INDEX Absolutism 51, 61–2 Access 51, 55–8, 65, 100, 109–10, 121–4, 178–80, 237 accounts 171, 197–8, 384–95; characteristics of 384–5; examples of 385–8; problems with 392–3; procedures in 385–8 see also discourse analysis; ethogenic method; network analysis; speech acts; stories achievement tests 417 action research 29, 30, 34, 45, 65–6, 69–70, 85, 296–313; as critical praxis 302–4; emancipatory 302–4; models of 306; nature of 296–302; planning of 304–10; principles of 296–302; problems in 311–12; reflexivity in 310; stages of 304–10 see also collaborative action research; Delphi techniques; Nominal Group Technique advocacy 54 alpha 519, 552–3, 555 see also Cronbach’s alpha alternative hypothesis 83, 515 American Psychological Association 60, 63, 72, 414, 417, 520 analysis of variance 546–52, 585, 592 analytic induction 86, 134, 178, 472–3 anonymity 64–5, 75, 126, 318 ANOVA see analysis of variance anthropological methods see ethnographic methods applied research 41 aptitude tests 417 AQUAD 488 Assessment 86 association, concepts of see correlation assumptions of statistical tests 592 ATLAS 488 beneficence 58–61, 71, 72 see also ethics beta weighting 539–42 betrayal 65–6, 74 bias 68, 129, 151, 157, 196, 214, 410–11; in historical research 196; in interviewing 129 biographies 86, 170 Blumer, H. 20, 224, 167 Boids 247 British Educational Research Association 72 case studies 34, 85, 170, 253–63; defined 253–8; examples of 258–60; observation in 260; planning of 261–2; catalytic validity see validity, kinds of causal research 34, 272, 505 causal-comparative research 269 Central Limit Theorem 106–7, 246 children 53–4, 69, 154, 374–6, 390 chi-square 101, 523–8, 580–3, 592 cluster analysis 584–5 cluster sampling see sampling, kinds of Cochrane Collaboration 290 Code-A-Text 488 codes of practice 51, 53, 57, 63, 70, 71–4, 76–7 coding 86, 145, 184, 348, 477–81, 483–7, 492–3 cognitive mapping 86 cohort studies 211–12, 213–18, 219–21 collaborative action research 296–304 complexity theory 31, 33–4, 246–7, 249 computerized adaptive testing 162, 433–4 computers, see AQUAD; ATLAS; Boids; Code-A-Text; computerized adaptive testing; CROSSTABS; ETHNOGRAPH; ethnographic methods; Geographical Information Systems; HyperQuad2; HyperRESEARCH; Hypersoft; internet; interviews; NUD.IST; N-Vivo; QUALPRO; simulations; SphinxSurvey; SPSS Comte, A. 9–10 conceptions of social reality 7–10 concurrent validity see validity, kinds of confidence intervals 103, 522 confidence levels 103 confidentiality 64–5, 72, 73, 74, 126, 175, 181, 231, 318 consequential validity see validity, kinds of consistency, see reliability constant comparison 86, 116–17, 473, 493–4 constructs, personal see personal constructs construct validity see validity, kinds of content analysis, 86, 197, 462–6, 470–3, 475–91; defined 475–6; example of 483–7; procedures in 476–83; reliability in 490–1
634 INDEX content validity see validity, kinds of contingency tables see crosstabulations continuous variable 528 convenience sampling see sampling, kinds of convergent validity see validity, kinds of Cooley, J. 172 correlational studies 102 core variables 494 correlation 516–19, 528–9, 530–3; co-efficients 534–6; explained 51; interpretation of 535–6; see also curvilinearity; effect size; Pearson product moment correlation; Spearman rank-order correlation; statistical significance; Type I errors; Type II errors cost/benefits ratio 51–2, 58, 63, 67, 126 covering letters 339–41 covert research 53, 68, 73, 124–5, 174–5, 180, 408–10 criterion-referenced tests see tests, kinds of criterion-related validity see validity, kinds of critical educational research 26–33 critical ethnography 187–9 critical pedagogy 32 critical theory 18, 26–33, 35, 139 Cronbach’s alpha 148, 162, 506 cross sectional studies 213 CROSSTABS 488 crosstabulations 508–15 cultural validity see validity, kinds of curriculum research 30–2 curvilinearity 533–4 data analysis 86–7, 91–2, 184–6, 459–592; in accounts 200; in observation 258–62; in qualitative research 184–6, 462–500; in quantitative research 501–592 data collection, 80, 181–4; in ethnographic methods 181–4; 261–2; in historical research 193–4 data reporting see reporting Data Protection Act 72 deception 66–9, 72, 450–2 see also ethics deduction 6 ‘definition of the situation’ 21, 24, 168, 189, 500 degrees of freedom 527–8 Delphi techniques 309–10 dependability of data 158 dependent variable 156, 265–6, 269, 272–3, 504–5 descriptive statistics 503–4 descriptive validity see validity, kinds of determinism 8, 11, 33 diagnostic tests see tests dichotomous questions 322–3 difference testing 523–8 542–58 discourse analysis 86, 389–92 see also speech acts distribution of sample means 106–7 documentary research 171, 183, 191–204 domain analysis 184 domain referencing 162 see also tests duration recording 402–3 ecological validity see validity, kinds of effect size 520–5 eigenvalues 563 elementary linkage analysis 559–60, 588 emancipation 29, 38, 140, 302–4, 305 emancipatory interest 27–8, 32 emic approaches 169 empiricism 11 empowerment 29, 36, 139, 302–4 episodes 391 epistemology 5, 7, 31, 47, 169 equality 32, 35, 36, 38, 71 errors, see Type I; Type II eta 522–3 ethical codes 53, 57, 59, 70, 71–4, 76–7 ethics 39, 51–77, 98, 231; in evaluative research 51, 70–1; in experiments 273–4; in interviews 382–3; in observation 408–10; in questionnaires 317–18; in role play 450–2; in sensitive research 120, 124–7; in testing 432–3 see also covert research ETHNOGRAPH 488 ethnographic methods 39, 55, 78, 84, 135–6, 167–90, 384; characteristics of 167–71; critical 187–9; ethics in 174–5; planning 173–87; problems in 189–90; sampling in 175–8 see also naturalistic research ethnomethodology 22–6 ethogenic method 20, 384–5, 392–4 etic approaches 169 evaluating web sites 245 evaluative research 41–6, 70–1 evaluative validity see validity, kinds of event-history analysis 224–5 event sampling 400–1 evidence-based research 290–6 see also Cochrane Collaboration; randomizedcontrolledtrials existential phenomenology 17 experience-sampling method 177 experiments and quasi-experiments 33, 84, 272–96, 521; and ex post facto research 264–71, 272; conduct of 286–7; designs of 269–71, 272–90; examples of 284–6, 287–90; internet-based 239–41; quasi-experiments 282–6; reliability and validity in 155–7; single-case research 284–6; true 275–82, 289–90 see also Cochrane Collaboration; meta-analysis; pre-test; post-test; randomized controlled trials exploratory data analysis 506–15 ex post facto research 264–71, 272; characteristics of 266–8; planning 269–71 external validity see validity, kinds of
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