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Ramanujan’s theory and practice 121 culture of the original text, and to the text’s historical context or tradition. No matter what else the translator does, he or she has to be true to the reader of the translation. A translator works in a relatively well-defined and predictable rhetorical situation, since his or her work is addressed to a reader who makes multiple demands on the translator and the translation. This reader, both ‘real’ and ‘imagined’, expects the translator to be faithful to the source-text, at the level of metaphrase and at that of outer and inner form. This reader also expects the translator to produce a version that is at once true to the original poem and a poem in its own right. The reader further expects the poem, as translated, to be a reliable representation of the original text, its language, its poetics and tradition, its historical and cultural contexts and so on. That is, in order to fulfil the reader’s expectations, a translator has to submit to three concomitant, conflicting norms: textual fidelity, aesthetic satisfaction and pedagogic utility. While the translator can satisfy the demands of verbal faithfulness and poetic pleasure when he or she negotiates the difficulties of metaphrase, the search for inner and outer forms, and the intrusions of poetic desire and subjectivity that create a tension between representation and appropriation, he or she can fulfil the norm of pedagogic utility only by stepping beyond the immediate constraints of textual transmission, and invoking his or her allegiances to a phenomenon that stands outside the text and beyond its reader in translation. The phenomenon in question is the culture in which the original poem is embedded before translation. The translator cannot carry across that culture as a whole: in fact, the translation of an individual text or a selection of texts is already a part of the effort to translate that culture. Ramanujan’s strategy in the face of this version of the hermeneutic circle was to create an opening or aperture with the help of the reader. 12 He argued, therefore, that even as a translator carries over a particular text from one culture into another, he has to translate the reader from the second culture into the first one. This complementary process of imaginative transposition or intertextual acculturation can be initiated and possibly accomplished by framing the poetic translations with prefaces, introductions, afterwords, notes, glossaries and indices. As Ramanujan says in the Translator’s Note to Samskara, ‘A translator hopes not only to translate a text, but hopes (against all odds) to translate a non-native reader into a native
122 Vinay Dharwadker one. The Notes and Afterword [in this book] are part of that effort’ (S, viii; emphasis added). Or, as he puts it in The Interior Landscape, The translations and the afterword (which some readers may prefer to read first) are two parts of one effort. The effort is to try and make a non-Tamil reader experience in English something of what a native experiences when he reads classical Tamil poems. Anyone translating a poem into a foreign language is, at the same time, trying to translate a foreign reader into a native one. (IL, 11 ; emphasis in original) Even as he attempts to initiate the foreign reader’s movement towards the native culture of the translated text, however, Ramanujan invokes a different allegiance. This is the translator’s fidelity to the original poem’s historical situation and tradition – the framework, material and process of transmission over time and across generations, within a culture and even between different cultures – which make possible the survival of texts, ideas and practices in the first place. In giving the reader a sense of the translated poem’s native tradition (in the translation itself as also in the scholarly discourse around it), the translator, together with his or her reader, enters an immense network of intertextual relations, transactions and confluences spanning both time and space. Ramanujan gives us a metonymic glimpse of such a network when, referring to his versions of classical Tamil poems, he remarks: Dancers and composers have translated my translations further into their own arts. Over the years, the poems have appeared not only in a variety of anthologies but in wedding services. The ancient poets composed in Tamil for their Tamil corner of the world of antiquity; but, as nothing human is alien, they have reached ages unborn and ‘accents yet unknown.’ I am grateful, and astonished, to be one of the links, undreamed of by them or by me. (LW, xviii) But the traditions that become the sites of such multiple transpositions are not ready-made or already available. Echoing T.S. Eliot’s argument that a tradition has to be acquired with great labour, 13 Ramanujan acknowledges that ‘Even one’s own tradition is not one’s birthright; it
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Post-colonial Translation This outs
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Post-colonial Translation Theory an
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To André Lefevere (1945-1996), who
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viii Contents 6 A.K. Ramanujan’s
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Contributors Rosemary Arrojo is Ass
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xii Contributors Bangalore Universi
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2 Susan Bassnett and Harish Trivedi
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10 Susan Bassnett and Harish Trived
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20 Maria Tymoczko be sure) in which
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22 Maria Tymoczko in practice by th
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24 Maria Tymoczko translation, ther
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26 Maria Tymoczko In both cases the
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28 Maria Tymoczko which is frequent
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30 Maria Tymoczko meanings of names
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32 Maria Tymoczko hegemony means th
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34 Maria Tymoczko the dominant cult
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36 Maria Tymoczko Notes 1 See Ngãu
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38 Maria Tymoczko 32 Joyce, for exa
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40 Maria Tymoczko Tymoczko, M. (199
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42 G.J.V. Prasad This is a difficul
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44 G.J.V. Prasad The day rose into
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46 G.J.V. Prasad his childhood base
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48 G.J.V. Prasad sharply demarcates
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50 G.J.V. Prasad English. Almost al
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52 G.J.V. Prasad ‘So I have been
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54 G.J.V. Prasad complaint about Bh
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56 G.J.V. Prasad vibrant Indian Eng
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Chapter 3 Translating and interling
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60 Sherry Simon commercial transact
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62 Sherry Simon which he has select
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64 Sherry Simon them, making them f
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66 Sherry Simon writers. Translatio
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68 Sherry Simon Jeanne, the 12-year
Page 83 and 84: 70 Sherry Simon texts an extremely
Page 85 and 86: 72 Sherry Simon the creation of new
Page 87 and 88: 74 Sherry Simon Brossard, N. (1987)
Page 89 and 90: 76 André Lefevere An educated memb
Page 91 and 92: 78 André Lefevere to tell the read
Page 93 and 94: 80 André Lefevere incidentally, re
Page 95 and 96: 82 André Lefevere (p. 130), the do
Page 97 and 98: 84 André Lefevere father. The latt
Page 99 and 100: 86 André Lefevere None of them can
Page 101 and 102: 88 André Lefevere The courageous m
Page 103 and 104: 90 André Lefevere The Northern Eur
Page 105 and 106: 92 André Lefevere mouth of a canno
Page 107 and 108: 94 André Lefevere Haren, O.Z. van.
Page 109 and 110: 96 Else Ribeiro Pires Vieira perspe
Page 111 and 112: 98 Else Ribeiro Pires Vieira parado
Page 113 and 114: 100 Else Ribeiro Pires Vieira novel
Page 115 and 116: 102 Else Ribeiro Pires Vieira betwe
Page 117 and 118: 104 Else Ribeiro Pires Vieira playf
Page 119 and 120: 106 Else Ribeiro Pires Vieira daemo
Page 121 and 122: 108 Else Ribeiro Pires Vieira alleg
Page 123 and 124: 110 Else Ribeiro Pires Vieira Choru
Page 125 and 126: 112 Else Ribeiro Pires Vieira 2 Har
Page 127 and 128: Chapter 6 A.K. Ramanujan’s theory
Page 129 and 130: 116 Vinay Dharwadker His desire to
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Page 133: 120 Vinay Dharwadker the translator
Page 137 and 138: 124 Vinay Dharwadker translation of
Page 139 and 140: 126 Vinay Dharwadker heresari; this
Page 141 and 142: 128 Vinay Dharwadker German) but, a
Page 143 and 144: 130 Vinay Dharwadker Ramanujan’s
Page 145 and 146: 132 Vinay Dharwadker him, he is the
Page 147 and 148: 134 Vinay Dharwadker In pointing ou
Page 149 and 150: 136 Vinay Dharwadker assortment is
Page 151 and 152: 138 Vinay Dharwadker S A.K. Ramanuj
Page 153 and 154: 140 Vinay Dharwadker and the philos
Page 155 and 156: 142 Rosemary Arrojo upon the expedi
Page 157 and 158: 144 Rosemary Arrojo with Clarice Li
Page 159 and 160: 146 Rosemary Arrojo Kafka’s story
Page 161 and 162: 148 Rosemary Arrojo published trans
Page 163 and 164: 150 Rosemary Arrojo make. Cixous ha
Page 165 and 166: 152 Rosemary Arrojo through a certa
Page 167 and 168: 154 Rosemary Arrojo to be in the mo
Page 169 and 170: 156 Rosemary Arrojo Kafka and Joyce
Page 171 and 172: 158 Rosemary Arrojo inside of the f
Page 173 and 174: 160 Rosemary Arrojo References Ambr
Page 175 and 176: Chapter 8 Shifting grounds of excha
Page 177 and 178: 164 Vanamala Viswanatha and Sherry
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172 Vanamala Viswanatha and Sherry
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Chapter 9 Translation and literary
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184 Ganesh Devy classification of t
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186 Ganesh Devy linguistic levels o
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188 Ganesh Devy References Catford,
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190 Bibliography —— ‘Interrog
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192 Bibliography Eliot, T.S. ‘Tra
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194 Bibliography —— A Paixão s
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196 Bibliography Schwab, R. The Ori
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198 Bibliography von Humboldt, W. O
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200 Name Index Ellenwood, Ray 175 E
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