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the cellulose, and the paper becomes brittle within a few decades. This is currently a central issue for the conservation of books produced from the 1870s to the 1970s. Awareness of such a disaster for the printed heritage led industry to introduce a paper called “permanent” (ISO 9706) in the 1980s. This paper is designed to preserve its qualities over a longer period of time. Sizing is performed under neutral condition with ketenes alkyl or alkenyl succinic anhydrides, and an alkaline reserve such as alkaline calcium carbonate is also introduced into the paper pulp in order to neutralize further acidity. Such papers are identifiable by the presence of watermarks of the infinity symbol. If permanent paper is nowadays easily available, the care for acidic paper collections is still the topic of active discussion and scientific research. Synthetic dyes The exploitation of coal - a major energy source in the 19 th century closely associated with industrial development - had interesting indirect repercussions. Indeed, the by-products of coal distillation contain aniline, an aromatic compound which would be used to synthesize dyes. In 1856, the young William Henry Perkin, seeking the anti-malarial quinine, discovered a purple-coloured compound soluble in alcohol and ether; mauvein. He realised the profit he could make by exploiting this new colourant, which dyed wool and silk. A patent was obtained, and the first synthetic dye factory was founded. Fashion and taste for the new hue was responsible for transforming Perkin’s intuition into a commercial success. Other synthetic dyes would follow; in 1859, Emmanuel Verguin discovered a red-fuchsia dye of the triphenylmethan family, which he named fuchsin. Its exploitation by the Renard Brothers factory in Lyon (France) for the dyeing of silks promoted the development of these dyes and spread this new industry, which relied on advances in organic synthesis. Factories such as Bayer, Hoechst, and Badische Anilin- und Soda- Fabrik (BASF) would render Germany the world leader in the production of synthetic dyes. Carl Lieberman introduced the synthesis of alizarin and Bayer Company patented the synthesis of indigo. These discoveries had economic consequences Keynote speech in Europe. The dissemination of these new dyes would threaten the traditional cultivation and use of natural dyes like madder and indigo. Between 1860 and 1900, the majority of synthetic dye families were discovered, and they offered to the market an extraordinary range of dyes with a high dyeing power, opening up new horizons primarily for the textile industry and also for applications in the field of art. Many dyed artefacts created during this period, now in collections, are likely to contain synthetic dyes which are considered to have a poor lightfastness by today’s standards. This problem mainly concerned textiles, but was also relevant to graphic arts, as related to some inks and pigments prepared by precipitation of dyes on inorganic particles: for instance eosin found in some Van Gogh paintings. Light-fading was certainly not a new problem; craftsmen and artists knew that certain natural dyes are also light-sensitive. Nevertheless, they were carefully selected depending on the uses; for highvalue pieces, the best-quality dyes were chosen. Such concern seemed overshadowed by the advantages offered by these new compounds. The light-fastness issue was eventually addressed by the industry and was the reason behind the introduction of an international method for classifying dyes according to their light stability: the “blue wool standard”, widely used in museum conservation today. Celluloid The first synthetic polymer was introduced in 1832 when chemist Henry Braconnot discovered that starch reacted with concentrated nitric acid to give an insoluble substance he called xyloidine, which burned quickly. In 1838, Théophile-Jules Pelouze observed that the same reaction also occurred with paper, cotton, and linen. Christian Shönbein discovered a particular application for “xyloidine” as an explosive, which earned the name “Gun cotton” or “Fulmi-cotton”. The production of this compound, later identified by chemists as cellulose nitrate or nitrocellulose, became strategic for the military. A civil application was credited to John Wesley Hyatt (6). A prize was offered to encourage the development of a substitute for ivory for the 17
manufacture of billiard balls. Hyatt succeeded in 1870 by mixing cellulose nitrate with camphor to form celluloid. He founded a company known as the Celluloid Manufacturing Company in 1873. The use of celluloid was extended thereafter towards the production of various objects: domestic utensils and accessories (sunglasses, combs, wallets…), films, varnishes, etc. But over time, cellulose nitrate hydrolyses, camphor sublimes, and the objects deteriorate irreversibly. The poor life expectancy of nitrocellulose now poses many conservation problems for museums and archival collections. Later, industry would offer more durable, safer synthetic polymer alternatives. Photography In 1871, British physician Richard Leach Maddox introduced the gelatin-silver bromide photographic process (7). At the time, photographers were using collodion plates that had to be exposed and processed within a few minutes following their coating, before the collodion solvents could evaporate. Gelatinsilver photographic plates, by contrast, were used dry; they could be kept in their sensitized state for months before exposure and could be developed long afterwards. Thus, gelatin-silver materials could be manufactured industrially, distributed throughout the world, stored, and purchased for future use, all while still retaining photographic sensitivity. The advantage of the gelatin-silver bromide photographic plate was unquestionable; it was named “dry plate”. In 1873, the first dry plates were sold on the market by the English photographer John Burgess; this would be a radical break from the primitive period of photography; now the medium was marked by mass production. The following year, the Liverpool Dry-plate Photographic Printing Company was established, and other companies were to follow, such as Wratten & Wainwright (1878). The practice of photography became increasingly accessible to the general public, no longer exclusive to professional photographers and a few dedicated amateurs. New enthusiasts of photography were the main beneficiaries of the democratization of photographic activity. This resulted in the emergence of a flourishing industrial business that produced major photographic companies in Europe and in the 18 United States. For instance, in France, the Lumière Brothers Company started the production of photographic plates in 1880s. The Company began with an annual production of 18,000 boxes. By 1886, production exceeded 100,000 boxes, and each subsequent year saw a growth in demand. In 1890, a hundred workers provided an annual production of 350,000 boxes, and 2,550,000 boxes in 1900. At the time, heavy and fragile glass plates were increasingly replaced by a more flexible support base made of celluloid film. This new base would aid the invention of cinematography in 1895. Nevertheless, despite excellent physical and optical properties, celluloid poses serious problems in archival collections. One issue is that cellulose nitrate is very flammable, which caused its banning in the 1950s. This problem, already known for celluloid, also occurred with films; over time, cellulose nitrate hydrolyzed, releasing nitric acid. And if any cellulose nitrate base films are still in excellent condition after more than a hundred years, others have already degraded into powder or a mass of sticky residues, off-gassing acid fumes. Other cellulose derivatives were used instead, such as cellulose diacetate, cellulose triacetate, cellulose acetopropionate or cellulose acetobutyrate. However, their life expectancies were overestimated: an alleged promise of a few hundred years would be reduced to a few decades. Since the late 1980s, collections have been faced with “the vinegar syndrome” problem. This phenomenon, which occurred after about 40 years of storage, was reported as early as 1954 in film archives in India. The breakdown of cellulose acetate released acetic acid (hence the vinegar odour), accompanied by mechanical weakening of the film. The acid released into the atmosphere spread the phenomenon to the entire collection in the vicinity. This deterioration seemed inevitable, and sped up with increasing humidity and temperature. Since then, polyethylene terephthalate and polyethylene naphtalate have been introduced as a suitable substitute by the polymer industry, although cellulose triacetate is still widely used for 35 mm films. These few examples show the consequences - often undesirable - of major innovations that were rapidly adopted and extensively employed in the production
Page 1 and 2: Preserving the evidence of industri
Page 3 and 4: Copyright: This publication is issu
Page 6 and 7: Table of contents Foreword ........
Page 8: Contributions KeynotespeaKers
Page 11 and 12: ”The control and disciplination o
Page 13 and 14: uildings of this age. To sum up: Th
Page 15 and 16: need tons of cans to fully understa
Page 17: one of the first to be industrializ
Page 21 and 22: have very similar characteristics;
Page 23 and 24: MACHINERIES were introduced, but al
Page 25 and 26: 16) Goodman N., Langages de l’art
Page 27 and 28: Table 1. Collections containing pla
Page 29 and 30: Figure 2: A pile of transparent cel
Page 31 and 32: diisocyanate such as diphenylmethan
Page 33 and 34: Figure 7: Environmental Stress Crac
Page 35 and 36: Author Yvonne Shashoua Senior Resea
Page 38: Contributions
Page 41 and 42: Figure 1. H.A. Brendekilde, Odense
Page 43 and 44: weaving, the imported machine spun
Page 45 and 46: Figure 2. T. Kloss. Den danske eska
Page 47 and 48: Annemette B. Scharff, MSc. The Roya
Page 49 and 50: 22. Eckersberg diaries, 29.7.1834:
Page 52 and 53: The St Just Coast Project 1995 - 20
Page 54 and 55: Prior to the St Just Coast Project
Page 56 and 57: shaft. Considering the considerable
Page 58: In 2005 the slipway at Cape Cornwal
Page 61 and 62: Figure 1: The EWO dosimeter holder
Page 63 and 64: Figure 2: EWO results reporting dia
Page 65 and 66: Figure 3: Correlation of EWO respon
Page 67 and 68: The EWO is available on direct orde
Page 69 and 70:
Figure 2. Nature is back at coking
Page 71 and 72:
3a 3b 3c 3d 3e 70 Figure 3a-e Being
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Table 2. Case studies location Hatt
Page 76 and 77:
Flameproofed textiles in museums an
Page 78 and 79:
y strong acidity created as an effe
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textile fibres, especially those of
Page 82 and 83:
Cold storage as an alternative to m
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% of objects 100 90 80 70 60 50 40
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% of very brittle objects (3 hand f
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lie in the range of 20-25 euros per
Page 90 and 91:
Preservation of sponsored films Int
Page 92 and 93:
In the case of A & B rolls the diff
Page 94 and 95:
Table 2. Advantages and disadvantag
Page 96:
Table 3 “The preservation route
Page 99 and 100:
The scientific committee considered
Page 101 and 102:
DSCF 1304 Preservation of mass-prod
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Developing a policy and procedure f
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at the (very) occasional public ope
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• the object’s current conditio
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Polymers in watches manufactured in
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as a result of the Watch Valley con
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Figure 6. The Astrolon Watch “Ide
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of status of the watch is obvious i
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[26] Bergeon, S. Ethique et conserv
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Gramophones and Records - the first
Page 122 and 123:
Record manufacturing process 1925-1
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Gramophones The reproducing machine
Page 126 and 127:
Pickups (and cutterheads) are very
Page 128 and 129:
USS Monitor conservation: preservin
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Figure 1: X-radiograph mosaic of US
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Figure 4: Detail of ventilation uni
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Figure 8: Detail of Monitor’s pac
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Authors Eric Nordgren, David Krop,
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Figure 2. The Ducretet inductor coi
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During its time in storage at the N
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Figure 8. Wigmore Castle after cons
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[14]Henderson, J. And P. Manti (200
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The instability of iron when subjec
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Fig. 2 Rust stains on the too-thinl
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Fig. 4 Some bicycles in use and in
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5. Conservation options: Preserving
Page 156 and 157:
Another look at painted finishes on
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the currency of the finishes. The w
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Figure 3 WW2 airplane with newly-pa
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paint chips that are simulated with
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Notes: 1. There are a few notable e
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Industrially produced paint and the
Page 168 and 169:
twentieth century. In the same peri
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table 1. cont. Styrenebutadiene or
Page 172 and 173:
Figure 3. “A useful play!” is t
Page 174 and 175:
Author Nynne Raunsgaard Sethia Den
Page 176 and 177:
Protection of iron and steel in ind
Page 178 and 179:
provided by the manufacturers indic
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Table 2: Suppliers for selected pro
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Table 3: Application, appearance an
Page 184 and 185:
Figure 5: Impedance versus frequenc
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3. Hollner, S., Mirambet, F., Rocca
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The choice of coating system depend
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Figure 4. Dockside crane No.16 Orth
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Recovering the Icon ? The restorati
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Fig 3: Early 20th century photograp
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Fig 8: New mercury-vapor rectifiers
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problematic since the colliery clos
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Despite all our rational attempts a
Page 204 and 205:
Author Dipl.-Ing. Norbert Tempel, L
Page 206 and 207:
The conservation of a Victorian shi
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sold to the Falkland Islanders and
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Figure 9. Fort Brockhurst Bridge -
Page 212 and 213:
Figure 13 Artist’s impression of
Page 214 and 215:
Figure 21 View from bow after the w
Page 216:
[3] Transactions of the Institute o
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38 in total, included on the Norweg
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published a new version of their fi
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Figure 4. The turbines, one origina
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Author Vigdis Vingelsgaard Conserva
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Figure 2: 6200 locomotive on front
Page 229 and 230:
Figure 4: Methyl bromide extinguish
Page 231 and 232:
2. Biological: Obvious biological h
Page 234:
Finalizing Comments
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colliery engine house to have stain
Page 239 and 240:
for us to think that the treatment
Page 241 and 242:
certain product may quickly turn in
Page 244:
Organising committee anDersen, vivi
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