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Post-colonial writing and literary translation 37 13 The question of exile and post-colonial writing is taken up and reappraised by Brennan 1990, esp. pp. 60–6; note Brennan’s assessment of the relationship between exile and patronage. 14 See, for example, the history of Bible translators discussed by Bassnett 1991: 45–50; Nida 1964: 14 ff. 15 Nida 1964: ch. 10 offers examples. 16 There are, of course, symbolic reasons for his choice of pickle. 17 Examples of such problems can be found in Lefevere 1992a: 22–9. Other complex types of diffuse cultural material that both translators and writers struggle to communicate include elements of the habitus (see Bourdieu 1977), as well as pervasive cultural metaphors (see Lakoff and Johnson 1980); these issues are, however, beyond the scope of this essay. 18 In this discrepancy we see Rushdie’s priorities for communication with his readers; at the same time the ironizing of history and the unreliable historical narration in the text are probably obscured for most international readers whose ignorance hampers recognition of Rushdie’s rhetorical strategies. 19 A writer like Joyce who does not provide explanation (of customs, beliefs, social structure, politics, history, geography, language, and so forth) for his international readers assumes a political stance resistant to hegemony (cf. Sommer 1992), but also risks alienating the international readership. 20 An example suggesting this trajectory is Achebe’s careful explanation of the kolanut ceremony in Things Fall Apart (Achebe 1991: 9–11) which contrasts markedly with his later treatment of the same ceremony in A Man of the People (Achebe 1989: 91) in which no explanation is provided. One can also project an alternative trajectory in which growing international success leads an author to a somewhat cynical accommodation to the standards of the dominant-culture audience. 21 For examples, see Ngãugãi 1986: 14; Emecheta 1979: 11. Nida discusses issues in translating names (1964: 193–5, 233–4). 22 Types of translation strategies are discussed in Bassnett 1991: 23–9 and Nida 1964: ch. 8. 23 Consider, for example, the problems of interpreting Rushdie’s versions of history discussed above; see also the discussion in Tymoczko 1994 of the skewed readings of Joyce produced by critics with inadequate knowledge of his Irish cultural context. 24 For a discussion of patronage and translation, see, for example, Lefevere 1985 and 1992b. 25 As, for example, Brennan claims (1990: 63 ff.). 26 Thus, for example, translators must take into account the literacy levels of their audience (Nida 1964: 129 ff., 143–4). 27 See, for examples, the essays in Even-Zohar 1990; Hermans (ed.) 1985; and Lefevere and Jackson (eds) 1982. 28 On resistant strategies of writing and translation see Sommer 1992; Venuti (ed.) 1992 and Venuti 1995. 29 These points are taken up in Even-Zohar 1990: 45–51; Kálmán 1986; Lefevere 1979; Toury 1985: 20 ff. and 1995: 40–52; Venuti 1995. 30 See Tymoczko 1994: chs 3, 5 and 6. 31 Referring to a cataract.
38 Maria Tymoczko 32 Joyce, for example, seems to have deliberately suppressed his debt to Irish formalism for both intrapsychic and practical reasons pertaining to patronage (Tymoczko 1994: chs 1, 9). Conversely in judging a translation, a reader may be deceived into overreading a text as ‘universal’ by a translator’s assimilative strategies of rendering the text; Fitzgerald’s infamous translation of Omar Khayyam’s Rubaiyat comes to mind. References Achebe, C. (1989 [1966]) A Man of the People (New York: Doubleday). —— (1991 [1959]) Things Fall Apart (New York: Fawcett Crest). Ashcroft, B., Griffiths, G. and Tiffin, H. (1989) The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in Post-colonial Literature (London and New York: Routledge). Bassnett, S. (1991) Translation Studies rev. edn (London: Routledge). Bhabha, H.K. (1990) ‘DissemiNation: time, narrative, and the margins of the modern nation’, in Bhabha (ed.) 1990, pp. 291–322. —— (ed.) (1990) Nation and Narration (London and New York: Routledge). Bourdieu, P. (1977) Outline of a Theory of Practice trans. R. Nice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). Brennan, T. (1990) ‘The national longing for form’, in Bhabha (ed.) 1990, pp. 44–70. Cairns, D. and Richards, S. (1988) Writing Ireland: Colonialism, Nationalism and Culture (Manchester: Manchester University Press). Catford, J.C. (1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics (London: Oxford University Press). Emecheta, B. (1979) The Joys of Motherhood (New York: George Braziller). Even-Zohar, I. (1990) Polysystem Studies, Poetics Today 11 (1), special issue. Gates, H.L., Jr. (1990) ‘Afterword: Zora Neale Hurston: “A Negro Way of Saying”’, in Hurston (1990), pp. 185–95. Heaney, S. (1978) ‘The interesting case of John Alphonsus Mulrennan’, Planet: The Welsh Internationalist 41 (Jan.): 34–40. Hermans, T. (ed.) (1985) The Manipulation of Literature: Studies in Literary Translation (New York: St Martin’s Press). Holmes, J.S. (1994) Translated! Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies 2nd edn (Amsterdam: Rodopi). Hurston, Z.N. (1990 [1937]) Their Eyes Were Watching God (New York: Harper & Row). Ivir, V. (1987) ‘Procedures and strategies for the translation of culture’, Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics 13: 2.35–46. Jakobson, R. (1959) ‘On linguistic aspects of translation’, in R. A. Brower (ed.), On Translation (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press), pp. 232–9. Kálmán, G.C. (1986) ‘Some borderline cases of translation’, New Comparison 1: 117–22.
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88 André Lefevere The courageous m
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90 André Lefevere The Northern Eur
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92 André Lefevere mouth of a canno
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94 André Lefevere Haren, O.Z. van.
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96 Else Ribeiro Pires Vieira perspe
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100 Else Ribeiro Pires Vieira novel
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110 Else Ribeiro Pires Vieira Choru
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112 Else Ribeiro Pires Vieira 2 Har
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Chapter 6 A.K. Ramanujan’s theory
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116 Vinay Dharwadker His desire to
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118 Vinay Dharwadker specifically i
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120 Vinay Dharwadker the translator
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122 Vinay Dharwadker one. The Notes
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124 Vinay Dharwadker translation of
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126 Vinay Dharwadker heresari; this
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128 Vinay Dharwadker German) but, a
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130 Vinay Dharwadker Ramanujan’s
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132 Vinay Dharwadker him, he is the
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134 Vinay Dharwadker In pointing ou
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136 Vinay Dharwadker assortment is
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138 Vinay Dharwadker S A.K. Ramanuj
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140 Vinay Dharwadker and the philos
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142 Rosemary Arrojo upon the expedi
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144 Rosemary Arrojo with Clarice Li
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146 Rosemary Arrojo Kafka’s story
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148 Rosemary Arrojo published trans
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150 Rosemary Arrojo make. Cixous ha
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152 Rosemary Arrojo through a certa
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154 Rosemary Arrojo to be in the mo
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156 Rosemary Arrojo Kafka and Joyce
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158 Rosemary Arrojo inside of the f
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160 Rosemary Arrojo References Ambr
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Chapter 8 Shifting grounds of excha
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164 Vanamala Viswanatha and Sherry
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Chapter 9 Translation and literary
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184 Ganesh Devy classification of t
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186 Ganesh Devy linguistic levels o
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188 Ganesh Devy References Catford,
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190 Bibliography —— ‘Interrog
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192 Bibliography Eliot, T.S. ‘Tra
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194 Bibliography —— A Paixão s
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196 Bibliography Schwab, R. The Ori
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198 Bibliography von Humboldt, W. O
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200 Name Index Ellenwood, Ray 175 E
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