RESEARCH METHOD COHEN ok
RESEARCH METHOD COHEN ok RESEARCH METHOD COHEN ok
A FRAMEWORK FOR PLANNING RESEARCH 85 Box 3.2 continued Model Purposes Foci Key terms Characteristics Action Everyday practices Context-specific research To plan, implement, review and evaluate an intervention designed to improve practice/solve local problem To empower participants through research involvement and ideology critique Outcomes of interventions Participant empowerment Action Improvement Reflection Monitoring Evaluation Intervention Problem-solving Empowering Planning Reviewing Participants as researchers Reflection on practice Interventionist – leading to solution of ‘real’ problems and meeting ‘real’ needs Chapter 3 To develop reflective practice Empowering for participants To promote equality democracy To link practice and research To promote collaborative research Reflective practice Social democracy and equality Decision-making Collaborative Promoting praxis and equality Stakeholder research Case study To portray, analyse and interpret the uniqueness of real individuals and situations through accessible accounts To catch the complexity and situatedness of behaviour To contribute to action and intervention To present and represent reality – to give a sense of ‘being there’ Individuals and local situations Unique instances Asinglecase Bounded phenomena and systems: individual group roles organizations community Individuality, uniqueness In-depth analysis and portrayal Interpretive and inferential analysis Subjective Descriptive Analytical Understanding specific situations Sincerity Complexity Particularity In-depth, detailed data from wide data source Participant and non-participant observation Non-interventionist Empathic Holistic treatment of phenomena What can be learned from the particular case continued
86 PLANNING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Box 3.2 continued Model Purposes Foci Key terms Characteristics Testing and assessment To measure achievement and potential To diagnose strengths and weaknesses To assess performance and abilities Academic and nonacademic, cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains – low-order to high-order Performance, achievement, potential, abilities Personality characteristics Reliability Validity Criterion-referencing Norm-referencing Domain-referencing Item-response Formative Summative Diagnostic Standardization Moderation Materials designed to provide scores that can be aggregated Enables individuals and groups to be compared In-depth diagnosis Measures performance end, considering models of research might be useful (Morrison 1993). Data analysis The prepared researcher will need to consider how the data will be analysed. This is very important, as it has a specific bearing on the form of the instrumentation. For example, a researcher will need to plan the layout and structure of a questionnaire survey very carefully in order to assist data entry for computer reading and analysis; an inappropriate layout may obstruct data entry and subsequent analysis by computer. The planning of data analysis will need to consider: What needs to be done with the data when they have been collected How will they be processed and analysed How will the results of the analysis be verified, cross-checked and validated Decisions will need to be taken with regard to the statistical tests that will be used in data analysis as this will affect the layout of research items (for example in a questionnaire), and the computer packages that are available for processing quantitative and qualitative data, e.g. SPSS and N-Vivo respectively. For statistical processing the researcher will need to ascertain the level of data being processed – nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio (discussed in Chapter 24). Part Five addresses issues of data analysis and which statistics to use: the choice is not arbitrary (Siegel 1956; Cohen and Holliday 1996; Hopkins et al. 1996). For qualitative data analysis the researchers have at their disposal a range of techniques, for example: coding and content analysis of field notes (Miles and Huberman 1984) cognitive mapping (Jones 1987; Morrison 1993) seeking patterning of responses looking for causal pathways and connections (Miles and Huberman 1984) presenting cross-site analysis (Miles and Huberman 1984) case studies personal constructs narrative accounts action research analysis analytic induction (Denzin 1970b) constant comparison and grounded theory (Glaser and Strauss 1967) discourse analysis (Stillar 1998) biographies and life histories (Atkinson 1998). The criteria for deciding which forms of data analysis to undertake are governed both by fitness for purpose and legitimacy – the form of data analysis must be appropriate for the kinds of data gathered. For example, it would be inappropriate to use certain statistics with certain kinds of numerical data (e.g. using means on nominal data), or to use causal pathways on unrelated cross-site analysis.
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A FRAMEWORK FOR PLANNING <strong>RESEARCH</strong> 85<br />
Box 3.2<br />
continued<br />
Model Purposes Foci Key terms Characteristics<br />
Action<br />
Everyday practices<br />
Context-specific<br />
research<br />
To plan, implement,<br />
review and evaluate<br />
an intervention<br />
designed to improve<br />
practice/solve local<br />
problem<br />
To empower<br />
participants through<br />
research involvement<br />
and ideology critique<br />
Outcomes of<br />
interventions<br />
Participant<br />
empowerment<br />
Action<br />
Improvement<br />
Reflection<br />
Monitoring<br />
Evaluation<br />
Intervention<br />
Problem-solving<br />
Empowering<br />
Planning<br />
Reviewing<br />
Participants as<br />
researchers<br />
Reflection on practice<br />
Interventionist – leading<br />
to solution of ‘real’<br />
problems and meeting<br />
‘real’ needs<br />
Chapter 3<br />
To develop reflective<br />
practice<br />
Empowering for<br />
participants<br />
To promote equality<br />
democracy<br />
To link practice and<br />
research<br />
To promote<br />
collaborative research<br />
Reflective practice<br />
Social democracy and<br />
equality<br />
Decision-making<br />
Collaborative<br />
Promoting praxis and<br />
equality<br />
Stakeholder research<br />
Case study<br />
To portray, analyse<br />
and interpret the<br />
uniqueness of real<br />
individuals and<br />
situations through<br />
accessible accounts<br />
To catch the<br />
complexity and<br />
situatedness of<br />
behaviour<br />
To contribute to<br />
action and<br />
intervention<br />
To present and<br />
represent reality – to<br />
give a sense of ‘being<br />
there’<br />
Individuals and local<br />
situations<br />
Unique instances<br />
Asinglecase<br />
Bounded phenomena<br />
and systems:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
individual<br />
group<br />
roles<br />
organizations<br />
community<br />
Individuality, uniqueness<br />
In-depth analysis and<br />
portrayal<br />
Interpretive and<br />
inferential analysis<br />
Subjective<br />
Descriptive<br />
Analytical<br />
Understanding specific<br />
situations<br />
Sincerity<br />
Complexity<br />
Particularity<br />
In-depth, detailed data<br />
from wide data source<br />
Participant and<br />
non-participant<br />
observation<br />
Non-interventionist<br />
Empathic<br />
Holistic treatment of<br />
phenomena<br />
What can be learned<br />
from the particular case<br />
continued
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