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VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY IN INTERVIEWS 153
Miller and Cannell (1997) identify some
particular problems in conducting telephone
interviews, where the reduction of the interview
situation to just auditory sensory cues can be
particularly problematical. There are sampling
problems, as not everyone will have a telephone.
Further, there are practical issues, for example,
interviewees can retain only a certain amount
of information in their short-term memory, so
bombarding the interviewee with too many
choices (the non-written form of ‘show cards’ of
possible responses) becomes unworkable. Hence
the reliability of responses is subject to the
memory capabilities of the interviewee – how
many scale points and descriptors, for example,
can an interviewee retain about a single item
Further, the absence of non-verbal cues is
significant, e.g. facial expression, gestures, posture,
the significance of silences and pauses (Robinson
1982), as interviewees may be unclear about
the meaning behind words and statements. This
problem is compounded if the interviewer is
unknown to the interviewee.
Miller and Cannell (1997) report important
research evidence to support the significance of
the non-verbal mediation of verbal dialogue. As
discussed earlier, the interview is a social situation;
in telephone interviews the absence of essential
social elements could undermine the salient
conduct of the interview, and hence its reliability
and validity. Non-verbal paralinguistic cues affect
the conduct, pacing and relationships in the
interview and the support, threat and confidence
felt by the interviewees. Telephone interviews can
easily slide into becoming mechanical and cold.
Further, the problem of loss of non-verbal cues
is compounded by the asymmetries of power that
often exist between interviewer and interviewee;
the interviewer will need to take immediate steps
to address these issues (e.g. by putting interviewees
at their ease).
On the other hand, Nias (1991) and Miller
and Cannell (1997) suggest that the very
factor that interviews are not face-to-face may
strengthen their reliability, as the interviewee
might disclose information that may not be
so readily forthcoming in a face-to-face, more
intimate situation. Hence, telephone interviews
have their strengths and weaknesses, and their use
should be governed by the criterion of fitness for
purpose. They tend to be shorter, more focused
and useful for contacting busy people (Harvey
1988; Miller, 1995).
In his critique of the interview as a research
tool, Kitwood (1977) draws attention to the conflict
it generates between the traditional concepts
of validity and reliability. Where increased reliability
of the interview is brought about by greater
control of its elements, this is achieved, he argues,
at the cost of reduced validity. He explains:
In proportion to the extent to which ‘reliability’
is enhanced by rationalization, ‘validity’ would
decrease. For the main purpose of using an interview
in research is that it is believed that in an
interpersonal encounter people are more likely to
disclose aspects of themselves, their thoughts, their
feelings and values, than they would in a less
human situation. At least for some purposes, it
is necessary to generate a kind of conversation in
which the ‘respondent’ feels at ease. In other words,
the distinctively human element in the interview is
necessary to its ‘validity’. The more the interviewer
becomes rational, calculating, and detached, the less
likely the interview is to be perceived as a friendly
transaction, and the more calculated the response
also is likely to be.
(Kitwood 1977)
Kitwood (1977) suggests that a solution to the
problem of validity and reliability might lie in the
direction of a ‘judicious compromise’.
Aclusterofproblemssurroundthepersonbeing
interviewed. Tuckman (1972), for example, has
observed that, when formulating their questions,
interviewers have to consider the extent to which
aquestionmightinfluencerespondentstoshow
themselves in a good light; or the extent to which
a question might influence respondents to be
unduly helpful by attempting to anticipate what
the interviewer wants to hear; or the extent to
which a question might be asking for information
about respondents that they are not certain or
likely to know themselves. Further, interviewing
procedures are based on the assumption that the
Chapter 6