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HOW MANY SAMPLES 589 Box 26.4 Choosing statistical tests for parametric and non-parametric data Non-parametric data Chapter 26 Descriptive Correlation Goodness of fit Differences between subsamples Effects of independent variables on dependent Ordinal regression Frequencies Mode Cross-tabulations Spearman’s rho Chi-square Two independent samples Two related samples Three or more independent samples Three or more related samples Mann- Whitney U test Wilcoxon test Kruskal- Wallis test Friedman test Parametric data Descriptive Correlation Differences between subsamples Effect size Cohen’s d Eta 2 Effects of independent variables on dependent variable Grouping of variables (reduction) Frequencies Mode Mean Standard deviation Median Cross-tabulations Pearson’s productmoment correlation coefficient Two independent samples Two related samples Independent samples t-test Paired samples t-test One independent variable Two or more independent variables Regression Multiple regression Factor analysis Three or more independent samples Three or more related samples One-way ANOVA Two-way ANOVA Repeated measures ANOVA Post-hoc Tukey test
590 CHOOSING A STATISTICAL TEST Box 26.5 Statistics available for different types of data Data type Legitimate statistics Points to observe/questions/examples Nominal Mode (the score achieved by the greatest number of people) Frequencies Chi-square (a statistic that charts the difference between statistically expected and actual scores) Is there a clear ‘front runner’ that receives the highest score with low scoring on other categories,oristhe modal score only narrowly leading the other categories Are there two scores which are vying for the highest score – a bimodal score Which are thehighest/lowestfrequenciesIsthe distribution even across categories Are differences between scores caused by chance/accident or are they statistically significant, i.e. not simply caused by chance Ordinal Mode Which score on a rating scale is the most frequent Median (the score gained by the middle person in a ranked group of people or, if there is an even number of cases, the score which is midway between the highest score obtained in the lower half of the cases and the lowest score obtained in the higher half of the cases). Frequencies Chi-square Spearman rank order correlation (a statistic to measure the degree of association between two ordinal variables) Mann-Whitney U-test (a statistic to measure any significant difference between two independent samples) Kruskal-Wallis analysis of variance (a statistic to measure any significant differences between three or more independent samples) What is the score of the middle person in a list of scores Do responses tend to cluster around one or two categories of a rating scale Are the responses skewed towards one end of a rating scale (e.g. ‘strongly agree’) Do the responses pattern themselves consistently across the sample Are the frequencies generally high or generally low (i.e. whether respondents tend to feel strongly about an issue) Is there a clustering of responses around the central categories of a rating scale (the central tendency, respondents not wishing to appear to be too extreme) Are the frequencies of one set ofnominalvariables(e.g. sex) significantly related to a set of ordinal variables Do the results from one rating scale correlate with the results from another rating scale Do the rank order positions for one variable correlate with the rank order positions for another variable Is there a significant difference in the results of a rating scale for two independent samples(e.g.malesand females) Is there a significant difference between three or more nominal variables (e.g. membership of political parties) and the results of a rating scale continued
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Research Methods in Education This
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First published 2007 by Routledge 2
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Contents List of boxes xiii Acknowl
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CONTENTS ix Searching for research
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CONTENTS xi Part 5 Data analysis 22
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xiv BOXES 13.1 Independent and depe
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xvi BOXES 24.54 Frequencies and per
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xviii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Springer,for
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2 INTRODUCTION Package for the Soci
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1 The nature of inquiry - Setting t
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TWO CONCEPTIONS OF SOCIAL REALITY 7
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POSITIVISM 9 Box 1.1 The subjective
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THE ASSUMPTIONS AND NATURE OF SCIEN
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THE ASSUMPTIONS AND NATURE OF SCIEN
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THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD 15 an educate
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CRITICISMS OF POSITIVISM AND THE SC
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ALTERNATIVES TO POSITIVISTIC SOCIAL
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A QUESTION OF TERMINOLOGY: THE NORM
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PHENOMENOLOGY, ETHNOMETHODOLOGY AND
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CRITICISMS OF THE NATURALISTIC AND
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CRITICAL THEORY AND CRITICAL EDUCAT
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CRITICISMS OF APPROACHES FROM CRITI
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CRITICAL THEORY AND CURRICULUM RESE
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THE EMERGING PARADIGM OF COMPLEXITY
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FEMINIST RESEARCH 35 deconstructin
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FEMINIST RESEARCH 37 respecting d
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FEMINIST RESEARCH 39 Research must
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RESEARCH AND EVALUATION 41 particul
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RESEARCH AND EVALUATION 43 The age
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RESEARCH AND EVALUATION 45 to exten
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METHODS AND METHODOLOGY 47 too easi
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Part Two Planning educational resea
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52 THE ETHICS OF EDUCATIONAL AND SO
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3 Planning educational research Int
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80 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH t
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82 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH de
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84 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Bo
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96 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Or
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98 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Pa
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4 Sampling Introduction The quality
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102 SAMPLING sample of 200 might be
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104 SAMPLING Box 4.1 Sample size, c
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106 SAMPLING would be insufficient
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108 SAMPLING The formula assumes th
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110 SAMPLING school governors, scho
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112 SAMPLING terms of sex, a random
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114 SAMPLING the required sample si
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116 SAMPLING Snowball sampling In s
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118 SAMPLING the kind of sample (d
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120 SENSITIVE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
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134 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY It is
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136 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY using
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138 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY includ
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140 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY leadin
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142 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY social
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144 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY this i
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146 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY prese
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148 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY by ass
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150 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY Validi
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152 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY typica
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154 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY people
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156 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
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158 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY sensit
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160 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY certif
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162 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY how m
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164 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY operat
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7 Naturalistic and ethnographic res
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ELEMENTS OF NATURALISTIC INQUIRY 16
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PLANNING NATURALISTIC RESEARCH 171
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CRITICAL ETHNOGRAPHY 187 Relatio
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SOME PROBLEMS WITH ETHNOGRAPHIC AND
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8 Historical and documentary resear
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DATA COLLECTION 193 One can see fro
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WRITING THE RESEARCH REPORT 195 Ext
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THE USE OF QUANTITATIVE METHODS 197
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LIFE HISTORIES 199 Box 8.2 Atypolog
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DOCUMENTARY RESEARCH 201 Documentar
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DOCUMENTARY RESEARCH 203 What are
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9 Surveys, longitudinal, cross-sect
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SOME PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS 207
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PLANNING A SURVEY 209 structured or
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LONGITUDINAL, CROSS-SECTIONAL AND T
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LONGITUDINAL, CROSS-SECTIONAL AND T
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STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF LONGITU
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STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF LONGITU
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POSTAL, INTERVIEW AND TELEPHONE SUR
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EVENT HISTORY ANALYSIS 225 may be p
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INTERNET-BASED SURVEYS 227 packages
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INTERNET-BASED SURVEYS 229 instruc
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INTERNET-BASED SURVEYS 231 Box 10.1
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INTERNET-BASED SURVEYS 237 Witte et
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INTERNET-BASED EXPERIMENTS 239 requ
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INTERNET-BASED INTERVIEWS 241 ‘ne
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SEARCHING FOR RESEARCH MATERIALS ON
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COMPUTER SIMULATIONS 245 autho
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COMPUTER SIMULATIONS 247 computer s
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COMPUTER SIMULATIONS 249 On the oth
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GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS 25
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11 Case studies What is a case stud
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WHAT IS A CASE STUDY 255 (providing
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WHAT IS A CASE STUDY 257 argue that
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EXAMPLES OF KINDS OF CASE STUDY 259
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PLANNING A CASE STUDY 261 accounts
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CONCLUSION 263 In the narrativ
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CO-RELATIONAL AND CRITERION GROUPS
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CHARACTERISTICS OF EX POST FACTO RE
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DESIGNING AN EX POST FACTO INVESTIG
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PROCEDURES IN EX POST FACTO RESEARC
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INTRODUCTION 273 Box 13.1 Independe
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TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 275 motor
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TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 277 2 Sub
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TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 279 textb
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TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 281 Facto
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A QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: THE NO
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PROCEDURES IN CONDUCTING EXPERIMENT
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EXAMPLES FROM EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
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EVIDENCE-BASED EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
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14 Action research Introduction Act
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PRINCIPLES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A
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PRINCIPLES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A
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ACTION RESEARCH AS CRITICAL PRAXIS
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PROCEDURES FOR ACTION RESEARCH 305
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SOME PRACTICAL AND THEORETICAL MATT
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CONCLUSION 313 3 Actionresearchreso
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15 Questionnaires Introduction The
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APPROACHING THE PLANNING OF A QUEST
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 321 If
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 323 de
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 325 Ra
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 327 Ve
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 329 I
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 331 Fu
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ASKING SENSITIVE QUESTIONS 333 and
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AVOIDING PITFALLS IN QUESTION WRITI
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QUESTIONNAIRES CONTAINING FEW VERBA
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COVERING LETTERS OR SHEETS AND FOLL
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PILOTING THE QUESTIONNAIRE 341 Nove
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PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN QUESTIO
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ADMINISTERING QUESTIONNAIRES 345 is
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PROCESSING QUESTIONNAIRE DATA 347 B
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16 Interviews Introduction The use
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PURPOSES OF THE INTERVIEW 351 appli
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TYPES OF INTERVIEW 353 closed quant
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TYPES OF INTERVIEW 355 One can clus
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PLANNING INTERVIEW-BASED RESEARCH P
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GROUP INTERVIEWING 373 an intro
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INTERVIEWING CHILDREN 375 taking pl
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THE NON-DIRECTIVE INTERVIEW AND THE
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TELEPHONE INTERVIEWING 379 By mean
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TELEPHONE INTERVIEWING 381 questi
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ETHICAL ISSUES IN INTERVIEWING 383
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PROCEDURES IN ELICITING, ANALYSING
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PROCEDURES IN ELICITING, ANALYSING
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DISCOURSE ANALYSIS 389 completeness
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ACCOUNT GATHERING IN EDUCATIONAL RE
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STRENGTHS OF THE ETHOGENIC APPROACH
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A NOTE ON STORIES 395 instruments t
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INTRODUCTION 397 the physical s
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STRUCTURED OBSERVATION 399 Box 18.1
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STRUCTURED OBSERVATION 401 Box 18.2
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STRUCTURED OBSERVATION 403 or event
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NATURALISTIC AND PARTICIPANT OBSERV
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NATURALISTIC AND PARTICIPANT OBSERV
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ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS 409 Box 18.3
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SOME CAUTIONARY COMMENTS 411 ob
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CONCLUSION 413 the data mean. This
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NORM-REFERENCED, CRITERION-REFERENC
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COMMERCIALLY PRODUCED TESTS AND RES
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 419 achieveme
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 421 Select the
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 423 where A = t
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 425 true/fal
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 427 short-answe
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 429 demonstrate
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 431 (e.g. to as
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COMPUTERIZED ADAPTIVE TESTING 433 H
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20 Personal constructs Introduction
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ALLOTTING ELEMENTS TO CONSTRUCTS 43
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PROCEDURES IN GRID ANALYSIS 439 inv
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PROCEDURES IN GRID ANALYSIS 441 Box
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SOME EXAMPLES OF THE USE OF REPERTO
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GRID TECHNIQUE AND AUDIO/VIDEO LESS
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FOCUSED GRIDS, NON-VERBAL GRIDS, EX
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INTRODUCTION 449 Box 21.1 Dimension
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ROLE-PLAYING VERSUS DECEPTION: THE
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THE USES OF ROLE-PLAYING 453 of
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ROLE-PLAYING IN AN EDUCATIONAL SETT
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EVALUATING ROLE-PLAYING AND OTHER S
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22 Approaches to qualitative data a
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TABULATING DATA 463 data set reprod
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TABULATING DATA 465 Box 22.4 Studen
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FIVE WAYS OF ORGANIZING AND PRESENT
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SYSTEMATIC APPROACHES TO DATA ANALY
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SYSTEMATIC APPROACHES TO DATA ANALY
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METHODOLOGICAL TOOLS FOR ANALYSING
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23 Content analysis and grounded th
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HOW DOES CONTENT ANALYSIS WORK 477
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A WORKED EXAMPLE OF CONTENT ANALYSI
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A WORKED EXAMPLE OF CONTENT ANALYSI
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COMPUTER USAGE IN CONTENT ANALYSIS
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COMPUTER USAGE IN CONTENT ANALYSIS
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GROUNDED THEORY 491 data, thereby c
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GROUNDED THEORY 493 fragments are t
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INTERPRETATION IN QUALITATIVE DATA
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24 Quantitative data analysis Intro
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DESCRIPTIVE AND INFERENTIAL STATIST
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DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
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EXPLORATORY DATA ANALYSIS: FREQUENC
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STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE 515 alongt
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STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE 517 hands
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HYPOTHESIS TESTING 519 selection fr
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EFFECT SIZE 521 differential measur
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EFFECT SIZE 523 Box 24.17 The Leven
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THE CHI-SQUARE TEST 525 The Effect
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DEGREES OF FREEDOM 527 Box 24.22 A2
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MEASURING ASSOCIATION 529 Box 24.23
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MEASURING ASSOCIATION 531 found and
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MEASURING ASSOCIATION 533 Box 24.26
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MEASURING ASSOCIATION 535 Many usef
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REGRESSION ANALYSIS 537 we know or
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Page 580 and 581: FACTOR ANALYSIS 561 Box 25.1 Rank o
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Page 588 and 589: FACTOR ANALYSIS 569 The school
Page 590 and 591: FACTOR ANALYSIS: AN EXAMPLE 571 sco
Page 592 and 593: FACTOR ANALYSIS: AN EXAMPLE 573 Box
Page 594 and 595: FACTOR ANALYSIS: AN EXAMPLE 575 Box
Page 596 and 597: EXAMPLES OF STUDIES USING MULTIDIME
Page 598 and 599: MULTIDIMENSIONAL DATA: SOME WORDS O
Page 600 and 601: MULTIDIMENSIONAL DATA: SOME WORDS O
Page 602 and 603: MULTILEVEL MODELLING 583 Degrees of
Page 604 and 605: CLUSTER ANALYSIS 585 Box 25.22 Clus
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Page 610 and 611: ASSUMPTIONS OF TESTS 591 Box 26.5 c
Page 612 and 613: Notes 1 THE NATURE OF INQUIRY - SET
Page 614 and 615: NOTES 595 Gender and Careers. Lewes
Page 616 and 617: NOTES 597 is widespread, indeed the
Page 618 and 619: Bibliography Acker, S. (1989) Teach
Page 620 and 621: BIBLIOGRAPHY 601 Bannister, D. and
Page 622 and 623: BIBLIOGRAPHY 603 Brenner, M., Brown
Page 624 and 625: BIBLIOGRAPHY 605 Cohen, L. and Holl
Page 626 and 627: BIBLIOGRAPHY 607 or case-based Euro
Page 628 and 629: BIBLIOGRAPHY 609 Fendler, L. (1999)
Page 630 and 631: BIBLIOGRAPHY 611 the Powerful in Ed
Page 632 and 633: BIBLIOGRAPHY 613 Hanna, G. S. (1993
Page 634 and 635: BIBLIOGRAPHY 615 Jones, S. (1987) T
Page 636 and 637: BIBLIOGRAPHY 617 IL: Bureau of Econ
Page 638 and 639: BIBLIOGRAPHY 619 McNiff, J., Lomax,
Page 640 and 641: BIBLIOGRAPHY 621 Morrison, K. R. B.
Page 642 and 643: BIBLIOGRAPHY 623 Patton, M. Q. (198
Page 644 and 645: BIBLIOGRAPHY 625 Muliak and J. H. S
Page 646 and 647: BIBLIOGRAPHY 627 Smith, M. L. and G
Page 648 and 649: BIBLIOGRAPHY 629 Thorne, B. (1994)
Page 650 and 651: BIBLIOGRAPHY 631 Whyte, W. F. (1993
Page 652 and 653: INDEX Absolutism 51, 61-2 Access 51
Page 654 and 655: INDEX 635 face validity see validit
Page 656 and 657: INDEX 637 qualitative research 19-2
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