Between Individuality and the Norm: Changes in ... - InSEA Europe

Between Individuality and the Norm: Changes in Czech Art Education at the
Turn of the Millennium
Jan Slavík
Beginnings of the field – the historical context of analysis
Art education is one of the fields with the longest uninterrupted tradition in general
education of the European type. In the Czech Lands it begins with the General
Education System of 1774, which for school education also prescribed "drawing with
compass and ruler and also freehand" 1 . In 1869 drawing was established by law as a
mandatory subject of study at all school in what was then Austro-Hungary. Roughly
from the same time can be dated, both in this country and elsewhere in the world, the
beginning of the theory of general art education. The development of research
activities and professional discussions concentrating on the investigation of children's
art expression and on the methodical problems of teaching soon led to the profiling of
an independent theoretical field with extensive international authority 2 . Its exceptional
nature consists of the fact that from the very beginning it is promoted as a relatively
independent didactic discipline, based on the explorative understanding of the
perceptual activity of the pupil – art activity – in the context of tuition.
The aim of the subject in the 18 th and 19 th centuries was first and foremost training in
basic art skills. The effort was aimed at strengthening observation skills, memory for
colours and shapes, at training technical imagination, manual and imitative skills, the
ability to understand technical drawing (plans) and, last but not least, at the
carefulness of artistic execution 3 . The procedure from simple geometric elements to
more complicated formations with a geometrical basis seemed at that time both
logical from the didactic viewpoint and also psychologically justified. Its main artistic
starting-point was usually Renaissance depictions. 4
At the close of the 19th century there was a strong increase in the interest in
children's art in its personal, thematic and expressive dimensions (C. Ricci, F. Cizek,
A. Studnička, F. Čáda, etc.). This is a forerunner of the cultural trend of modern art in
the 20 th century, which was characterised by an inclination towards originality and
spontaneity of expression, admiration of the artistic creativity of natural nations, the
effort towards authentic expression. In particular under the influence of the ideas of J.
Ruskin and W. Morris the movement for art education strengthened, which was
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intended to create the necessary counterbalance to the low level of empathy,
excessive standardisation or drill in schools and was to become a means for the
betterment of society. 5 Through this taking into account of the pupil's autonomy and
children's needs for expression it established the foundations for the relatively
extensive popularity of art education among pupils, which continues up to the
present. 6 What is no less important from a didactic viewpoint, however, and clearly
even more binding: it introduced respect for the pupil's perception of the world and
his original style of cognitive activities. This basic moment appeared in its very
beginnings as the respecting of the so-called "mistakes" in children's drawing, 7 later it
led to the elaboration of the concept of creativity and now plays an important role in
the development of constructivist tendencies in contemporary art education (see
below).
The movement for art education found new impulses at the end of the thirties in the
psychological theory of creativity, and then developed under its influence for the
whole of the second half of the 20 th century. 8 In brief its program may be expressed
by an extract from the first two paragraphs of the Constitution of INSEA 9 (1963): (1)
Creativity in art is a basic requirement, which is common to all people and art is one
of the highest forms of creative expression and communication. (2) Art education is a
natural means of learning at all level of development of the personality, which
supports the intellectual, emotional and social development of human beings in
society. 10
Between the concept aimed at personality and creativity and the approaches oriented
towards the acquisition of art skills or aesthetic-scientific knowledge (e.g. DBAE 11 ) a
controversies took place in the history of the field and, indeed, they are still taking
place. Usually they relate to evaluation or standards of tuition and in details they deal
with many varied forms 12 , but fundamentally they always concern the same problem,
which is one of the characteristic traits of the presence of art in schools 13 . It is
significant not only for the theory of art education, but also in the general pedagogical
dimension because it is closely related to the overall concept of general school
education. In its foundation we can easily discover the essential polarities of any
creative activity, if it is to become a taught subject. Names were already allocated to
these in ancient philosophy: areté – knowledge that cannot be taught, Good, honour
or feeling for the current situation, and techné – skill or knowledge that can be taught.
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Under the angle of view of the dialectic correlation of these two concepts there
develops the following view of one decade in the development of Czech art
education, i.e. in the period from the end of the eighties – beginning of the nineties
and the beginning of the 21 st century.
On the boundaries of areté and techné – conceptual outcome of the analysis
As was emphasised at the beginning of the decade we are studying by Rýdl
(1990/91), and not by chance, with art a special cultural trait enters a school, a trait
that extends beyond its everyday working horizon. At that time, in a period of stormy
political changes, this observation contained a critical barb aimed against the
stiffness of the rules traditional in schools. Nevertheless, even without the critical
attitude, it may be said that the school of the 20 th century, as in ages past, generally
passes on to the coming generation what has proved its worth in culture and
acquired the status of a norm. In contrast to this, art at that time was based on the
principle of "showing the preparedness of the world again as unpreparedness" 14 . It
tended toward the overstepping of norms, 15 it came forward with a vision of the
future, and therefore it sometimes sorely suffered the scholastic predetermination of
targets and procedures.
From this sharp antithesis of normativity and innovation there was born a strange
paradox, only apparently evoked by the school itself. 16 The school only displays it
better. The paradox itself, however, arises in the very core of artistic activities under
the influence of the contrast of two opposing requirements made on the concept of
artistic statement. On the one hand there is the need to respect the accustomed
scheme of perception (perception norms), which provide the perceiver with an
"instrument for understanding the endless variety of the world" 17 . In this sense
contemporary art is also one of the most effective means of cultural transmission and
has far more in common with school in its classical concept than might appear at first
glance. 18
On the other hand the task is set of coming to grips with a unique personal
experience, which "could never be depicted in advance and which can never be
repeated" 19 . This individual experience itself, however, can demonstrate its unique
nature only as the opposite of an experienced and standardised perceptive scheme,
on which and against which it must be able to lean. 20 Here lies the core of that never
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to be resolved conflict between areté and techné, about which H.-G. Gadamer wrote
characteristically: "That areté is not teachable in the way that téchnai are teachable, it
presents in a certain sense the central problem of all education ..." 21
From the educational viewpoint techné is everything that can be taught to the extent
that it can be used skilfully, correctly and purposely with regard to the stipulated goal.
Generally speaking, techné is a certain scheme, which can be implemented
repeatedly in a certain type of situation. This is just why it can be taught and why it is
worth learning. This also applies to art subjects. In these, too, the teacher leads the
pupil
a) to the selection of certain instruments (with what I will do it),
b) to the selection of the manner of their use (how I will do it),
c) to the selection and organisation of the procedural qualities of the appropriate
artistic activity (how I will start, how I will proceed, how I will finish),
d) to the anticipation of the resultant image (form, appearance, shape) to which
this activity should lead (what my result should look like). 22
For full-value recognition through artistic experience, however, techné alone is not
enough as it would only repeat known and tried procedures, irrespective of the
momentary situation. This is a process, which is strongly dependent on current
situation contexts and according to Gadamer it may be realised only "by testing
oneself and testing the knowledge that we think we have… Only in dialogue – with
oneself or with others – is it possible to overstep the mere opinion of ruling
conventions…" At the same time, … knowledge of the Good accompanies practical
life constantly. Whenever we give one thing priority over something else we think that
we can justify this. Knowledge of the Good is then always already in the game." 23
Through these somewhat poetic words Gadamer points to two basic facts. Firstly,
that every perception of qualities or deciding on preferences is based on some kind
of pre-understanding. Therefore the very choice of a certain standpoint or approach,
in itself apparently neutral, is not "innocent" – it is in fact conditional on what we
inadvertently consider a matter of course and therefore also correct, Good. 24 This
applies equally to the pupil and to the teacher. Secondly: the only way to clearly
unveil and deal with this fatefully necessary pre-understanding, usually deeply hidden
in perception and stylisation stereotypes, is a dialogue aimed at recognition. 25
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Let us not overlook the fact that pre-understanding is a matter of hidden stereotype,
i.e. some kind of techné, which has merged with the personal perception to such an
extent that it has vanished from the actual visual field. The hidden techné
nevertheless does somehow come to light in the form of realised activity or
judgement. In it there must be implemented, however, the essentially necessary
measure of regard for the current situation context. This means the adaptation of the
accustomed stereotype – techné – to the current conditions of the situation with
which the person must come to terms right now. Such adaptation or flexibility
appears from case to case as a suitable measure of innovation, which means –
areté. 26 With the demand for innovation of accustomed stereotypes the circle is
closed: areté and techné have entered a joint cycle, which recalls the legendary
snake Uroboro swallowing his own tail.
So that innovation is not just autotelic chasing of originality and does not overstep the
balanced measure it should be understood as an excuse for dialogue in which it is
possible to exceed the "opinion of ruling conventions". 27 In such a dialogue, however,
there may be even more at stake from the viewpoint of education and training: within
this it is possible to come to recognise the very way in which these conventions come
into being and how they act among people. 28 Training thus acquires the chance to
draw on the individual variedness of pupils' experience or attitudes and include them
directly in the processes of teaching and learning. 29 This social-cognitive approach
comes closest in methodology to pedagogical constructivism and in the last decade it
has clearly been promoted in the teaching of art subjects both in this country and
elsewhere in the world (see below). 30
In the light of the polarity of areté and techné art in education appears as a field of
education open to reflective communication not only about art itself, but also, through
it, about the situation, conditions and transformations of perception schemes and lifestyle.
31 Art education and other artistic fields are therefore, in present schools, not
only a means of enculturation and socialisation at the level of techné. To a no lesser
extent, at the level of areté, they are a unique discursive forum, which is able to react
naturally and sensibly to current social-cultural events and is able to bring to schools,
in the name of recognition, interpretation, reflection and dialogue. 32 It must be added
that in the general practice of our education system cognitive reflexes, real dialogue 33
and hermeneutically conceived interpretation are just as rare as the proverbial
saffron.
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On these introductory assumptions based on the dialectical relationship of areté and
techné in the field of art in schools is founded the following analysis.
Method and extent of analysis
The analysis is based on three circles of factographic data (see the following
paragraph), which are selectively incorporated in the texts given in the bibliography
(these references are given in the article in square brackets).
The collection of data was aimed at investigation of the state and changes in the
concept of the didactic recognition of transmission, transformation and reconstruction
with support in the following sources:
(1) Direct records of communication from teaching in art education in the years
1989 – 1993 and 1999 – 2002, acquired by transcription of tape recordings of lesson
and the analysis of their content, reflective balances written by the teachers or the
author himself and his doctorate candidates (usually presented and processed in
diploma work or published research), notes from the inspections of the author in art
education classes (the author's archives), findings from the extensive national
investigation carried out by the Czech School Inspection in the school
year 1995/1996.
(2) Analysis of the texts, both theoretical and those of the teachers – the
practitioners, in the professional periodicals Estetická výchova (Aesthetic Education,
1989 – 1990), Estetická výchova – řada pro výtvarnou výchovu (Aesthetic Education
– Rules for Art Education, 1991 – 1992), Výtvarná výchova (Art Education,
1992/1993 – 2004) and in the professional publications devoted to the practice of art
training in the Czech Republic.
(3) Analysis of the conceptual and methodical material of the Ministry of
Education, Youth and Sport and the Pedagogical Research Institute from the years
1989 – 2004.
In the investigation were included nursery schools, elementary schools and general
secondary schools (grammar schools of all types). Specialised secondary schools
were not taken into account.
We are comparing the similarities, the differences and we are considering the
development of important parameters in the scope of the years 1989 to 2004, but
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also, of course, with some essential overlapping into the more distant past. The
comparison is organised in several qualitative groups binding for the development of
the concepts and real states of teaching in art education. These groups correspond
roughly to the individual chapters of this text.
It must be recalled that in studying the development in such a wide area as is a
single subject of study throughout the Republic from nursery school through
elementary school to secondary school it is not possible to avoid extreme
generalisation. In the practice of art education there exists a large quantity of different
concepts of tuition in connection with the personality of the teacher and his
professional preparation.
Art education is one of the subjects with the largest proportion of unqualified teachers
(see below). In their pedagogical activity they often unwittingly and naively repeat the
journey made by this subject from its very beginnings. This is why we can still find in
practice today approaches that correspond to the methods of drawing in the 19 th
century (e.g. the so-called copying method) and they are not suitably included
didactically in the contemporary contexts of the development of the field.
On the other hand are the teachers who help to determine the latest development
trends, who participate with their pupils' work in collective exhibitions, from time to
time publish reports on their activity in the professional press, etc. Although there are
not many of them, in the whole Republic only between dozens and a few hundred, 34
these teachers create the image of practice of the given subject for the professional
public. The analysis devotes greatest attention to precisely this progressive line. At
the same time, however, it also draws attention occasionally to its more or less
opposite side, which can be investigated in the observation records of poor quality art
classes. These conceal plenty of important findings, which might have escaped
attention if there was exclusive concentration on the progressive sides of
development.
Long-term Planning of Education and its Logical Structure
In 1990 the state of art education at the time was briefly characterised by I. Zhoř in
an article in which he summarises the findings of the triennial Environment of Life –
Jihlava. This is a collective exhibition of pedagogically guided children's art, which
was established as early at 1971 and provides, at regular three-year intervals,
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together with several similar national events, an overall view of the progressive
trends of art education in the Czech Republic. I. Zhoř writes [111, p. 70]: "What
actually was the newness of the Jihlava exhibition Wherein lay its contribution to
further work in our field … The sets of work sent to the competition confirmed that
today practically everywhere work takes the form of long-term projects."
In the same period V. Roeselová makes Zhoř's report concrete in an article [60].
Roeselová designates as the core of the creative task the creative problem
understood in the modern extension of the educative concept of Bauhaus as the
unfulfilled possibility of the creative construction of the perception and stylisation
scheme of the artistic concept. 35 For instance the perception-stylisation scheme of
the colour accent – this is the term for one of many artistic concepts linked with
colour and with composition – is already contained in the normal visual experiences
which every pupil acquires in some personal form in so-called pre-art experiences: 36
a rose-hip in the snow, a glow-worm in the bushes, jewellery on a dress, etc. This
scheme occurs in art in the enormous range of images anchored by culture. Pupils
should become aware of the experiences that correspond to the given scheme, find
new examples for it, search for it in their surroundings and finally process it artistically
as a personal perception-stylisation construction at an increasingly high level, i.e.
with an increased share of originality and with more sensitive respect for the contexts
of art culture. 37
In the article quoted Roeselová emphasises the need for the systematic development
of the dispositions of pupils for resolved the creative problems that are unified in a
certain didactically logical system. And she confirms the tendency mentioned by Zhoř
of art education at the turn of the eighties and nineties towards long-term methodical
series or projects. In the longer time perspective a certain group of creative problems
can be better elaborated, and especially more clearly presented so that the pupils not
only master them but are also more sharply aware of them. In this sense the
teacher's care for the systematic teaching of the pupils can be seen in the emphasis
on methodical series.
An example of the didactic-logical structuring of a long-term project is the following
exposition of V. Roeselová from the quoted article (p. 7):
"With the older pupils we started out from one type of element so that the rich variety
of shape of the collected material was not unnecessarily diffused. We began with the
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asic preparation for the sensible linking of forms in space. The pupils first of all
verified the new creative procedures in practice – the balancing of matter,
investigation of the effects of individual variants, implementation of creative
discipline, etc. From ten same elements they compiled three objects created from
two, three and five elements. The manner of solution was based on the selected type
of element."
From the example it can be seen that the structure of the art project respects the
possibilities of the pupil, but is based on the logic contained in the creative problem.
This relates to a certain conceptual creative field accessible to the pupil's solution,
but at the same time elaborated in depth by graphic art. For instance, the
construction of the painter's (sculptor's, designer's, …) creative composition is a
concept, which acquires its standardised forms in the themes of classicism,
romanticism, impressionism, in cubism at the beginning of modern art, etc. The
didactic questions that must be named and resolved in this context come under the
problems of the logical structure of aesthetic opinions and are based on an extensive
theoretical background. 38 With regard to this it is possible to consider both the
intellectual side of the project and to organise a reflective dialogue in the course of
tuition.
The given approach, which in contrast to the preceding period strengthened the skill
side of the subject in the sense of teachable knowledge - techné, was adhered to
throughout the period monitored. The theme of projects and so-called art series
occurs regularly both in the common practice of teaching and in professional texts up
to the present. In 2001, for instance, teacher M. Brázdová [6] wrote:
"One of the ways that an art teacher can take is project teaching or the creation of
smaller or larger creative series linked by one theme. Like many of my colleagues I
too am suited by this way of working – its advantages here and now need not be
recalled."
A descriptive-analytical summary of series and projects and their various concepts in
Czech art education is the set of monographs by V. Roeselová (roughly 250 pages
of A4) from the last third of the nineties of the 20th century and the beginning of the
21 st century, illustrated with a wealth of pictorial material from practice in schools [61]
[62] [63] [64] [65].
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Problems with concepts of creative tasks and the influence of gallery
animations
The construction of the teaching task described by Roeselová, based on a semanticsyntactic
and logical structure of creative concepts 39 is more or less generally
acknowledged in contemporary Czech art education and used as a general didactic
model. However, the vast majority of teachers, especially the uncertificated ones,
who account for around 40% in Czech art education [101], use it only intuitively as a
natural connection of the theme and technique of creativity, without deeper didactic
analysis. The more creative teachers usually start off here from momentary artistic
ideas, the less creative most frequently select at random various good ideas from
their colleagues. A good idea – a theme – for a teaching task is usually one of the
most precious article on the "teaching market" in art education. Its value tells us
indirectly how important the didactic innovation of tasks is in this artistic subject, i.e.
the influx of new ways of pedagogical skill in seeing.
The spontaneous and intuitive approach of the great part of teachers to the creation
of a teaching task has changed only slightly in the course of the decade studied. In
art education this has a number of reasons, including the simple fact that in practice it
is rare for anyone to ask art teachers to communicate professionally about their work.
Other factors, however, also play a part – especially the folkloric overestimation on
the part of teachers of creative spontaneity and the unteachable nature of what
seems to be decisive for artistic expression today, i.e. the pole of areté. This attitude
has deep-rooted sources. They lie not only in the specific traits of the creative
talented personalities, which good artists in schools usually are, but also in the
spontaneous-creative concept of art education that prevailed in this country roughly
between 1965 and 1990. Although it did build up a barrier against the restrictive
ideological influences of the time, at the same time it strengthened the opposition of
teachers to a more complicated theoretical view of artistic expression. 40
The situation described is not suitable. The complexity of the rules of artistic creation
(techné), often difficult to describe, and the necessity of the feeling for the extent of
their overstepping (areté) places high demands on the theoretical knowledge of the
teachers in the art sphere if the teaching is to respect creative qualities, and at the
same time teach the pupils something concrete or explain to them something more
and profounder than just a few basic instructions. It is not therefore encouraging that
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art teachers are little able to substantiate their professional decisions. Hazuková
ascertained this on the basis of research into the attitudes of teachers to the teaching
of art in the years 1999 – 2003, for the time being only in primary schools [33] [34]
[35]. The long experience of the author of this article and his university colleagues
with regard to inspecting and professional seminars with teachers tells us, however,
that the situation is similar in the higher classes of elementary schools and often also
in secondary schools. Even the above-mentioned use of methodological rules for the
elaboration of a certain range of art problems is not so frequent in common practice
as might appear from following the progressive line of our subject.
Roughly since 1997 the professional qualities of teaching tasks began to be
influenced positively by so-called gallery animations, i.e. art-training activities taking
place during the meeting of pupils with original art works in galleries or museums.
The contribution of gallery animations rose rapidly in the course of the nineties of last
century on the basis of pressure on the improved contact of museums and art
galleries with the public, which was connected with the influx of the experience of socalled
museum teaching from abroad. 41 As we shall further substantiate, in the
passage of time this led to a surprisingly fruitful combination of professionals of the
teaching and art theory sphere with practical teachers [5] [25] [22].
Decisive for the development of the cooperation of schools with galleries and
museums at the beginning was the support of the extensive project of the Open
Doors of Museums under the auspices of the Open Society Fund, in which top
professionals participated both from museums and from the pedagogical faculties [5]
[96]. In the course of further development some galleries (the Industrial Art Museum
in Prague, the Rudolfinum Gallery in Prague, the National Gallery in Prague,
collections of modern art, the West Bohemian Gallery in Plzeň, etc.) gradually took
on the role of professional centres, which associate expert teams, deal in cooperation
with the chairs of art teaching of pedagogical faculties with grant tasks aimed at
intensifying the education of teachers and prepare teachers for the elaboration of
school education programs. The possibility appears that in the professional
communication of Czech art education galleries will play a similar integration role to
that played by hospitals for psychotherapy. Including the analogy of the inevitable
incongruities in the procedures of "binding the unrestrained together". 42
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Stable arrangement of the teaching task
The so-called creative or productive art activities account in this country for the vast
majority (around 70 to 90%, depending on the age of the pupils and the teaching
concept of the teacher 43 ) of all the task situations, which the pupils or students have
to deal with in art education. This situation does not change too much with the age of
the pupils, although the share of productive activities in kindergartens and
elementary schools is usually higher than at general secondary schools [88] [89] [72].
The emphasis on as original as possible creative production inclines the teaching of
art towards the sphere of areté and with regard to the unrepeatable uniqueness of
creativity it introduces the exceptional nature of the artistic act to schools.
Nevertheless, even the apparently mysterious and unrepeatable creative process
has its techné. The typical arrangement of a creative teaching task from the
beginning of the nineties can be seen from the text of H. Rantiminputrová [58], p.
103]:
"The mesh of netting and pieces of gauze became living tissue for us, an animal
whose movement and expressions we tried to record in phases: the sea creature
curls up in a ball, suddenly opens out, moves, hunts… Then the pupils prepared
netting, which they had saturated in oil paint prepared on glass with the aid of a
rolling pin. One of a pair shaped the netting on jotting paper and after agreeing with
his partner transferred the shape to clean paper."
The task is based on the fantasy enjambment of the pupils' visual experience, to
which both motivation and theme relate. It then passes on to the exemplification of
the creative problem and its structuring in sub-problems in which the task opens up
to the pupils for resolution. 44 The conceptualisation of the task on the part of the
pupils takes the form of multiple interpretation, both conceptual and expressive. 45
The pupil's interpretation of creative tasks takes place in three main phases: initial
understanding, active creative investigation, subsequent understanding. 46 This
scheme of the task is considerably stable both with regard to the type of task and
also in the historical development of the field; in details, however, it naturally changes
from case to case depending on the concrete conditions.
The given basic structure of an art task, which continues even when there are
changes in its concrete items, can be seen clearly from the text by K. Cikánová
dealing with drawing [9]:
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"In class 7 we dealt with the movement of water. By turning on the tap and then also
by the movement of the water in the washbasin it is possible to ascertain in what
"order" the water moves… In what linear rhythm it gushes from the rock, flows round
a boulder… The children noted on paper the basic line of the stream of water that
they had observed… Then they cut out their patterns according to this line. Through
gradually changing these around and changing the rhythm they recorded what
happens to the stream…"
In the examples quoted is illustrated the logic of the didactical procedure from
concrete pre-creative and creative experiences, based on concentrated visual (or
haptic) observation of physical reality, up to the enjambments of fantasy expressed in
the artistic stylisation and semantisation of the experience thus acquired. The teacher
here uses various didactic instruments to cultivate the pupil's creativity, i.e. to imprint
a certain order on it, which leads the pupils to a more valuable perception and
stylisation scheme. 47 The teacher derives its forms on the one hand on the basis of
his personal creative processing of pre-creative experiences, which are in principle
similar to the experiences of the pupils, and on the other hand on the basis of the use
of various perception and stylisation schemes derived from graphic art.
The basic arrangement of the task in Czech art education has in fact not changed in
the whole of the period monitored. For the sake of comparison we include an excerpt
from the text of M. Pastorová [54] dating from the year 2000:
"... We try to concentrate on the shape of the egg, on its surface, we try to pass it
carefully from hand to hand, to place it on the table, on our lap, and then pick it up
again. ... Again we observe as carefully as possible the shape, the reflections of
colours, shine, lights, shadows. With a pencil we try to capture the unique "ovoid"
shape. ..."
Enriching the genres of teaching tasks
All the above-mentioned examples of the arrangement of a teaching task referred to
a didactic model, which is most common in contemporary art teaching and
represents a kind of basic standard. Research based on the analysis of the reflective
views of teachers from the middle of the nineties showed, however, that the teaching
task characterised with regard to the dynamics of the relationship between teacher
and pupils can have several model variants or interactive genres of the creative task.
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The authors have called their basic types, discovered through research and
substantiated by theoretical analysis 48 , Workshop, Theatre and Difficult Life [84] [74].
The workshop genre inclines towards techné and best corresponds to the examples
given so far. Typical for this is order and the systematic procedure of the teacher.
The teacher is the Master who before the eyes of the pupils dissects the "corpse" of
cultural reality to acquaint them with its anatomy. According to Bresler 49 the
workshop genre corresponds to the industrial context of upbringing, i.e. the concept
that in the 19 th century utilised the heritage of the renaissance and prepared the
onset of modern art at the beginning of the 20 th century. In its nature this genre
belongs to the group of transmissive or academic concepts of teaching 50 .
In the workshop genre the task of the teacher is divided into a number of subproblems
and thus prepared for teaching at the level of techné. In the course of the
solution the pupils learn – through conscious perception and their own creativity –
visual differentiation and creative or conceptual classification of visual phenomena
into the categories of perceptive or creative style [80] [90]. The workshop creates a
situation framework for the systematic development of visual literacy [21] and
understanding of the art [27]. Here art education evidently comes closest to the
teaching subjects from the non-art area of general education.
The theatre genre, on the other hand, emphasises areté and is oriented towards
specific methods of the construction of a fictive world through aesthetic or artistic
experience [80] [90]. It best corresponds to the interpretive or personal concepts of
teaching. 51 In the historical view according to Bresler 52 it is allocated to the
ideological concept, which has its foundations with J. J. Rousseau and in art teaching
is connected, for example, with the names of F. Cizek, F. Froebel, etc.
The situation framework of the Theatre introduces a training factor with strong
aesthetic effect to the educational environment – narrativity. Narrativity – the linking
of events into narrative – establishes the correlation horizon and thereby qualifies the
possibility of the construction of the hierarchy of the exhibited entire aesthetic
object. 53 This means that the Theatre in art education ensures for its actors the
conditions for fully valuable aesthetic experiences. On the basis of these it leads
pupils to deeper understanding of art as a special dimension of human knowledge
with a considerable share of emotional and sensual experience 54 [2] [74] [80].
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The theatre genre, as opposed to the workshop, takes more sensitive account of the
tension between individual or group view of the same fact. It is as if it called for the
breaking of the certainty and graphicality typical of the workshop and for their
replacement by the action field of freely accepted rules of the game in which various
aspects of reality are represented unexpectedly, but from the viewpoint of the
individual experiencing it all the more effectively.
In the theatre genre the teacher is the scriptwriter, the producer and often also the
actor, who experiences the various alternatives of fictitious existence together with
his pupils. His position is different compared with the workshop. He disperses himself
into the multiple figures of the author of the play, producer, dramaturge, lighting
man… And he realises himself in the actors (pupils), or rather in the figures of the
actors, because on the stage he is not actually a person – an actor, but an acting
figure, a symbol expressing a dramatic person. This is shown by the following
extract from a teacher's overview [74], p. 93]:
"Good day. – No, I won't tell you what we're going to do. A last deep breath and the
performance begins. ... We have seated ourselves in a circle… after a short period
for loosening up, when they all began to play, I spoke up as the onboard computer. I
felt a little tension in the circle. Nobody dared to open his eyes. And now you have it,
listen: You have been selected as a sample of humanity from the planet Earth…
Slowly, in a dry computer voice, I explain the task. I do not react to the unexpected
questions from the pupils. After all, I am a computer. But then … I begin to be the
teacher."
The theatre genre makes the unit of the lesson into a special kind of work of art and
in profession reflection it is demanding on the theoretical grasp, for which it is
necessary to utilise specific procedures of art theory analysis, e.g. the semantics of
fictional worlds 55 [74] [80] [90].
The Difficult Life genre points to areté in the crude form. Instead of school culture,
here there is implemented the authenticity of real interpersonal situations. The genre
therefore corresponds to the authentic or social concepts of teaching. 56 In the difficult
life situations the role of the teacher apparently vanishes and his personality remains
as though not limited in advance by any pre-set rules. In spite of this, as emerges
convincingly from the investigative probe of L. Hajdušková (2004), even in this
15

interactive genre the professional specificity given by the artistic nature of the subject
and the peculiarities of the teacher's role in this do not vanish [32].
We can envisage the transformation into the difficult life genre as stepping out of the
Workshop, where it is not a matter of life, but of its mechanical model, and out of the
Theatre, which does not concern life, but its symbolic depiction. The difficult life
genre disrupts aesthetic and professional distance; it is like a performance in which
Othello really might kill Desdemona. Between the pupil and the teacher there is a
meeting of two authentic personalities trying to promote themselves in a single living
space.
In the reflective reports there can often be seen the urgency of the difficult life genre,
which has its pleasant occurrences and also unpleasant crises [90, p. 264 n.]. The
commented casuistry given below of one of the more pleasant expression of Difficult
Life indicates that the transitions between the individual genres in teaching practice
are complicated [74, p. 96]:
"I am watching Adela making a green blotch by one of the dragon's knees. I praise
her out loud, saying "that lump on the knee will be really nice". Adela looks at me
reproachfully: "But, sir, that's not a lump, I'm just mixing the paint." I try to explain that
a knee "armed" with a projection seems "militant" and "dragonish" to me. Again I was
unsuccessful. Lucy thought for a while and then told me seriously: "That would not be
nice, sir…" At that moment I begin to feel like a naïve young husband who has gone
into the kitchen at the moment when his wife and mother-in-law are preparing
Christmas dinner. … I give up and throw out my arms in resignation. "Well, just as
you think. In any case I shouldn't interfere with it…" Dragons' legs are just something
I know nothing about at present…"
The conflict described in the concept of creative values and the unexpected return to
Difficult Life occurred in the Theatre genre, in which the teacher interfered somewhat
carelessly in the role of Foreman from the Workshop. The girls were creating their
picture in the role of heroines who were to make the image of the Dragon concrete
through their creativity and thus release the enchanted Kingdom. In the workshop
genre, of course, such a "revolt of apprentices" would be difficult to permit. In the
constructivist genre of reflection it would be possible to utilise the conflict
pedagogically. The teacher, however, did not consider reflection useful at the given
moment. He respected the initial genre – Theatre, in which remaining in the story
16

within the theatre and the individuality of authentic expression in the role is set higher
than the rule introduced by the teacher from a position outside the play, from the
auditorium. Regard for the theatre genre – viz. the apparently resigned comment
about the "naïve young husband" – at the same time protected the teacher from the
feeling of being a "disrespected Foreman" whose pupils oppose him.
The varied nature of the genres is a pointer to the fact that although all the tasks in
art teaching have a similar structure given by their foundation in creative activity, their
setting in a motivative and explanatory context has more alternatives, which permit
the teacher and the pupils to experience and elaborate various aspects of their art
subject. To it there naturally belong not only (1) creative craft skills or professional
knowledge, but also (2) the art of constructing or reconstructing the worlds of fiction,
linked with the authenticity and intensity of aesthetic experience. And no less also the
ability (3) to perceive or resolve life situations with regard to their wider cultural
connections intermediated by art. 57
In the course of the period monitored we did not record in school practice any striking
change in the proportions of the three given genres, nor in the treatment of them. At
the turn of the millennium, however, there began to appear to a striking extent a
further – fourth – genre already forecast by theory: the genre of reflection 58 . It is
connected with the entry of heuristic and reflective approaches into the teaching of
art and in method it corresponds to pedagogical constructivism. Its expected
influence on the overall concept of art education in this country appears to be so
fundamental in prospect that we cannot in this connection speak of a change in
paradigm 59 (see below). Published reports on the reflective genre in practice have
been appearing since 2001 [41], but some teachers were already working with it
systematically during the nineties. 60 Within its framework the pupils acquire a far
greater share in public communication than is usual in the other genres, and they
penetrate new cognitive strategies in the field of art.
The influence of psychodynamic concepts
A relatively new element of the arrangement of school tasks in Czech art education
may be considered to be the so-called active imagination, originally Jung's
psychotherapeutic technique 61 , which arrived in art education on the basis of the
experience of art teachers with art therapy or drama teaching. In practice it has been
17

possible to meet active imagination even at the very beginning of the nineties, but
descriptions of this in professional literature appear only at the very end of the 20 th
century and beginning of the 21 st .[76] [90] An example of the assignment of task
conceived in this way might be the statement of a reflective balance from 1996 [90, p.
184]:
"In your mind you will walk through the landscape of your ideas. I will accompany you
on this journey and will assign you its main directions and stages, but what you get
out of it will depend on you alone. After the end of the journey try to capture your
impressions using any art techniques. … And now just concentrate..., close your
eyes... You are walking through the landscape of your ideas… Be aware of your
impressions… Look around you carefully. Realise the colours, shapes and light of
your landscape, the feeling that it gives you. Look...“
The use of active imagination in art teaching is an expression of the more general
trend of the part of Czech art education characterised by the inclination towards art
therapy or in depth and dynamic psychology (M. Pohnerová, J. David, etc.) [57] [13].
Its representatives in the last third of the 20 th century cited mainly the work of A.
Ehrenzweig, as is pointed out in 1990 by J. Uždil, for instance [100].
The art therapy trend in its initial stages accelerated the processes of the introduction
of reflective approaches, for instance in the new art education concept of
artephiletics, of J. Slavík, P. Wawrosz, etc. Theoretically and methodologically it was
elaborated in several dozen articles published since 1994 [73] [76] [78] [79] [81] [93]
and in four monographs [74] [80] [90] [91]. Art philetics, however, deviated in the
course of its further development away from the psychodynamic concept towards the
heuristic and constructivist approach 62 .
The typical culmination of the psychodynamic trend in the state education programs
is the so-called Alternative C of the curriculum of art education for classes 1 – 9 in
the concept of the Elementary School from 2001 of author E. Linaj. In its effort at the
educational evaluation of the pupils' authenticity it continues the pedocentric
tendencies in art education of the first third of the 20 th century (see below).
Characteristic in this respect is the very first sentence of the C alternative in this
curriculum [51, p. 19]:
"The starting-point of the interpreted draft curriculum is the in-depth psychologically
substantiated assumption of the existence of inward themes that are common both to
18

the artistic expression of children and the creativity of artists and can be used for art
teaching in the sense of an internally (primarily) motivated development program,
which is offered to the child himself."
It should be pointed out here that between the psychodynamic approach and the
concept based on semiotics and on traditional structuralism relatively sharp polemics
are taking place in Czech art teaching [103] [46] [81] [106], which are related in their
way to the philosophical discussion of P. Ricouer and L. Hjelmslev, or with the entire
school of linguistic structuralism in the sixties of the 20 th century. In principle this is a
conflict between the genetic (creative, ontic) and the structural (combinatorial,
ontological) standpoints. 63 This means a conflict principally established by the polarity
of areté a techné, which, due to its dialectic nature, does not permit of any absolute
solution. As we describe further down, the representatives of the conflicting sides
separate into opposing camps not only according to general measures of theoretical
concept, but also depending on their concrete attitude toward the electronic media.
The structuralism-based debaters usually incline towards the new media and
welcome their implementation in art teaching; their opponents, on the other hand, are
not sparing of criticism in this direction.
A veiled response: art in the shadow of psychology
As is shown in the empirical several-year research of R. Podlipský (1998 – 2003), so
far not published in its entirety, in each teaching task in art education investigated at
elementary or secondary schools clear links with creative art can been found in their
analysis. 64 This is the case even in the far from rare cases where the teachers
themselves are not fully aware of these connections.
The lesson from creative art did in fact appear in the practice of art teaching already
at the beginning of the period we are studying, as is further shown by Zhoř's
comment from the Jihlava Triennale, but in the texts of art teachers from the
beginning of the nineties it is hardly ever mentioned. It is as though it were a kind of
blind spot in the professional field of vision. Hypothetically it may be considered that
this "blindness" was the heritage especially of two mutually linked circumstances: (1)
the general profaning of so-called talks about art (in the spirit of the classical
Lichtwark didactic model) under the influence of the already recalled folkloric concept
of modernism on the part of teachers, according to which artistic expression on
19

principle resists interpretation, (2) the influence of the spontaneously creative, mainly
psychologically perceived concept of art education, in which the attention paid to the
general cultural background of the children's creative activities was weakened on the
basis of the emphasis on the original statement of the child 65 , uninfluenced by
anything.
The historical reasons for unacknowledged inspiration by art in art education clearly
have their roots back in the pedocentric tendencies of J. V. Klíma, F. Čáda, V. Švarc
and others in the first third of the 20 th century. The more or less uncritical admiration
for "children's art" at that time (Cizek, Ricci, Sully, Key, Hartlaub, Wulff, etc.) and the
overestimation of "self-activity, naturalness" were in harmony with the contemporary
apotheoses of "primitive art" (the later Dubuffet concept of so-called art-brut) or
"natural nations" as sources of permanent renewal of artistic creativity in the ranks of
artists (in this country, for instance, J. Čapek) [79]. At the same time there was
conceptual weakening of the attention to the influences of professional art on
children's creative work.
Even though teachers at the beginning of the nineties do not reflect the influence of
art on their didactic activities, the influence of modernist artistic creativity in particular
is considerable at this time. Apart from the research of R. Podlipský this is also
shown by M. Fulková in her researches into the teachers' professional discourse
(1997 – 2001), in which the theme of art is strongly represented [19]. Fulková later
explains the principle of the constant, albeit implicit presence of graphic art in the
professional thinking of teachers of art on the basis of the theoretical concepts of
visual literacy and the empirical onlooker [21] [22] [23] [24]. To put it simply, people
who deal with visuality and artistic expression in connection with teaching simply
cannot neglect the key source of cultural transmission and their own "research
laboratory" – graphic art. In the above-mentioned article from 1990 this was
preliminarily stated in the same spirit by I. Zhoř, who supplemented his
characteristics of practice by one further fundamental, not hitherto quoted point [111,
p. 71]: "… A further important innovation was the numerous reactions to
contemporary world art. There were many documents proving the closeness of
schools to contemporary art, but it showed clearly in particular in the form of action
activities" (note: Zhoř means so-called action art: performances, events, happenings,
etc.)
20

We find this element of synthesis with art emphasised by Zhoř in the article by the
same author again in the following year [112], but in the actual reports of teachers
from practice it appears only later, roughly in the middle of the nineties. Not, of
course, as reflective analysis by teachers of the hidden influences of art on the
creative task, but as the intentional use of creative art activities to bring art closer to
pupils. K. Cikánová, author of the first unequivocally conceived text of this type from
the pen of a practising teacher (1993), gave it the appropriate subtitle: seals on the
memory [11]. We characterise its content with a brief quotation (p. 31):
"And so it came about that in our school the class 1 children tried to complete with
colours the black-and-white print of Dubuffet's Solaris. … The surprise of how Mr.
Dubuffet dealt with colour was hidden on a large covered poster. The most daring of
them then tried the free drawing of a brother for Solaris."
The approach described, in which the technical reproduction of a work of art or part
of it becomes a direct stimulus for completion and paraphrasing, did also appear in
the seventies and eighties of the 20 th century, i.e. in the period of the culminating
spontaneous-creative concept, but at that time it was not usually linked with the
considered utilising of the pupils' creative activity for the systematic recognition of art.
In this respect the first publications of I. Zhoř and K. Cikánová are pioneering works
in this country. K. Cikánová systematically elaborated her "seals on the memory" in a
series of methodological monographs from the years 1992, 1993, 1995 and 1996
[10], which were translated into several world languages and are still very popular
among teachers both at home and abroad as a source of didactic inspiration.
A new methodical breakthrough was connected with these actions: art education
textbooks for classes 8 and 9 of elementary schools and for grammar schools
starting from junior secondary standard by M. Fulková and a collective of authors
from 1997, built systematically on the didactic elaboration of the links between pupils'
art work and their analogies in the art sphere [18]. For the higher level of general
education this didactic strategy appeared in this country even earlier, right at the
beginning of the nineties, in the so-called alternative curriculum of art education for
grammar schools.
Methodological turn towards art
21

In 1991, for the first time in the Czech history of art education, two art education
curricula were approved for four-year grammar schools; apart from those that were
originally proposed just before 1990 (known in slang as "traditional") by M. Peřinová
from the Pedagogical Research Institute, an alternative curriculum was also issued
by two authors working in the Prague Pedagogical Faculty, J. Bláha and J. Slavík
[98].
It is characteristic of the alternative curriculum that a teacher of art participated in its
creation with an art historian. Their most important attributes were: (1) the use of the
creative expression of students for the deeper recognition of art and (2) the emphasis
placed on reflection of the students' own creative work combined with the verbal
interpretation of creative experiences, realised in the form of a dialogue within the
teaching group. Expressed by quotations from the curriculum and from the program
article of the authors of the alternative curriculum: "In this group there is significantly
implemented the closest possible combination of productive and receptive creative
activities with verbal communication among the students and between the students
and the teachers." [97, p. 12] "Self-knowledge … through the dialogue approach to
creative art should be one of the great tasks of art teaching." [83, p. 2]
From the wider social-political viewpoint the principles of parliamentary democracy
can be heard in the sentences quoted: the reflecting of one's own actions and
substantiation based on arguments the nature of which corresponds to the specific
nature of the theme. A work of art in the tuition thus conceived becomes the pretext
for and core of discourse in the Foucault sense, and therefore talk about it is not
"everyday apathetic talking, but talk … that should occur in culture of a certain
status" 66 . This was a trend that could already be seen in world art teaching in the
eighties or even earlier, for instance in the concepts of so-called critical thinking 67 , but
in the Czech environment at that time it was clearly ahead of its time. 68
The given process of change in the theoretical concept is aimed at overcoming the
existing disunity between the psychologically oriented care for children's artistic
expression and the pedagogical effort to bring the child creator close to the centre of
contemporary cultural action. In the theory of art education some of its traits
correspond to the turning away from psychologism (emotivism) to structuralism and
linguistic investigation, which in the course of the 20 th century affected practically the
whole field of the science of art and aesthetics. 69
22

With regard to the complex establishment in which the theory of education effectively
meets up with practice it is possible to speak under the given circumstances of a
methodological turning towards art. In our art education it was linked first of all with
the name of Professor Zhoř and his Brno school of the socialisation of art (R.
Horáček, H. Babyrádová, Š. Dostalová, etc.) [112] [113] [37], which continued in the
traditions established at the turn of the 19 th and 20 th centuries by O. Hostinský, G.
Britsch and others. Although I. Zhoř as a partly illegal author – as an erstwhile
dissident – was already promoting this throughout the eighties, this trend, closely
linked with the above-mentioned development of gallery animations, did not find wide
culmination until the nineties of the 20 th century. A whole series of publications was
issued in this spirit, including several theoretical monographs and conceptual
programs [104] [80] [2] [55] [90].
One of the outstanding Czech theorists of this movement is J. Vančát, who was the
first in this country to elaborate in depth the heritage of the late Professor Zhoř.
Vančát's concept is based on a structuralist approach and the broadly conceived
central category of figurative visuality (a similar position has been held in recent
years by a large group of authors in the USA, such as P. Duncun, B. Wilson and
others 70 ). On the contrary, in the extension of Ricouer's genetic concept attention is
paid to the theme of art in art education by H. Babyrádová (this standpoint can be
ascribed with a certain measure of license more to the West European tradition, for
instance A. Gehlen, A. Jorn, W. R. Senft and others). To the sphere of the
methodological turn to art there also belongs the above-mentioned concept of
artephiletics, theoretically based on the semantics of fictive worlds understood as the
artefacts of aesthetic activity (U. Eco, L. Doležel, M. Ryan, V. Zuska and others).
The consequences of the methodological turn towards art are rich for the theory of
art teaching in the nineties and find their culmination at the beginning of the new
millennium. Their first unified outcome is the semiotic analysis of visual depiction
elaborated in the monograph of J. Vančát (2000) [104]. M. Pastorová, together with
J. Vančát, L. Kitzbergerová and other authors, made didactic use of these findings in
the General education program of art teaching for elementary schools (2004) [55].
The monographs of H. Babyrádová (2001, 2003) analyse the correlation of children's
artistic expression and art on the basis of the theory of symbolisation [1] [2]. The
monographs of J. Slavík together with P. Wawrosz (2001, 2004) are devoted to the
23

elationships of art teaching and art in the framework of the theory of expression and
the semantics of fictive worlds [80] [90].
At the level of methodical publications the turn to art, apart from the above-mentioned
books of K. Cikánová and the textbooks of M. Fulková and colleagues, appeared in
particular through the editions of textbooks conceived by P. Šamšula. His still
incomplete ten-volume series Picture Gallery in the Head (from 1996) [94] and the
five-part Guide to Fine Art, issued jointly with a collective of other authors (from 1994)
[95], are intended for both elementary and secondary schools.
It is interesting that the turn to art in its beginnings in this country was linked, among
other things, with the penetration of art therapy influences into school art teaching.
The taking over of art therapy techniques led to the group reflection of artistic
creation. But this reflection, as was shown in the course of the nineties, could not
lead up to the personality analysis of the pupil without causing a conflict of
competences with psychotherapy or art therapy [73] [74] [93]. For this reason it was
necessary to seek other areas of interest for it. These became connections and
intersections between the personal experience of the pupil and the cultural context,
especially artistic, in which it is set.
The didactic model of the teaching task in this last-mentioned concept is developed
theoretically and methodically in particular from the above-mentioned concept of art
philetics. In practice it is more generally applied mainly in the reflective enjambment
of the Theatre genre or in its intersections with Difficult Life, among other things also
in gallery animations. It is based on the assumption that the artistic expressions of
pupils express not only the individuality of the pupil's personality, but also certain
general aspects of human existence, which in the history of all civilisations constantly
re-enters the great themes of art. The connections of art with life are captured in the
reflection and become the theme of a constructivistically conceived dialogue in which
the differences or accords of the pupils' preconceptions stand out. 71 On the basis of
the thus arising social-cognitive conflict the so-called educational motive 72 arises in
the dialogue, which encourages the interpretation of the analogies between the
pupil's and the artist's creativity and leads to the decontextualisation of personal
experience [90] [96].
The connection of the individual creation, its reflex ion and generalisation
(decontextualisation) on the basis of constructivist dialogue offers itself in
24

contemporary art education as clearly the best dynamic solution to the age-old
problem of the relationship between areté and techné. This is because it suits the
"destiny or education and upbringing constantly to seek in every generation
appropriate forms and situations for the handing on of cultural artefacts" [96, p. 84].
This means that it relatively best fits in with the contexts of the present development
of Euro-American society, politically and professionally based on the democratic
negotiation of consensus. It must not be ignored, however, that methodologically and
methodically this is a demanding concept, which must take into account the far
greater complexity of systemic units than was the case in previous models.
Reflection and communication as a program
The reflective-dialogue approach linked with the inclination towards art, especially
with regard to the investigation of its principles and their educational use, hardly
appeared at all in public professional discourse for most of the period studied by us,
i.e. almost ten years. Only at the turn of the 20th and 21 st centuries, as was already
indicated by the preceding lines, did a whole series of texts quite suddenly appear,
devoted to the questions of communication and reflection in art education [74] [19]
[23] [41] [42] [82] [110]. And together with them there were also articles or
monographs aimed at the didactic investigation of artistic principles, especially from
the point of view of the semiology or semantics of artistic expression (J. Vančát, J.
Slavík, H. Babyrádová, M. Fulková and others) [74] [1] [104] [80] [105] [22] [2] [90]
[82] [23] [106].
This approach, based on the manifold theories of reference and semantisation,
makes it possible to elaborate the covering theoretical framework for the concurrent
investigation of children's and artists' creative expression. At the same time the
constructivist model of art education, working with works of art, is also being
considered elsewhere in the world and the emphasis is placed on the reflecting
dialogue in which there are constructed finding inherent for the field of art 73 . In his
article from 2001 J. Slavík refers to this in wider pedagogical contexts [79, s. 533 –
534]:
"The reflecting approach is gradually being more widely implemented in art fields.
The educational theories in English-speaking countries generally characterise it as
the development of higher order thinking. … In it are implemented integrated thinking
25

processes (interpretation, creation and verification of hypotheses, argumentation in
dialogue, etc.), but first and foremost it concerns thinking, which learns to understand
its own processes and their social and cultural links (it is possible to use the general
term metacognition). It is not beside the point to note that in the given view art
activities appear relatively evidently as a legitimate subject of intentional teaching
and systematic education in schools,"
The inclination of professional interest towards communication and reflection was
widely demonstrated in the Czech professional public at one of the regular
international symposia of the Czech section of INSEA 74 in 2002, which took place
under the appropriate title of Art Education and its Communication Modes [108]. It is
clearly no coincidence that this symposium was linked in its program to the two
preceding conferences, devoted to the abrupt penetration of electronic media into art
education 75 , which took place under the titles Seeing the Fourth Dimension (1995)
and Media and Imagery (2000) [48]. The concept of "communication" is clearly the
best framework for contemporary Czech art education that is available for mastering
the destabilising onslaught of techné caused by the influx of new media – an
onslaught, which had all the traits of revolution for Czech art education of the
nineties.
As has already been stated above, electronic media technology has split the
community of Czech art education into two competing groups, which roughly
correspond to the supporters and opponents of the semiotic-structuralist approach.
The conflicts that arise between these two camps have clearly disrupted the
departmental consensus on the proportions between areté and techné in art
education, relatively stabilised in this country up to the beginning of the nineties.
Polemics are very fruitful both for theory and for practice in Czech art education,
because they enforce the deepest elaboration of the didactic skills of the content of
art education. 76 Nevertheless, in the interest of maintaining certain social principles,
which cover the departmental discussion, it is necessary to depend not only on
concepts that sharpen the dialogue, but also those that consolidate it. Among these
the concept of "communication" promoted itself to one of the leading places in the
course of the nineties.
The given tendencies are also confirmed by the complex analysis of the development
of Czech art education abroad. Its author, the German art education theorist J.
26

Kobler, states in his three-hundred-page historiographic monograph, on looking at
the 1989 – 1999 period, that in Czech art education in the course of the nineties
there appears an increase in the emphasis on plurality and democracy, which is
linked with the increased regard for the dialogue reflecting creative experiences.
Apart from this he also indicates the increased role of professional contacts with
foreign concepts of education through art and states that the development of Czech
art teaching in the direction of the reflective and communicative concept corresponds
to contemporary world trends. [43]
Limits of changes in the practice of Czech art education
From the empirical research into communication in art education between 1990 and
2000 – [36] [107] [89] [88] – it can nevertheless be seen that the proclaimed trend of
a turn towards reflection or the constructivist model of teaching has not yet found
wide implementation in the common practice of art teaching. The research concerned
kindergartens, elementary schools and general secondary schools. It was based on
the evaluation of microanalyses of tape recordings of communication in classes by
the DINA 77 technique and was supplemented by qualitative investigation. Its authors
observe that the nature of communication in art classes has hardly changed at all
between the beginning and end of the period investigated [89, p. 389]:
"More detailed content analysis in combination with statistical results showed three
aspects, which we consider characteristic of contemporary communication in art
teaching: it contains (1) a large proportion (almost 1/3) of the teacher's monologues,
especially explanation, narration or so-called motivation to art activity, (2) a
considerable proportion (almost 1/3) of direct management of the art and non-art
activity of pupils on the part of the teacher, and (3) a small amount (just over 1/10) of
dialogues aimed at thinking, reflection and critical consideration (known as reflective
dialogue). Reflective dialogue forms only about 12% of the total communication
compared with communication aimed at factographic description or direct
management of the pupils' activities, which amounts to 28% and 27%. The share of
reflective dialogue is low almost regardless of the level or type of school concerned
(for instance the average communication index of awareness at kindergarten is
0.133, at primary school level 0.142, at junior secondary level 0.110 and at grammar
school 0.157). Communication in the teaching of art, as we could see in the research,
27

is almost three-quarters that of the teacher, one third factographic, with a large share
of direct management, and is relatively little aimed at reflection and critical
consideration."
In the extensive research carried out in the 1995/96 school year by the Czech School
Inspection the teachers themselves stated that one of the weakest points in art
education at present is the uncreative concept of teaching, conservatism and
formality – this was the opinion of 25.9% of the respondents, i.e. a full quarter of the
total of 1308 answering questions [101]. The research also found that in the practice
of Czech art education it is necessary to devote greater attention to values and
evaluation with regard to the fact that this side of the teachers' work is one of the
least well mastered.
Slavík reached similar research conclusions 1994 [72]. In the summary of the results
he stated (pp. 126 – 127):
"Our so far only descriptive research has indicated that in teaching practice many
questions still remain concerning evaluation. … The overall diagram of the recorded
frequencies of types of evaluation shows a considerable prevalence of the normative
directive approach. This leads to the impression that in contemporary art teaching, in
spite of all the practical efforts and theoretical proclamations, it is rather the
normative-aesthetic concept that prevails. … The children are perhaps happily
creating, but they are not learning much about seeking, understanding and
comprehending. This is a pity, because it is training in creative expression that has
unique and irreplaceable possibilities in overcoming the vexing school division
between information and experience."
Decline in the volume of professional communication in school practice
From the above-mentioned research [89] [88] there emerged yet another finding,
which is in the nature of a hypothesis, but is confirmed by the author's numerous
experiences from school practice in various regions of the Czech Republic. This is a
relative decline in the volume of professional communication in art classes, i.e. such
communication as concerns creative experiences and their cultural or personal
contexts. The authors observe [89, pp. 387 - 389]:
"…When taking a closer look at the content of communication in the second research
project (1999 – 2000) compared with the first (1989 – 1992) the professional
28

evaluation aspect of communication, especially in the elementary school, is
"replaced" by noisy conversations among the pupils about their own problems
(quantitatively this is represented by a change in the proportions between certain
communication indexes (CI), in particular by a reduction in the CI of evaluation and
an increase in the imperative CI and the descriptive CI). This communication not
infrequently deviates from the teacher's intention … as in the following example:
Teacher: I have been going through some books on how artists work … So take this
in this row. Pupil: Wow! P: If you go there I'll kill you! P: … and what about us, Miss
… P: Watch out for BIG EYE! P: Give that back and hurry up! I'll really kill you, you
swine! Do you want me to kill you P: James, stop it! T: James, sit down in your
place!"
The above example tells us that art lessons, as one of the school subjects
considered less important by the public – at the very least because, apart from a few
exception, it does not determine the further career of pupils – suffer from a general
relaxation of pupils' discipline. Linked with this is the reduced interest of pupils in the
teaching matter and the generally lower educational and instructive efficiency of the
teachers, i.e. and also of the subject as a whole. It is as though the subject has lost
its professional content under the pressure of the Difficult Life genre in its more or
less critical forms, which the teachers no longer sufficiently master.
The indicated trend of the decline of some creative qualities in tuition is preliminarily
confirmed by a more than ten-year cross-section research into the art expression of
children's preconcepts of emotions [69] [86], the final conclusions of which have yet
to be published. The results acquired so far of the comparison of the qualities of
artistic expression in eleven-year-old and fourteen-year-old pupils at four time levels
(1988, 1992, 1996, 2000) tell of the relative decline in the level of differentiation of the
creative statement at the semantic level and at the level of the aesthetic qualities of
the artistic expression. There has been a rise in the share of schematisation, the use
of conventional symbolism has increased to the detriment of original expression, the
quality of painting expression has dropped, there has been a decline in the originality
of composition, etc.
For the time being it is difficult to tell the extent to which reduced concentration or the
indiscipline of the pupils contribute to these facts and to what extent other factors are
implemented, such as changes in the management of tuition by teachers, the
29

influence of changes in the perception of artistic culture among people, the influences
of differently set evaluation measures in teaching, etc.
It is also necessary to consider carefully the hypothesis concerning the problem of
suitable measure in the distribution of the tendencies of areté and techné. It is a
matter of whether the emphasis on flexible creative thinking and on dialogue, if it
were implemented unilaterally and without sufficient regard for the exercise of skills
(both art-craft skills and the "technology of dialogue"), does not bring the same kind
of negative influences as excessive promotion of pupils' spontaneity in the preceding
phase of development: the pupils should, according to the set aims of the reflective
and dialogue concept, think more intensively artistically, but the teachers are not
always able to motivate them well enough for this intellectually demanding activity. At
the same time, already in earlier years the emphasis on skill – on the "craft" side of
the subject – was weakened with regard to the spontaneous creation concept.
The overall consequence may be the worst alternative: the pupils do not advance to
the ability to think more deeply about artistic expression, but at the same time they
also lose their creative skill and cease to draw or paint well. In this way they lose
touch with that special kind of understanding that is typical of artistic creativity – I
have in mind the specific understanding of the world through the "artist's view", which
in art classes is usually expressed by the words "creative sensibility", "feeling for a
creative problem", "thinking in material", etc. This gives rise to a closed circle in
which unsatisfactory results reduce the pupils' and the teacher's motivation and then
reduced motivation causes deterioration of the results.
The consideration of the worst alternative underlines the need for the good
theoretical and realisation equipment of the art teacher. This teacher should be
capable of analysing the quality of his work and on the basis of this of evaluating with
regard to his pupils the mutual share of various essential components of activities in
actual classes, and finally of realising such changes as will lead to their optimum
structure, i.e. to a structure valuable in its cognitive contribution and also attractive to
the pupils.
Conclusions
The analysis of a period of more than ten years in the development of Czech art
teaching, from 1989 to 2003, can be seen from several different viewpoints. From the
30

social-political viewpoint, such as prevails, for instance, in the similarly aimed but
more extensive analysis in the monograph of J. Kobler (2001), our analysis is a brief
testimony to how Czech art teaching in its best evaluated forms developed into the
pluralist and dialogical approach characterised both by the increased attention to
communication and dialogue in the classroom and also by the more varied spectrum
of different concepts of teaching in programs guaranteed by the state.
From the viewpoint of cultural-pedagogical analysis it explains how the art field set in
the contexts of general education in the course of its history finds it hard to find the
optimum proportions between the teachability of rules in the dimension of techné and
the unrepeatable liveliness of the creative act and aesthetic experience on the level
of areté. From the analysis it can be deduced that Czech art teaching, like other art
subjects, is acquiring the ambition to bring to the system of general education a
specific regard for the reflective, dialogical and interpretive concept of cognition.
Progressive currents of development of the subject in this given direction have been
taking place through the period monitored.
From the departmentally didactic viewpoint the analysis may be understood as
orientative information on trends aimed at the intensification of the syntheses
between the pedagogical or pedagogical-psychological and the aesthetic-scientific or
art-scientific sides of the field. This is a process in which the didactics of art teaching
aims at the intensified theoretic elaboration of the pedagogical content knowledge) 78
and specifies the formulation of its scientific subject 79 . In the course of the
monitored period this process is increasingly clearly oriented towards the study of the
functional structures of teaching tasks. We designated this concept as a "new turn
towards language" linked with the increased emphasis on the semantic-logical or
semiological contexts of the field. Simultaneously with this Czech art education –
after the preceding decades of psychologising orientation – is again opening up to
graphic art and in this "turn" it is also deepening its theoretical specificity with the use
of the contemporary aesthetic-scientific and art-scientific apparatus. Apart from other
things this is also due to the developing cooperation with the teaching departments of
museums or galleries, where there are meetings of practical teachers, experts from
pedagogical faculties and gallery experts.
At the pedagogical-psychological level it is possible to trace in the analysis the
continuation of interest in the personality of the pupil in the context of his artistic
31

expressions, but in a somewhat different setting than up to 1990, when the
viewpoints of ontological psychology prevailed. In one direction it is now a matter of
approaches based on pedagogical constructivism. This current emphasises the
active role of the subject and the significance of his internal prerequisites in the
pedagogical and psychological process, as well as the importance of his interaction
with the environment and society. In the second direction interest in the pupil is borne
by the orientation towards in-depth psychology and its view of personal internal
themes in which the pupil's creativity corresponds with artistic work.
If we are to make the above-mentioned general tendencies concrete in a few more
detailed points, we must observe that through the analysis there were captured and
described tendencies (1) towards strengthening the role of long-term projects or
methodical series and their didactic-logical structure, (2) towards intensifying the
professional view of the study of the education use of pupil communication in
classes, (3) towards the utilisation of reflective dialogue about artistic expression for
the constructivist concept of learning and cognition, (4) towards increased regard for
didactic elaboration and educational use of the relations between creative art and the
pupil's artistic creation, linked with the emphasis of theory on the semiotic and
semantic sides of artistic expression, (5) towards the re-established interest in the
individuality of the pupil, his conception of self and his conception of art culture, this
being from a double viewpoint: on the one hand from the positions of pedagogical
constructivism and on the other hand from the viewpoint of in-depth psychology.
All the above-mentioned trends may be understood as positive or progressive with
regard to the improved quality of the pupil's cognition, to the good motivation of pupils
and to the improvement of the theoretic-didactic standard of the subject. When
looked at from the opposite direction, however, the analysis also tells us that a
considerable proportion of art teachers in this country are far from achieving the top
standard that we see in the progressive line of development; among other things, this
is also because the lack of certification in this field amounts in elementary schools to
a horrifying 40%. This means that almost half the art teachers in our elementary
schools of general education are not prepared in advance even in the necessary
basics to professionally reflect, consider or develop their professional activity to the
benefit of their pupils.
32

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1 SLAVÍK. et al. 1998, p. 1.
2 We consider the first domestic didactic material for art teaching to be Comenius' Informatorium for
nursery school and some passages of his Didactics (in more detail Uždil 1978). In 1870 there appeared
the first domestic professional periodical Český kreslíř (Czech Draughtsman), in which there was
published by A. Studnička the historically first planned research of children's drawings – a full 17
years earlier than the pioneering work of the Italian C. Ricci. From the very beginning our teachers
played an important part in the worldwide development of the theoretical background to art teaching.
In 1904 they participated actively in the establishing of the first international organisation of the
Federation Internationale de l’Enseignement du Dessin (FEA) and in the organisation of its
international congresses (1. 1900, Paris, 2. 1904, Bern, 3. 1908, London, 4. 1912, Dresden). They were
themselves entrusted by the FEA with the organisation of the 5th world congress in Prague in 1913.
After the First World War the field developed both here and in the world mainly under the influence of
constructivism, functionalism and the ideas of Bauhaus, as could be seen from the 7th World Congress
of the FEA in 1928, again entrusted to Prague. Already at the close of the thirties we were aware of the
findings from the research into creativity of Victor Löwenfeld, working in cooperation with Brno art
teachers, who then also determined the worldwide direction of the field in the whole of the second half
of the 20th century. In 1946 there was officially introduced here, in line with world development, the
broader name of the subject: "výtvarná výchova" (art education, Kunsterziehung). In 1960 the
professional periodical Estetická výchova (Aesthetic Education) was established in Prague, associating
the teaching of art and music (from 1992 it was again Výtvarná výchova (Art Education)). In 1963 a
new international organisation was established within the framework of UNESCO entitled the
International Society for Education through Art (INSEA). At its 18th World Congress in Prague in
1966 there was confirmed the worldwide turning of art education away from the "craft" concept to the
creative and individualising concept. At the close of the eighties of the 20th century the paradigm of
art education again changed under the impression of postmodernism accompanied by the stormy
development of the electronic media and global cultural-political changes. At the present time the
concept of art education in this country and elsewhere in the world can be characterised as
39

communicative, reflective and pluralistic, both in the sense of the plurality of personal views, and the
variety of the cooperating fields and the techniques, approaches and genres used, etc. This change is
witnessed by the content intention both of the world congresses of INSEA, and also of the
international congresses regularly held by the Czech Committee of INSEA (…1995, 1997, 2000,
2002, 2004) (for more details on the history of art education see Slavík et al. 1998).
3 CHOBOLA 1975.
4 VANČÁT 2000.
5 More detail in CORNARO 1937/1938, DAVID 1993, SLAVÍK. et al. 1998.
6 For instance the field researches of the group of Prague School Ethnography from the years
1991/1992 – 2001/2002 from Prague elementary schools tell of the stable popularity of art education
among the children. (KUČERA, M. (ed.) Čeští žáci po deseti letech. (Czech Pupils Ten Years Later)
Prague : Pedagogical Faculty, 2004).
7 CORNARO 1937/1938, SLAVÍK 1994.
8 A view of the beginnings of the most fruitful development of this stream is provided by the
publication Umění a výchova. Zpráva z XVIII světového kongresu INSEA v Praze v r. 1966 (Art and
Education. Report from the 18th World Congress of INSEA in Prague in 1966), Praha : SPN, 1968.
259 pp. See also READ 1967, UŽDIL 1978, etc.
9 INSEA = International Society for Education through Art, see note 2 above.
10 Czech official version of the Statutes of INSEA for the Czech Committee of INSEA from 1966,
unpublished manuscript
11 DBAE = Discipline Based Art Education. More detail in SLAVÍK 1993/1994.
12 An example might be the discussion on the standards of art education in the American Studies in Art
Education of 1997 (D. Boughton v. J. Husman), or the polemics in this country connected with the
development of the General Education Program for Art Education in the years 2000 – 2004 (J. Vančát
v. E. Linaj, J. David, etc.).
13 More detail in SLAVÍK 1994; SLAVÍK 1997 a, pp. 156 – 166; SLAVÍK 1997 b.
14 CHALUPECKÝ 1990, s. 52.
15 MUKAŘOVSKÝ 1971 (1936), GOMBRICH 1970, DORFMAN; KENNA 1966 etc.
16 See the theory of aesthetic dualism, in which innovation combined with the influence of the further
development of art corresponds to the artistic value; KULKA 2004.
17 GOMBRICH 1985, p. 173.
18 More detail in the context of art education - see SLAVÍK 1998.
19 GOMBRICH 1985, p. 204.
20 More detail in SLAVÍK 1994, 1997b.
21 GADAMER 1994, p. 31, for more detail for art education see SLAVÍK 1998.
22 SLAVÍK; WAWROSZ 2004, p. 192.
23 GADAMER 1994, p. 33; emphasised in italics by J. S.
24 More detail for art education in PERKINS 1994, in wider connotations in DOROTÍKOVÁ 1998.
25 More detail for art education in GOODING-BROWN 2000, ZANDER 2003.
26 Cf. GADAMER 1994, pp. 111 – 113, etc.
27 This problem is linked with the so-called hermeneutic identity of a work of art. See GADAMER,
H.-G. (1995) Aktualita krásneho (Umenie ako symbol a slávnosť)(The Actuality of the Beautiful. Art as
Symbol and Celebration). Bratislava : Archa 1995, p. 46 n., SLAVÍK 2001c, pp. 195 – 197.
28 GOODMAN 1996; in the framework of art education SLAVÍK 2001a, b, VANČÁT 2000 b.
29 Cf. ŠTECH 2003.
30 SLAVÍK 1997a, pp. 141 – 153, SLAVÍK; WAWROSZ 2004, pp. 144 – 180, ZANDER 2003, 2004.
31 We understand Lifestyle here in the concept of the sociologists M. Weber, A. Giddens and especially
P. Bourdieu as the factual regularity of culturally and socially important components of behaviour and
activity, which is the product of learning, relates to the used volume of cultural capital and is linked
with the position of the individual or group in the social field. See SLAVÍK 2001b, 2001c;
BOUGHTON 2004.
32 SLAVÍK 1997a, GOODING-BROWN 2000, SLAVÍK 2001 b, c, ŠTECH 2003, ZANDER 2003,
2004.
40

33 We understand dialogue here according to J. Poláková multidimensionally as (1) an analytical
method of cognition of the truth through conflict or as (2) a synthetic path from logical conflict to
dialectical conciliation or (3) as the process of specialising the accepted sense in a conversation with
its tradition, and finally as (4) relative mutuality in the sense used by Lévinas, which essentially
oversteps and conditions everything happening around it. See Poláková, J. Filosofie dialogu.
(Philosophy of Dialogue) Prague : Philosophy Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences, 1993.
34 The estimate given is based on three sources: (a) publications in the professional press – this
concerns several dozens authors of both sexes from practice, (b) participation in key national or
international exhibitions of pupils' work – according to circumstances there are usually hundreds of
such teachers, (c) participation in the Association of Art Teachers (founded in 1991) and other similar
associations – in this case it is a matter of between one and three hundred teachers. These number vary
in the course of time for many different reasons. Among all these areas there exists a number of
overlaps, so that teachers engaged in professional associations usually also exhibit or publish more
frequently and vice versa.
35 More detail in SLAVÍK 1997a, pp. 119 – 131, ROESELOVÁ 2004, p. 17, SLAVÍK; WAWROSZ
2004, pp. 155 – 180.
36 SLAVÍK 1990, p. 67, SLAVÍK; WAWROSZ 2004, pp. 156 – 157.
37 ROESELOVÁ 2004, p. 17.
38 KULKA 1989, LÜDEKIND 2003, SIBLEY 2003, SLAVÍK 2001 b, etc.
39 For more detail see SLAVÍK 1997a, pp. 141 – 153, SLAVÍK; WAWROSZ 2004, pp. 144 – 180.
40 For more details see SLAVÍK 2001a.
41 See, for instance, BRABCOVÁ, A. (ed.) 2003, BERRY, N.; MAYER, S. (eds.) Museum Education
History, Theory, and Practice. Reston, Virginia ; The National Art Education Association, 1989.
42 "[Hospital as the expression of the gesture of segregation]… gives order to a certain complicated
unit, which includes new sensitivity…“. Foucault, M. Dějiny šílenství (History of Madness). Praha :
Lidové noviny, 1993. p. 42.
43 The information is based on findings from the diploma works of Z. Rohelová 1991, A. Paláčková
1991, D. Hladíková 1992, the dissertation of M. Fulková 2001, etc.
44 Detail in SLAVÍK 1997 a, pp. 119 – 130.
45 Detail in SLAVÍK 2001 c, pp. 246 – 251, SLAVÍK; WAWROSZ 2004, pp. 230 – 252.
46 Detail in SLAVÍK; WAWROSZ 2004, pp. 180 – 201.
47 The problem of the values of the perceptive-stylisation scheme cf. KULKA 1989, 2004,
LŰDEKIND 2003, etc., for art education for example BOUGHTON 2004, GEATRIGAN 2000,
SLAVÍK 2001 c, etc.
48 The theoretical substantiation is based on Mathauser's semiotic complex model of the artistic
situation, prepared for the needs of education through art. For details see SLAVÍK 1997a, pp. 76 –
102.
49 BRESLER 1994, also SLAVÍK; ČAPKOVÁ 1994, SLAVÍK 1997a.
50 We take the terminology and theory of educational concepts here, apart from Breslerová, from:
MEIGHAN, R.: A Sociology of Education. Trowbridge, Wiltshire : Cassel Educational Ltd., Holt,
Rinehart and Wilston Ltd., 1993, BERTRAND, Y. Soudobé teorie vzdělávání (Contemporary Theory
of Education). Praha : Portál, 1998.
51 See preceding note 50.
52 BRESLER 1994, also SLAVÍK; ČAPKOVÁ 1994, SLAVÍK 1997a.
53 ZUSKA, V. Estetika. Praha : Triton, 2001, p. 123.
54 Cf. DOLEŽEL 2003, pp. 67 – 83 (Doležel, L. Heterocosmica. Fikce a možné světy (Heterocosmica.
Fiction and Other Worlds). Praha : Karolinum, 2003), and others.
55 SLAVÍK 2001c, p. 122 n., DOLEŽEL 2003 (Doležel, L. Heterocosmica. Fikce a možné světy. Praha
: Karolinum, 2003), SLAVÍK; WAWROSZ 2004, p. 89 n. and others.
56 See note 50.
57 More detail on the relationship of life situations and education through art in SLAVÍK 2001c.
58 SLAVÍK 1997a, p. 93 n., SLAVÍK; WAWROSZ 2004, pp. 230 – 237.
41

59 See SLAVÍK 1997a, 2001b, special issue of the periodical Výtvarná výchova of 2004 (M, J.
Zanderová, J. Slavík, M. Fulková) or the publications Umění zážitku, zážitek umění I, II (Art
Experience, Experience of Art)(Slavík 2001, Slavík; Wawrosz 2004).
60 See SLAVÍK 1997a, p. 94.
61 JUNG, C. G. Analytická psychologie. Její teorie a praxe. (Analytical Psychology. Theory and
Practice.) Praha : Academia, 1993. ISBN 80-200-0480-7, p. 178 n.
62 STIBUREK 2000, pp. 33 – 47, SLAVÍK 2001b, pp. 12 – 13.
63 RICOUER, P. Structure, Word, Event. (1967) In RICOUER, P. Život, pravda, symbol (Life, Truth,
Symbol). Praha : OIKOYMENH, 1993, pp. 203 – 219. See also HROCH, J. K problematice symbolu a
metafory u H.-G. Gadamera a P. Ricouera. In STACHOVÁ, J. (ed.) Symbol v lidském vnímání,
myšlení a vyjadřování (The symbol in human perception, thinking and expression). Praha : Philosophy
Institute of the Czech Academy on Sciences, 1992, pp. 136 – 143.
64 Partial information from research, see SLAVÍK; WAWROSZ 2004, p. 139 n.
65 See, for example, Uždil's monographs and articles from the seventies and eighties of last century,
which clearly place emphasis on the specificity of children's artistic expression with regard to its
psychological characteristics, but do not pay much attention to its further cultural links. J. Uždil reevaluated
his approach to a certain extent only at the beginning of the nineties (see for instance
UŽDIL 1990).
66 FOUCAULT 1994, p. 50 (In: Diskurs, autor, genealogie (Discourse, Author, Genealogy). Praha :
Svoboda, 1994).
67 BROUDY 1987, BRESLER 1994, at present, for instance, GEATRIGAN 2000.
68 At that time at the beginning of the nineties only a few grammar schools from the whole Czech
Republic acclaimed the alternative curricula. Their re-evaluation is only just taking place now, when
they became one of the main bases for the creation of the General Program of Art Education for
Elementary Art Schools (see the periodical Talent, series on Art Education at the Junior Secondary
Level of Elementary Art Schools, December 2003, January 2004, ISSN 1212-3676).
69 See, for instance, the monograph PROZERSKIJ, V. V. 1983 (Kritičeskij očerk estetiky
emotivisma.Moskva : Iskusstvo, 1983).
70 In the concept of J. Vančát and also American authors the concept of visuality is understood as the
unification of the concepts seeing, showing, imagining. See, for instance, WILSON, B. Of Diagram
and Rhizomes: Visual Culture, Contemporary Art, and the Impossibility of Mapping the Content of
Art Education. Studies in Art Education (A Journal of Issues and Research), 2003 (spring), 44, 3, pp.
214 – 229.
71 SLAVÍK 2001b, SLAVÍK; WAWROSZ 2004, pp. 230 – 237.
72 SLAVÍK; WAWROSZ 2004, p. 175 n.
73 GOODING-BROWN 2000, GEATRIGAN 2000, DUNCUN 2004, ZANDER 2004, etc.
74 At the symposium, apart from Czech papers, contributions were also delivered from Belgium,
Holland, Poland, Austria and Slovakia.
75 In the Introduction to the collection from the symposium T. Šinglová writes: "…the present theme
[communication in art education] reflects the present situation in seeking the positions of art education
in the education system in the present transformed world of information technologies and the flood of
visual communications" (Výtvarná výchova a mody její komunikace. Olomouc : Univerzita Palackého,
2004, p. 5).
76 Cf. JANÍK, T. Význam Shulmanovy teorie pedagogických znalostí pro oborové didaktiky a pro
vzdělávání učitelů (Significance of Shulman's theory of pedagogical knowledge for professional
didactics and for the education of teachers). Pedagogika, 2004, 54, No. 3, pp. 243 – 250.
77 DINA – Discourse-Information Analysis for Art Classes – is a microanalytical system for
communication in the classroom based on Austin's theory of spoken acts and Kořenský's theory of
content-pragmatic units. It was developed at the end of the eighties of last century by J. Slavík and H.
Hazuková on the basis of the so-called Clements system. It serves not only as an instrument for
research, but also for the preparation of future teachers of art education. In 2004 an English version of
DINA was prepared in cooperation with the chairs of art education of the American Universities in
Mississippi and Virginia, which serves as an instrument for comparative research concurrently in the
CR and the USA.
42

78 See note76.
79 Cf. SLAVÍK 1990.
43