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FACTOR ANALYSIS 561 Box 25.1 Rank ordering of ten children on seven constructs INTELLIGENT SOCIABLE Chapter 25 (favourable) (unfavourable) 1 Heather 2 Richard 3 Caroline 4 Tim 5 Patrick 6 Sharon 7 Janice 8 Jane 9 Alex 10 Karen (favourable) (unfavourable) 1 Caroline 2 Richard 3 Sharon 4 Jane 5 Tim 6 Janice 7 Heather 8 Patrick 9 Karen 10 Alex AGGRESSIVE NOISY (unfavourable) (favourable) 10 Alex 9 Patrick 8 Tim 7 Karen 6 Richard 5 Caroline 4 Heather 3 Jane 2 Sharon 1 Janice (unfavourable) (favourable) 10 Alex 9 Patrick 8 Karen 7 Tim 6 Caroline 5 Richard 4 Heather 3 Janice 2 Sharon 1 Jane VERBALLY GOOD CLUMSY (favourable) (unfavourable) 1 Richard 2 Caroline 3 Heather 4 Janice 5 Patrick 6 Tim 7 Alex 8 Sharon 9 Jane 10 Karen (unfavourable) (favourable) 10 Alex 9 Patrick 8 Karen 7 Tim 6 Richard 5 Sharon 4 Jane 3 Janice 2 Caroline 1 Heather continued
562 MULTIDIMENSIONAL MEASUREMENT Box 25.1 Continued WELL BEHAVED (favourable) (unfavourable) 1 Janice 2 Jane 3 Sharon 4 Caroline 5 Heather 6 Richard 7 Tim 8 Karen 9 Patrick 10 Alex Source: Cohen 1977 Box 25.2 Intercorrelations between seven personal constructs (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) Intelligent (1) 53 −10 −16 83 −52 13 Sociable (2) 53 −50 −59 44 −56 61 Aggressive (3) −10 −50 91 −07 79 −96 Noisy (4) −16 −59 91 −01 73 −93 Verbally good (5) 83 44 −07 −01 −43 12 Clumsy (6) −52 −56 79 73 −43 −81 Well behaved (decimal points omitted) (7) 13 61 −96 −93 12 −81 Source: Cohen 1977 student demotivation poor student concentration undue pressure on students narrowing effect on curriculum punishing the weaker students overemphasis on memorization testing only textbo<strong>ok</strong> knowledge. These seven variables can be grouped together under the single overarching factor of ‘negative effects of examinations’. Factor analysis, working through multiple correlations, is a method for grouping together several variables under one or more common factor(s). To address factor analysis in more detail we provide a worked example. Consider the following variables concerning school effectiveness: the clarity of the direction that is set by the school leadership the ability of the leader to motivate and inspire the educators the drive and confidence of the leader
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Research Methods in Education This
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First published 2007 by Routledge 2
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Contents List of boxes xiii Acknowl
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CONTENTS ix Searching for research
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CONTENTS xi Part 5 Data analysis 22
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xiv BOXES 13.1 Independent and depe
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xvi BOXES 24.54 Frequencies and per
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xviii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Springer,for
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2 INTRODUCTION Package for the Soci
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1 The nature of inquiry - Setting t
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TWO CONCEPTIONS OF SOCIAL REALITY 7
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POSITIVISM 9 Box 1.1 The subjective
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THE ASSUMPTIONS AND NATURE OF SCIEN
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THE ASSUMPTIONS AND NATURE OF SCIEN
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THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD 15 an educate
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CRITICISMS OF POSITIVISM AND THE SC
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ALTERNATIVES TO POSITIVISTIC SOCIAL
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A QUESTION OF TERMINOLOGY: THE NORM
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PHENOMENOLOGY, ETHNOMETHODOLOGY AND
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CRITICISMS OF THE NATURALISTIC AND
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CRITICAL THEORY AND CRITICAL EDUCAT
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CRITICISMS OF APPROACHES FROM CRITI
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CRITICAL THEORY AND CURRICULUM RESE
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THE EMERGING PARADIGM OF COMPLEXITY
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FEMINIST RESEARCH 35 deconstructin
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FEMINIST RESEARCH 37 respecting d
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FEMINIST RESEARCH 39 Research must
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RESEARCH AND EVALUATION 41 particul
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RESEARCH AND EVALUATION 43 The age
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RESEARCH AND EVALUATION 45 to exten
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METHODS AND METHODOLOGY 47 too easi
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Part Two Planning educational resea
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52 THE ETHICS OF EDUCATIONAL AND SO
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3 Planning educational research Int
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80 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH t
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82 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH de
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84 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Bo
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96 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Or
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98 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Pa
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4 Sampling Introduction The quality
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102 SAMPLING sample of 200 might be
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104 SAMPLING Box 4.1 Sample size, c
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106 SAMPLING would be insufficient
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108 SAMPLING The formula assumes th
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110 SAMPLING school governors, scho
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112 SAMPLING terms of sex, a random
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114 SAMPLING the required sample si
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116 SAMPLING Snowball sampling In s
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118 SAMPLING the kind of sample (d
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120 SENSITIVE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
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134 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY It is
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136 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY using
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138 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY includ
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140 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY leadin
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142 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY social
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144 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY this i
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146 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY prese
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148 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY by ass
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150 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY Validi
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152 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY typica
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154 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY people
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156 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
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158 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY sensit
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160 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY certif
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162 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY how m
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164 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY operat
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7 Naturalistic and ethnographic res
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ELEMENTS OF NATURALISTIC INQUIRY 16
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PLANNING NATURALISTIC RESEARCH 171
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CRITICAL ETHNOGRAPHY 187 Relatio
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SOME PROBLEMS WITH ETHNOGRAPHIC AND
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8 Historical and documentary resear
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DATA COLLECTION 193 One can see fro
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WRITING THE RESEARCH REPORT 195 Ext
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THE USE OF QUANTITATIVE METHODS 197
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LIFE HISTORIES 199 Box 8.2 Atypolog
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DOCUMENTARY RESEARCH 201 Documentar
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DOCUMENTARY RESEARCH 203 What are
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9 Surveys, longitudinal, cross-sect
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SOME PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS 207
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PLANNING A SURVEY 209 structured or
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LONGITUDINAL, CROSS-SECTIONAL AND T
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LONGITUDINAL, CROSS-SECTIONAL AND T
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STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF LONGITU
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STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF LONGITU
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POSTAL, INTERVIEW AND TELEPHONE SUR
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EVENT HISTORY ANALYSIS 225 may be p
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INTERNET-BASED SURVEYS 227 packages
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INTERNET-BASED SURVEYS 229 instruc
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INTERNET-BASED SURVEYS 231 Box 10.1
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INTERNET-BASED SURVEYS 237 Witte et
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INTERNET-BASED EXPERIMENTS 239 requ
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INTERNET-BASED INTERVIEWS 241 ‘ne
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SEARCHING FOR RESEARCH MATERIALS ON
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COMPUTER SIMULATIONS 245 autho
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COMPUTER SIMULATIONS 247 computer s
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COMPUTER SIMULATIONS 249 On the oth
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GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS 25
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11 Case studies What is a case stud
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WHAT IS A CASE STUDY 255 (providing
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WHAT IS A CASE STUDY 257 argue that
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EXAMPLES OF KINDS OF CASE STUDY 259
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PLANNING A CASE STUDY 261 accounts
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CONCLUSION 263 In the narrativ
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CO-RELATIONAL AND CRITERION GROUPS
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CHARACTERISTICS OF EX POST FACTO RE
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DESIGNING AN EX POST FACTO INVESTIG
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PROCEDURES IN EX POST FACTO RESEARC
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INTRODUCTION 273 Box 13.1 Independe
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TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 275 motor
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TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 277 2 Sub
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TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 279 textb
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TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 281 Facto
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A QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: THE NO
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PROCEDURES IN CONDUCTING EXPERIMENT
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EXAMPLES FROM EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
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EVIDENCE-BASED EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
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14 Action research Introduction Act
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PRINCIPLES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A
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PRINCIPLES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A
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ACTION RESEARCH AS CRITICAL PRAXIS
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PROCEDURES FOR ACTION RESEARCH 305
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SOME PRACTICAL AND THEORETICAL MATT
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CONCLUSION 313 3 Actionresearchreso
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15 Questionnaires Introduction The
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APPROACHING THE PLANNING OF A QUEST
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 321 If
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 323 de
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 325 Ra
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 327 Ve
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 329 I
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 331 Fu
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ASKING SENSITIVE QUESTIONS 333 and
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AVOIDING PITFALLS IN QUESTION WRITI
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QUESTIONNAIRES CONTAINING FEW VERBA
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COVERING LETTERS OR SHEETS AND FOLL
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PILOTING THE QUESTIONNAIRE 341 Nove
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PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN QUESTIO
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ADMINISTERING QUESTIONNAIRES 345 is
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PROCESSING QUESTIONNAIRE DATA 347 B
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16 Interviews Introduction The use
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PURPOSES OF THE INTERVIEW 351 appli
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TYPES OF INTERVIEW 353 closed quant
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TYPES OF INTERVIEW 355 One can clus
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PLANNING INTERVIEW-BASED RESEARCH P
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GROUP INTERVIEWING 373 an intro
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INTERVIEWING CHILDREN 375 taking pl
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THE NON-DIRECTIVE INTERVIEW AND THE
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TELEPHONE INTERVIEWING 379 By mean
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TELEPHONE INTERVIEWING 381 questi
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ETHICAL ISSUES IN INTERVIEWING 383
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PROCEDURES IN ELICITING, ANALYSING
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PROCEDURES IN ELICITING, ANALYSING
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DISCOURSE ANALYSIS 389 completeness
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ACCOUNT GATHERING IN EDUCATIONAL RE
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STRENGTHS OF THE ETHOGENIC APPROACH
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A NOTE ON STORIES 395 instruments t
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INTRODUCTION 397 the physical s
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STRUCTURED OBSERVATION 399 Box 18.1
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STRUCTURED OBSERVATION 401 Box 18.2
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STRUCTURED OBSERVATION 403 or event
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NATURALISTIC AND PARTICIPANT OBSERV
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NATURALISTIC AND PARTICIPANT OBSERV
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ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS 409 Box 18.3
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SOME CAUTIONARY COMMENTS 411 ob
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CONCLUSION 413 the data mean. This
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NORM-REFERENCED, CRITERION-REFERENC
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COMMERCIALLY PRODUCED TESTS AND RES
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 419 achieveme
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 421 Select the
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 423 where A = t
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 425 true/fal
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 427 short-answe
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 429 demonstrate
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 431 (e.g. to as
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COMPUTERIZED ADAPTIVE TESTING 433 H
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20 Personal constructs Introduction
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ALLOTTING ELEMENTS TO CONSTRUCTS 43
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PROCEDURES IN GRID ANALYSIS 439 inv
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PROCEDURES IN GRID ANALYSIS 441 Box
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SOME EXAMPLES OF THE USE OF REPERTO
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GRID TECHNIQUE AND AUDIO/VIDEO LESS
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FOCUSED GRIDS, NON-VERBAL GRIDS, EX
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INTRODUCTION 449 Box 21.1 Dimension
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ROLE-PLAYING VERSUS DECEPTION: THE
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THE USES OF ROLE-PLAYING 453 of
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ROLE-PLAYING IN AN EDUCATIONAL SETT
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EVALUATING ROLE-PLAYING AND OTHER S
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22 Approaches to qualitative data a
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TABULATING DATA 463 data set reprod
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TABULATING DATA 465 Box 22.4 Studen
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FIVE WAYS OF ORGANIZING AND PRESENT
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SYSTEMATIC APPROACHES TO DATA ANALY
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SYSTEMATIC APPROACHES TO DATA ANALY
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METHODOLOGICAL TOOLS FOR ANALYSING
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23 Content analysis and grounded th
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HOW DOES CONTENT ANALYSIS WORK 477
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A WORKED EXAMPLE OF CONTENT ANALYSI
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A WORKED EXAMPLE OF CONTENT ANALYSI
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COMPUTER USAGE IN CONTENT ANALYSIS
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COMPUTER USAGE IN CONTENT ANALYSIS
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GROUNDED THEORY 491 data, thereby c
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GROUNDED THEORY 493 fragments are t
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INTERPRETATION IN QUALITATIVE DATA
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24 Quantitative data analysis Intro
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DESCRIPTIVE AND INFERENTIAL STATIST
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DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
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EXPLORATORY DATA ANALYSIS: FREQUENC
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EXPLORATORY DATA ANALYSIS: FREQUENC
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Page 534 and 535: STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE 515 alongt
Page 536 and 537: STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE 517 hands
Page 538 and 539: HYPOTHESIS TESTING 519 selection fr
Page 540 and 541: EFFECT SIZE 521 differential measur
Page 542 and 543: EFFECT SIZE 523 Box 24.17 The Leven
Page 544 and 545: THE CHI-SQUARE TEST 525 The Effect
Page 546 and 547: DEGREES OF FREEDOM 527 Box 24.22 A2
Page 548 and 549: MEASURING ASSOCIATION 529 Box 24.23
Page 550 and 551: MEASURING ASSOCIATION 531 found and
Page 552 and 553: MEASURING ASSOCIATION 533 Box 24.26
Page 554 and 555: MEASURING ASSOCIATION 535 Many usef
Page 556 and 557: REGRESSION ANALYSIS 537 we know or
Page 558 and 559: REGRESSION ANALYSIS 539 Box 24.32 S
Page 560 and 561: REGRESSION ANALYSIS 541 Box 24.35 S
Page 562 and 563: MEASURES OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GROU
Page 578 and 579: 25 Multidimensional measurement and
Page 582 and 583: FACTOR ANALYSIS 563 Box 25.3 The st
Page 584 and 585: FACTOR ANALYSIS 565 Box 25.5 Ascree
Page 586 and 587: FACTOR ANALYSIS 567 Box 25.7 The ro
Page 588 and 589: FACTOR ANALYSIS 569 The school
Page 590 and 591: FACTOR ANALYSIS: AN EXAMPLE 571 sco
Page 592 and 593: FACTOR ANALYSIS: AN EXAMPLE 573 Box
Page 594 and 595: FACTOR ANALYSIS: AN EXAMPLE 575 Box
Page 596 and 597: EXAMPLES OF STUDIES USING MULTIDIME
Page 598 and 599: MULTIDIMENSIONAL DATA: SOME WORDS O
Page 600 and 601: MULTIDIMENSIONAL DATA: SOME WORDS O
Page 602 and 603: MULTILEVEL MODELLING 583 Degrees of
Page 604 and 605: CLUSTER ANALYSIS 585 Box 25.22 Clus
Page 606 and 607: → → → → HOW MANY SAMPLES 58
Page 608 and 609: HOW MANY SAMPLES 589 Box 26.4 Choos
Page 610 and 611: ASSUMPTIONS OF TESTS 591 Box 26.5 c
Page 612 and 613: Notes 1 THE NATURE OF INQUIRY - SET
Page 614 and 615: NOTES 595 Gender and Careers. Lewes
Page 616 and 617: NOTES 597 is widespread, indeed the
Page 618 and 619: Bibliography Acker, S. (1989) Teach
Page 620 and 621: BIBLIOGRAPHY 601 Bannister, D. and
Page 622 and 623: BIBLIOGRAPHY 603 Brenner, M., Brown
Page 624 and 625: BIBLIOGRAPHY 605 Cohen, L. and Holl
Page 626 and 627: BIBLIOGRAPHY 607 or case-based Euro
Page 628 and 629: BIBLIOGRAPHY 609 Fendler, L. (1999)
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 611 the Powerful in Ed
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 613 Hanna, G. S. (1993
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 615 Jones, S. (1987) T
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 617 IL: Bureau of Econ
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 619 McNiff, J., Lomax,
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 621 Morrison, K. R. B.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 623 Patton, M. Q. (198
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 625 Muliak and J. H. S
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 627 Smith, M. L. and G
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 629 Thorne, B. (1994)
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 631 Whyte, W. F. (1993
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INDEX Absolutism 51, 61-2 Access 51
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INDEX 635 face validity see validit
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INDEX 637 qualitative research 19-2
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