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A NOTE ON STORIES 395 instruments that are available to the researcher. The rise in the use of oral history as a legitimate research technique in social research can be seen here to apply to educational research. Although they might be problematic in that verification is difficult (unless other people were present to verify events reported), stories, being rich in the subjective involvement of the storyteller, offer an opportunity for the researcher to gather authentic, rich and ‘respectable’ data (Bauman 1986). Chapter 17
18 Observation Introduction The distinctive feature of observation as a research process is that it offers an investigator the opportunity to gather ‘live’ data from naturally occurring social situations. In this way, the researcher can look directly at what is taking place in situ rather than relying on second-hand accounts. The use of immediate awareness, or direct cognition, as a principal mode of research thus has the potential to yield more valid or authentic data than would otherwise be the case with mediated or inferential methods. And this is observation’s unique strength. There are other attractions in its favour: as Robson (2002: 310) says, what people do may differ from what they say they do, and observation provides a reality check; observation also enables a researcher to look afresh at everyday behaviour that otherwise might be taken for granted, expected or go unnoticed (Cooper and Schindler 2001: 374); and the approach with its carefully prepared recording schedules avoids problems caused when there is a time gap between the act of observation and the recording of the event – selective or faulty memory, for example. Finally, on a procedural point, some participants may prefer the presence of an observer to an intrusive, time-consuming interview or questionnaire. Observation can be of facts,suchasthenumber of books in a classroom, the number of students in a class, the number of students who visit the school library in a given period. It can also focus on events as they happen in a classroom, for example, the amount of teacher and student talk, the amount of off-task conversation and the amount of group collaborative work. Further, it can focus on behaviours or qualities, such as the friendliness of the teacher, the degree of aggressive behaviour or the extent of unsociable behaviour among students. One can detect here a putative continuum from the observation of uncontestable facts to the researcher’s interpretation and judgement of situations, which are then recorded as observations. What counts as evidence becomes cloudy immediately in observation, because what we observe depends on when, where and for how long we look, how many observers there are, and how we look. It also depends on what is taken to be evidence of, or a proxy for, an underlying, latent construct. What counts as acceptable evidence of unsociable behaviour in the example above requires an operational definition that is valid and reliable. Observers need to decide ‘of what is the observation evidence’, for example: is the degree of wear and tear on a book in the school library an indication of its popularity, or carelessness by its readers, or of destructive behaviour by students One cannot infer cause from effect, intention from observation, stimulus from response. Observational data are sensitive to contexts and demonstrate strong ecological validity (Moyles 2002). This enables researchers to understand the context of programmes, to be open-ended and inductive, to see things that might otherwise be unconsciously missed, to discover things that participants might not freely talk about in interview situations, to move beyond perceptionbased data (e.g. opinions in interviews) and to access personal knowledge. Because observed incidents are less predictable there is a certain freshness to this form of data collection that is often denied in other forms, e.g. a questionnaire or a test. Observations (Morrison 1993: 80) enable the researcher to gather data on:
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Research Methods in Education This
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First published 2007 by Routledge 2
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Contents List of boxes xiii Acknowl
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CONTENTS ix Searching for research
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CONTENTS xi Part 5 Data analysis 22
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xiv BOXES 13.1 Independent and depe
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xvi BOXES 24.54 Frequencies and per
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xviii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Springer,for
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2 INTRODUCTION Package for the Soci
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1 The nature of inquiry - Setting t
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TWO CONCEPTIONS OF SOCIAL REALITY 7
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POSITIVISM 9 Box 1.1 The subjective
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THE ASSUMPTIONS AND NATURE OF SCIEN
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THE ASSUMPTIONS AND NATURE OF SCIEN
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THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD 15 an educate
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CRITICISMS OF POSITIVISM AND THE SC
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ALTERNATIVES TO POSITIVISTIC SOCIAL
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A QUESTION OF TERMINOLOGY: THE NORM
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PHENOMENOLOGY, ETHNOMETHODOLOGY AND
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CRITICISMS OF THE NATURALISTIC AND
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CRITICAL THEORY AND CRITICAL EDUCAT
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CRITICISMS OF APPROACHES FROM CRITI
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CRITICAL THEORY AND CURRICULUM RESE
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THE EMERGING PARADIGM OF COMPLEXITY
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FEMINIST RESEARCH 35 deconstructin
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FEMINIST RESEARCH 37 respecting d
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FEMINIST RESEARCH 39 Research must
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RESEARCH AND EVALUATION 41 particul
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RESEARCH AND EVALUATION 43 The age
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RESEARCH AND EVALUATION 45 to exten
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METHODS AND METHODOLOGY 47 too easi
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Part Two Planning educational resea
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52 THE ETHICS OF EDUCATIONAL AND SO
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3 Planning educational research Int
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80 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH t
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82 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH de
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84 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Bo
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96 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Or
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98 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Pa
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4 Sampling Introduction The quality
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102 SAMPLING sample of 200 might be
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104 SAMPLING Box 4.1 Sample size, c
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106 SAMPLING would be insufficient
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108 SAMPLING The formula assumes th
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110 SAMPLING school governors, scho
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112 SAMPLING terms of sex, a random
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114 SAMPLING the required sample si
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116 SAMPLING Snowball sampling In s
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118 SAMPLING the kind of sample (d
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120 SENSITIVE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
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134 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY It is
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136 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY using
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138 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY includ
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140 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY leadin
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142 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY social
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144 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY this i
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146 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY prese
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148 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY by ass
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150 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY Validi
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152 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY typica
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154 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY people
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156 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
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158 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY sensit
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160 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY certif
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162 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY how m
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164 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY operat
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7 Naturalistic and ethnographic res
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ELEMENTS OF NATURALISTIC INQUIRY 16
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PLANNING NATURALISTIC RESEARCH 171
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CRITICAL ETHNOGRAPHY 187 Relatio
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SOME PROBLEMS WITH ETHNOGRAPHIC AND
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8 Historical and documentary resear
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DATA COLLECTION 193 One can see fro
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WRITING THE RESEARCH REPORT 195 Ext
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THE USE OF QUANTITATIVE METHODS 197
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LIFE HISTORIES 199 Box 8.2 Atypolog
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DOCUMENTARY RESEARCH 201 Documentar
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DOCUMENTARY RESEARCH 203 What are
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9 Surveys, longitudinal, cross-sect
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SOME PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS 207
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PLANNING A SURVEY 209 structured or
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LONGITUDINAL, CROSS-SECTIONAL AND T
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LONGITUDINAL, CROSS-SECTIONAL AND T
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STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF LONGITU
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STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF LONGITU
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POSTAL, INTERVIEW AND TELEPHONE SUR
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EVENT HISTORY ANALYSIS 225 may be p
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INTERNET-BASED SURVEYS 227 packages
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INTERNET-BASED SURVEYS 229 instruc
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INTERNET-BASED SURVEYS 231 Box 10.1
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INTERNET-BASED SURVEYS 237 Witte et
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INTERNET-BASED EXPERIMENTS 239 requ
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INTERNET-BASED INTERVIEWS 241 ‘ne
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SEARCHING FOR RESEARCH MATERIALS ON
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COMPUTER SIMULATIONS 245 autho
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COMPUTER SIMULATIONS 247 computer s
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COMPUTER SIMULATIONS 249 On the oth
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GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS 25
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11 Case studies What is a case stud
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WHAT IS A CASE STUDY 255 (providing
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WHAT IS A CASE STUDY 257 argue that
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EXAMPLES OF KINDS OF CASE STUDY 259
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PLANNING A CASE STUDY 261 accounts
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CONCLUSION 263 In the narrativ
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CO-RELATIONAL AND CRITERION GROUPS
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CHARACTERISTICS OF EX POST FACTO RE
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DESIGNING AN EX POST FACTO INVESTIG
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PROCEDURES IN EX POST FACTO RESEARC
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INTRODUCTION 273 Box 13.1 Independe
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TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 275 motor
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TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 277 2 Sub
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TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 279 textb
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TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 281 Facto
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A QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: THE NO
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PROCEDURES IN CONDUCTING EXPERIMENT
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EXAMPLES FROM EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
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EVIDENCE-BASED EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
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14 Action research Introduction Act
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PRINCIPLES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A
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PRINCIPLES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A
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ACTION RESEARCH AS CRITICAL PRAXIS
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PROCEDURES FOR ACTION RESEARCH 305
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SOME PRACTICAL AND THEORETICAL MATT
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CONCLUSION 313 3 Actionresearchreso
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15 Questionnaires Introduction The
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APPROACHING THE PLANNING OF A QUEST
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 321 If
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 323 de
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 325 Ra
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 327 Ve
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 329 I
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 331 Fu
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ASKING SENSITIVE QUESTIONS 333 and
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AVOIDING PITFALLS IN QUESTION WRITI
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QUESTIONNAIRES CONTAINING FEW VERBA
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COVERING LETTERS OR SHEETS AND FOLL
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PILOTING THE QUESTIONNAIRE 341 Nove
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PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN QUESTIO
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Page 366 and 367: PROCESSING QUESTIONNAIRE DATA 347 B
Page 368 and 369: 16 Interviews Introduction The use
Page 370 and 371: PURPOSES OF THE INTERVIEW 351 appli
Page 372 and 373: TYPES OF INTERVIEW 353 closed quant
Page 374 and 375: TYPES OF INTERVIEW 355 One can clus
Page 376 and 377: PLANNING INTERVIEW-BASED RESEARCH P
Page 392 and 393: GROUP INTERVIEWING 373 an intro
Page 394 and 395: INTERVIEWING CHILDREN 375 taking pl
Page 396 and 397: THE NON-DIRECTIVE INTERVIEW AND THE
Page 398 and 399: TELEPHONE INTERVIEWING 379 By mean
Page 400 and 401: TELEPHONE INTERVIEWING 381 questi
Page 402 and 403: ETHICAL ISSUES IN INTERVIEWING 383
Page 404 and 405: PROCEDURES IN ELICITING, ANALYSING
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Page 408 and 409: DISCOURSE ANALYSIS 389 completeness
Page 410 and 411: ACCOUNT GATHERING IN EDUCATIONAL RE
Page 412 and 413: STRENGTHS OF THE ETHOGENIC APPROACH
Page 416 and 417: INTRODUCTION 397 the physical s
Page 418 and 419: STRUCTURED OBSERVATION 399 Box 18.1
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Page 422 and 423: STRUCTURED OBSERVATION 403 or event
Page 424 and 425: NATURALISTIC AND PARTICIPANT OBSERV
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Page 428 and 429: ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS 409 Box 18.3
Page 430 and 431: SOME CAUTIONARY COMMENTS 411 ob
Page 432 and 433: CONCLUSION 413 the data mean. This
Page 434 and 435: NORM-REFERENCED, CRITERION-REFERENC
Page 436 and 437: COMMERCIALLY PRODUCED TESTS AND RES
Page 438 and 439: CONSTRUCTING A TEST 419 achieveme
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Page 452 and 453: COMPUTERIZED ADAPTIVE TESTING 433 H
Page 454 and 455: 20 Personal constructs Introduction
Page 456 and 457: ALLOTTING ELEMENTS TO CONSTRUCTS 43
Page 458 and 459: PROCEDURES IN GRID ANALYSIS 439 inv
Page 460 and 461: PROCEDURES IN GRID ANALYSIS 441 Box
Page 462 and 463: SOME EXAMPLES OF THE USE OF REPERTO
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GRID TECHNIQUE AND AUDIO/VIDEO LESS
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FOCUSED GRIDS, NON-VERBAL GRIDS, EX
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INTRODUCTION 449 Box 21.1 Dimension
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ROLE-PLAYING VERSUS DECEPTION: THE
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THE USES OF ROLE-PLAYING 453 of
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ROLE-PLAYING IN AN EDUCATIONAL SETT
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EVALUATING ROLE-PLAYING AND OTHER S
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22 Approaches to qualitative data a
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TABULATING DATA 463 data set reprod
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TABULATING DATA 465 Box 22.4 Studen
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FIVE WAYS OF ORGANIZING AND PRESENT
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SYSTEMATIC APPROACHES TO DATA ANALY
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SYSTEMATIC APPROACHES TO DATA ANALY
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METHODOLOGICAL TOOLS FOR ANALYSING
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23 Content analysis and grounded th
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HOW DOES CONTENT ANALYSIS WORK 477
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A WORKED EXAMPLE OF CONTENT ANALYSI
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A WORKED EXAMPLE OF CONTENT ANALYSI
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COMPUTER USAGE IN CONTENT ANALYSIS
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COMPUTER USAGE IN CONTENT ANALYSIS
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GROUNDED THEORY 491 data, thereby c
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GROUNDED THEORY 493 fragments are t
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INTERPRETATION IN QUALITATIVE DATA
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24 Quantitative data analysis Intro
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DESCRIPTIVE AND INFERENTIAL STATIST
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DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
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EXPLORATORY DATA ANALYSIS: FREQUENC
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STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE 515 alongt
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STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE 517 hands
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HYPOTHESIS TESTING 519 selection fr
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EFFECT SIZE 521 differential measur
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EFFECT SIZE 523 Box 24.17 The Leven
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THE CHI-SQUARE TEST 525 The Effect
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DEGREES OF FREEDOM 527 Box 24.22 A2
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MEASURING ASSOCIATION 529 Box 24.23
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MEASURING ASSOCIATION 531 found and
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MEASURING ASSOCIATION 533 Box 24.26
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MEASURING ASSOCIATION 535 Many usef
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REGRESSION ANALYSIS 537 we know or
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REGRESSION ANALYSIS 539 Box 24.32 S
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REGRESSION ANALYSIS 541 Box 24.35 S
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MEASURES OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GROU
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25 Multidimensional measurement and
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FACTOR ANALYSIS 561 Box 25.1 Rank o
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FACTOR ANALYSIS 563 Box 25.3 The st
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FACTOR ANALYSIS 565 Box 25.5 Ascree
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FACTOR ANALYSIS 567 Box 25.7 The ro
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FACTOR ANALYSIS 569 The school
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FACTOR ANALYSIS: AN EXAMPLE 571 sco
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FACTOR ANALYSIS: AN EXAMPLE 573 Box
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FACTOR ANALYSIS: AN EXAMPLE 575 Box
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EXAMPLES OF STUDIES USING MULTIDIME
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MULTIDIMENSIONAL DATA: SOME WORDS O
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MULTIDIMENSIONAL DATA: SOME WORDS O
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MULTILEVEL MODELLING 583 Degrees of
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CLUSTER ANALYSIS 585 Box 25.22 Clus
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→ → → → HOW MANY SAMPLES 58
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HOW MANY SAMPLES 589 Box 26.4 Choos
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ASSUMPTIONS OF TESTS 591 Box 26.5 c
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Notes 1 THE NATURE OF INQUIRY - SET
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NOTES 595 Gender and Careers. Lewes
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NOTES 597 is widespread, indeed the
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Bibliography Acker, S. (1989) Teach
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 601 Bannister, D. and
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 603 Brenner, M., Brown
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 605 Cohen, L. and Holl
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 607 or case-based Euro
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 609 Fendler, L. (1999)
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 611 the Powerful in Ed
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 613 Hanna, G. S. (1993
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 615 Jones, S. (1987) T
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 617 IL: Bureau of Econ
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 619 McNiff, J., Lomax,
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 621 Morrison, K. R. B.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 623 Patton, M. Q. (198
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 625 Muliak and J. H. S
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 627 Smith, M. L. and G
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 629 Thorne, B. (1994)
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 631 Whyte, W. F. (1993
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INDEX Absolutism 51, 61-2 Access 51
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INDEX 635 face validity see validit
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INDEX 637 qualitative research 19-2
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