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nists, microbiologists, and agronomists in specialized areas such as physiology, nutrition, and genetics, must first describe the form and define the function of the systems. They must determine the range of conditions under which these systems do or do not function. This information may then be used by plant breeders to produce plant genotypes which possess the characteristics needed to preferentially favor rhizosphere colonization by potentially beneficial indigenous soil microbes. The requisite microbes are already there. A highly favorable environment in the form of a "genetically engineered" rhizosphere must be provided in order to increase their numbers and activity. Details of how this might be accomplished are the domain of plant geneticists. One possible approach may be for the breeder to avoid selecting plant genotypes that show maximum fertilizer response. Many root-microbe associations form more readily and yield maximum benefits under low-fertility conditions. Perhaps through utilization of more primitive germplasm, plants could be bred or selected which grow reasonably well under a range of adverse conditions. Soil moisture, pH, temperature, etc., and the microbiological component of the soil environment, can be modified only to a limited extent on a field scale, if at all. The most promising alternative appears to be breeding plant genotypes which will inherently encourage or support beneficial R - M associations capable of enhancing plant growth. Summary The symbiotic nitrogen-fixing association of Rhizobium with legumes is successfully exploited agronomically via inoculation. The rhizobia infect and fix nitrogen intracellularly in the roots via a mechanism which permits direct and efficient exchange of substrates and products in an environment largely insulated from process-limiting environmental factors. The rhizobia can be grown in the massive amounts required for large-scale field application. The symbiotic association of V A M fungi with herbaceous plants, which enhances plant uptake of phosphorus (and other beneficial effects), is also biologically feasible for agronomic exploitation via inoculation. Again, this is because the fungi establish an intimate intracellular association in the roots * of the host plants; this permits efficient plantmicrobe nutrient exchange in a system that is largely insulated against potentially process-limiting factors. Future agronomic exploitation on a practical field scale may be largely dependent on development of means to grow the fungi independently in mass culture as an inoculant source. Cryptic R - M associations, as exemplified by the AzospiriJIum-grass association, are known to possess characteristics which can enhance plant growth under special conditions. These include nitrogenfixation and production of PGPS. The microorganisms can be grown in mass culture, so availability of inoculant poses no limitation to agronomic exploitation. However, the absence of a specialized morphological and physiological intimacy in this type of association makes successful, wide-scale exploitation via inoculation impossible or highly improbable. A highly promising alternative to inoculation as a means of exploiting these cryptic associations is to breed plant genotypes with genetically-based characteristics which determine rhizosphere properties conducive to establishment and function of indigenous cryptic microbes. Whatever the mechanism, these microbes would have the requisite ability to enhance plant growth. References Alexander, M. (ed.) 1984. Biological nitrogen fixationecology, technology, and physiology: proceedings of a Training Course on Biological Nitrogen Fixation and its Ecological Basis, 18-29 Jan 1982, Caracas, Venezuela. New York, USA: Plenum Press. Bagyaraj, D.J. 1984. Biological interactions with VA mycorrhizal fungi. Pages 131-153/n V A mycorrhiza (Powell, C.U., and Bagyaraj, D.J., eds.). Boca Raton, Florida, USA: CRC Press. Broughton, W.J. (ed.) 1982. Nitrogen fixation. Vol. 2. Rhizobium. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. 353 pp. Brown, M.E. 1974. Seed and root bacterization. Annual Review of Phytopathology 127:181-197. 107 ref. Dobereiner, J., and Day, J.M. 1976. Associative symbiosis in tropical grasses: characterization of microorganisms and dinitrogen fixing sites. Pages 518-538 in Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Nitrogen Fixation, 3-7 Jun 1974, Pullman, Washington, USA (Newton, W.E., and Nyman, C.J., eds.). Pullman, Washington, USA: Washington State University Press. Dommergues, Y., and Krupa, S.V. (eds.) 1977. Interactions between non-pathogenic soil microorganisms and plants. Amsterdam, Holland: Elsevier 475 pp. Elmerich, C. 1984. Molecular biology and ecology of Diazotrophs associated with non-leguminous plants. Biotechnology November 1984: 967-984. 264 ref. 212
Fred, E.B., Baldwin, I . L . , and McCoy, E. 1932. Root nodule bacteria and leguminous plants. Madison, Wisconsin, USA: University of Wisconsin Press. 343 pp. Ferguson, J.J. (ed.) 1984. Applications of mycorrhizal fungi in crop production. Proceedings of a conference, Feb 22-23, 1984. Gainesville, Florida, USA: Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. Gaskins, M . H . , Hubbell, D . H . , and Albrecht, S.L. 1983. Interactions between grasses and rhizosphere nitrogenfixing bacteria. Pages 327-329 in Proceedings of the X I V International Grassland Congress, 15-24 Jun 1981, Lexington, Kentucky, USA (Smith, J.A., and Hays, V.W., eds.). Boulder, Colorado, USA: Westview Press. Hubbell, D . H . , and Gaskins, M . H . 1980. 'Cryptic' plant root-microorganism interactions. What's New in Plant Physiology 11(5): 17-19. Hubbell, D . H . and Gaskins, M . H . 1984. Associative N 2 fixation with Azospirillum. Pages 201-224 in Biological nitrogen fixation (Alexander, M . , ed.). New York, USA: Plenum Publishing Corp. Katznelson, H . , Lochhead, A.G., and Timonin, M . I . 1948. Soil microorganisms and the rhizosphere. Botanical Review 14(9):543- 587. 140 refs. Knowles, R. (ed.) 1983. Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Nitrogen Fixation with Non-legumes, 5-10 Sep 1982, Banff, Alberta, Canada. Canadian Journal of Microbiology 29(8):837-1069. Krishna, K.R. 1985. Vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhiza for efficient use of fertilizer phosphorus. Pages 167-177 in Proceedings of the National Symposium on Current Trends in Soil Biology, 25-27 Feb 1985. Hisar, Haryana, India. Hisar, India: Haryana Agricultural University. Lethbridge, G., Davidson, M.S., and Sparling, G.P. 1982. Critical evaluation of the acetylene reduction test for estimating the activity of nitrogen-fixing bacteria associated with the roots of wheat and barley. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 14:27-35. 24 ref. Mishustin, E.N., and Naumova, A . N . 1962. Bacterial fertilizers, their effectiveness and mode of action. Mikrobiologiya 31(3):543-555. 41 ref. Neal, J.L., Jr., Larson, R . I . , and Atkinson, T.G. 1973. Changes in rhizosphere populations of selected physiological groups of bacteria related to substitution of specific pairs of chromosomes in spring wheat. Plant and Soil 39:209-212. Neyra, C.A., and Dobereiner, J. 1977. Nitrogen fixation in grasses. Advances in Agronomy 29:1-38. Schenck, N.C. (ed.) 1982. Methods and Principles of Mycorrhizal Research. St. Paul, Minnesota, USA: American Phytopathological Society. 244 pp. Siqueira, J.O., Sylvia, D . M . , Gibson, J., and Hubbell, D . H . 1985. Spores, germination, and germ tubes of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Canadian Journal of Microbiology 31(11):965-972. 65 ref. Somasegaran, P., and Hoben, H.J. 1985. Methods in legume-rhizobium technology. Paia, Hawaii, USA: University of Hawaii, Department of Agronomy and Soil Science. Subba Rao, N.S., and Krishna, K.R. (In Press). Interaction between vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhiza and nitrogen-fixing micro-organisms and their influence on plant growth and nutrition. In New Trends in biological nitrogen fixation (Subba Rao, N.S., ed.). New Delhi, India: Oxford and I B H Publishing Co. 96 ref. Tinker, P.B. 1984. The role of microorganisms in mediating and facilitating the uptake of plant nutrients from soil. Plant and soil 76(1-3): 77-91. 78 ref. van Berkum, P., and Bohlool, B.B. 1980. Evaluation of nitrogen fixation by bacteria in association with roots of tropical grasses. Microbiological Reviews 44(3):491-517. 215 ref. Vincent, J . M . (ed.) 1982. Nitrogen fixation in legumes. New York, USA: Academic Press. 288 pp. Vose, P.B., and Ruschel, A.P. (eds.) 1981. Associative N 2 -fixation: proceedings of the International Workshop of Associative N 2 -Fixation, 2-6 Jul 1979, Piracicaba, Brazil. 2 vols. Boca Raton, Florida, USA: CRC Press. Wani, S.P. 1986. Nitrogen fixation associated with cereals and forage grasses. Pages 227-240 in Soil biology: proceedings of the National Symposium on Current Trends in Soil Biology, 25-27 Feb 1985, Hisar, India (Mishra, M . M . , and Kapoor, K . K . , eds.). Hisar, Haryana, India: Haryana Agricultural University. Wani, S.P., and Lee, K.K. 1986. Developments in nonlegume N 2 -fixing systems. Pages 163-166 in Current status of biological nitrogen fixation research: papers presented at the National Symposium, 6-8 Feb 1986, Hisar, India (Singh, R., Nainawatee, H.S., and Sawhney, S.K., eds.). Hisar, Haryana, India: Haryana Agricultural University. 213
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Cover: Ex-Bornu, an important landr
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Correct citation: I C R I S A T (In
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Pearl Millet Entomology Insect Pest
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Potential and Prospects of Pearl Mi
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tropical countries i t w i l l be v
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Opening Session
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globusum has globose caryopses, and
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Area, Production, and Productivity:
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area increased substantially in Raj
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apply complex fertilizer at 20-60 k
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Diseases. Diseases are endemic to p
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levels of adoption. The relative co
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Socioeconomic Factors Management. T
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Pearl Millet in African Agriculture
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The poor performance in food produc
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900 800 700 600 Mean 500 400 300 20
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population pressures in recent year
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Economics of Millet Production In 1
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ather than to yield increases, show
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Simpara, M. B. 1985. La recherche s
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making it possible to grow a number
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in about 30 accessions. Unlike mono
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genome male-sterile lines, and A A
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Pearl m i l l e t (Pennisetum ameri
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Vasil, V., and Vasil, I . K . 1981a
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Introduction Pearl millet (Penniset
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Clean sorghum o r m i l l e t G r i
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peas, peanuts, or baobab leaves. Wh
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Beer Two major kinds of beer are pr
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properties for pearl millets. It is
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54 Figure 9. A. Pearl millet with a
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the germ (McDonough 1986). The high
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Table 6. Nitrogen distribution in s
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Banigo, E.O.I., de Man, J.B., and D
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Discussion The discussion of the pa
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Improvement through Plant Breeding
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Diversity and Utilization of Pearl
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with protruding grains, but in the
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Table 2. Pearl millet accessions as
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lese millets constitute two distinc
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turn, P. purpureum, (Dujardin and H
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more to useful genetic diversificat
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Hanna, W . W . , Wells, H . D . , a
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Varietal Improvement of Pearl Mille
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the weedy form can significantly in
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Table 3. Evaluation of heterosis in
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Table 4. Grain yield of local 3/4 p
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ased on selection of drought-resist
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Marchais, L., and Pernes, J. 1985.
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Andrews 1984), there are operationa
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S h o r t - t e r m g o a l s I n t
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Table 4a. Prediction equations, adv
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Table 4c. Prediction equations, adv
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Nebraska B s y n t h e t i c o r i
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6 P o p u l a t i o n c r o s s e s
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Pearl Millet Hybrids H . R . Dave 1
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Table 2. Early released hybrids in
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Table 6. Performance of third phase
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Breeding Pearl Millet Male-Sterile
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Table 1. Male-sterile lines of pear
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Senegal. This source is reported to
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possible solutions to produce high
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selected from IP 2696 has recently
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Burton, G.W., and Athwal, D.S. 1967
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Biological Factors Affecting Pearl
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Moderator's Overview Biological Fac
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Introduction Downy mildew of pearl
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2 3 1 2 4 6 I 5 3 1 A s e x u a l s
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however, that wind plays an importa
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Figure 4. Figure assembly to demons
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in sterilized distilled water. Leav
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Frederiksen, R.A., and Rosenow, D .
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Tasugi, H. 1933. Studies on Japanes
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Page 176 and 177: Table 1. Differential and stable do
Page 178 and 179: ness against certain Phycomycetes (
Page 180 and 181: Large s c a l e f i e l d s c r e e
Page 182 and 183: References A I C M I P ( A U India
Page 184 and 185: Sun, M . H . , Chang, S.S., and Tsa
Page 186 and 187: Introduction Ergot (Claviceps fusif
Page 188 and 189: antidotale (Thakur and Kanwar 1978)
Page 190 and 191: Table 1. Performance of some select
Page 192 and 193: Table 4. Performance of some select
Page 194 and 195: Siddiqui, M . R . , and Khan, I . D
Page 196 and 197: 184
Page 198 and 199: 186
Page 200 and 201: 188
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Page 204 and 205: 192
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Page 208 and 209: Sahelian Zone Tunisia 0 km 1000 Mor
Page 210 and 211: eflexa, and other scarab beetle spe
Page 212 and 213: 200 Partially Burning, Bagging, and
Page 214 and 215: Table 1. Predators, parasites, and
Page 216 and 217: References Appert, J. 1957. Les Par
Page 219 and 220: Role and Utilization of Microbial A
Page 221 and 222: located through the root phloem. In
Page 223: They are not strong competitors in
Page 229: Climatic and Edaphic Limitations to
Page 232 and 233: much larger, about 2-4 kPa. Differe
Page 234 and 235: over the range that occurs in the f
Page 236 and 237: 224 top 2 m holds from 100-250 mm o
Page 238 and 239: The conservative nature of qD is ex
Page 240 and 241: 228 Table 4. Root and shoot charact
Page 242 and 243: Research on all these responses sho
Page 245 and 246: Making Millet Improvement Objective
Page 247 and 248: Table 1. Percentage of cultivated a
Page 249 and 250: • Well adapted, early-maturity, l
Page 251 and 252: in tests conducted by ICRISAT on fa
Page 253 and 254: ing a relatively good year in the S
Page 255 and 256: stress, as well as to genetic diffe
Page 257: Norman, D . W . , Newman, M . D . ,
Page 260 and 261: 919.0 1212.0, Total area: 11.19 m i
Page 262 and 263: Table 4. Economics of pearl millet
Page 264 and 265: Azospirillum as a Seed Inoculant Az
Page 267 and 268: Management Practices to Increase Yi
Page 269 and 270: 1500 1300 1100 900 700 500 300 100
Page 271 and 272: a physical form similar to SSP and
Page 273 and 274: Tillage The beneficial effects of t
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tivars of different maturity groups
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as fertility. The nitrogen contribu
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Greenland, D.J. 1958. Nitrate fluct
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Breeding for Adaptation to Environm
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15 S i k a r D i s t r i c t 15 Nia
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Table 2. Percentage of variation in
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Table 3. Correlation of the drought
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Selection for Traits Correlated to
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Discussion Squire's paper drew on d
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Androgenesis and Enzymatic Diversit
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Research on Pearl Millet Hybrids in
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La couleur des grains est variable.
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processed in different ways dependi
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Genetic Divergence in Landraces of
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Pearl Millet Regional Trials by CIL
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cultural practices such as early pl
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Host-Plant Resistance to Insect Pes
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of synthetics and composite varieti
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Pearl Millet Microbiology Potential
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available phosphate level in the so
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Pearl Millet Production in Drier Ar
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with cowpea system was the most eff
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Pearl Millet Pathology Disease Inci
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diseases hitherto undescribed are c
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Stunt and Counter-Stunt Symptoms in
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promising sources of resistance: Se
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69-188 mm for total seedling length
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un certain nombre de contraintes d'
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Priorities for Crop Protection Rese
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• those falling into other discip
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Striga Breeding for resistance to S
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ting improved cultivars to existing
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Survey of Pearl Millet Production a
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Table 4. Major constraints to produ
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Table 6. Extent of cultivation of r
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Table 10. Area planted to released
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Table 12. Production area and produ
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Participants Botswana Louis Mazhani
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Madhya Pradesh G.S. Chauhan Millet
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M . N . Prasad Professor & Head Cot
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S.K. Manzo Plant Pathologist Depart
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ICRISAT Center S. Appa Rao Botanist
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RA-00110
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