. 2009<br />
http://sireli.canalblog.com/archives/2006/08/29/2565753.html<br />
* * * * (2000). Conseil <strong>de</strong> l’Europe/Conseil <strong>de</strong> la Coopération Culturelle, Un Cadre européen commun <strong>de</strong><br />
référence pour les langues: apprendre, enseigner, évaluer, Paris : Didier 2000.<br />
Abstract<br />
The mastering of a foreign language involves, in addition to language knowledge, in-<strong>de</strong>pth<br />
knowledge of the socio-cultural aspects of the community speaking the respective language.<br />
Starting from <strong>de</strong> Saussure’s Theory, this traingle may be assimilated to the semiotic triangle<br />
signifier, signified, referent in the process of generating humour and stating that the signifier<br />
would represent the linguistic si<strong>de</strong> of the humorous turn, the signified would be the concept and<br />
the hid<strong>de</strong>n meaning of the turn, while the referent would be the socio-cultural con<strong>text</strong> which<br />
brings about the humorous turn. This approach focuses on the relationship between the humorous<br />
<strong>text</strong> and the socio-cultural referents which <strong>de</strong>termine the <strong>de</strong>coding of the image of alterity in this<br />
type of <strong>text</strong>.<br />
Résumé<br />
La maitrise d’une langue étrangère exige, sauf la connaissance <strong>de</strong> la langue, une très bonne<br />
connaissance <strong>de</strong>s aspects socio-culturels <strong>de</strong> la communauté qui parle cette langue. A partir <strong>de</strong> la<br />
théorie <strong>de</strong> Saussure sur le triangle sémiotique signifiant, signifié, référent, on peut assimiler ce<br />
triangle à la genèse <strong>de</strong> l’humour et affirmer que le signifiant serait le côté linguistique <strong>de</strong> la<br />
76
tournure humoristique, le signifié serait le concept et le sens caché <strong>de</strong> la tournure tandis que le<br />
référent serait le con<strong>text</strong>e socioculturel qui fait naitre la tournure humoristique.<br />
Notre communication vise à étudier la relation entre le <strong>text</strong>e humoristique et les référents<br />
socioculturels qui déterminent le décodage <strong>de</strong> l’image <strong>de</strong> l’Autre dans ce type <strong>de</strong> <strong>text</strong>e.<br />
Rezumat<br />
Stăpânirea unei limbi străine impune, în afara cunoştinţelor <strong>de</strong> limbă, o bună cunoaştere a<br />
aspectelor socio-culturale ale comunităţii care vorbeşte această limbă. Pornind <strong>de</strong> la teoria lui <strong>de</strong><br />
Saussure privind triunghiul semiotic semnificant, semnificat, referent, se poate asimila acest<br />
triunghi, genezei umorului şi se poate afirma semnificantul ar reprezenta latura lingvistică a<br />
turnurii umoristice, semnificatul ar fi conceptul şi sensul ascuns al turnurii în timp ce referentul ar<br />
putea reprezenta con<strong>text</strong>ul socio-cultural care produce turnura umoristică.<br />
Lucrarea <strong>de</strong> faţă îşi propune studierea relaţiei dintre <strong>text</strong>ul umoristic şi referenţii socio-culturali<br />
care <strong>de</strong>termină <strong>de</strong>codarea imaginii alterităţii în acest tip <strong>de</strong> <strong>text</strong>.<br />
77
Annals of the “Dunărea <strong>de</strong> <strong>Jos</strong>” University of GALAŢI<br />
Fascicle XIII, Language and Literature. New Series. Issue 28, XVI (XXVII), 2009. ISSN 1221-4647<br />
Book reviews editor: Gabriela Iuliana COLIPCĂ<br />
BALKANISTICA. VOLUME 17<br />
Edited by Donald L. Dyer<br />
Published for the South East European Studies Association<br />
The University of Mississippi, 2004, 196 p.<br />
Ce nouveau volume <strong>de</strong> Balkanistica, dont la publication a été<br />
différée juste pour qu’elle coïnci<strong>de</strong> avec la célébration du<br />
trentième anniversaire <strong>de</strong> ce projet – actuellement soutenu par<br />
l’Association pour les Étu<strong>de</strong>s sur l’Europe <strong>de</strong> Sud-Est, a été mis à la<br />
disposition <strong>de</strong>s spécialistes qui s’y intéressent à l’ocassion <strong>de</strong> la<br />
Quatorzième Conférence Biennale <strong>de</strong> Linguistique, Littérature et<br />
Folklore <strong>de</strong>s Peuples Balkaniques et Slaves Sud-Européens,<br />
organisée par l’Université Oxford <strong>de</strong> Mississippi, du 14 au 17<br />
avril 2005. Ayant l’intention première <strong>de</strong> mettre en relief le<br />
progrès considérable dans ce domaine d’étu<strong>de</strong>, l’éditeur<br />
Donald L. Dyer a inclu dans le volume <strong>de</strong>s articles ainsi que<br />
<strong>de</strong>s compte-rendus <strong>de</strong> plusieurs livres portant sur <strong>de</strong> divers<br />
sujets, jugés en quelque sorte représentatifs <strong>de</strong>s<br />
métamorphoses <strong>de</strong>s cultures <strong>de</strong>s régions sud-européennes<br />
dans un climat historique, social et politique très mouvementé.<br />
La série <strong>de</strong>s articles commence par une étu<strong>de</strong> intitulée Bulgaria’s Divi<strong>de</strong>d Minds ? On<br />
Zhelyu Zhelev’s “Conformist Dissent” (Les esprits divisés <strong>de</strong> la Bulgarie ? Sur la «dissi<strong>de</strong>nce<br />
conformiste» <strong>de</strong> Zhelyu Zhelev) que <strong>Jos</strong>ette Baer <strong>de</strong> l’Université Washington <strong>de</strong> Seattle dédie aux<br />
thèses philosophiques du premier prési<strong>de</strong>nt démocratiquement élu <strong>de</strong> la Bulgarie. Pour<br />
démontrer que la politique <strong>de</strong> Zhelev a été pronfondément liée à sa conception essentiellement<br />
phénoménologique, l’auteur se concentre surtout – tel que le titre l’indique – sur l’analyse du<br />
concept <strong>de</strong> «dissi<strong>de</strong>nce conformiste» et cherche à établir d’étroites connexions entre la théorie<br />
<strong>de</strong> l’in<strong>de</strong>structibilité <strong>de</strong> l’individu que Zhelev développe dans son livre L’Homme et ses<br />
personnalités (Man and His Personalities), et la relation entre les intellectuels et le pouvoir d’État<br />
dans la Bulgarie socialiste <strong>de</strong>s années 1970 et 1980. Relevant plutôt du subjectivisme <strong>de</strong><br />
Hei<strong>de</strong>gger que <strong>de</strong> l’idée <strong>de</strong> résponsabilité universelle <strong>de</strong> Patocka, l’in<strong>de</strong>structibilité en tant que<br />
facette capitale <strong>de</strong> l’individualité semble être au cœur <strong>de</strong> la conception <strong>de</strong> contestation<br />
politique <strong>de</strong> Zhelev, qui est totallement différente <strong>de</strong> celle du dissi<strong>de</strong>nt tchèque Vaclav Havel,<br />
encourageant la critique ouverte du régime politique, mais s’avérant représentatif pour le type<br />
traditionnel <strong>de</strong> réaction critique et pourtant passive <strong>de</strong>s intellectuels bulgares. Le cas <strong>de</strong><br />
Zhelev, avec sa trajectoire dans la vie culturelle du régime <strong>de</strong> Zhivkov, que présente la secon<strong>de</strong><br />
partie <strong>de</strong> l’article, témoigne ainsi, dans une certaine mesure, <strong>de</strong>s caractéristiques <strong>de</strong> toute une<br />
classe d’intelligentsia bulgare à qui l’évolution <strong>de</strong> la politique culturelle menée en Bulgarie<br />
pendant presqu’un siècle, et surtout à l’époque socialiste, a appris à joindre la conformité à la<br />
dissi<strong>de</strong>nce, mais qui, dès que le con<strong>text</strong>e politique le lui a permis, a ouvertement exprimé <strong>de</strong>s<br />
idées libérales «in<strong>de</strong>structibles» et a pu se manifester librement sur la scène politique du<br />
nouveau régime démocratique.<br />
Bien qu’il traite <strong>de</strong>s aspects <strong>de</strong> la même sphère <strong>de</strong>s relations entre le régime politique et<br />
la vie culturelle, inévitablement influencée par l’idéologie que le pouvoir lui impose, l’article<br />
suivant, Language and I<strong>de</strong>ology in the Print Media of Post-Soviet Moldova (Langage et idéologie dans<br />
la presse écrite <strong>de</strong> la Moldova post-soviétique), par Matthew H. Ciscel <strong>de</strong> l’Université Centrale <strong>de</strong><br />
Connecticut, propose un autre type d’approche et un autre espace culturel en tant qu’objet<br />
78
d’étu<strong>de</strong>. Il s’agit <strong>de</strong>s conséquences <strong>de</strong>s multiples orientations politiques et idéologiques qui se<br />
manifestent dans la Moldova post-soviétique sur la perception <strong>de</strong> l’i<strong>de</strong>ntité nationale et<br />
linguistique telle qu’elle se reflète dans les médias moldaves et principalement dans trois<br />
journaux <strong>de</strong> Chişinău publiés en roumain, Ţara (Le Pays), Săptămâna (La Semaine) et Comunistul<br />
(Le Communiste). Une présentation détaillée <strong>de</strong>s moments historiques qui ont marqué<br />
définitivement les relations entre la République <strong>de</strong> Moldova, la Roumanie et le pouvoir<br />
soviétique et qui ont conduit implicitement à la crise actuelle d’i<strong>de</strong>ntité nationale et<br />
linguistique dans la région, suivie par la discussion et la re-définition <strong>de</strong>s termes-clefs <strong>de</strong><br />
l’étu<strong>de</strong> – langage, pouvoir, idéologie et nation – en partant <strong>de</strong>s théories déjà consacrées <strong>de</strong><br />
Bakhtin, Bourdieu, Woolard, etc., assure le cadre théorique nécessaire pour l’analyse<br />
minutieuse du discours <strong>de</strong>s trois journaux qui semble jouer encore un rôle essentiel dans la<br />
dynamique du processus <strong>de</strong> négociation <strong>de</strong> l’i<strong>de</strong>ntité nationale. Ainsi, on démontre que les<br />
médias, qui portent simultanément les traces linguistiques <strong>de</strong> plusieurs idéologies (proroumaine<br />
extrémiste, modérée et pro-russe soutenant la soi-disante idéntité distinctement<br />
moldave), reflètent et, en même temps, encouragent l’instabilité du climat politique, social et<br />
culturel.<br />
On continue avec un bref article, i nëmur ‘poor, (ac)cursed,’ Geg nâmë ‘curse’ (i nëmur<br />
‘pauvre, maudit’, l’Albanais nâmë ‘malédiction’), dans lequel Eric P. Hamp <strong>de</strong> l’Université <strong>de</strong><br />
Chicago se donne pour but <strong>de</strong> démêler, par une rigoureuse analyse lexicologique, le sens du<br />
mot albanais nâmë (malédiction/ pauvreté)<br />
L’éditeur invite aussi les lecteurs explorer, avec Christopher Lamont <strong>de</strong> l’Université <strong>de</strong><br />
Mississippi, l’impact du nationalisme sur la vie politique et l’opinion publique croates dans<br />
une étu<strong>de</strong> qui se place plutôt à la limite entre les étu<strong>de</strong>s culturelles et purement historiques (A<br />
New Croatian Right : Nationalist Political Parties and Contemporary Croatian Politics – Une nouvelle<br />
droite croate : les partis politiques nationalistes et la politique croate contemporaine). Une présentation<br />
du système <strong>de</strong>s partis politiques <strong>de</strong> la Croatie indépendante sert <strong>de</strong> préambule à l’analyse <strong>de</strong>s<br />
éléments nationalistes dans la politique <strong>de</strong>s partis <strong>de</strong> droite (parmi lesquels le plus important<br />
et le plus large serait l’Union Démocratique Croate HDZ) et <strong>de</strong> la façon dont ceux-ci ont<br />
contribué, en plus ou moins large mesure, à leur succès dans les scrutins nationaux.<br />
Interprétant les données statistiques qui indiquent l’ascension ou, au contraire, la baisse <strong>de</strong> la<br />
popularité <strong>de</strong> certains partis aux yeux <strong>de</strong> l’électorat croate, Christophe Lamont semble arriver<br />
toujours à la même conclusion : que la politique et la transition vers un régime démocratique<br />
en Croatie continuent à être marquées par <strong>de</strong>s tensions (vu la mémoire <strong>de</strong>s crimes <strong>de</strong> guerre, la<br />
situation <strong>de</strong>s réfugiés, l’échec du gouvernement dans les négociations avec l’Union<br />
Européenne et l’OTAN) qui peuvent, à la longue, provoquer l’émergence d’une nouvelle<br />
vague <strong>de</strong> nationalisme au début du XXI siècle.<br />
Les <strong>de</strong>ux <strong>de</strong>rniers articles mettent en discussion les problèmes <strong>de</strong> la politique<br />
contemporaine à grand impact sur la vie sociale et culturelle <strong>de</strong>s nations sud-européennes<br />
après la chute <strong>de</strong>s régimes communistes. L’article Archival Gleanings on Russian Tra<strong>de</strong> and<br />
Consulates in the Near East (En glanant <strong>de</strong>s données <strong>de</strong>s archives concernant le commerce et les<br />
consulats russes au Proche-Orient) <strong>de</strong> Theophilus C. Prousis <strong>de</strong> l’Université <strong>de</strong> la Flori<strong>de</strong> du<br />
Nord est issu <strong>de</strong> l’intérêt <strong>de</strong> l’auteur pour l’étu<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> la politique à multiple facettes <strong>de</strong> l’Empire<br />
Russe au XIXe siècle à l’égard <strong>de</strong>s peuples et <strong>de</strong>s régions <strong>de</strong> l’ancient Empire ottoman, dont le<br />
but principal était d’étendre l’influence tsariste vers le sud, <strong>de</strong> renouer avec le mon<strong>de</strong><br />
orthodoxe dans les Balkans et d’encourager le développement du commerce dans la Mer Noire<br />
et la Méditerranée. En fait, le but <strong>de</strong> cet article n’est pas <strong>de</strong> simplement décrire <strong>de</strong>s faits<br />
historiques, mais plutôt d’informer tous ceux qui s’intéressent à ce sujet, surtout les spécialistes<br />
occi<strong>de</strong>ntaux, concernant les nouvelles possibilités <strong>de</strong> recherche qui se sont présentées dès<br />
qu’on a permis l’accès aux Archives <strong>de</strong>s Affaires Étrangères <strong>de</strong> l’Empire Russe (AVPRI) <strong>de</strong><br />
Moscou. Selon Prousis, étudier <strong>de</strong>s archives si vastes et riches en informations permettrait au<br />
moins d’éclairer d’un jour nouveau la complexité <strong>de</strong> la politique impériale et l’interaction <strong>de</strong><br />
79
l’empire avec les peuples du Proche-Orient.<br />
La série d’articles se clôt par une vaste étu<strong>de</strong> purement linguistique, bien structurée,<br />
intitulée Expressivity and a Pragmatic Constraint on Object Reduplication in Bulgarian (L’expressivité<br />
et une contrainte pragmatique imposée au redoublement <strong>de</strong> l’objet en bulgare), dans laquelle Ivelina<br />
Tchizmarova <strong>de</strong> l’Université d’État <strong>de</strong> Ball essaie <strong>de</strong> mettre en évi<strong>de</strong>nce les fonctions<br />
pragmatiques qu’on attache au phénomène du redoublement <strong>de</strong> l’objet (RO) dans la langue<br />
bulgare. Des détails extraits <strong>de</strong> la littérature <strong>de</strong> spécialité concernant cette particularité <strong>de</strong> la<br />
syntaxe bulgaire et la fonction pragmatique que les linguistes lui ont traditionnellement<br />
attachée, c’est-à-dire exprimer un sens d’actualité, précè<strong>de</strong>nt une analyse originale qui peut<br />
relever encore d’autres fonctions, mais aussi <strong>de</strong>s contraintes pragmatiques dans le cas du RO.<br />
Son argument <strong>de</strong> base, toujours bien soutenu par <strong>de</strong>s exemples, est celui selon lequel le RO<br />
peut servir comme marque d’expressivité, par sa capacité <strong>de</strong> refléter l’attitu<strong>de</strong> et les émotions<br />
<strong>de</strong> celui qui parle envers le(s) référent(s), ou comme indicateur du <strong>de</strong>gré d’importance attachée<br />
à une certaine information dans le processus <strong>de</strong> communication. On montre <strong>de</strong> la sorte que la<br />
fonction expressive du RO est implicitement liée à une contrainte pragmatique à l’égard du<br />
statut et <strong>de</strong> la précision <strong>de</strong> l’information et on ouvre la voie à d’autres investigations plus<br />
détaillées sur le RO et ses fonctions pragmatiques en bulgare.<br />
La secon<strong>de</strong> partie du volume est composée <strong>de</strong> compte-rendus, détaillés parfois sous<br />
forme d’articles. Les sujets que les livres présentés développent sont aussi (sinon encore plus)<br />
variés que ceux <strong>de</strong>s articles déjà mentionnés. Certains traitent <strong>de</strong>s effets <strong>de</strong>s régimes politiques<br />
et <strong>de</strong>s changements dans la société sur l’i<strong>de</strong>ntité nationale (et non seulement), surtout dans les<br />
régions qui, à l’époque post-soviétique et post-communiste, ont été le théâtre <strong>de</strong> guerre entre<br />
<strong>de</strong> diverses ethnies telles que les Serbes et les Croates <strong>de</strong> l’ancienne Yougoslavie. Il y a, parmi<br />
ceux-ci, <strong>de</strong>s ouvrages d’anthropologie politique qui se concentrent sur les <strong>de</strong>rnières<br />
transformations <strong>de</strong> la vie <strong>de</strong> ces peuples comme, par exemple, Politics of I<strong>de</strong>ntity in Serbia (Des<br />
opinions politiques sur l’i<strong>de</strong>ntité en Serbie) par Ivan Čolović. Des étu<strong>de</strong>s diachroniques <strong>de</strong>s<br />
relations inter-ethniques comme Kosovo : Background to a War (Kosovo: Théâtre <strong>de</strong> guerre) par<br />
Stephen Schwartz, History of the Serbs in Croatia and Slavonia 1848-1914 (L’Histoire <strong>de</strong>s Serbes <strong>de</strong><br />
Croatie et <strong>de</strong> Slovénie) et Biskup Strosmejer u svetlu novih izvora - ‘Bishop Strossmayer in Light of New<br />
Sources’ (L’évêque Strossmayer redécouvert à la lumière <strong>de</strong> nouvelles sources) par Vasilje Dj. Krestić<br />
et la collection d’essais <strong>de</strong> Milorad Ekmečić, Dijalog prošlosti i sadašnjosti: Zbornik radova –<br />
‘Dialogue of the Past with the Present : Collected Studies’ (Dialogues du passé avec le présent : une<br />
collection d’étu<strong>de</strong>s) s’y ajoutent. D’autres ouvrages analysent <strong>de</strong> multiples points <strong>de</strong> vue <strong>de</strong>s<br />
réalités historiques et sociales d’autres espaces. Celui <strong>de</strong> Theophilus C. Prousis continue et<br />
développe le même sujet introduit dans l’article présenté ci-<strong>de</strong>ssus, c’est-à-dire l’investigation,<br />
à l’ai<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>s documents recueillis dans <strong>de</strong>s collections et <strong>de</strong>s archives, <strong>de</strong>s relations entre les<br />
<strong>de</strong>ux empires russe et ottoman dans le Levant (Russian-Ottoman Relations in the Levant : The<br />
Dashkov Archive – Les relations russo-ottomanes dans le Levant : Les Archives Dashkov). Concerné<br />
par une partie seulement <strong>de</strong> l’espace géographique à peine nommé, le volume <strong>de</strong> Nikolai<br />
Todorov, Society, the City and Industry in the Balkans, 15th-19th Centuries (La société, la ville et<br />
l’industrie dans les Balkans, les 15 e-19 e siècles) relève d’une manière diachronique sélective<br />
plusieurs moments importants du développement <strong>de</strong> la civilisation urbaine <strong>de</strong>s Balkans. Les<br />
étu<strong>de</strong>s d’ethnographie n’y manquent pas non plus: l’une combine avec succès l’approche<br />
ethnographique à l’antropologie pour souligner particulièrement les conséquences <strong>de</strong>s<br />
changements <strong>de</strong>s relations entre les <strong>de</strong>ux sexes pour les femmes albanaises (Women Who<br />
Become Men: Albanian Sworn Virgins – Des Femmes qui <strong>de</strong>viennent <strong>de</strong>s hommes: Celles qui ont fait<br />
serment <strong>de</strong> rester vierges par Antonia Young). La secon<strong>de</strong>, qui se présente en fait sous la forme<br />
d’une collection d’essais édités par Ruth Man<strong>de</strong>l et Caroline Humphrey (Markets and Moralities:<br />
Ethnographies of Post-Socialism – Marchés et Mœurs: Ethnographies <strong>de</strong> l’époque post-communiste),<br />
met l’accent sur la re-négociation <strong>de</strong>s tabous et la re-structuration <strong>de</strong>s co<strong>de</strong>s moraux dans le<br />
con<strong>text</strong>e du développement <strong>de</strong> l’économie <strong>de</strong> marché dans tous les pays antérieurement<br />
80
asservis au régime communiste qui s’éten<strong>de</strong>nt <strong>de</strong> l’Estonie vers le nord, jusqu’à la Mongolie<br />
vers l’est, les Balkans y compris.<br />
Sont intégrés au volume <strong>de</strong>s compte-rendus <strong>de</strong> livres qui traitent <strong>de</strong>s aspects <strong>de</strong> la vie<br />
culturelle <strong>de</strong>s peuples sud-européens. On fournit par ce biais <strong>de</strong>s précisions sur <strong>de</strong>s ouvrages<br />
concernés par les architectures hongroise et serbe ou sur l’art juif <strong>de</strong> Roumanie, tels: The<br />
Architecture of Historic Hungary (L’architecture <strong>de</strong> la Hongrie historique), édité par Dora<br />
Wiebenson et Jozsef Sisa, Mo<strong>de</strong>rnism in Serbia: The Elusive Margins of Belgra<strong>de</strong> Architecture (Le<br />
mo<strong>de</strong>rnisme en Serbie: Les marges insaisissables <strong>de</strong> l’architecture <strong>de</strong> Belgra<strong>de</strong>) <strong>de</strong> Ljiljana Blagojevič<br />
et, respectivement, Treasures of Jewish Art: The 1673 Illuminated Scroll of Esther Offered to a<br />
Romanian Hierarch (Trésors <strong>de</strong> l’art juif: le manuscrit enluminé d’Esther offert en 1673 à un hiérarque<br />
roumain) <strong>de</strong> Cornelia Bo<strong>de</strong>a. Les succès <strong>de</strong> la cinématographie <strong>de</strong> l’ancienne Yougoslavie sont<br />
popularisés à travers le volume <strong>de</strong> Dina Iordanova sur la vie et la création du plus grand <strong>de</strong> ses<br />
metteurs en scène, Emir Kusturica (Emir Kusturica: BFI World Director Series – Emir Kusturica :<br />
Collection ‘Metteurs en scène du mon<strong>de</strong>’ <strong>de</strong> l’IBF). A ceux qui s’intéressent surtout à l’étu<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>s<br />
langues du Sud-Est <strong>de</strong> l’Europe, on suggère <strong>de</strong> consulter, par exemple, un dictionnaire <strong>de</strong> mots<br />
d’origine turque entrés dans la langue bulgare (A Dictionary of Turkisms in Bulgarian – Un<br />
dictionnaire <strong>de</strong> mots d’origine turque en bulgare par Alf Grannes, Kjetil Rå Hauge et Hazrize<br />
Sülemanoğlu) et surtout d’approfondir leurs connaissances en dialectologie balkanique, en<br />
lisant soit l’étu<strong>de</strong> Albanskij gegkij govor sela Muhurr (kraina Dibër): Sintaksis, Leksika,<br />
Ètnolingvistika, Teksty ‘The Albanian Geg Dialect of the Village of Muhurr (Dibër region) : Syntax,<br />
Lexicon, Ethnolinguistics, Texts’ – Le dialecte albanais geg du village <strong>de</strong> Muhurr (région <strong>de</strong> Dibër):<br />
syntaxe, lexique, ethnolinguistique, <strong>text</strong>es coordonné par Dželjal’ Jully [Xhelal Ylli] et Andrej N.<br />
Sobolev, ou, pour acquérir une vue d’ensemble, la collection d’essais Grundfragen eines<br />
Südosteuropasprachatlas: Geschichte, Problematik, Perspektive, Konzeption, Metho<strong>de</strong>, Pilotprojekt<br />
‘Foundational Questions of a Southeast European Language Atlas : History, Problems, Perspectives,<br />
Conception, Methods, Pilot Project’ (Questions <strong>de</strong> base pour un atlas <strong>de</strong>s langues sud-est européennes:<br />
histoire, problèmes, perspectives, conception, métho<strong>de</strong>s, projet pilote) éditée par Helmut Schaller.<br />
Enfin, on fait référence à <strong>de</strong>s œuvres littéraires qui représentent <strong>de</strong>s témoignages <strong>de</strong><br />
l’héritage culturel <strong>de</strong> l’espace roumain. D’une part, l’article compte-rendu <strong>de</strong> Marina Cap-Bun<br />
<strong>de</strong> l’Université Ovidius <strong>de</strong> Constanţa (The Symbolism of Light in Ion Creangă’s Memories of My<br />
Boyhood – Le symbolisme <strong>de</strong> la lumière dans les Mémoires d’enfance <strong>de</strong> Ion Creangă) rend hommage à<br />
l’un <strong>de</strong>s plus grands et aimés écrivains roumains, Ion Creangă, dont l’œuvre fondamentale,<br />
Amintiri din copilărie (Mémoires d’enfance), a enchanté <strong>de</strong>s générations entières <strong>de</strong> lecteurs. Pour<br />
que le public étranger découvre pleinement la complexité <strong>de</strong> ce « roman » d’enfance et qu’on le<br />
convainque qu’il mérite d’être rangé parmi les autobiographies spirituelles les plus achevées<br />
<strong>de</strong> la littérature universelle, l’auteur s’attache à souligner, en particulier, le riche symbolisme<br />
<strong>de</strong> la lumière, à valeur thérapeutique, dont les images <strong>de</strong>s enfants, <strong>de</strong> la famille, <strong>de</strong>s gens et <strong>de</strong>s<br />
paysages du village sont chargées, par rapport à l’obscurité associée à l’âge adulte, à la<br />
solitu<strong>de</strong>, à la maladie, à la dépression, à la menace du mon<strong>de</strong> extérieur et, finalement, à la<br />
mort. D’autre part, bien qu’il ne soit pas écrit par un Roumain et qu’il n’arrive pas, à cause <strong>de</strong><br />
nombreuses exagérations et simplifications inopportunes, à créer l’impression d’objectivité,<br />
l’ouvrage à saveur <strong>de</strong> roman d’espionnage <strong>de</strong> Donald Dunham intitulé Assignment Bucharest:<br />
An American Diplomat’s View of the Communist Takeover of Romania (Mission Bucarest : Le point <strong>de</strong><br />
vue d’un diplomate américain à l’égard <strong>de</strong> la prise <strong>de</strong> pouvoir par les communistes en Roumanie)<br />
mérite, toutefois, d’être mentionné et <strong>de</strong>vrait être étudié pour déterminer les stéréotypes qui<br />
dominent la perception <strong>de</strong>s observateurs occi<strong>de</strong>ntaux sur la société roumaine après la secon<strong>de</strong><br />
guerre mondiale.<br />
En somme, cette collection d’articles et <strong>de</strong> compte-rendus peut être utile à tous ceux qui<br />
s’intéressent aux étu<strong>de</strong>s culturelles, plus spécialement quand elles prennent comme objet<br />
d’étu<strong>de</strong> l’espace sud-est européen. Il est vrai que sa structure peut apparaître plutôt sans<br />
rigueur, qu’il est parfois difficile à accepter la gran<strong>de</strong> diversité <strong>de</strong>s sujets abordés et qu’une<br />
81
sélection thématique eût été, peut-être, une meilleure solution pour cette édition anniversaire.<br />
Mais, en tout cas, il faut remarquer comme un point fort du volume qu’il s’agit d’étu<strong>de</strong>s<br />
originales, élaborées avec un grand soin et soutenues par une argumentation cohérente,<br />
permettant aux lecteurs <strong>de</strong> s’informer sur <strong>de</strong>s aspects qui - en raison du climat politique - n’ont<br />
pas pu être ouvertement débattus pendant une longue pério<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> temps. Si, à l’ai<strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong> telles<br />
publications, on réussit à franchir <strong>de</strong>s barrières culturelles et <strong>de</strong> mentalité, à mieux entendre les<br />
mécanismes <strong>de</strong>s changements <strong>de</strong> la société, à faire connaître au mon<strong>de</strong> occi<strong>de</strong>ntal les<br />
caractéristiques d’un univers culturel perçu d’abord avec <strong>de</strong>s préjugés, l’hétérogénéité du<br />
volum ne semble plus un point faible, mais peut être conçu comme un point fort. C’est<br />
pourquoi nous recommandons chaleureusement une lecture intégrale ou partielle <strong>de</strong> ce<br />
<strong>de</strong>rnier volume <strong>de</strong> Balkanistica.<br />
THE CULTURAL TURN IN TRANSLATION STUDIES<br />
Rodica Dimitriu<br />
Institutul European, Iaşi, 2006, 244 p.<br />
82<br />
Gabriela Iuliana Colipcă<br />
Volumul <strong>de</strong> faţă se înscrie în seria „Traductologie” a editurii<br />
ieşene şi le este <strong>de</strong>stinat cu prioritate masteranzilor şi<br />
doctoranzilor în domeniu. Ei pot beneficia <strong>de</strong> şapte sinteze<br />
care trec puntea dintre cercetare şi prelegere. Sunt cele şapte<br />
capitole ale cărţii, elaborate <strong>de</strong> autoare după o reţetă<br />
răsturnată ad-hoc dintr-un adagiu latin: „non multum, sed<br />
multa”. Fără a face neapărat concesii tineretului studios, prof.<br />
univ. Rodica Dimitriu adoptă ton tranşant pentru ju<strong>de</strong>căţi <strong>de</strong><br />
valoare şi caracterizări simplificatoare uşor memorabile,<br />
precum şi atenţie sporită pentru secţiunile intitulate activităţi<br />
şi <strong>de</strong>zbateri (“Activities and discussions”) la fiecare final <strong>de</strong><br />
capitol.<br />
Depistarea turnurii culturale pe care o cunoaşte în<br />
perioada recentă traductologia se face în următoarea ordine<br />
tematică: normare polisistemică (Andrew Chesterman, Gi<strong>de</strong>on<br />
Toury), şcoala manipulării (André Lefevere), abordări filosofice (hermeneutica traducerii la<br />
George Steiner şi <strong>de</strong>constructivismul lui Jacques Derrida), statutul traducătorului invizibil în<br />
viziunea lui Lawrence Venuti şi al celui subiectiv în viziunea lui Douglas Robinson,<br />
traducerea şi studiile <strong>de</strong> gen (strategii feministe la Lori Chamberlain), postcolonialismul cu<br />
relevantele asimetrii ale puterii (Rosemary Arrojo) şi <strong>de</strong>colonizarea traducerilor (Gayatri<br />
Spivak). Subliniem că autorii formând baza documentară a volumului sunt mult mai<br />
numeroşi <strong>de</strong>cât ne-am permis să enumerăm. Şi încă un aspect: probabil va mai trece ceva<br />
timp până când ne vom obişnui, urmând propunerea din 1990 a lui Mary Snell-Hornby, să<br />
privim cultura – şi nu <strong>text</strong>ul – ca unitate <strong>de</strong> bază în traducere.<br />
Construind un ansamblu care să îndrume spre reflecţie asupra legăturilor dintre<br />
traducere, literatură şi cultură, Rodica Dimitriu adoptă un discurs specializat, dar precaut<br />
totodată, ca să nu <strong>de</strong>scurajeze un cititor mai puţin iniţiat în teoretizări aca<strong>de</strong>mice.<br />
Dimpotrivă, cartea poate contribui cu succes la ceea ce-şi doresc toţi dascălii: relansarea<br />
interesului tinerilor pentru culturi traduse şi, eventual, asimilate prin noi ordini valorice<br />
propuse <strong>de</strong> cercetători consacraţi ai ultimelor patru <strong>de</strong>cenii. Textele utile, alese pentru<br />
exersare sau seminarizare, vin în sprijinul glosării pe i<strong>de</strong>i care aparţin unei memorii larg<br />
culturale, care să amintească, între altele, <strong>de</strong> grila <strong>de</strong> lucru precomunistă, contrapusă grilei<br />
comuniste; dar şi <strong>de</strong> postcomunismul care începe să se cristalizeze într-un canon propriu.
Prefaţându-şi volumul, autoarea justifică apariţia în a doua anexă a unui articol<br />
semnat Walter Benjamin, datat 1923 şi scris în limba germană. Este vorba <strong>de</strong> un eseu care a<br />
circulat în limba engleză cu titlul The Task of the Translator şi care a influenţat multe puncte <strong>de</strong><br />
ve<strong>de</strong>re expuse în carte. Eseistul este persuasiv în a arăta că între original şi traducere nu<br />
trebuie să existe asemănare, ci înrudire. Metaforizând, vasul e spart şi punem cioburile într-o<br />
închipuire <strong>de</strong> vas nou. Fi<strong>de</strong>litatea formei e o eroare, dacă se transformă în intenţie majoră.<br />
Bucăţelele contează atunci când se potrivesc între ele, ca să satisfacă cerinţe <strong>de</strong> armonie. Iar<br />
lingvistul-traducător trăieşte o mare satisfacţie când eseistul-teoretician este în căutarea<br />
semnificaţiilor culturale recuperabile, nu atât prin asemănarea mai mult sau mai puţin vagă<br />
între două limbi, ci prin complementarităţile lor din planul inefabilului.<br />
Subliniem în finalul acestei recenzii că meritele volumului The Cultural Turn in<br />
Translation Studies sunt rezultatul <strong>de</strong>cantat al unor ani <strong>de</strong> experienţă „ex cathedra” în<br />
abordarea problemelor filologice ridicate <strong>de</strong> perspective diverse asupra traducerii şi<br />
traducătorului.<br />
COMUNICARE CULTURALĂ ŞI COMUNICARE LINGVISTICĂ ÎN SPAŢIUL<br />
EUROPEAN<br />
Ioan Oprea<br />
Institutul European, Iaşi, 2008, 455 p.<br />
83<br />
Daniela Ţuchel<br />
A-l citi pe profesorul universitar Ioan Oprea înseamnă a te<br />
simţi filolog şi când nu eşti. Discursul nu este doar limpe<strong>de</strong> şi<br />
instructiv, dar conţine <strong>de</strong> asemenea elemente ataşante în<br />
formule precum calificativele blagiene <strong>de</strong> major şi minor, care<br />
<strong>de</strong> fapt nu sugerează gradaţii în cultură. Noi, ca români, ne<br />
liniştim cu aprecierea că „<strong>de</strong>şi este prima care se manifestă<br />
din punct <strong>de</strong> ve<strong>de</strong>re cronologic, cultura minoră poate dăinui<br />
mai multe milenii, dând impresia atemporalităţii” (25). Ne<br />
gândim şi regândim poziţia în concertul universal şi, <strong>de</strong><br />
multe ori, ne dă mai multă satisfacţie plasarea noastră în<br />
lumea europeană <strong>de</strong>cât în con<strong>text</strong>ul globalizării planetare.<br />
Volumul prof. Oprea ne dă în mod cert un ajutor preţios<br />
pentru a face această încadrare pe baze <strong>de</strong> informaţie<br />
ştiinţifică.<br />
Textul publicitar <strong>de</strong> pe coperta a IV-a promite „prima<br />
lucrare românească extinsă care tratează o sumă <strong>de</strong> aspecte ce<br />
dau unitate Lumii Europene”. Cercetătorul îşi fişează materia în trei părţi, spre care ne<br />
îndreptăm atenţia pentru a <strong>de</strong>scoperi i<strong>de</strong>ile care le dau consistenţă.<br />
Partea întâi ne „învaţă” cum să analizăm principial o cultură şi o limbă. De fapt, pe<br />
Ioan Oprea îl interesează cel mai mult maniera <strong>de</strong> influenţare a acestora. Actualmente nu<br />
absolut toate etniile europene realizează influenţarea pomenită, ci au întâietate grupul<br />
romanic occi<strong>de</strong>ntal şi grupul germanic. Trebuie stabilit cine are statut <strong>de</strong> superioritate în<br />
parteneriatele culturale iniţiate.<br />
Construcţia noastră spirituală a început cu lumea greacă antică, „o moştenire<br />
intelectuală a libertăţii, toleranţei şi exactităţii” (43). Apoi sunt radiografiaţi celţii şi<br />
germanicii scandinavi. Accentul cărţii se mută pe creştinarea europenilor şi pe noua religie<br />
„care are drept dogmă centrală i<strong>de</strong>ea păcatului şi a mântuirii” (55). Epoca mo<strong>de</strong>rnă –<br />
Renaştere, Reformă, Ortodoxia est-europeană – sunt parcurse tot în această parte a<br />
volumului, pentru a se sublinia un mo<strong>de</strong>l vestic („primatul raţionalităţii şi al ordinii”, 77),
<strong>de</strong>osebit <strong>de</strong> mo<strong>de</strong>lul orientului slav (însemnând „sentimentalitatea şi gestul inexplicabil,”<br />
ibi<strong>de</strong>m).<br />
Partea a doua explică în ce sens există o arhitectură a fiecărei limbi şi ce componente îi<br />
asigură specificul. Aici, în această parte, îşi face loc şi gramatica, prin <strong>de</strong>scrierea evoluţiilor<br />
gramaticale <strong>de</strong> la latină la limbile romanice şi <strong>de</strong> la limba germanică comună la limbile<br />
germanice <strong>de</strong> astăzi. Nu sunt neglijate topica din limbile mo<strong>de</strong>rne (205-218) şi creativitatea<br />
lexicală (219-227).<br />
Cea mai lungă parte, a treia, este <strong>de</strong>dicată temeiurilor unităţii lingvistice şi culturale<br />
din patrimoniul european, dat fiind că la tezaurul general fiecare grup <strong>de</strong> limbi şi fiecare<br />
limbă în parte au avut un aport indicat cu acurateţe admirabilă şi exemple relevante <strong>de</strong> către<br />
profesorul Ioan Oprea.<br />
Dată fiind acumularea atâtor informaţii, materialul supraintitulat Ad<strong>de</strong>nda şi intitulat<br />
„Europenismul românilor” (344-398) capătă brusc atractivitate maximă şi reprezintă punctul<br />
<strong>de</strong> ve<strong>de</strong>re şi doct şi patriotic al celui care ar dori ferirea spaţiului românesc <strong>de</strong> „minţi<br />
ruginite” şi înviorarea lui <strong>de</strong> către „minţi tinere, care au în faţă <strong>de</strong>schi<strong>de</strong>rea căilor vieţii” (am<br />
citat ultimele cuvinte ale cărţii).<br />
Dacă elementele acestei recenzii sunt insuficiente celui interesat <strong>de</strong> fenomenele <strong>de</strong><br />
comunicare, o mai amplă edificare asupra direcţiilor şi tezelor volumului se poate obţine<br />
dintr-un grupaj <strong>de</strong> rezumate finale în limbile engleză (413-422), franceză (423-432), germană<br />
(433-444) şi spaniolă (445-455). Iată un util transfer poliglot <strong>de</strong> elemente, probabil un nou<br />
indiciu că am început să gândim şi să lucrăm în cadre europene, prin graiuri diferite, cu un<br />
ansamblu <strong>de</strong> interese ştiinţifice împărtăşite.<br />
EMINESCU. NEGOCIEREA UNEI IMAGINI<br />
Iulian Costache<br />
Cartea Românească, 2008, 372 p.<br />
84<br />
Daniela Ţuchel<br />
În con<strong>text</strong>ul unei „bătălii canonice” dure între valorile<br />
culturale şi naţionale promovate, în literatură, <strong>de</strong><br />
generaţiile paşoptiste şi postpaşoptiste, şi fermitatea<br />
criteriului junimist al autonomiei esteticului, mişcarea <strong>de</strong><br />
impunere a unui nou canon şi <strong>de</strong> necesară<br />
redimensionare a celui vechi este înfăptuită cu multă<br />
ştiinţă şi înţelegere a fenomenului <strong>de</strong> receptare specific,<br />
<strong>de</strong> către Titu Maiorescu, care pune la punct şi execută cu<br />
precizie etapele unei binecunoscute politici culturale.<br />
Astăzi, când „naţionalul şi supranaţionalul nu mai<br />
sunt reprezentaţi prin cei doi versanţi tradiţionali ai<br />
patrimoniului, între care nu există corespon<strong>de</strong>nţe directe,<br />
ci numai corespon<strong>de</strong>nţe simbolice” (8), ca şi în epoca <strong>de</strong> la<br />
1848, elementele care compun canonul sunt girate <strong>de</strong><br />
raportul dinamic dintre imaginile sinelui şi ale Celuilalt,<br />
<strong>de</strong> gradul <strong>de</strong> reprezentativitate şi <strong>de</strong> miza i<strong>de</strong>ntitară pe<br />
care şi-o poate asuma literatura. Procesul <strong>de</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ntificare<br />
a sinelui, prin mişcarea formelor literare, ascultă <strong>de</strong><br />
aceleaşi comandamente astăzi, când miturile fondatoare – din unghi cultural şi naţional – sunt<br />
reevaluate, şi în epoca Junimii, când, potrivit lui Iulian Costache, se pun bazele imaginii<br />
publice a poetului naţional, imagine perpetuată, în datele ei esenţiale, până astăzi.<br />
Demonstraţia se face, în principal, pe ediţiile <strong>de</strong> poezie eminesciană îngrijite <strong>de</strong> Maiorescu,
pe „speciile extra-literare <strong>de</strong> discurs”, consi<strong>de</strong>rate, pe bună dreptate, „ambreiori <strong>de</strong> imagine”<br />
(18), ca şi pe formele şi tipurile <strong>de</strong> receptare a <strong>text</strong>elor poetice eminesciene în epocă. Dirijarea<br />
procesului <strong>de</strong> receptare şi a imaginii publice a poetului – asociate mo<strong>de</strong>lului romantic al<br />
geniului, a cărui operă şi conduită sunt plasate sub semnul excepţionalităţii – dove<strong>de</strong>sc o<br />
bună cunoaştere a pieţei culturale şi o practică <strong>de</strong> management cultural fără fisură. Ca<br />
urmare, eul liric intră în scenă asumând poza singurătăţii romantice a poetului, poezia<br />
inaugurală a volumului oferind scenografia simbolică necesară (Singurătate), şi iese<br />
autentificând imaginea, tot romantică, a poetului neînţeles <strong>de</strong> contemporani (Criticilor mei)<br />
(20).<br />
Negocierea şi acceptarea poetului <strong>de</strong> către publicul epocii, în virtutea unei ipostaze<br />
generice (ne)asumate (a se ve<strong>de</strong>a abaterea <strong>de</strong> la direcţionarea junimistă din Epigonii)<br />
presupune o dublă orientare retorică, spre „oferta maximei <strong>de</strong>schi<strong>de</strong>ri a poeziei în raport cu<br />
publicul” – „retorica <strong>de</strong> maximă accesibilitate a romanţei”, şi spre gnomism, „ca ofertă<br />
sapienţială menită a construi un orizont <strong>de</strong> aşteptare comun între cititor şi <strong>text</strong>, pe baza<br />
inducerii unui fond <strong>de</strong> credinţe comune” (20).<br />
De altfel, dirijată cu mână fermă <strong>de</strong> către Titu Maiorescu, receptarea – şi imaginea<br />
publică pe care poetul o dobân<strong>de</strong>şte – se aşază pe două coordonate ce se vor dovedi esenţiale<br />
pentru asimilarea în special a poeziei „minore”, <strong>de</strong> tip romanţă, în epoca marilor Clasici şi<br />
ulterior. Este vorba <strong>de</strong>spre „conduita poetului romantic”, <strong>de</strong>zinteresat <strong>de</strong> cele lumeşti, şi<br />
<strong>de</strong>spre <strong>de</strong>calajul dintre structura spirituală şi morală a omului <strong>de</strong> geniu şi societatea în care<br />
este sortit să trăiască.<br />
Înscriindu-se în mişcarea <strong>de</strong> mare agresiune i<strong>de</strong>ntitară a Junimii, printre promotorii<br />
Direcţiei noi, Eminescu – ca poet public – corespun<strong>de</strong> şi susţine un nou canon literar, şi<br />
serveşte drept instrument strategiei maioresciene <strong>de</strong> <strong>de</strong>plasare a atenţiei <strong>de</strong> la o i<strong>de</strong>ntitate<br />
focalizată – a criticului însuşi, asupra unei i<strong>de</strong>ntităţi <strong>de</strong> grup. Colecţia <strong>de</strong> scriitori ai Direcţiei noi<br />
îl propune pe Eminescu al doilea, imediat după Alecsandri. Iar „selectarea unui poet cu doar<br />
trei poezii într-un top literar şi plasarea sa imediat după autorul reprezentativ” (85)<br />
reprezintă un act <strong>de</strong> curaj al criticului, dar şi dovada unei excelente intuiţii a valorii.<br />
Detractorii binecunoscuţi ai operei emineciene semnalează, unii având încă suportul<br />
i<strong>de</strong>ologiei iluministe, pericolul reprezentat <strong>de</strong> atitudinea pesimistă şi <strong>de</strong> tematica erotică a<br />
poemelor. Preotul greco–catolic Al. Grama se situează, ferm, <strong>de</strong> partea misiunii sociale a artei<br />
şi reacţionează, implicit, criticând <strong>text</strong>ele poetice eminesciene, împotriva mo<strong>de</strong>lului cultural<br />
german, cosmopolit şi perceput, tocmai <strong>de</strong> aceea, ca o alteritate agresivă faţă <strong>de</strong> i<strong>de</strong>ea <strong>de</strong><br />
românitate.<br />
Însă la vremea aceea „Eminescu nu este perceput ca fiind scriitorul <strong>de</strong> care adversarii<br />
Junimii să se împiedice. El nu are încă un profil proeminent, fiind încă un scriitor <strong>de</strong> climat,<br />
elocvent nu atât în sine, cât pentru climatul (şi aşa «discutabil») pe care Direcţia nouă încerca<br />
să-l promoveze” (141). De fapt, Maiorescu construieşte un mo<strong>de</strong>l inexistent în realitate, un<br />
prototip în virtutea căruia fundamentele literaturii şi ale culturii române s-ar fi stabilizat<br />
graţie principiului a<strong>de</strong>vărului. Asocierea poeziei eminesciene cu structurile virtuale ale<br />
literaturii române mo<strong>de</strong>rne, pe care Direcţia nouă le contura, cel puţin în articolul<br />
maiorescian cu acelaşi nume, se face în virtutea corespon<strong>de</strong>nţelor tematico–structurale<br />
evi<strong>de</strong>nte. Oferta <strong>de</strong> participare – îndreptată către scriitori – şi <strong>de</strong> receptare – adresată<br />
publicului – viza atât simularea unei noi structuri literare, cât şi stimularea suportului concret–<br />
literar <strong>de</strong> care era nevoie. Altfel spus, Maiorescu elaborează o <strong>de</strong>săvârşită formă fără fond<br />
căreia îi construieşte, apoi, cu migală, din ceea ce epoca îi pune la dispoziţie, fondul.<br />
În această ordine <strong>de</strong> i<strong>de</strong>i, studiul <strong>de</strong> promovare nu atât a poetului, cât a mizei<br />
reprezentate <strong>de</strong> asocierea lui cu Direcţia nouă, Eminescu şi poeziile lui, arată cum „tipul <strong>de</strong><br />
imagine eminesciană propus <strong>de</strong> Maiorescu se <strong>de</strong>finea în chip polemic în raport cu celelalte<br />
imagini evocate, urmând să «împartă» cu acestea spaţiul <strong>de</strong> joc reprezentat <strong>de</strong> «piaţa <strong>de</strong><br />
imagine» a bunurilor culturale” (158).<br />
85
După analiza direcţiei <strong>de</strong> receptare estetice – reprezentată <strong>de</strong> Mihail Dragomirescu şi<br />
<strong>de</strong> Nicolae Petraşcu, cartea lui Iulian Costache evi<strong>de</strong>nţiază particularităţile <strong>de</strong> receptare<br />
specifice <strong>de</strong>mersului critic al lui C. D. Gherea, precum şi ascen<strong>de</strong>nţa semiozei socialului –<br />
Nicolae Iorga şi Garabet Ibrăileanu.<br />
Aspectele cele mai interesante, însă, vin din direcţia (aproape) <strong>de</strong>loc exploatată, până<br />
acum, a semiozei extra-literare, graţie căreia poetul <strong>de</strong>vine un autentic personaj mediatic.<br />
Raportul firesc dintre viaţă şi operă se inversează, odată cu avansarea bolii poetului, viaţa<br />
părând că începe să copieze opera care, prin <strong>text</strong>e <strong>de</strong>venite foarte populare, ca Mai am un<br />
singur dor, <strong>de</strong> exemplu, anticipa simbolic <strong>de</strong>stinul tragic al lui Eminescu şi al omului <strong>de</strong><br />
geniu. Pe măsură ce istoria bolii poetului se va transforma în temă mediatică, în intervalul<br />
1883 – 1889, „curentul eminescian va putea să <strong>de</strong>vină, simbolic, o paradigmă dominantă şi<br />
pentru că va fi reuşit să impună, într-o astfel <strong>de</strong> <strong>text</strong>ură simbolică, imaginea epigonilor ca<br />
interpretanţi eterni ai operei eminesciene, aşa cum vor fi fost ei acceptaţi în cadrele<br />
imaginarului colectiv al epocii” (184).<br />
Dacă ştirile <strong>de</strong>spre starea financiară precară sau <strong>de</strong>spre starea <strong>de</strong> sănătate a poetului,<br />
ori <strong>de</strong>spre listele <strong>de</strong> subscripţie publică reuşesc să construiască o imagine din ce în ce mai<br />
puternică – având şi argumentul operei – Maiorescu, ce îşi asumă iniţiativa editării operei<br />
eminesciene, încearcă să preia şi o parte a controlului asupra imaginii larg vehiculate a<br />
poetului. Mo<strong>de</strong>lul eroului exemplar va sta la baza atitudinii criticului faţă <strong>de</strong> opera şi <strong>de</strong><br />
personalitatea creatoare eminesciană.<br />
De altfel, „temele criticului” transpar în structura volumelor girate <strong>de</strong> Titu Maiorescu.<br />
Prin poezia Singurătate, care <strong>de</strong>schi<strong>de</strong> volumul din 1883, se instituie cunoscuta poză a<br />
poetului romantic – cum aminteam <strong>de</strong>ja ceva mai înainte – drept marcă esenţială fondatoare<br />
a profilului eminescian pe care Maiorescu mizează. Pe baza acestui prim poem, cititorul<br />
<strong>de</strong>vine „beneficiar al unui rit <strong>de</strong> iniţiere” ce susţine „instructajul” prefeţei.<br />
În centrul volumului se află poezia Se bate miezul nopţii, ca „semn al echilibrului<br />
încremenit în ezitarea dintre două lumi”(288–289). Se ajunge, astfel, la o a<strong>de</strong>vărată mască<br />
editorială a poetului pe care, ulterior, ediţia Perpessicius o autentifică suplimentar. Este<br />
imaginea promovată până în zilele noastre <strong>de</strong> canonul didactic şi, încă rezistent la atacuri, <strong>de</strong><br />
canonul oficial estetic.<br />
DE LINGUA UNIVERSALIS.<br />
Petre Rău<br />
Fundaţia Culturală Antares, 2007, 234 p.<br />
86<br />
Simona Antofi<br />
Literatura care îşi propune popularizarea<br />
preocupărilor specifice unor domenii <strong>de</strong> cercetare dintre<br />
cele mai diverse se bucură <strong>de</strong> apariţia, la o editură din<br />
oraşul nostru, a unui mic tratat <strong>de</strong> lingvistică teoretică pe<br />
înţelesul tuturor. Lucrarea, asupra căreia ne oprim în<br />
recenzia <strong>de</strong> faţă şi, pe care autorul ei, Petre Rău, o consi<strong>de</strong>ră<br />
un eseu (223) impresionează prin elementele particulare cu<br />
care (cu certitudine se va) impune în literatura lingvistică<br />
românească. Publicul căruia i se adresează acest volum ar<br />
putea fi <strong>de</strong>scris ca fiind caracterizat <strong>de</strong> o diversitate <strong>de</strong><br />
interese profesionale şi extraprofesionale, pasiuni, vârstă şi,<br />
nu în ultimul rând, <strong>de</strong> nivel <strong>de</strong> cunoştinţe. Exprimarea<br />
simplă şi clară, prezentarea subiectelor în discuţie fără a se<br />
recurge la complexităţi ştiinţifice (<strong>de</strong> tipul notelor <strong>de</strong>
subsol, al notelor explicative amplasate la sfârşit <strong>de</strong> capitol, al explicaţiilor parantetice),<br />
tonul direct şi argumentarea susţinută prin citate asigură accesul cititorului la un conţinut<br />
complex prin problematica abordată.<br />
Perspectiva istorică <strong>de</strong> prezentare a limbii (ca fenomen social, istoric, etnic şi cultural)<br />
şi a limbajelor (naturale, artificiale sau chiar limbajul trupului) se <strong>de</strong>sfăşoară pe parcursul a<br />
douăzecişiopt <strong>de</strong> capitole, echilibrat construite şi astfel înlănţuite încât asigură coerenţa şi<br />
coeziunea scriiturii propuse <strong>de</strong> autor. Cercetarea sistematică şi amănunţită porneşte <strong>de</strong> la<br />
afirmaţiile privind geneza limbajelor, făcând trimiteri la primele noţiuni legate <strong>de</strong> limbaj care<br />
sunt întâlnite în Vechiul Testament, respectiv în Cartea Genezei (8-10) şi, mai apoi, în<br />
capitolul Facerea. Sunt apoi consemnate opinii <strong>de</strong>spre geneza limbajului aparţinând autorilor<br />
lumii antice (Aristotel, 10, Vitruviu, 11), continuând cu păreri ale autorilor (filozofi sau<br />
scriitori) mai apropiaţi <strong>de</strong> zilele noastre (von Her<strong>de</strong>r, Iorga şi Coşeriu, 12-13).<br />
Odată stabilit cadrul general al apariţiei şi utilizării limbii, oricare ar fi aceasta, autorul<br />
ia în discuţie legile comunicării, introducând componentele fundamentale ale procesului <strong>de</strong><br />
comunicare, <strong>de</strong>scriind esenţa acestui proces şi insitând asupra celor mai recente principii ale<br />
comunicării, formulate <strong>de</strong> reprezentanţii Şcolii <strong>de</strong> la Palo Alto (15). Demersul istoric este<br />
evi<strong>de</strong>nt şi în următoarea secvenţă care se opreşte asupra etapelor <strong>de</strong>zvoltării comunicării<br />
umane. După ce vorbeşte <strong>de</strong>pre legăturile dintre gândire şi limbaj, <strong>de</strong>scrise în funcţie <strong>de</strong><br />
diverse teorii, autorul abor<strong>de</strong>ază limbajul ca instrument al comunicării (40-47), pentru a<br />
continua prin sintetizarea în doar un capitol a unui conţinut <strong>de</strong>scris <strong>de</strong> alţi autori într-un<br />
întreg dicţionar al ştiinţelor limbajului. Apreciem conturarea în linii cuprinzătoare a acelor<br />
ştiinţe ale limbajului frecvent menţionate în manualele şcolare şi cursurile universitare şi<br />
anume, fonetica, gramatica, dialectologia, stilistica, istoria limbii, lexicologia, geografia<br />
lingvistică, paleontologia lingvistică, semantica, hermeneutica, poetica, retorica şi semiotica.<br />
Referirile la semiotică se continuă în capitolul <strong>de</strong>spre semn şi comunicare non-verbală, un<strong>de</strong>,<br />
pe lângă referirile lui Ferdinand <strong>de</strong> Saussure la semnificant şi semnificat, se prezintă şi<br />
clasificarea semnelor avansată <strong>de</strong> Pierce, un<strong>de</strong> se au în ve<strong>de</strong>re legăturile dintre semn şi<br />
referent, distingându-se trei tipuri <strong>de</strong> semne: (a) iconice, (b) indiciale şi (c) simbolice.<br />
Procesul <strong>de</strong> comunicare amplu <strong>de</strong>scris, atât la nivelul omului cât şi la cel al<br />
necuvântătoarelor (vezi capitolul Graiul animalelor, 62-73), un<strong>de</strong>, dincolo <strong>de</strong> anecdotica<br />
începutului, şi un<strong>de</strong> se fac referiri la diverse experimente menite a explora posibiliăţile <strong>de</strong><br />
comunicare ale animalelor, scoate în relief şi anumite dificultăţi (vezi capitolul Dificultăţile<br />
comunicării, 74-80). Dincolo <strong>de</strong> aspectele tehniciste ale procesului în sine, comunicarea poate<br />
fi privită şi ca o artă care implică un anumit grad <strong>de</strong> complexitate sugerat prin limbajul<br />
verbal sau cel paraverbal, prin personalitatea strictă a vorbitorului care îşi dozează, în funcţie<br />
<strong>de</strong> scopul comunicării, fie volumul vocii, care „ne ajută să dominăm sau să fim dominaţi”<br />
(83), fie accentul, fie articularea, fie ritmul şi implicit pauzele şi, mai ales, prin cuvintele<br />
folosite. Puterea cuvântului, următoarea secvenţă a eseului, aduce în atenţie nu numai<br />
limitele cuvântului ca reprezentare a realităţii (cum ar fi, <strong>de</strong> exemplu, ambiguitatea,<br />
polisemia, impreciziile, 90), ci şi dinamica oricărui cuvânt, citându-l pe Noica „De îndată ce<br />
apare pe lume, un cuvânt îşi ia libertatea <strong>de</strong> a se schimba. Omul, fireşte, îl foloseşte în toate<br />
felurile şi pentru toate trebuinţele sale ... în aşa fel încât ai cre<strong>de</strong> că istoveşte virtuţile<br />
cuvântului. Dar cuvântul păstreazî pentru el un rest <strong>de</strong> libertate...”<br />
Consi<strong>de</strong>răm <strong>de</strong> interes secţiunea <strong>de</strong>dicată evoluţiei limbilor naturale <strong>de</strong>oarece în ciuda<br />
faptului că autorul începe cu consi<strong>de</strong>raţii cu un grad evi<strong>de</strong>nt <strong>de</strong> generalitate, inclu<strong>de</strong> totuşi în<br />
prezentare şi date statistice privind numărul limbilor cunoscute şi utilizate în prezent ,<br />
aspecte legate <strong>de</strong> limbile pidgin şi creole. Vom puncta aici confuzia referitoare la aceste limbi<br />
hibri<strong>de</strong>: limbile pidgin şi limbile creole nu <strong>de</strong>rivă unele din celelalte (conform celor susţinute<br />
la pagina 106) ci sunt produse ale contactului lingvistic realizat între vorbitorii nativi <strong>de</strong><br />
limba engleză şi băştinaşii vorbitori ai unor dialecte specifice şi bine <strong>de</strong>terminate geografic.<br />
În cazul limbilor pidgin este vorba <strong>de</strong>spre zona Chinei, iar al limbilor creole <strong>de</strong>spre dialectele<br />
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ăştinaşilor din zona coastei <strong>de</strong> vest a continentului America <strong>de</strong> Sud (pentru mai multe date,<br />
sugerăm consultarea bibliografiei referitoare la istoria limbii engleze) 1.<br />
După un periplu prin mai multe experimente lingvistice şi prin limbajul maimuţelor,<br />
se abor<strong>de</strong>ază domeniul limbilor şi al limbajelor artificiale, făcându-se referiri la limbile<br />
universale <strong>de</strong> tip esperanto, limbajul trupului, limbajele generaţiilor virtuale, pentru a se<br />
încheia cu unele consi<strong>de</strong>raţii legate <strong>de</strong> internet, „autostrada informaţională” (212).<br />
Referinţe<br />
Baugh,A., Cable, Th. (1991). A History of the English Language, London, Routledge.<br />
Floriana Popescu<br />
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The Annals of “Dunărea <strong>de</strong> <strong>Jos</strong>” University of Galaţi.<br />
Fascicle XIII. Language and Literature. New Series<br />
Issue 28, XVI (XXVII), 2009 ISSN 1221- 4647<br />
CONTRIBUTORS<br />
Dr. SIMONA ANTOFI is an associate professor at the Department of Literature,<br />
Linguistics and Journalism, Faculty of Letters, “Dunărea <strong>de</strong> <strong>Jos</strong>” University of Galaţi. She is a<br />
coordinator of research projects and an author of papers exploring such topics as “Cultural<br />
I<strong>de</strong>ntity and Multiculturalism. A Romanian I<strong>de</strong>ntity Profile” (in Cultural Limits and Literature,<br />
Galaţi, 2006) or “Les modèles culturels i<strong>de</strong>ntitaires roumains, <strong>de</strong>s solutions d‘intégration<br />
européenne et d’autolégitimité” (in CEDIMES, Târgovişte, 2006) to name only two of them.<br />
Contact: simoantofi@yahoo.com<br />
Dr. FILIP CRISTIAN BACALU is a young lecturer at Spiru Haret University of<br />
Bucharest, particulalry interested in studying and performing research in the field of<br />
bilingualism. Contact:fc.bacalu@yahoo.com<br />
Dr. ANCA CEHAN is an associate professor of linguistics and applied linguistics at<br />
the Faculty of Letters, the English Department, “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iaşi.<br />
She has carried out research and published studies in the fields of semantics, ELT<br />
methodology, discourse analysis and pragmatics. Contact: acehan@uaic.ro<br />
ANA-ELENA COSTANDACHE is a young aca<strong>de</strong>mic at the French Department,<br />
Faculty of Letters, “Dunărea <strong>de</strong> <strong>Jos</strong>” University of Galaţi. She is now preparing her doctoral<br />
thesis and she is actively engaged in several research projects. Contact: lily_anghel@yahoo.fr<br />
Dr. GABRIELA IULIANA COLIPCĂ is an associate professor at the Department of<br />
English, Faculty of Letters, “Dunărea <strong>de</strong> <strong>Jos</strong>” University of Galaţi. She prepared and<br />
<strong>de</strong>fen<strong>de</strong>d her doctoral thesis at the University of Lei<strong>de</strong>n, the Netherlands. She currently<br />
teaches Renaissance and eighteenth-century English literature, narratology and film<br />
adaptations. Her research interests are: Renaissance and 18 th-century literature, culture and<br />
civilisation; comparative literature; literary theory and criticism (psychoanalysis,<br />
narratology, feminism); film theory; imagology; cultural analysis; trauma and affect theories;<br />
translation studies. Contact: iuliana75@yahoo.com<br />
Dr. NICOLETA IFRIM is a young aca<strong>de</strong>mic at the Department of Literature,<br />
Linguistics and Journalism, the Faculty of Letters, “Dunărea <strong>de</strong> <strong>Jos</strong>” University of Galaţi. She<br />
<strong>de</strong>fen<strong>de</strong>d her doctoral thesis in Romanian literary studies and she now continues her<br />
research in her field of expertise. Contact: nicodasca@yahoo.com<br />
Dr. GABRIEL ISTODE is a young aca<strong>de</strong>mic at the Department of Applied Mo<strong>de</strong>rn<br />
Languages, the Faculty of Letters, “Dunărea <strong>de</strong> <strong>Jos</strong>” University of Galaţi. He <strong>de</strong>fen<strong>de</strong>d his<br />
doctoral thesis in contrastive studies and he now continues several project research in his<br />
field of expertise. Contact: gabriel.isto<strong>de</strong>@ugal.ro<br />
Dr. DOINITA MILEA is a professor of the Department of Literature, Linguistics and<br />
Journalism, Faculty of Letters, “Dunărea <strong>de</strong> <strong>Jos</strong>” University of Galaţi. She teaches<br />
comparative literature and Romanian literature, and her interests focus on remarkable<br />
contributions to <strong>de</strong>vising and managing international projects as well as grants fun<strong>de</strong>d by<br />
the Romanian Aca<strong>de</strong>my. Contact: doinita.milea@ugal.ro<br />
Dr. IOANA MOHOR-IVAN is an associate professor at the English Department,<br />
Faculty of Letters, “Dunărea <strong>de</strong> <strong>Jos</strong>” University of Galaţi. The grants she was awar<strong>de</strong>d by the<br />
89
British Council enabled her to have direct access to Irish culture and literature. Contact:<br />
ioana_mohor@yahoo.com<br />
LIDIA MIHAELA NECULA is a young aca<strong>de</strong>mic of the English Department, Faculty<br />
of Letters, “Dunărea <strong>de</strong> <strong>Jos</strong>” University of Galaţi whose research interests focus on<br />
contemporary English literature. She is now finishing her doctoral thesis and she is involved<br />
in several research projects. Contact: lidiamicky_necula@yahoo.co.uk<br />
Dr. CARMEN OPRIT-MAFTEI, a lecturer at the Department of Applied Mo<strong>de</strong>rn<br />
Languages, the Faculty of Letters, “Dunărea <strong>de</strong> <strong>Jos</strong>” University of Galaţi, <strong>de</strong>fen<strong>de</strong>d her<br />
doctoral thesis in 2007 at “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iaşi. Involved in individual<br />
research studies, she has published over 20 articles. Contact: c_maftei@ yahoo.com<br />
Dr. FLORIANA POPESCU is a professor of English Language and Applied Linguistics<br />
at the Faculty of Letters, “Dunărea <strong>de</strong> <strong>Jos</strong>” University of Galaţi, Romania. Her research<br />
interests cover the fields of lexicology, translation studies and English for specific purposes.<br />
She has edited 3 books (the latest, Perspectives in Translation Studies, being published in 2009<br />
by Cambridge Scholars Publishing), has authored 4 books and over 60 articles, studies, books<br />
and book reviews and she has contributed to 15 <strong>text</strong>books on the English language<br />
contemporary grammar and other topics. Contact: florianapopescu@yahoo.com<br />
Dr. MICHAELA PRAISLER is a professor of English Literature at the Faculty of<br />
Letters, “Dunărea <strong>de</strong> <strong>Jos</strong>” University of Galaţi, Romania. Her main research interests are in:<br />
the contemporary novel in English, literary theory and criticism, cultural and film studies.<br />
She has published over 45 articles, essays, reviews and books; from among the titles:<br />
“Media(ted) Discourse. Literary Representations”, “Filmic Translations of Culture”, „The<br />
Contemporary Novel: Pan-Cultural Symbols, Heroes, Rituals”, “A New Treatment for the<br />
Self in/of Fiction: David Lodge, Therapy”, “Fighting Medusa: Fay Weldon’s Big Women”,<br />
“Salman Rushdie’s Wor(l)d: Midnight’s Children”; “On Mo<strong>de</strong>rnism, Postmo<strong>de</strong>rnism and the<br />
Novel”, “For a Psychoanalytical Approach to Literature. Reality and Fiction with Virginia Woolf and<br />
Ernest Hemingway”, “The Contemporary British Literary Scene”.<br />
Contact: mipraisler@yahoo.co.uk<br />
Dr. DANIELA ŞORCARU is a junior lecturer of English Linguistics in the Department<br />
of English Language and Literature of the Faculty of Letters, “Dunărea <strong>de</strong> <strong>Jos</strong>” University of<br />
Galaţi, Romania. She has published articles and studies in conference volumes and chapter<br />
contributions to scientific research volumes, most of them focused on stylistic linguistics. An<br />
important contribution has been ma<strong>de</strong> to the 1400-page English–Romanian Dictionary for<br />
Mechanical Engineering, published by E.D.P. in 2009. Contact: daniela_sorcaru@yahoo.com<br />
Dr. DANIELA ŢUCHEL is an associate professor at the English Department, Faculty<br />
of Letters, „Dunărea <strong>de</strong> <strong>Jos</strong>” University of Galaţi. Her research interests cover media<br />
discourse, pragmatic approaches, and interculturality. Contact: tucheldaniela@yahoo.com<br />
Dr. ANGELICA VÂLCU is an associate professor at the French Department, Faculty of<br />
Letters, „Dunărea <strong>de</strong> <strong>Jos</strong>” University of Galaţi. Her research interests cover <strong>text</strong>ual grammar,<br />
and French for specific purposes. Contact: a_valcu@yahoo.fr.<br />
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