RA 00110.pdf - OAR@ICRISAT

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Economics of Millet Production In 1975 Norman highlighted the economic advantage of intercropping in traditional African farming systems. He showed that in northern Nigeria, both average gross and net returns per unit area were about 60% higher from crop mixtures than sole crops, and increased with the number of crops. But Norman's data were from the Northern Guinean Zone, where millet is a subsidiary crop that is only grown in mixtures. In 1982, I C R I S A T began a long-term socioeconomic study in two villages in western Niger in the heart of the millet-growing zone of West Africa. Sole-crop millet is grown on 30-50% of the gross cropped area depending on season and rainfall. The 1982-83 data are from an area where long-term expected rainfall is 450-550 mm (Virmani et al. 1980), but in which actual rainfall in the 2 years was 50-80% of the total. Soils are uniformly sandy with irregular topography. Under traditional farming conditions, average millet grain yields were very low, ranging from 130- 285 kg ha -1 , while cowpea grain yields were virtually zero (Table 6). Millet yields were higher in intercrops than in pure crop stands. At the low plant densities used by farmers, and since cowpea is usually planted about 3 weeks after millet, the cowpea does not reduce the millet yield. Rather, it contributes hay which increases the gross income. Thus total output of millet/cowpea intercrops was usually at least double that of a sole-crop millet. Intercrops containing sorghum also produced higher millet yields than sole-crop millet. But this was because such intercrops are generally planted in lower-lying areas where farmers expect that there will be adequate moisture to meet the higher needs of sorghum. Their expectations were not fulfilled in 1982 and 1983, and the sorghum produced no grain. Labor use on millet/cowpea intercrops was at least one-third higher than for sole-crop millet because of the need to plant cowpea after millet, to weed between millet as well as cowpea rows, and to harvest cowpea. No more than 10% of the labor was hired, confirming that the farms are mainly traditional family farms. Gross margins were calculated by deducting all variable costs (mainly the value of seed and hired labor), from gross output. Gross margins ha -1 averaged 11 000 F C F A for sole-crop millet (about 350 F C F A = US$ 1 at present exchange rates). The gross margin ha -1 was at least 20% higher for the millet/ sorghum and millet/sorrel intercrops, and over 80% higher wherever there was cowpea in the intercrop. Returns to family labor, measured by gross margin per hour were also much higher for intercrops, than for sole-crop millet. It is clear that under traditional farming conditions in western Niger, economic returns are substantially higher for intercropped than sole-cropped millet. Constraints to Increased Millet Production Constraints to increased millet production in Africa can be classified into abiotic and biotic constraints. Abiotic Constraints • Low and erratic rainfall in a short season, leading to drought periods of varying lengths. • Sand storms, high-intensity rains, and high soil temperatures cause poor seedling establishment. • Poor soils with low levels of natural fertility and low water holding capacities. • Traditional management practices such as low crop densities, nonuse of fertilizers, or poor or no tillage. • Lack of household capital and poor credit and input delivery systems limit the scope to improve management practices. Biotic Constraints • Low genetic yield potential of land races which respond poorly to improved management. • Diseases such as downy mildew and smut. • Insect pests such as stem borer and earhead caterpillar. • Parasitism by Striga. • Grain-eating birds. The challenge facing millet researchers is to develop improved technology which could mitigate the adverse effects of these constraints, and that would be within the reach of small-scale, resourcepoor farmers in Africa. Summary Millet is grown in regions of Africa with rainfall ranging from 200-800 mm and with a growing sea- 27
Table 6. Productivity of alternative millet based cropping systems in western Niger, 1982/1983. Cropping System 1 M M / C M / S M / C / S M / C / S / L M / L M / C / L Ha Farm - 1 4.4 3.3 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.9 1.2 Family Labor Use (man-hour equivalents ha -1 ) 2 Male 108.3 5.4 14.2 Female Child Total 120.8 143.5 8.9 20.6 162.7 110.5 6.8 11.1 122.9 205.5 11.5 33.8 233.9 189.2 14.0 20.0 213.2 127.9 7.3 11.0 140.7 178.7 8.0 25.1 199.3 Hired Labor Use (man-hour equivalents ha -1 ) Male Female Child Total Fert.(kg ha -1 ) Seed (kg ha -1 ) Millet Cowpea Sorghum Sorreli Total Cost ( F CFA) 11.9 0.2 0.0 12.1 1.2 4.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 1707.3 15.2 0.1 0.0 15.3 5.9 5.4 0.8 0.0 0.0 2765.7 8.9 0.3 0.0 9.3 0.0 5.3 0.0 0.5 0.0 1519.3 9.7 2.3 0.0 12.0 0.7 7.1 1.2 1.5 0.0 2949.5 21.5 0.2 0.0 21.7 0.0 6.4 0.6 0.6 0.3 2936.9 7.3 0.2 0.0 7.5 3.7 4.7 0.0 0.0 0.4 1228.0 11.9 0.5 0.0 12.4 2.2 11.3 0.7 0.0 0.3 2414.8 Grain yield (kg ha -1 ) Millet Cowpea Sorghum Sorrell 128.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 215.4 2.7 0.0 0.0 155.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 283.9 7.7 0.0 0.0 240.8 1.0 0.0 0.0 143.5 0.0 0.0 1.4 224.7 0.8 0.0 0.7 Harvested hay/straw output (kg ha -1 ) Millet 0.9 Cowpea Sorghum 0.0 0.0 1.9 30.5 0.0 0.8 0.0 5.1 5.9 73.6 2.0 1.3 65.7 11.5 1.0 0.0 0.0 2.8 54.2 0.0 Value of output (F CFA h a ' ) 3 Grain 12686 Straw 5 Total 12692 21007 2823 23830 16797 38 16834 29499 6812 36311 25522 6164 31687 14328 10 14337 21914 5013 26927 Gross margin (F CFA) Per ha Per hour 10985 91 21064 129 15315 125 33361 143 28750 135 13109 93 24513 123 1. Crops in system : M = millet, C = cowpea, S = sorghum, L = sorreli. 2. 1 man-hour equivalent = 1 man-hour = 1 woman-hour = 0.5 child-hour. 3. FCFA = Unit of currency in West Africa. son from 60-150 d. About 70% of African pearl millet crop is produced in West Africa. Millet is primarily grown by subsistence farmers under harsh environmental conditions in intercrop systems with other cereals and legumes, on smallscale family farms. There are many abiotic and biotic constraints to increased millet production. Millet is the staple food in some of the poorest countries and regions of Africa, but its production has increased at only 0.7% a -1 during the last two decades. This is much less than the population growth rate, and is the lowest growth rate for food crops in the region. Furthermore, these increases have been due mainly to increases in cultivated area 28
Page 2 and 3: Cover: Ex-Bornu, an important landr
Page 4 and 5: Correct citation: I C R I S A T (In
Page 6 and 7: Pearl Millet Entomology Insect Pest
Page 8 and 9: Potential and Prospects of Pearl Mi
Page 10 and 11: tropical countries i t w i l l be v
Page 12: Opening Session
Page 15 and 16: globusum has globose caryopses, and
Page 17 and 18: Area, Production, and Productivity:
Page 19 and 20: area increased substantially in Raj
Page 21 and 22: apply complex fertilizer at 20-60 k
Page 23 and 24: Diseases. Diseases are endemic to p
Page 25 and 26: levels of adoption. The relative co
Page 27 and 28: Socioeconomic Factors Management. T
Page 30 and 31: Pearl Millet in African Agriculture
Page 32 and 33: The poor performance in food produc
Page 34 and 35: 900 800 700 600 Mean 500 400 300 20
Page 36 and 37: population pressures in recent year
Page 40 and 41: ather than to yield increases, show
Page 42: Simpara, M. B. 1985. La recherche s
Page 45 and 46: making it possible to grow a number
Page 47 and 48: in about 30 accessions. Unlike mono
Page 49 and 50: genome male-sterile lines, and A A
Page 51 and 52: Pearl m i l l e t (Pennisetum ameri
Page 53 and 54: Vasil, V., and Vasil, I . K . 1981a
Page 55 and 56: Introduction Pearl millet (Penniset
Page 57 and 58: Clean sorghum o r m i l l e t G r i
Page 60 and 61: peas, peanuts, or baobab leaves. Wh
Page 62 and 63: Beer Two major kinds of beer are pr
Page 64 and 65: properties for pearl millets. It is
Page 66 and 67: 54 Figure 9. A. Pearl millet with a
Page 68 and 69: the germ (McDonough 1986). The high
Page 70 and 71: Table 6. Nitrogen distribution in s
Page 72 and 73: Banigo, E.O.I., de Man, J.B., and D
Page 75 and 76: Discussion The discussion of the pa
Page 77: Improvement through Plant Breeding
Page 81 and 82: Diversity and Utilization of Pearl
Page 83 and 84: with protruding grains, but in the
Page 85 and 86: Table 2. Pearl millet accessions as
Page 87 and 88: lese millets constitute two distinc
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turn, P. purpureum, (Dujardin and H
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more to useful genetic diversificat
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Hanna, W . W . , Wells, H . D . , a
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Varietal Improvement of Pearl Mille
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the weedy form can significantly in
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Table 3. Evaluation of heterosis in
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Table 4. Grain yield of local 3/4 p
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ased on selection of drought-resist
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Marchais, L., and Pernes, J. 1985.
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Andrews 1984), there are operationa
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S h o r t - t e r m g o a l s I n t
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Table 4a. Prediction equations, adv
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Table 4c. Prediction equations, adv
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Nebraska B s y n t h e t i c o r i
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6 P o p u l a t i o n c r o s s e s
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Pearl Millet Hybrids H . R . Dave 1
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Table 2. Early released hybrids in
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Table 6. Performance of third phase
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Breeding Pearl Millet Male-Sterile
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Table 1. Male-sterile lines of pear
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Senegal. This source is reported to
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possible solutions to produce high
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selected from IP 2696 has recently
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Burton, G.W., and Athwal, D.S. 1967
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Biological Factors Affecting Pearl
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Moderator's Overview Biological Fac
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Introduction Downy mildew of pearl
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2 3 1 2 4 6 I 5 3 1 A s e x u a l s
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however, that wind plays an importa
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Figure 4. Figure assembly to demons
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in sterilized distilled water. Leav
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Frederiksen, R.A., and Rosenow, D .
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Tasugi, H. 1933. Studies on Japanes
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(Decarvalho 1949), Nigeria (King an
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Table 1. Differential and stable do
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ness against certain Phycomycetes (
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Large s c a l e f i e l d s c r e e
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References A I C M I P ( A U India
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Sun, M . H . , Chang, S.S., and Tsa
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Introduction Ergot (Claviceps fusif
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antidotale (Thakur and Kanwar 1978)
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Table 1. Performance of some select
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Table 4. Performance of some select
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Siddiqui, M . R . , and Khan, I . D
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184
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186
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188
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190
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192
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194
Page 208 and 209:
Sahelian Zone Tunisia 0 km 1000 Mor
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eflexa, and other scarab beetle spe
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200 Partially Burning, Bagging, and
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Table 1. Predators, parasites, and
Page 216 and 217:
References Appert, J. 1957. Les Par
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Role and Utilization of Microbial A
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located through the root phloem. In
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They are not strong competitors in
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Fred, E.B., Baldwin, I . L . , and
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Climatic and Edaphic Limitations to
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much larger, about 2-4 kPa. Differe
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over the range that occurs in the f
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224 top 2 m holds from 100-250 mm o
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The conservative nature of qD is ex
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228 Table 4. Root and shoot charact
Page 242 and 243:
Research on all these responses sho
Page 245 and 246:
Making Millet Improvement Objective
Page 247 and 248:
Table 1. Percentage of cultivated a
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• Well adapted, early-maturity, l
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in tests conducted by ICRISAT on fa
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ing a relatively good year in the S
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stress, as well as to genetic diffe
Page 257:
Norman, D . W . , Newman, M . D . ,
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919.0 1212.0, Total area: 11.19 m i
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Table 4. Economics of pearl millet
Page 264 and 265:
Azospirillum as a Seed Inoculant Az
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Management Practices to Increase Yi
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1500 1300 1100 900 700 500 300 100
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a physical form similar to SSP and
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Tillage The beneficial effects of t
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tivars of different maturity groups
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as fertility. The nitrogen contribu
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Greenland, D.J. 1958. Nitrate fluct
Page 281 and 282:
Breeding for Adaptation to Environm
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15 S i k a r D i s t r i c t 15 Nia
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Table 2. Percentage of variation in
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Table 3. Correlation of the drought
Page 289 and 290:
Selection for Traits Correlated to
Page 291:
Discussion Squire's paper drew on d
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Androgenesis and Enzymatic Diversit
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Research on Pearl Millet Hybrids in
Page 299 and 300:
La couleur des grains est variable.
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processed in different ways dependi
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Genetic Divergence in Landraces of
Page 305 and 306:
Pearl Millet Regional Trials by CIL
Page 307 and 308:
cultural practices such as early pl
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Host-Plant Resistance to Insect Pes
Page 311 and 312:
of synthetics and composite varieti
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Pearl Millet Microbiology Potential
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available phosphate level in the so
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Pearl Millet Production in Drier Ar
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with cowpea system was the most eff
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Pearl Millet Pathology Disease Inci
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diseases hitherto undescribed are c
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Stunt and Counter-Stunt Symptoms in
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promising sources of resistance: Se
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69-188 mm for total seedling length
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un certain nombre de contraintes d'
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Priorities for Crop Protection Rese
Page 337 and 338:
• those falling into other discip
Page 339 and 340:
Striga Breeding for resistance to S
Page 341:
ting improved cultivars to existing
Page 345 and 346:
Survey of Pearl Millet Production a
Page 347 and 348:
Table 4. Major constraints to produ
Page 349 and 350:
Table 6. Extent of cultivation of r
Page 351 and 352:
Table 10. Area planted to released
Page 353:
Table 12. Production area and produ
Page 357 and 358:
Participants Botswana Louis Mazhani
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Madhya Pradesh G.S. Chauhan Millet
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M . N . Prasad Professor & Head Cot
Page 363 and 364:
S.K. Manzo Plant Pathologist Depart
Page 365 and 366:
ICRISAT Center S. Appa Rao Botanist
Page 367 and 368:
RA-00110
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