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Acknowledgements Our thanks are due to the following publishers and authors for permission to include materials in the text: Allyn & Bacon/Pearson Education,formaterialfrom Best, J. W. (1970) Research in Education. Blackwell Publishers, for material from Dyer, C. (1995) Beginning Research in Psychology; Robson, C. (1993) Real World Research; Robson, C. (2002) Real World Research (second edition). British Psychological Society, for material from Adams-Webber, J. R. (1970) Elicited versus provided constructs in repertory grid technique: areview,British Journal of Medical Psychology, 43, 349–54. Reproduced with permission from the British Journal of Medical Psychology © The British Psychological Society. Campbell, D. T. and Stanley, J. C. Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Research. Copyright © 1963 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Continuum Book s, formaterialfromWalford,G. (2001) Doing Qualitative Educational Research, pp. 30, 31, 36, 137. Deakin University Press, Deakin, Australia,forwords from Kemmis, S. and McTaggart, R. (1981) The Action Research Planner, andKemmis,S. and McTaggart, R. (1992) The Action Research Planner (third edition) 8 and 21–8. Elsevier, formaterialreprintedfromInternational Journal of Educational Research, vol. 18(3), Edwards, D. Concepts, memory and the organisation of pedagogic discourse, pp. 205–25, copyright © 1993, with permission from Elsevier; Social Method and Social Life, M.Brenner (ed.), article by J. Brown and J. Sime: A methodology for accounts, p. 163, copyright © 1981, with permission from Elsevier. Hughes, J. (1976), for material from Sociological Analysis: Methods of Discovery,NelsonThornes, p. 34. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, for material from Murphy, J., John, M. and Brown, H. (eds) (1984) Dialogues and Debates in Social Psychology. London:LawrenceErlbaum Associates. McAleese, R. and Hamilton, D. (eds) (1978) Understanding Classroom Life.Slough:National Foundation for Educational Research. Multilingual Matters Ltd,Clevedon,forfiguresfrom Parsons, E., Chalkley, B. and Jones, A. (1996) The role of Geographic Information Systems in the study of parental choice and secondary school catchments, Evaluation and Research in Education, 10(1), 23–34; for words from Stronach, I. and Morris, B (1994) Polemical notes on educational evaluation in an age of ‘policy hysteria’, Evaluation and Research in Education, 8(1), 5–19. Patton, M. Q. (1980) Qualitative Evaluation Methods, p. 206, copyright © Sage Publications Inc., reprinted by permission of Sage Publications Inc. Pearson Education Ltd,formaterialfromHarris,N., Pearce, P. and Johnstone, S. (1992) The Legal Context of Teaching. Penguin Group UK, for material from Armistead, N. (1974) Reconstructing Social Psychology. Prentice-Hall, for material from Garfinkel, H. (1974) Studies in Ethnomethodology; Smith, R. W. (1978) Strategies in Social Research. Princeton University Press, for material from Kierkegaard, S. (1974) Concluding Unscientific Postscript. Reips, U.-D. (2002a) Internet-based psychological experimenting: five dos and don’ts. Social Science Computer Review, 20(3),241–9;(2002b) Standards for Internet-based experimenting. Experimental Psychology,49(4),243–56.
xviii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Springer,forHycner,R.H.(1985)Someguidelines for the phenomenological analysis of interview data, Human Studies, 8,279–303,withkind permission of Springer Science and Business Media. Stanford University Press, for material from Sears, R., Maccoby, E. and Levin, H. (1976) Patterns of Child Rearing (originally published 1957). Taylor & Francis, forBrenner,M.andMarsh,P. (eds) (1978) The Social Contexts of Method; Burgess, R. (ed.) (1993) Educational Research for Policy and Practice, pp. 119 and 135; Burgess, R. (ed.) (1985) Issues in Educational Research, pp.116–28and244–7;Burgess,R. (ed.) (1989) The Ethics of Educational Research, p. 194; Cuff, E. G. and Payne, G. (1979) Perspectives in Sociology, p.4;Hammersley,M. and Atkinson, P. (1983) Ethnography: Principles and Practice, pp. 18, 19, 76; Hitchcock,G. and Hughes, D. (1995) Research and the Teacher (second edition), pp. 20–2, 41; Kincheloe, J. (2003) Teachers as Researchers: Qualitative Inquiry as a Path to Empowerment (second edition), pp. 138–9; McCormick, J. and Solman, R. (1992) Teachers’ attributions of responsibility for occupational stress and satisfaction: an organisational perspective, Educational Studies, 18(92),201–22;McNiff,J. (2002) Action Research: Principles and Practice (second edition), pp. 85–91; Medawar, P. (1972) The Hope of Progress;Oldroyd,G.(1986) The Arch of Knowledge: An Introductory Study of the History of the Philosophy and Methodology of Science; Plummer, K. (1983) Documents of Life: An Introduction to the Problems and Literature of aHumanisticMethod; Rex, J. (1974) Approaches to Sociology; Simons,H.andUsher,R.(2000) Situated Ethics in Educational Research, pp. 1–2; Walford, G. (1994) Researching the Powerful in Education; Zuber-Skerritt,O.(1996)New Directions in Action Research, p.99;Winter,R. (1982) Dilemma analysis: a contribution to methodology for action research, Cambridge Journal of Education,12(3),161–74. University of Chicago Press, forbriefquotations from Whyte, W. F. (1993) Street Corner Society, pp. 292, 301, 303; Merton, K. and Kendall, P. L. (1946) The focused interview. American Journal of Sociology, 51, 541–57.
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Research Methods in Education This
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First published 2007 by Routledge 2
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Contents List of boxes xiii Acknowl
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CONTENTS ix Searching for research
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CONTENTS xi Part 5 Data analysis 22
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xiv BOXES 13.1 Independent and depe
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xvi BOXES 24.54 Frequencies and per
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2 INTRODUCTION Package for the Soci
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1 The nature of inquiry - Setting t
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TWO CONCEPTIONS OF SOCIAL REALITY 7
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POSITIVISM 9 Box 1.1 The subjective
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THE ASSUMPTIONS AND NATURE OF SCIEN
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THE ASSUMPTIONS AND NATURE OF SCIEN
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THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD 15 an educate
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CRITICISMS OF POSITIVISM AND THE SC
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ALTERNATIVES TO POSITIVISTIC SOCIAL
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A QUESTION OF TERMINOLOGY: THE NORM
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PHENOMENOLOGY, ETHNOMETHODOLOGY AND
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CRITICISMS OF THE NATURALISTIC AND
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CRITICAL THEORY AND CRITICAL EDUCAT
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CRITICISMS OF APPROACHES FROM CRITI
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CRITICAL THEORY AND CURRICULUM RESE
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THE EMERGING PARADIGM OF COMPLEXITY
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FEMINIST RESEARCH 35 deconstructin
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FEMINIST RESEARCH 37 respecting d
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FEMINIST RESEARCH 39 Research must
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RESEARCH AND EVALUATION 41 particul
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RESEARCH AND EVALUATION 43 The age
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RESEARCH AND EVALUATION 45 to exten
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METHODS AND METHODOLOGY 47 too easi
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Part Two Planning educational resea
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52 THE ETHICS OF EDUCATIONAL AND SO
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54 THE ETHICS OF EDUCATIONAL AND SO
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56 THE ETHICS OF EDUCATIONAL AND SO
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58 THE ETHICS OF EDUCATIONAL AND SO
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60 THE ETHICS OF EDUCATIONAL AND SO
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62 THE ETHICS OF EDUCATIONAL AND SO
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64 THE ETHICS OF EDUCATIONAL AND SO
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66 THE ETHICS OF EDUCATIONAL AND SO
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68 THE ETHICS OF EDUCATIONAL AND SO
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70 THE ETHICS OF EDUCATIONAL AND SO
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72 THE ETHICS OF EDUCATIONAL AND SO
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74 THE ETHICS OF EDUCATIONAL AND SO
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76 THE ETHICS OF EDUCATIONAL AND SO
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3 Planning educational research Int
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80 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH t
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82 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH de
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84 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Bo
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86 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Bo
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88 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Bo
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90 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Bo
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92 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Bo
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94 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Bo
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96 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Or
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98 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Pa
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4 Sampling Introduction The quality
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102 SAMPLING sample of 200 might be
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104 SAMPLING Box 4.1 Sample size, c
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106 SAMPLING would be insufficient
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108 SAMPLING The formula assumes th
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110 SAMPLING school governors, scho
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112 SAMPLING terms of sex, a random
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114 SAMPLING the required sample si
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116 SAMPLING Snowball sampling In s
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118 SAMPLING the kind of sample (d
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120 SENSITIVE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
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122 SENSITIVE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
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124 SENSITIVE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
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126 SENSITIVE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
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128 SENSITIVE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
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130 SENSITIVE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
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132 SENSITIVE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
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134 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY It is
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136 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY using
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138 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY includ
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140 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY leadin
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142 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY social
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144 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY this i
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146 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY prese
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148 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY by ass
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150 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY Validi
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152 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY typica
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154 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY people
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156 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
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158 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY sensit
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160 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY certif
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162 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY how m
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164 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY operat
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7 Naturalistic and ethnographic res
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ELEMENTS OF NATURALISTIC INQUIRY 16
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PLANNING NATURALISTIC RESEARCH 171
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PLANNING NATURALISTIC RESEARCH 173
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PLANNING NATURALISTIC RESEARCH 175
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PLANNING NATURALISTIC RESEARCH 177
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PLANNING NATURALISTIC RESEARCH 179
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PLANNING NATURALISTIC RESEARCH 181
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PLANNING NATURALISTIC RESEARCH 183
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PLANNING NATURALISTIC RESEARCH 185
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CRITICAL ETHNOGRAPHY 187 Relatio
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SOME PROBLEMS WITH ETHNOGRAPHIC AND
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8 Historical and documentary resear
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DATA COLLECTION 193 One can see fro
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WRITING THE RESEARCH REPORT 195 Ext
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THE USE OF QUANTITATIVE METHODS 197
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LIFE HISTORIES 199 Box 8.2 Atypolog
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DOCUMENTARY RESEARCH 201 Documentar
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DOCUMENTARY RESEARCH 203 What are
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9 Surveys, longitudinal, cross-sect
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SOME PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS 207
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PLANNING A SURVEY 209 structured or
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LONGITUDINAL, CROSS-SECTIONAL AND T
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LONGITUDINAL, CROSS-SECTIONAL AND T
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STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF LONGITU
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STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF LONGITU
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POSTAL, INTERVIEW AND TELEPHONE SUR
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POSTAL, INTERVIEW AND TELEPHONE SUR
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POSTAL, INTERVIEW AND TELEPHONE SUR
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EVENT HISTORY ANALYSIS 225 may be p
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INTERNET-BASED SURVEYS 227 packages
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INTERNET-BASED SURVEYS 229 instruc
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INTERNET-BASED SURVEYS 231 Box 10.1
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INTERNET-BASED SURVEYS 233 Box 10.1
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INTERNET-BASED SURVEYS 235 Box 10.1
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INTERNET-BASED SURVEYS 237 Witte et
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INTERNET-BASED EXPERIMENTS 239 requ
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INTERNET-BASED INTERVIEWS 241 ‘ne
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SEARCHING FOR RESEARCH MATERIALS ON
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COMPUTER SIMULATIONS 245 autho
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COMPUTER SIMULATIONS 247 computer s
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COMPUTER SIMULATIONS 249 On the oth
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GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS 25
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11 Case studies What is a case stud
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WHAT IS A CASE STUDY 255 (providing
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WHAT IS A CASE STUDY 257 argue that
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EXAMPLES OF KINDS OF CASE STUDY 259
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PLANNING A CASE STUDY 261 accounts
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CONCLUSION 263 In the narrativ
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CO-RELATIONAL AND CRITERION GROUPS
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CHARACTERISTICS OF EX POST FACTO RE
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DESIGNING AN EX POST FACTO INVESTIG
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PROCEDURES IN EX POST FACTO RESEARC
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INTRODUCTION 273 Box 13.1 Independe
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TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 275 motor
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TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 277 2 Sub
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TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 279 textb
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TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 281 Facto
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A QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: THE NO
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PROCEDURES IN CONDUCTING EXPERIMENT
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EXAMPLES FROM EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
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EVIDENCE-BASED EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
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EVIDENCE-BASED EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
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EVIDENCE-BASED EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
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EVIDENCE-BASED EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
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14 Action research Introduction Act
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PRINCIPLES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A
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PRINCIPLES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A
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ACTION RESEARCH AS CRITICAL PRAXIS
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PROCEDURES FOR ACTION RESEARCH 305
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PROCEDURES FOR ACTION RESEARCH 307
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PROCEDURES FOR ACTION RESEARCH 309
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SOME PRACTICAL AND THEORETICAL MATT
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CONCLUSION 313 3 Actionresearchreso
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15 Questionnaires Introduction The
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APPROACHING THE PLANNING OF A QUEST
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 321 If
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 323 de
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 325 Ra
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 327 Ve
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 329 I
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 331 Fu
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ASKING SENSITIVE QUESTIONS 333 and
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AVOIDING PITFALLS IN QUESTION WRITI
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QUESTIONNAIRES CONTAINING FEW VERBA
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COVERING LETTERS OR SHEETS AND FOLL
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PILOTING THE QUESTIONNAIRE 341 Nove
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PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN QUESTIO
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ADMINISTERING QUESTIONNAIRES 345 is
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PROCESSING QUESTIONNAIRE DATA 347 B
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16 Interviews Introduction The use
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PURPOSES OF THE INTERVIEW 351 appli
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TYPES OF INTERVIEW 353 closed quant
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TYPES OF INTERVIEW 355 One can clus
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PLANNING INTERVIEW-BASED RESEARCH P
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PLANNING INTERVIEW-BASED RESEARCH P
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PLANNING INTERVIEW-BASED RESEARCH P
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PLANNING INTERVIEW-BASED RESEARCH P
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PLANNING INTERVIEW-BASED RESEARCH P
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PLANNING INTERVIEW-BASED RESEARCH P
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PLANNING INTERVIEW-BASED RESEARCH P
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PLANNING INTERVIEW-BASED RESEARCH P
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GROUP INTERVIEWING 373 an intro
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INTERVIEWING CHILDREN 375 taking pl
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THE NON-DIRECTIVE INTERVIEW AND THE
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TELEPHONE INTERVIEWING 379 By mean
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TELEPHONE INTERVIEWING 381 questi
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ETHICAL ISSUES IN INTERVIEWING 383
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PROCEDURES IN ELICITING, ANALYSING
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PROCEDURES IN ELICITING, ANALYSING
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DISCOURSE ANALYSIS 389 completeness
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ACCOUNT GATHERING IN EDUCATIONAL RE
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STRENGTHS OF THE ETHOGENIC APPROACH
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A NOTE ON STORIES 395 instruments t
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INTRODUCTION 397 the physical s
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STRUCTURED OBSERVATION 399 Box 18.1
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STRUCTURED OBSERVATION 401 Box 18.2
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STRUCTURED OBSERVATION 403 or event
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NATURALISTIC AND PARTICIPANT OBSERV
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NATURALISTIC AND PARTICIPANT OBSERV
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ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS 409 Box 18.3
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SOME CAUTIONARY COMMENTS 411 ob
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CONCLUSION 413 the data mean. This
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NORM-REFERENCED, CRITERION-REFERENC
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COMMERCIALLY PRODUCED TESTS AND RES
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 419 achieveme
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 421 Select the
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 423 where A = t
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 425 true/fal
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 427 short-answe
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 429 demonstrate
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CONSTRUCTING A TEST 431 (e.g. to as
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COMPUTERIZED ADAPTIVE TESTING 433 H
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20 Personal constructs Introduction
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ALLOTTING ELEMENTS TO CONSTRUCTS 43
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PROCEDURES IN GRID ANALYSIS 439 inv
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PROCEDURES IN GRID ANALYSIS 441 Box
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SOME EXAMPLES OF THE USE OF REPERTO
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GRID TECHNIQUE AND AUDIO/VIDEO LESS
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FOCUSED GRIDS, NON-VERBAL GRIDS, EX
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INTRODUCTION 449 Box 21.1 Dimension
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ROLE-PLAYING VERSUS DECEPTION: THE
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THE USES OF ROLE-PLAYING 453 of
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ROLE-PLAYING IN AN EDUCATIONAL SETT
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EVALUATING ROLE-PLAYING AND OTHER S
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22 Approaches to qualitative data a
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TABULATING DATA 463 data set reprod
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TABULATING DATA 465 Box 22.4 Studen
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FIVE WAYS OF ORGANIZING AND PRESENT
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SYSTEMATIC APPROACHES TO DATA ANALY
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SYSTEMATIC APPROACHES TO DATA ANALY
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METHODOLOGICAL TOOLS FOR ANALYSING
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23 Content analysis and grounded th
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HOW DOES CONTENT ANALYSIS WORK 477
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HOW DOES CONTENT ANALYSIS WORK 479
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HOW DOES CONTENT ANALYSIS WORK 481
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A WORKED EXAMPLE OF CONTENT ANALYSI
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A WORKED EXAMPLE OF CONTENT ANALYSI
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COMPUTER USAGE IN CONTENT ANALYSIS
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COMPUTER USAGE IN CONTENT ANALYSIS
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GROUNDED THEORY 491 data, thereby c
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GROUNDED THEORY 493 fragments are t
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INTERPRETATION IN QUALITATIVE DATA
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INTERPRETATION IN QUALITATIVE DATA
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INTERPRETATION IN QUALITATIVE DATA
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24 Quantitative data analysis Intro
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DESCRIPTIVE AND INFERENTIAL STATIST
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DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
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EXPLORATORY DATA ANALYSIS: FREQUENC
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EXPLORATORY DATA ANALYSIS: FREQUENC
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EXPLORATORY DATA ANALYSIS: FREQUENC
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EXPLORATORY DATA ANALYSIS: FREQUENC
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STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE 515 alongt
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STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE 517 hands
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HYPOTHESIS TESTING 519 selection fr
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EFFECT SIZE 521 differential measur
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EFFECT SIZE 523 Box 24.17 The Leven
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THE CHI-SQUARE TEST 525 The Effect
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DEGREES OF FREEDOM 527 Box 24.22 A2
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MEASURING ASSOCIATION 529 Box 24.23
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MEASURING ASSOCIATION 531 found and
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MEASURING ASSOCIATION 533 Box 24.26
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MEASURING ASSOCIATION 535 Many usef
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REGRESSION ANALYSIS 537 we know or
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REGRESSION ANALYSIS 539 Box 24.32 S
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REGRESSION ANALYSIS 541 Box 24.35 S
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MEASURES OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GROU
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MEASURES OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GROU
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MEASURES OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GROU
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MEASURES OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GROU
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MEASURES OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GROU
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MEASURES OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GROU
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MEASURES OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GROU
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MEASURES OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GROU
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25 Multidimensional measurement and
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FACTOR ANALYSIS 561 Box 25.1 Rank o
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FACTOR ANALYSIS 563 Box 25.3 The st
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FACTOR ANALYSIS 565 Box 25.5 Ascree
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FACTOR ANALYSIS 567 Box 25.7 The ro
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FACTOR ANALYSIS 569 The school
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FACTOR ANALYSIS: AN EXAMPLE 571 sco
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FACTOR ANALYSIS: AN EXAMPLE 573 Box
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FACTOR ANALYSIS: AN EXAMPLE 575 Box
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EXAMPLES OF STUDIES USING MULTIDIME
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MULTIDIMENSIONAL DATA: SOME WORDS O
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MULTIDIMENSIONAL DATA: SOME WORDS O
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MULTILEVEL MODELLING 583 Degrees of
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CLUSTER ANALYSIS 585 Box 25.22 Clus
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→ → → → HOW MANY SAMPLES 58
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HOW MANY SAMPLES 589 Box 26.4 Choos
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ASSUMPTIONS OF TESTS 591 Box 26.5 c
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Notes 1 THE NATURE OF INQUIRY - SET
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NOTES 595 Gender and Careers. Lewes
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NOTES 597 is widespread, indeed the
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Bibliography Acker, S. (1989) Teach
Page 620 and 621:
BIBLIOGRAPHY 601 Bannister, D. and
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 603 Brenner, M., Brown
Page 624 and 625:
BIBLIOGRAPHY 605 Cohen, L. and Holl
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 607 or case-based Euro
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 609 Fendler, L. (1999)
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 611 the Powerful in Ed
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 613 Hanna, G. S. (1993
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 615 Jones, S. (1987) T
Page 636 and 637:
BIBLIOGRAPHY 617 IL: Bureau of Econ
Page 638 and 639:
BIBLIOGRAPHY 619 McNiff, J., Lomax,
Page 640 and 641:
BIBLIOGRAPHY 621 Morrison, K. R. B.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 623 Patton, M. Q. (198
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 625 Muliak and J. H. S
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 627 Smith, M. L. and G
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 629 Thorne, B. (1994)
Page 650 and 651:
BIBLIOGRAPHY 631 Whyte, W. F. (1993
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INDEX Absolutism 51, 61-2 Access 51
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INDEX 635 face validity see validit
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INDEX 637 qualitative research 19-2
xviii<br />
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS<br />
Springer,forHycner,R.H.(1985)Someguidelines<br />
for the phenomenological analysis of interview<br />
data, Human Studies, 8,279–303,withkind<br />
permission of Springer Science and Business<br />
Media.<br />
Stanford University Press, for material from<br />
Sears, R., Maccoby, E. and Levin, H. (1976)<br />
Patterns of Child Rearing (originally published<br />
1957).<br />
Taylor & Francis, forBrenner,M.andMarsh,P.<br />
(eds) (1978) The Social Contexts of Method;<br />
Burgess, R. (ed.) (1993) Educational Research<br />
for Policy and Practice, pp. 119 and 135;<br />
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