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GREEN CROSS RUSSIA<br />
GREEN CROSS SWITZERLAND<br />
GLOBAL GREEN <strong>USA</strong><br />
RUSSIAN NUCLEAR<br />
NATIONAL DIALOGUE<br />
ENERGY, SOCIETY, AND SECURITY<br />
Moscow, 18–19 april, 2007<br />
Moscow, 2007
This collection presents research and presentations as well as questions and answers<br />
from the Russian Nuclear National Dialogue “Energy, Society and Security” organized<br />
by <strong>Green</strong> Cross Russia, <strong>Green</strong> Cross Switzerland, and <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Green</strong> <strong>USA</strong> on<br />
18-19 April 2007 in Moscow.<br />
Participants included representatives of federal and regional organizations, state and<br />
public structures, science and project institutes, leaders and specialists of the Russian<br />
nuclear fuel cycle complex enterprises, and international representatives participating<br />
in the discussion of overcoming the nuclear arms race legacy, nuclear energy development,<br />
and alternative and renewable energy sources.<br />
In their presentations, the conference speakers offered various options of solving key<br />
problems regarding the safe use of nuclear technology. These problems affect state<br />
policy development in terms of the ecological safety of the nuclear energy complex.<br />
They also affect the process of building public consensus on nuclear energy issues.<br />
Organizers: <strong>Green</strong> Cross International, the Federal Agency for the Atomic<br />
Energy (Rosatom), the Rosatom Public Council.<br />
Co-organizer: The Elektronika Bank Corporated Enterprise.<br />
General Partner: “SOGAZ” Insurance Company.<br />
Sponsors: The organizers wish to express their gratitude to the Federal State Unitary<br />
Enterprise (FSUE), Corporate Group “Rosenergoatom,” Joint Stock Company<br />
(JSC) “TVEL,” FSUE ISK “Rosatomstroy,” the governments of Switzerland,<br />
Canada, France, Sweden and Norway, as well as the Trust for Mutual Understanding<br />
of the <strong>USA</strong> that provided financial support in conducting this Forum.<br />
Special thanks to the editing and translation team are noted on the last page of the book.<br />
The presentation texts and research papers that are published in this Dialogue’s collection<br />
have been translated and edited into English from original Russian versions, and are the<br />
sole opinion of the authors.<br />
© <strong>Green</strong> Cross Russia, 2007<br />
© <strong>Green</strong> Cross Switzerland, 2007<br />
© <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Green</strong> <strong>USA</strong>, 2007
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Preface<br />
In most countries of the world, contemporary economic development leads to a<br />
sharp increase in energy needs. At the same time, the limitations of the existing energy<br />
sources are becoming all the more noticeable. Some of the major petroleum and natural<br />
gas reserves are located in politically unstable regions. Moreover, the growing use of<br />
petroleum and natural gas goes against the Kyoto protocol provisions.<br />
The use of nuclear energy entails a number of challenges in terms of public acceptability.<br />
These challenges include unsolved problems of nuclear waste and the need<br />
to create a new nuclear fuel cycle. There are also many ideas for alternative energy<br />
sources. However, as of today, they do not present opportunities for large-scale energy<br />
production.<br />
At the end of the Cold War, the fifty-year old arms race stopped, and a largescale<br />
nuclear conflict was no longer a threat. Faith and hope for a new multipolar world<br />
replaced the threat of thousands of nuclear warheads destroying our civilization.<br />
The end of this bipolar standoff indeed reduced the risk of a nuclear world war;<br />
yet new challenges became more apparent. Today, Russia faces many issues in the nuclear<br />
field that have both domestic as well as international implications. How to dismantle<br />
nuclear weapons and missile delivery systems What to do with nuclear waste and<br />
how to transport it What to do with fission materials and how to process them How<br />
can nuclear materials be effectively protected in accordance with the nonproliferation<br />
principles What is the role of the atom in the future of energy And, possibly, the most<br />
central question of them all: how safe is current and Cold War nuclear technology<br />
Following the Kyshtym and the Chernobyl accidents, it became apparent that<br />
the right to nuclear and radiation safety and security constitute one of the basic human<br />
rights. The issues of safety provisions for the environment and population are now of<br />
utmost importance given the mass liquidation of delivery systems and nuclear weapons<br />
themselves, and the widespread proliferation of nuclear energy.<br />
None of these problems can be solved without the Russian society’s understanding,<br />
support, and acknowledgement of the national strategy.<br />
On the 18 th and 19 th of April 2007, a National Dialogue took place in Moscow.<br />
<strong>It</strong> was entitled “Energy, Society and Security.” <strong>It</strong> was an attempt to reach an agreement<br />
and understanding within our society on the issues of nuclear and radiation safety in the<br />
territory of the Russian Federation. <strong>It</strong> was also a discussion on overcoming the Cold<br />
War legacy and determining possible methods of safe nuclear energy development.<br />
<strong>Green</strong> Cross Russia Press-Service
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Opening Remarks<br />
Sergey I. Baranovsky, President, <strong>Green</strong> Cross Russia<br />
I am very pleased to introduce to you the <strong>Green</strong> Cross / <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Green</strong>’s Nuclear<br />
National Dialogue. Almost ten years ago, in 1998, <strong>Green</strong> Cross Russia began an initiative that<br />
was completely new to the post-Soviet public: the implementation of the Chemical Weapons<br />
Convention. This is not a simple issue to decipher in both economic and social terms, and<br />
there have been many contradictions and social pressure in this area.<br />
The idea was to bring together representatives from all of the social groups<br />
involved in this process in one place at least once a year. First and foremost, there<br />
are representatives from the communities where chemical weapons are stored and destroyed.<br />
Because of the potential dangers, those living in direct proximity to the arsenals<br />
and future destruction facilities are clearly not indifferent to what and how these<br />
processes will be happening. We have to listen to these people, and make them feel<br />
that they are part of this process, by giving them the opportunity to participate in the<br />
decision making process.<br />
The second group is comprised of the regional and local law-making and influential<br />
powers. This would be a governor or a republic president, as well as the<br />
regional media.<br />
The third sector, which is very important, includes the federal agencies that carry<br />
out the Convention’s provisions. They execute the Russian Chemical Weapons Destruction<br />
(CWD) program: the planning, building, and good functioning of the chemical<br />
weapons destruction facilities.<br />
<strong>It</strong> is also very important to stress that there is a fourth party without which the<br />
successful implementation of the Convention would not be possible. We know about the<br />
meeting at Kananaskis and the creation of the <strong>Global</strong> Partnership against the Proliferation<br />
of Weapons of Mass Destruction in 2002. We know that many nation-states are aiding<br />
the Russian Federation with these matters. At this Forum, the states’ representatives<br />
have the opportunity to come together not only with the leaders of our country’s federal<br />
agencies but also, and most importantly, with the people who live near the arsenals and<br />
destruction facilities.<br />
We see our task as prompting civilians into action and presenting opportunities<br />
for the state agencies to be accountable to society, to hear the public’s comments, and<br />
to answer their questions. Our county is transitioning into a civil society, and there<br />
are many different social organizations which also take part in overcoming the effects<br />
of the Cold War. Our Forum has become a dialogue specifically because the state<br />
agencies have responded to the public’s demands and objections. As a result, we see
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
that in the sphere of CWD, the relationship between the federal government and the<br />
regions is becoming less tense, having gone from confrontation to constructive collaboration.<br />
This shift enables Russia to fulfill the CWD program and its international<br />
obligations.<br />
Contemporary economic development leads to a sharp increase in energy demand<br />
in most countries of the world. At the same time, the limitations of the current<br />
energy sources are becoming more and more noticeable, especially when some of the<br />
main petroleum and gas sources are located in politically unstable regions. On the other<br />
hand, the increasing use of petroleum and gas goes against the Kyoto Protocol regulations,<br />
as it can increase global warming.<br />
The fact that many states are directing their attention to nuclear energy sources<br />
is not coincidental. Due to unsolved problems, such as waste and security issues, the<br />
idea of nuclear energy has significant difficulties with public approval. Maybe a new<br />
fuel cycle needs to be created.<br />
There are many suggestions regarding alternative energy sources. However,<br />
they do not provide immediate opportunities for large-scale energy production. On the<br />
other hand, the end of the Cold War stopped the 50-year arms race and eliminated the<br />
threat of a large-scale nuclear conflict between Russia and the United States. Faith in<br />
the new, multi-polar world has altered the idea of thousands of nuclear devices destroying<br />
civilization.<br />
Although the end of the global standoff has truly diminished the risk of widespread<br />
nuclear war, other risks have become more apparent. Today, Russia must solve<br />
many nuclear-related problems that have not only domestic but also global implications:<br />
How to dismantle nuclear weapons and delivery systems Where to store nuclear waste<br />
and how to transport it What to do with radioactive substances and how to process<br />
them How to effectively protect nuclear materials in accordance with the nonproliferation<br />
principles What role to give to the atom in the future of energy<br />
In the aftermath of the Kyshtym and Chernobyl disasters, society understood that<br />
nuclear and radioactive safety is a basic human right. Environmental and public safety<br />
issues are of the utmost importance in the large-scale destruction of nuclear weapons<br />
and delivery systems, as well as the widespread use of nuclear energy.<br />
None of these problems can be resolved without the understanding and support<br />
of Russian society, specifically their comprehension and support of the national nuclear<br />
energy strategy.<br />
This is why <strong>Green</strong> Cross put forward an initiative to create a forum devoted to<br />
the debates about nuclear energy and the negative legacy of the Cold War and arms race.<br />
We call this Forum the „Nuclear Energy, Society, Safety.” Dialogue.”<br />
The Forum’s goals are to provide basic information and to open dialogue and<br />
collaboration between all sides and social levels regarding the future and safety of nuclear<br />
energy development and the improvement of nuclear and radioactive safety conditions<br />
within the Russian Federation. These two goals are also connected to the legacy<br />
of the Cold War: we want to reduce social tensions and establish acceptable approaches<br />
for solving radioactive safety problems, as well as forming constructive social opinion<br />
regarding these problems.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Future tasks may include the following:<br />
––developing publicly controlled regulations and radio-active monitoring of the<br />
production, storage, reprocessing and transportation facilities for nuclear fission and<br />
radio-active materials;<br />
––developing publicly controlled mechanism to monitor the activities of the military<br />
production complex in terms of the production, exploitation and testing of military<br />
projects and products for nuclear energy;<br />
––involving the public in the decision-making process.<br />
In conclusion, I would like to thank our sponsors and donors. Without their participation,<br />
our Forum-dialogue would have simply been impossible. These sponsors are:<br />
Organizers: <strong>Green</strong> Cross International, Federal Agency for the Atomic Energy,<br />
the Public council of the Federal Agency for the Atomic Energy.<br />
Co-organizer of the Forum: AK Bank Elektronika.<br />
The Executive Partner of the Forum: Insurance Group „SOGAZ”<br />
Sponsors: Concern/Corporate Group Federal State Unitary „Rosenergoatom”<br />
Company (FGUP), Joint Stock Company (JSC) „TVEL”, Federal state company ISK<br />
„Rosatomstroy”.<br />
I also want to give a big thanks to the governments which helped to conduct our<br />
Forum. First and foremost, it was the Swiss Confederation – a pioneer in international<br />
community – that first assisted in holding the initial public hearings in our country. The<br />
Swiss Confederation was also the first to sponsor our Forum which became a dialogue.<br />
My gratitude and thank for their support also goes to the following entities:<br />
––United Kingdom,<br />
––Canada,<br />
––France,<br />
––Sweden,<br />
––Norway,<br />
––Trust for Mutual Understanding Fund.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Opening Remarks<br />
Yury A. Israel, Academician of RAS<br />
Dear Colleagues,<br />
This present Forum-dialogue is dedicated to discussing several of the most important<br />
issues of today – the use of nuclear energy, the provision for safe and secure energy<br />
development, the conditions of the globalizing world economy, as well as nuclear<br />
and radiation safety on the territory of the Russian Federation. But before discussing the<br />
specific topics of our Forum, I would like to say a couple of words regarding the issue<br />
of energy in general; its size, development and importance.<br />
The current level of economic growth in most countries leads to a sharp increase<br />
in energy use. There have been many reports written on this topic. Recently, a report<br />
came out entitled „<strong>Global</strong> Energy Evaluation: Energy and Sustainable Development.”<br />
<strong>It</strong> was issued by the UNDP and a number of other international organizations. As you<br />
understand, on the one hand, energy consumption is growing while, on the other hand,<br />
we are in a very difficult situation. Two billion people rely exclusively on traditional<br />
energy sources and, therefore, are unable to take advantage of the opportunities offered<br />
by the new, contemporary energy sources.<br />
Humanity’s commercial energy consumption is 1,000 times smaller than the energy<br />
flow of the Sun towards the Earth. The consumption of primary energy is based<br />
on organic fuel, petroleum, natural gas and coal, and constitutes about 80% of the total<br />
energy consumption. Nuclear energy covers slightly over 6% of the total. Hydro energy<br />
and renewable energy sources each constitute about 2% of the total. I have specifically<br />
emphasized here that the amount of human energy consumption is quite insignificant<br />
when compared to solar energy. As you all know, one of the most significant issues of<br />
the day is global warming. Everyone talks about it, and scientists make rather concerning<br />
prognoses. In this sense nuclear energy development is quite significant for our<br />
future, because it does not release greenhouse gases that are dangerous for all living<br />
things. Therefore, from this perspective, developing nuclear energy is necessary. Not<br />
only is it in line with today’s technology levels, but it is also a pressing necessity for<br />
humanity and the environment.<br />
At the current stage of our society’s development in this period of civil society<br />
formation, the establishment of a constructive dialogue between state structures and<br />
the public on all levels constitutes a very important step towards our goals. Our goals<br />
are to join forces with the civil society groups that devote themselves to bridging gaps<br />
between the state and the people, to search for truth, as well as to protect society and
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
encourage economic revival. This can facilitate us reaching a consensus and ensuring<br />
mutual accountability on all sides. This will also facilitate reaching a national consensus<br />
in such an important sphere as nuclear energy and the nuclear potential of the country as<br />
a whole. This is why, in order to be effective, it is important to conduct mutual dialogue<br />
between governmental organizations, scientists, and civil society.<br />
At the same time, we should not regard civil society groups as partners only as<br />
the problems arise in forming the system of national security provision and in working<br />
on sustainable development projects. On the contrary, both local and national-level civil<br />
society groups should play their role in the consulting processes of the country, including<br />
those concerning nuclear energy development. <strong>It</strong> is possible that their specialized<br />
knowledge and profound understanding of the issues could be useful to the government<br />
structures. This is why we should encourage efforts to better define the relationship with<br />
civil society groups put forth by the present dialogue Forum.<br />
<strong>It</strong> is important to note that the question of safety and security of nuclear energy<br />
development deserves special attention. This point will be discussed very professionally<br />
in today’s Forum. I have mentioned both the issue of energy in general as well as that of<br />
nuclear energy, because both sectors are problematic. As you know, there have not been<br />
many serious accidents, such as the Chernobyl accident. However, even if not numerous,<br />
they have shown to the world that the safety and security of nuclear energy creation<br />
and development is of utmost importance. Here, the partnership with the civil society is<br />
indispensable. I hope that, with the help of this Forum, we will be able to develop fuller<br />
and more concrete strategies for strengthening of partnerships with the civil society in<br />
our common interest of Russia’s safe and secure development.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
To the Participants of the Public National Dialogue<br />
“Energy, Society, and Security”<br />
Sergey V. Kirienko, Director, Federal Agency for the<br />
Atomic Energy<br />
Dear Colleagues!<br />
On behalf of the Federal Agency for the Atomic Energy as well as myself, I am<br />
very happy to welcome to the Participants of the National Dialogue “Energy, Society,<br />
and Security.”<br />
<strong>It</strong> is of principal importance to discuss the questions of nuclear and radiation<br />
security specifically here, in a dialogue format. Active development of atomic energy<br />
in the world, as well as the guarantee of energy resources availability for current and<br />
future generations, are impossible without society’s understanding of contemporary<br />
technological conditions in this field and without the highest level of its ecological and<br />
production security.<br />
This Forum is yet another step towards transparency in this field. We are very<br />
interested in forming a proper level of knowledge of the contemporary atomic energy,<br />
and, thus, forming trust of the Russian public towards this field. Stability, security, and<br />
the minimal effect on the environment – these are the base characteristics of the 21 st<br />
century energy provision. I am sure that atomic energy fully conforms to each of these<br />
three conditions.<br />
The atomic energy renaissance has already started; we have the age of atomic<br />
energy ahead of us. I think that this Forum-Dialogue can draw it nearer.<br />
I wish a productive work to all the Forum participants!
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Priority Programs of the Nuclear-Energetics Complex<br />
Vladimir G. Asmolov, Deputy Director General,<br />
Concern „RosEnergoAtom”<br />
Good morning, dear colleagues! I am going to talk about our current goals. What<br />
does the Russian nuclear power industry look like today This year was very successful.<br />
<strong>It</strong> is a subsidized year and our output was 155 billion kW-hours. If you look at Russia as<br />
a nuclear producing power, we have an average ranking on the global scale. Our power<br />
level is a little less than 12%, and our generating output is about 16%, which is about<br />
average on a global scale.<br />
Ivan Anatolievich talked about energy consumption; I am talking about generating<br />
electric power only. If you look at the map, you will see that all generating powers<br />
are in the European part of Russia, where percentages are different: 40% in the North-<br />
West and 30–35% in the Central. These numbers correspond with the European levels,<br />
especially for Germany. Today many speakers talked about the resurgence of nuclear<br />
power. I personally do not believe it is a resurgence, but rather the accomplishment<br />
of objective capabilities. Today, when we have all the necessary knowledge for this<br />
promising potential energy source, we should be very serious about it and pay special<br />
attention to the safety issues surrounding it.<br />
Let us talk about limiting conditions. The question is whether there is a demand<br />
for this energy source in our society. What can we do for this source to ensure its acceptance<br />
by society and our government External conditions are clear for all. Some<br />
people think it is a theorem, which needs justification of the following statements:<br />
natural resources are limited; there are many people on earth with poor energy supply,<br />
such as those in China and India, and who should have similar access to energy<br />
as people in Europe and the United States. For me it is not a theorem, it is an axiom.<br />
Secondly, it is about us, people who can offer this energy source and who are builders<br />
of nuclear power.<br />
We have made several goals which determine the consumption qualities of the<br />
power source we offer. Our first and foremost priority is guaranteed safety. I am a member<br />
of the INSAG, a group of advisors for the IAEA Secretary General, which has<br />
developed fundamental safety principles. According to a meeting in India, about eighty<br />
countries would like to have a peaceful nuclear power industry. There is also leasing<br />
as a form of accessing nuclear power source. Safety guarantees are the most important<br />
issue here. I am a physicist and I know that the word „guarantee” is not a guarantee of<br />
perfection. There is always some risk. However, this risk should be so small that I could<br />
promise these guarantees.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
The next component is „efficiency.” If this source of energy is completely safe,<br />
but not feasible economically, no one needs it. You remember that there have been many<br />
attempts made to make this energy source safer: built a 100 atmospheres’ protection<br />
around a nuclear power plant (NPP) or bury the plant deep in the ground, which also<br />
allows for leads better safety. We also have to consider human factors.<br />
The third factor in nuclear energy consumption is fuel. We need to show that<br />
nuclear power is a renewable source.<br />
Finally, the most important factor is the management of nuclear fuel, tales, and<br />
radioactive waste. The latter is not a matter of science but engineering. All our activities<br />
are based on these factors.<br />
The Development strategy for till 2020: experience is critical here and accomplishments<br />
should be based on existing technologies. Neutron-based reactors will be key<br />
elements in nuclear power in our country. We have a complex of working NPPs, we need<br />
to take care of them, increase their efficiency, modernize them, and demonstrate their safe<br />
operation. We need to think about the global nuclear energy industry, which is more than<br />
1,000 MW. Smaller energy capacity is another major trend. In Chukotka, we have a small<br />
nuclear station that has been providing energy for the region for thirty years. In Sverdlovsk,<br />
another small power plant (KLT-40) is under construction.<br />
What kind of reactors do we have today Today our base is in water reactors<br />
based on neutrons. These reactors can supply energy and work in a combined cycle<br />
with heat production. I call this program „Regional Atomic Energy Industry.” There are<br />
several high temperature reactors, which exist on paper. These types have demonstrated<br />
their capabilities and have a large potential. However, these reactors need additional<br />
development for safety and economic efficiency. Finally, we have fast-neutron reactors.<br />
These reactors are practically a new stage in heat supply and radioactive waste recycling,<br />
because these reactors can serve as burners of additional nuclear waste.<br />
The first program is an efficiency upgrade of the existing program. We have a<br />
program that has existed for twelve years. This program includes launching four 1,000-<br />
MW units. The major task is to optimize thermodynamics without affecting safety and<br />
generate an additional 25 billion kW-hours in 2012.<br />
We plan to use a power unit that can be stopped for service, reloading, and an<br />
upgrade. The unit’s service length is its efficiency factor. You can see that there is a slow<br />
efficiency growth in Russia, where you have old, first and second generation, reactors.<br />
These reactors have been stopped for upgrades and new safety system installations, but<br />
have an average efficiency factor of 76% today. The latter is a huge reserve, because<br />
the efficiency factor of our new power units is 85–87%. Finland sets global records,<br />
because its reactors are operating at a 97% efficiency factor.<br />
I would like to talk next about the construction of new reactors. Last year we<br />
had two units in construction, one fast reactor and one heat reactor, both at the Rostov<br />
NPP site. This year we have started to work on three new reactors. Additionally we<br />
have a project „NPP-2006” (I will talk about it later) and there are opportunities to<br />
work on a larger capacity reactor. This covers small-scale energy industry needs. Our<br />
requirements for new reactors include an increase in efficiency, fuel cycle improvement,<br />
and shortening of construction. These changes reflect evolutionary develop-
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
ment, based on our previous experience. My report radically changes the situation as<br />
these reactors are of the same class as our native, European and American reactors.<br />
Activities to upgrade existing NPP efficiency<br />
Table 1<br />
Activities<br />
Efficiency factor upgrade of NPPs turbo-installations with<br />
RBMK reactors by replacing blades and law pressure cylinder<br />
diagrams (4th and 5th stages) in the turbines.<br />
Efficiency factor upgrade of turbo-installations at HPR and<br />
RBMK power units by upgrading separation-super heaters.<br />
Number of<br />
power units<br />
Additional<br />
power, MW<br />
11 332<br />
19 142<br />
Introduction of large-scale cleaning system for condensers. 4 42<br />
Heat rating increase in the RBMK power units by 5% 10 500<br />
Heat rating increase in the power units of HPR-1000 by 4% 8 320<br />
Heat rating increase in the power units of HPR-440/V-213 by 7% 2 61<br />
Conversion to 18-month heat cycle at NPPs with HPR-1000 8 244<br />
RBMK upgrade by heating construction substitute and conversion<br />
to a two-year service cycle.<br />
11 904<br />
FTP RAPEK indicators<br />
Table 2<br />
Description 2006 2010 2015 2020<br />
Estimated power at a NPP, GW 23.2 24.2 33.0 41.0<br />
Electric energy output TW-hour/year 154.7 170.3 224.0 300.0<br />
NPP share in total electric energy production in Russia, % 16.0 16.0 18.6 20-23<br />
Decrease in operation cost (based on 2006 level), % 100 90 80 70<br />
Decrease in specific investments, % 100 90 85 70<br />
Comparative indicators of NPP with HPR-1000 and NPP-2006<br />
Table 3<br />
Description NPP with HPR-1000 NPP-2006 Change<br />
Electric power, MW 1000 1150 + 15,0<br />
Annual output, billion kW-hour 7,5 9,0 + 20,0<br />
NPP service life (projected), years 30 50 + 67,0<br />
Specific material capacity, relative units 1,00 0,85 - 15,0<br />
Specific investments, relative units 1,00 0,80 - 20,0<br />
Nuclear waste amount (in the form of heat<br />
emitting constructions), t/billion kW-hour<br />
5,5 3,5 - 35,0<br />
„NPP-2006”. The formula for this plant is safety guarantees and economic efficiency.<br />
We invested all our experience, which for today represents absolute evolution-
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
ary development. We have not achieved a lot, and I plan to address the issue. We have<br />
increased capacity up to 3,200. We can overcome conservative tradition and optimize<br />
passive and active security systems and equipment unification. All of these factors allow<br />
for the building of a decent, economically efficient, power unit. Note that safety<br />
level does not decrease for such a unit.<br />
Here are more indicators to use in comparison of our latest power unit built in<br />
China. This power unit belongs to a third generation. „NPP-2006” is 3+. You can see<br />
that all the indicators are much better, including the volume of nuclear and radiological<br />
waste, and other specific criteria.<br />
This is our roadmap. The Russian government has allocated serious finances for<br />
nuclear power industry development, which equals 1.5–3 trillion rubles (half of this<br />
money is government sponsored, and the other half comes from Rosenergoatom) After<br />
2015 there will be no money, but by that time, I believe, we will be able to pay for the<br />
program ourselves in a competitive marketplace. Except for one power unit at the Beloyarskaya<br />
plant, all the others belong to „NPP-2006.” You can see the conclusions here.<br />
Picture 1. „Road map” of FTP RAPEK<br />
We have made a step forward. We should come out of our shell. Russia is not doing<br />
anything new. Our colleagues from Westinghouse are doing the same thing. We are talking<br />
about the forth generation power unit, called „NPP-2009.” I will try to show you what<br />
it is. „NPP-2009” can be called an evolutionary trend with some serious innovations. If<br />
you compare this project with the one from Westinghouse and BN-1000 in China, you can<br />
see an attempt to simplify passive systems, radically increase efficiency, decrease material<br />
utilization, and produce plants using large modules. You understand well that using premanufactured<br />
modules is much better than the building one-of-a-kind plants on-site: the<br />
quality is much better; the production time-frame is reduced, and the investment climate<br />
is also more efficient. So, what do I mean Here are the numbers at BN-1000. We have
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
those indicators as our goal (for example, 70% reduction in cable utilization). The Japanese<br />
Advanced PWR has achieved outstanding results in shortening production time. For<br />
example, our best results are 54 months, and they need only 37. You can see our Russian<br />
plant, the British Sizewell-Be and the Westinghouse AP 1000. The amount of land needed<br />
for the units is smaller.<br />
Looking further into the future, we move to a new technology base – new reactors,<br />
fast reactors, bringing together the nuclear fuel cycle. The first stage of development<br />
includes new requirements for the production process, external fuel cycle, safety,<br />
and economic efficiency. We already have the BN-600 reactor and the BN-800 under<br />
construction, but they are not commercial reactors yet. These reactors are not as efficient<br />
as thermal ones. Our goal is to develop economically efficient commercial units<br />
by 2020, possibly with a sodium thermal unit. Due to the fact that sodium has its own<br />
shortcomings, we do not want to waste our resources. Therefore, we are looking for<br />
another heat-carrier such as gas, lead, or lead-bismuth. This first technology is still important<br />
and remains a leading one.<br />
Here is a development roadmap. You can see that we need to improve efficiency<br />
for reactors with heavy heat-carriers. With other reactors, the development process is<br />
quite clear. There is a lot of work to be done. A long-term strategy does no require<br />
large financing, but is extremely important. The strategy includes nuclear power industry<br />
development, development modeling, and time frame, scale, and technical requirements.<br />
This integration process is very important and needs serious evaluation. We need<br />
neutron efficiency evaluation, because neutrons are our product. The thorium cycle is<br />
another project to work on.<br />
A special Federal program allows us to have our projects. The program passed<br />
all the discussions and currently accounts for 140 billion rubles. This program should<br />
resolve the challenges coming from the civilian and military sectors. The program includes<br />
infrastructure development, new technologies and facilities for radiological and<br />
nuclear waste, contaminated territories treatment, nuclear and radiological safety control<br />
system, and support equipment for personnel and population. The program is well<br />
developed and discussed, which includes general public discussions.<br />
The atomic energy industry is the daughter of the atomic bomb, and that is why<br />
it has all the features of the bomb. People think it is an uncontrolled, unmanageable<br />
creature that will eventually explode. We have already outgrown the bomb. The atomic<br />
bomb is different from the atomic power industry. <strong>It</strong> is very positive that we are reducing<br />
nuclear weapons programs, because we do not have those outside threats anymore.<br />
Therefore, we need to use the potential of those who work in nuclear centers. We talked<br />
about it in Penza recently. We have intellectual, nuclear, energy industry basis, including<br />
programs, skills, and experimental experience. We have everything from within the<br />
nuclear weapons industry. Our actions – to transfer everything we have to the nuclear<br />
power industry, all our potential, expertise, new ideas, fresh perspective. In the end we<br />
get together and produce the new products I just discussed.<br />
The Russian atomic power industry must be the leader and respond to new challenges.<br />
<strong>It</strong> is like a steam-locomotive for other industries and is a blessing for everyone involved.<br />
Thank you.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Questions and answers<br />
– Y.A. Izrael: Vladimir Grigorievich, thank you for your thorough report. <strong>It</strong> was<br />
a technically complicated, conceptual presentation, aimed for politicians, bureaucrats,<br />
and nuclear scientists. In the room today, there are citizens from various regions of our<br />
country, foreign representatives, environmental activities who are concerned with human<br />
life and the environment and I want to ask you as a citizen and a member of society:<br />
was everything possible done by the builders and designers for our safe future<br />
– V.G. Asmolov: There is no one answer to this question. One cannot do everything<br />
possible. We have an atomic energy industry, with researchers, engineers and designers.<br />
Russia cooperated well with foreign colleagues, many new programs originated,<br />
our knowledge consolidated, and now Russia and the rest of the world share the same<br />
knowledge base. Our engineering and safety approaches are absolutely consolidated. If<br />
someone tries to breach them, this individual would have to be an insider. Our legislators<br />
on technical regulations have tried to prioritize market over safety, but we are doing<br />
our best to stop it. I believe our science has prepared well. The balance between efficiency<br />
and safety is needed, but in order to achieve this balance we need brains. Our builders<br />
are ready, and they have all the needed systems, but their work did not cost much in the<br />
past. I believe that the process is evolutionary and it is going in the right direction.<br />
U.A. Izrael: In your presentation you did not mention NPP decommissioning,<br />
its timeframe, cycles, and cost. When we think about the decommissioning process, the<br />
costs are very different. What is your take on that<br />
V.G. Asmolov: Our colleagues in the West have already estimated the price of<br />
decommissioning. For example, in Finland, they are building burial shafts for the waste,<br />
which are not ready yet. The companies are ready for decommissioning to start.<br />
To what extent can we take NPP from their operational condition to „green lawn”<br />
or further These plants, after being taken out of operation, continue to hold licenses<br />
to operate. These plants have stored fuel, they have shifts, and ventilation continues to<br />
work. A number of legal and economic questions need to be resolved. We need to have<br />
enough investment in tariffs. In England, NPP decommissioning to the „green lawn”<br />
level cost 50% of the original price.<br />
Currently we have several power units stopped: Voronezh NPP, 1–2 units; Beloyarskaya<br />
NPP, 1–2 units and etc. <strong>It</strong> is a financial problem and we are, most likely, to<br />
be responsible for it. We will have the funds. We will conduct all necessary works on<br />
our pilot reactors. We have such a serious field of work, that in the past four month we<br />
reviewed these questions three times with respect to Beloyarskaya NPP AMB reactors,<br />
Bilibnskaya NPP and others. These are all serious matters, and economically it<br />
decreases our profit indicators, but not by a large extent.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
International efforts for protection of Nuclear and<br />
Radioactive materials in Russia and CIS<br />
Troy Lulashnyk, General Director of the G8 <strong>Global</strong><br />
Partnership Programme, Canadian Ministry of Foreign<br />
Affairs and International Trade<br />
Good morning!<br />
<strong>It</strong> is a pleasure for me to speak with you today. I would first like to thank the<br />
conference organizers for this First National Nuclear Forum-Dialogue. Canada has been<br />
a strong supporter of <strong>Green</strong> Cross, particularly on issues appertaining to chemical weapons<br />
destruction. Canada’s global partnership program is pleased to sponsor the publication<br />
of this dialogue.<br />
Nuclear issues are once again at the forefront of the international agenda. I recall<br />
over a decade ago when it seemed there were very few of us working on these issues,<br />
and it was unclear what direction nuclear would take. Today, it is an entirely different<br />
environment, at least in a couple of ways: first, many countries, including Canada, are<br />
speaking about a nuclear renaissance, fuelled by new technologies, and second, the security<br />
concerns associated with nuclear, particularly related to nuclear proliferation and<br />
nuclear terrorism, have been significantly amplified in the past few years.<br />
With respect to the nuclear resurgence, it is clear that several countries are looking at<br />
nuclear power to occupy a greater proportion of their energy mix in order to meet an increasing<br />
demand. Higher costs of non-nuclear energy sources, coupled with new nuclear research<br />
and development in terms of more efficient reactor designs and new fuel configurations, have<br />
led many to conclude that the nuclear energy option can be competitive. Canada for example,<br />
is examining a variety of different nuclear energy options for the future. There is also a<br />
significant increase in the use of nuclear and other radioactive material in medical, industrial<br />
and research applications. Canada, along with other countries represented here are leading<br />
producers of medical radioisotopes. So the current picture seems to be one of expansion and<br />
exploration of new technologies paving the way for the long term future.<br />
This expansion does present significant security and safety challenges, nonetheless.<br />
From the nuclear non-proliferation perspective, it is imperative that this nuclear resurgence<br />
does not increase the risks that states will acquire nuclear weapons. We have a very well developed<br />
network of laws, rules and norms comprising the nuclear non-proliferation regime<br />
grounded in the npt and the IAEA safeguards system, which has been strengthened significantly<br />
with the model additional protocol. But much more work needs to be done.<br />
There are also a number of proposals which seek to address both the energy<br />
demand issues and the non-proliferation issues at the same time, including through as-
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
surances of supply and enrichment centres, where we are collectively going to have to<br />
decide on how to move forward.<br />
The other major change affecting the nuclear question is the increase in terrorism.<br />
In the past few years, we have seen a rise in incidence of mass terrorism, including<br />
in North America, Europe and Asia, where the intention is not to negotiate but to inflict<br />
damage and mass suffering.<br />
The nuclear threat presents particular challenges – whether it refers to acquisition<br />
of plutonium or highly enriched uranium or sabotage of a nuclear facility or use<br />
of radioactive material in a dispersal device or „dirty bomb”. Clearly, any of these scenarios<br />
could have profound human, environmental and economic consequences. Then<br />
UN secretary general Annan said that a nuclear terrorist attack could create a worldwide<br />
recession thrusting up to half of our population into dire poverty. Not to mention the<br />
impact any major incident would have on the future of nuclear energy.<br />
There have been significant improvements made by states in this area. First, in<br />
terms of instruments, the convention on physical protection of nuclear material (CPPNN)<br />
was strengthened, the nuclear terrorism convention was put in place, the sources code of<br />
conduct was operationalized and UN resolution 1540 and a few other resolutions came<br />
into being. Because the non-proliferation regime had a nearly-exclusive focus on state<br />
actors, it had to be and continues to be amplified to account for non-state actors.<br />
In addition to changing our laws and norms, we have made some impressive<br />
progress in addressing the nuclear terrorist threat in pragmatic ways. In this regard, i know<br />
that this meeting will be discussing the global partnership against the spread of weapons<br />
and materials of mass destruction. This is an initiative very important to me personally,<br />
as we launched it in Canada in 2002. <strong>It</strong> set forth a strategy to combat the nuclear threat by<br />
strengthening, for example, the aforementioned instruments and then securing the nuclear<br />
materials and facilities, strengthening border and export controls and law enforcement<br />
cooperation to deter, detect and interdict the illicit trafficking in nuclear materials and<br />
to reduce overall the qualities, stockpiles of materials in existence, the thought being the<br />
less that exists, the less chance of terrorist acquisition. The HEU down blending is one<br />
example of this, as is the US-Russia agreement to each dispose of 34 metric tonnes of<br />
weapon-grade plutonium. Canada has pledged approximately US$ 55 million to Russia’s<br />
plutonium disposition Program and we are hopeful it will commence soon.<br />
While I do not want to pre-empt tomorrow’s discussion on the partnership, I<br />
would say that practical work is being done and all 23 partners are very committed to its<br />
goals. Special mention of Russia and the us is deserved, as both have significantly increased<br />
their funding since 2002. Canada spends the majority of its pledge of C$ 1 billion<br />
on nuclear issues, by securing nuclear material and facilities through fences, cameras,<br />
barriers and access controls, by dismantling 12 nuclear submarines, and by retraining<br />
nuclear scientists through the international science and technology centre.<br />
This work is significantly reducing the nuclear terrorist threat, the funding represents<br />
a small fraction of the cost for clean up and remediation after an attack.<br />
I should also mention the Russia-US led global initiative to combat nuclear terrorism.<br />
I have had the privilege to represent Canada at these meetings. <strong>It</strong> is an excellent,
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
focussed endeavour which permits states to exchange best practices across the full range<br />
of nuclear issues. Again, I must congratulate Russia and the us for their initiative.<br />
However, we cannot be complacent. Terrorist groups are not necessarily defined<br />
with any one state, there is an abundance of radioactive materials through the world and,<br />
with an increasingly globalized economy, goods can move quite freely and swiftly. We<br />
are only as strong, therefore, as our best protected facility and our weakest border point.<br />
These threats are amplified by the fact that the nuclear energy market is not constricting<br />
but expanding and we are at a unique period in history where decisions taken now can<br />
lead us to safety and prosperity, provided we work together to also combat the threats. I<br />
think this meeting is a step in that direction.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
The Vienna „Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage” Convention:<br />
Key problems<br />
Dmitry V. Malyshev, Deputy Director, Department for<br />
Corporate Clients, Insurance Group „SOGAZ ”<br />
The Vienna Convention adoption<br />
The Vienna Convention on civil liability for nuclear damage (or Vienna Convention),<br />
dated May 12, 1963, was ratified by the Russian Federal Law №23-FL, dated<br />
March 21, 2005. On August 13, 2005 the Vienna Convention entered into force in the<br />
Russian Federation.<br />
The Vienna Convention:<br />
1. Once the Low enters into force, the Vienna Convention becomes a part of the<br />
Russian Federation’s legislation and has priority over national legislation, including the<br />
„Atomic energy use” and the „Civil liability for causing nuclear damage and its financial<br />
security” Laws.<br />
2. Applies to any nuclear incidents, regardless of where they occurred. The Vienna<br />
Convention applies to nuclear incidents that take place:<br />
––during transportation on Russian Federation territory in the absence of a nuclear<br />
installation operator;<br />
––during transportation on Russian Federation territory;<br />
––during international transportation.<br />
3. Establishes an accountable person: the nuclear installation operator. According<br />
to the Vienna Convention, a nuclear installation operator is considered a person, and<br />
is appointed or recognized as responsible for this installation by the state in the capacity<br />
of an operator for this installation (Article 1, part 1, provision „C”). The state’s legislation<br />
establishes a nuclear material carrier, or other individual, which is involved in the<br />
Russian Atomic Industry and is recognizable as the accountable party.<br />
According to the Vienna Convention, a nuclear material receiving party will<br />
be considered as an operator in the case that the party is a legal operating organization<br />
where the material processing will take place. If at the receiving party’s facility<br />
reprocessing does not take place, an operator becomes the final receiver of the material,<br />
according to the Vienna Convention.<br />
4. Anticipates the possibility to establish a maximum limit of an operator’s liability<br />
by national law (the amount of compensation for damages). When such limit is established,<br />
it cannot be less than the amount established by Article V of the Vienna Convention.<br />
In Russia, legislation establishing liability limits has not yet been adopted.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
5. Operator’s liability limits, indicated above, are the maximum limit of the<br />
state’s responsibility.<br />
6. Defines the requirement to provide for financial security in the form of liability<br />
insurance, or in other forms, which is the operator’s duty, in case there exists national<br />
legislation in that country which provides for certain conditions and amount.<br />
7. Defines nuclear material as nuclear fuel, radioactive products and waste.<br />
8. Establishes liability distribution between the nuclear installations’ operators,<br />
including transportation and participation of countries – non-participants of the Vienna<br />
Convention.<br />
Matters of nuclear damage liability are also regulated by the „Atomic energy<br />
use” Federal Law.<br />
The operating organization – nuclear installation operators, according to the Vienna<br />
Convention – must maintain nuclear insurance or some other form of financial<br />
security, which cover nuclear installations and fall under the Vienna Convention.<br />
According to the study’s results, there are twenty six operating organizations in<br />
the industry as part of Rosatom, which act as nuclear installations operators and are thus<br />
under Vienna Convention jurisdiction.<br />
Liability limits for a nuclear installation operator<br />
There is the opinion that liability limits must stay in the amount range of five<br />
million USD, because of the U.S. unilateral rejection in 1971 to maintain support for the<br />
gold standard (requirements denial of the Breton-Wood system).<br />
The USD, as indicated in Article V of the Vienna Convention, is the payment<br />
unit which is equal to the USD price of its gold parity on 29 April 1963, which is thirty<br />
five USD for one troy ounce of pure gold. According to the Vienna Convention, the<br />
USD rejection of the USD golden parity does not influence liability limit calculation on<br />
a certain date.<br />
In order to calculate the minimum threshold of an operator’s liability to the current<br />
date, one must use the price of one troy ounce of pure gold on the indicated date<br />
according to the New York Mercantile Exchange („NYMEX”), which is published by<br />
RIA „PosBusinessConsulting.” The calculation formula for the minimum threshold of<br />
liability is the following:<br />
Cmin ($) = NYMEX / $35 x $5,000 000<br />
Where: NYMEX – is the price of the troy ounce of pure gold on the current date<br />
(http://stock.rbc.ru/demo/nymex.6/), (USD/Gold).<br />
Example: The minimum threshold of liability dated 12 April 2007 makes up<br />
$81,057<br />
142.86 (NYMEX = $679.7).<br />
Cmin ($) = $679.7/$35 x $5,000 000 = $97,057,142.86.<br />
The insurance amount on 3 February 2006 in rubles is 2,573,150,963.00 rubles<br />
(NYMEX – $576.4; Rusd = 26,501 rubles/$).<br />
CC – $679.7/$35 x $5,000 000 x 26, 501 rubles/$ = 2,573,150,936.00 rubles.<br />
According to Article 55 of the Federal Law „Atomic energy use” , liability types<br />
and limits of the operating organization must be determined by Russian Federation legis-
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
lation. Up until now, legislation which determines liability limits has not yet been adopted,<br />
and that is why the liability of a Russian nuclear installation operator is not limited.<br />
The law project „On civil liability for causing nuclear damage and its financial<br />
support” anticipates the operating organization threshold of civil liability for nuclear<br />
damage as a result of one nuclear incident by an amount equal to five million units, as<br />
defined by Article V of the Vienna Convention „On civil liability for nuclear damage,”<br />
21 May 1963.<br />
Financial security of a nuclear installation operator’s liability<br />
According to clause 1, Article 7 of the Vienna Convention, the operator is required<br />
to maintain insurance (additional nuclear insurance) or other financial security,<br />
which covers his liability for nuclear damage with regard to the amount, type and conditions,<br />
as defined by the Installation state.<br />
Article 56 of the „Atomic Energy Utilization” Act determines that the operator<br />
must have financial security for liability limits.<br />
Therefore, the legislator formulates common rule on financial security coordination<br />
with established legislation.<br />
Article 5 of the Vienna Convention places the operator’s liability limits in the<br />
amount of no less than five million USD for every nuclear incident. As a result, because<br />
the minimum liability limit cannot be less than five million dollars, the minimum insurance<br />
amount (or alternative financial security) must comply with this amount.<br />
The country of operation provides for compensation according to satisfied claims<br />
presented for nuclear damage. <strong>It</strong> will only cover non covered amounts by other forms of<br />
insurance and only up to the amount of damage.<br />
Legislation Initiative „On civil liability for causing nuclear damage and its financial<br />
security” anticipates three forms of such security:<br />
––the operating organization’s civil liability insurance for causing nuclear damage<br />
(nuclear insurance);<br />
––financial resources of the operating organization;<br />
––a combination of the indicated financial security forms for the operating organization’s<br />
civil liability for causing nuclear damage.<br />
Acknowledgment of insurance fees according to the nuclear insurance<br />
agreements as expenses for profit taxation<br />
Article 263 of the Russian Federation Internal Revenue Code establishes the<br />
amount of taxpayer insurance expenses as a percentage of the operator’s expenses,<br />
which reduces the base profit tax. According to this Article, mandatory and voluntary<br />
property insurance expenses include insurance fees for all mandatory insurance types,<br />
and on certain types of voluntary insurance.<br />
According to existing legislation, nuclear damage liability insurance is not mandatory<br />
insurance. Clause 4, Article 3 of the Russia Law „Insurance matters in the Russian<br />
Federation” dated 27 November 1992 №4015-1 provides for mandatory insurance<br />
conditions and order of payment, as defined by federal legislation on particular mandatory<br />
insurance types.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
The federal law on particular types of mandatory insurance must include regulations<br />
which define:<br />
a) subjects of insurance;<br />
b) objects of insurance;<br />
c) the list of insured cases;<br />
d) the minimum insurance payment and determination of categories;<br />
e) the amount, structure and type for insurance tariff determination;<br />
f) the time frame and type of insurance fee payments;<br />
g) validity of the insurance contract term;<br />
h) insurance payment determination categories;<br />
i) control over insurance execution;<br />
j) consequences, in case insurance subjects show non-performance or poor performance<br />
of prescribed obligations;<br />
k) other matters.<br />
The federal law on mandatory civil liability insurance for operating organizations<br />
in the case of radiation-caused damage has not yet, and most likely will not be,<br />
adopted. The Federal Law „Atomic energy utilization” № 170-FL, 21 November 1995,<br />
does not comply with the features, indicated above. That is why it cannot be viewed as<br />
legislation establishing mandatory insurance.<br />
The information stated above allows us to make a conclusion that civil liability<br />
insurance for loss and damage caused by the effect of radiation is more of a voluntary<br />
insurance.<br />
According to subparagraph 8, clause 1, Article 263 of the Russian Federation Internal<br />
Revenue Code, insurance expenses include insurance fees on voluntary insurance<br />
for liability resulting from incurring damage, in case such insurance is a condition of<br />
tax-payer activities in compliance with the Russian Federation’s general or international<br />
obligations.<br />
According to Article 7 of the Vienna Convention 1963, the operator is required to<br />
maintain insurance or other financial security, which covers their liability for nuclear damage<br />
due to the amount, type and conditions defined by the Installation State. Therefore, the<br />
Russian Federation’s international agreements have established the requirement for the<br />
operator to perform financial security for nuclear damage liability due to the amount, type<br />
and conditions that should be determined by Russian Federation legislation.<br />
Currently there is no provision in the federal legislation that establishes the<br />
amount, size, or conditions of financial security for the operator’s liability. Article 55 of<br />
the Federal Law „Atomic energy utilization” establishes that the types and limits for the<br />
operator’s liability for material loss and damage caused by radiation effects, depend on<br />
the atomic energy use and are defined by federal legislation. According to Article 56 of<br />
the indicated federal legislation, the operating organization must have financial security<br />
for liability limits in compliance with Article 55. The operator’s financial security, in<br />
case of loss or damage compensation caused by radiation, consists of the state guarantee<br />
or other assurance, the operator’s financial resources and insurance contract.<br />
However, the indicated legislation does not establish the amount, types or conditions<br />
of financial security for nuclear damage liability. Articles 55 and 56 contain
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
referrals to specific legislation, which will establish the operator’s liability types and<br />
limits, and also specific categories, amounts and conditions of insurance security made<br />
for liability limits.<br />
The conclusion, based on the above description, is as follows: in the absence of<br />
special legislation, financial security is not a mandatory condition for the operator’s activities.<br />
The operator’s civil liability insurance, as one of the financial security liability<br />
types, is not a mandatory condition for the operator’s activity. In addition, insurance<br />
fees for voluntary nuclear accident insurance cannot be considered as an expense on the<br />
tax form, and it reduces the operator’s tax amount.<br />
At the same time, one cannot but note that there is another position on the matter.<br />
<strong>It</strong> is based on the formal interpretation of the Convention and Russian legislation. According<br />
to this position, the operator’s liability for having financial security for nuclear<br />
damage liability, is directly provided in Article 7 of the Vienna Convention, 1963, and<br />
as well as in clause 1 Article 56 of the Federal Law „Atomic energy use”. Currently<br />
the size, types and conditions for financial security liability are not identified in special<br />
federal legislation, but this does not mean that the presence of financial security is<br />
not mandatory for the operating organizations. Based on the above statement, one can<br />
conclude that because international agreements of the Russian Federation established<br />
the operators’ responsibility for maintaining nuclear damage insurance or alternative<br />
financial security for nuclear damage, the presence of such a security is viewable as a<br />
mandatory condition for these activities.<br />
Voluntary civil liability insurance, in this case, can be viewed as a mandatory<br />
condition for operating organization activities. Therefore, insurance fees for civil liability<br />
insurance for nuclear damage can be classified as expenses, which reduce the<br />
profit tax base. According to provision 3, Article 263 of the Russian Federation Internal<br />
Revenue Code, voluntary insurance expenses can be included in the production costs<br />
category.<br />
With regard to the statement above, one can draw a conclusion: in order to resolve<br />
all the described issues, it is necessary to immediately prepare a second discussion<br />
round of the Federal Law „Civil liability for causing nuclear damage and its financial<br />
security” in light of the ratified Convention.<br />
At present, a Rosatom group is preparing such legislation initiative for the second<br />
round. This legislation takes into consideration the Vienna Convention requirements<br />
(without the 1997 Proceedings).
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Current Safety Conditions at Russian Nuclear Installations<br />
Vladimir M. Kuznetsov, PhD, Director, “Nuclear and<br />
Radiation Safety” Programme, <strong>Green</strong> Cross Russia<br />
Introduction<br />
As of 1 July 2006, the Russian Federation Nuclear Energy Complex included<br />
the following installations: 214 nuclear installations (industrial reactors, power units,<br />
and nuclear research installations, both civil and military); 1,226 transportation packaging<br />
containers; 454 nuclear material and radioactive waste facilities; 16,675 radiation<br />
sources in agriculture; and 1,508 radioactive material and agricultural waste facilities.<br />
Nuclear power plant safety<br />
Nuclear Power Plants (NPP) provide 11.5% of Russian energy production; in<br />
2003 the nuclear-produced energy quantity reached its peak at 16.7%. Nuclear energy<br />
production in Russia’s European region is 21%, the North-Western region – 42%, in the<br />
Central region and Privolgie region – 30%, and the Northern Caucasus – 16%. 50% of<br />
Russian energy demand growth during 1999–2003 (averaging 14 billion kW-hour annually)<br />
was covered by nuclear energy growth, totaling 7 billion kW-hour per year, or<br />
4–5% per year. 2005 energy production reached 148 billion kW-hour.<br />
Today in Russia there are ten NPPs with 31 power units, four power plants under<br />
construction, while other four are being closed. From the total amount – 15 power units<br />
are with reactors type HPR (6 power units with reactors HPR-440 and 9 power units are<br />
with reactors HPR-1000), 11 power units with RBMK reactors, four power units with<br />
EGP type (Bilibinskaya plant) and one power unit with a fast neutron reactor BN-600<br />
(Beloyarskaya plant) with total electric power generation of 23.242 GW.<br />
NPP energy units with all types of reactors work at a regular schedule, but the<br />
Bilibinskaya Plant works at a flexible schedule for covering particular power and heating<br />
demands of the Chukotka Autonomus Region. Table 1 indicates the nuclear power unit<br />
type and energy generation.<br />
In Russia, the nuclear power units in utilization are built on the basis of three generation’<br />
designs – the 1960s, the 1970s, and the 1980s and became operational from 1970<br />
to 2004. Average rates in Russian NPP are 0.76 GW/year. The lifespan of nuclear energy<br />
unit operation in the former Soviet Union is shown below in Picture 1.<br />
Existing NPP safety is the key nuclear energy industry factor. Units of the same<br />
power, built in different times and based on different designs, do not completely meet<br />
current safety rules and norms. Each time period had its own safety requirements (at
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
present the requirements are defined in the norms and rules of nuclear energy utilization<br />
safety and other documents, included in the Inspection Documentation (R-1-1-2003) of<br />
the Russian Technical Inspection (the Russian State Nuclear Inspection). Additionally, the<br />
requirements became much stricter over time.<br />
Table 1<br />
Typology of the existing NPP with regard to nuclear installation type and project<br />
generation<br />
First generation<br />
Novovoronezhskaya (units 1,2)<br />
Novovoronezhskaya (units 3,4)<br />
Kol’skaya (units 1,2)<br />
Leningradskaya (units 1,2)<br />
Kurskaya (units 1,2)<br />
Bilibinskaya (units 1–4)<br />
Beloyarskaya (units 1,2)<br />
Second generation<br />
Novovoronezhskaya (unit 5)<br />
Kol’skaya (units 3,4)<br />
Kalininskaya (units 1–3)<br />
Smolenskaya (units 1,2)<br />
Leningradskaya (units 3,4)<br />
Beloyarskaya (unit 3)<br />
Balakovskaya (units 1–3)<br />
Third generation<br />
Balakovskaya (unit 4)<br />
Volgodonskaya (unit 1)<br />
NPP Units amount Type of reactor installation<br />
2<br />
2<br />
2<br />
2<br />
2<br />
4<br />
2<br />
1<br />
2<br />
3<br />
2<br />
2<br />
1<br />
3<br />
1<br />
1<br />
HPR-1; V-3М<br />
HPR-440 (V-179)<br />
HPR-440 (V-230)<br />
RBMK-1000<br />
RBMK-1000<br />
EGP-6<br />
АМB-100,200<br />
HPR-1000 (V-187)<br />
HPR-440 (V-213)<br />
HPR-1000 (V-338,320)<br />
RBMK-1000<br />
RBMK-1000<br />
BN-600<br />
HPR-1000 (V-320)<br />
HPR-1000 (V-320)<br />
HPR-1000 (V-320)<br />
Picture 1. Operating lifespan of nuclear power units at former Soviet Union plants<br />
The existing power units can be divided into three categories.<br />
First generation power units – 16 power units with different types of nuclear<br />
reactors (power units 1–4 Novovoronezhzkaya NPP, 1,2 Kol’skaya plant, 1,2 Leningradskaya<br />
plant, 1,2 Kurskaya plant, 4 power units Bilibinskaya nuclear thermal power<br />
complex, 1,2 Beloyarskaya plant) with the total amount of 6,537 MW. The units were
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
designed and built before the major Safety Acts were introduced to the nuclear energy<br />
industry.<br />
Second generation power units – 17 power units with different reactor types (power<br />
units 1–3, Balakovskaya plant, 1–3 Kalininsakaya plant, 3–4 Kol’skaya plant, 3–4 Kurskaya<br />
plant, 3–4 Leningradskaya plant, 5 Novovoronezhskaya plant, 1–3 Smolenskaya<br />
plant, 3 Beloyarskaya plant) with a total power capacity of 16,480 MW. The units were<br />
designed and built with regard to norms based on the Inspection Documentation (ОPB-<br />
73-82/88, PBY-04-74).<br />
Third generation power units – 2 (power units 4 Balakovskaya plant and 1 Rostovskaya<br />
plant) with 1,000 MW capacity each. The units were modified with the requirements<br />
due to (ОRV-88/97, PBY RU AS-89).<br />
First generation power units comply with a number of requirements. In general,<br />
second generation power units comply with the safety requirements established in the<br />
1980s. In order to comply with the modern requirements (based on ORB-88), these power<br />
units need upgrading. <strong>It</strong> is critical to solve a number of safety issues, such as shell containment<br />
improvement, management system efficiency, control and energy supply, steamgenerator<br />
resources improvement, sufficient diagnostic equipment.<br />
Modern requirements are based on a multilayer security system (a gradual barrier<br />
system in the way radiological materials disperse into the environment and a system<br />
of technical and organizational measures to secure these barriers). NPPs with the first<br />
generation power units of the following types do not comply with the modern safety requirements:<br />
HPR-440 (3,4 Novovoronezhskaya and 1,2 Kol’skaya plant power units);<br />
RBMK-1000 (1,2 Leningradskaya and Kurskaya plants), Bilibinskaya power units; and<br />
the second generation BN-600 Beloyarskaya power unit.<br />
Nuclear energy development in the next decade is aimed at constructing modern third<br />
generation power units, which are to replace the outdated ones. The construction concept of<br />
the third generation power units is based on the evolutionary development of HPR reactor<br />
technology. This concept also includes higher safety standards, with a reduction of predicted<br />
active zone and accidental emissions cases to numbers which are better than the current standard.<br />
Factors in the new safety standards include various safety systems (active and passive);<br />
direct action elements in the security system; an optimized combination of security elements<br />
and direct action technologies; and security systems with localized functions.<br />
Technical and economic indicators improvements in third generation power units<br />
are based on the following factors: efficient fuel use, capital investment construction<br />
costs reduction, longer operational timeframe for NPPs from 40 to 50 years, major tasks<br />
reduction, and scheme design simplification and rational space utilization solutions.<br />
The prime tasks for the nuclear energy future are: safe operation of the existing power<br />
units, a safe and economically reasonable increase in power units’ operational lifespan, and<br />
gradual substitution of existing analysis power units to third generation ones.<br />
Analysis of disruptive elements at Russian NPPs in 2004 has reached the following<br />
conclusions: the disruption magnitude remains relatively high and is caused by inappropriate<br />
personnel actions. In 2004, 15 disruptions were due to personnel factors, which comprised<br />
34% of the total failures (36% in 2003); 11 cases had construction failure as key cause, which<br />
constitutes 25% of total violations; in 17 cases (39%) the violation causes were mechanical in
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
nature. Among the key reasons for such disruptions are construction failures, poor technical<br />
maintenance and reconstruction, and plant control program failures involving metal items and<br />
pipes. In 2004, there were 15 repeated disruptions due to similar abnormal events. The analysis<br />
of the key reasons for unplanned power unit disruption in 2004 revealed NPP management<br />
and operation failures, and in particular: operational, repair and management personnel training<br />
quality and leadership; technical support and repair work organization; operational papers<br />
review; and analysis of programs on indicating and eliminating failed mechanisms and procedures.<br />
The dynamics of disruptions at NPPs during 1991–2006 is presented in Picture 2.<br />
180<br />
155<br />
130<br />
105<br />
80<br />
55<br />
30<br />
200<br />
164<br />
171<br />
126<br />
99 102 88 79 90<br />
69<br />
59<br />
39<br />
51<br />
46<br />
40 43<br />
1991<br />
1992<br />
1993<br />
1994<br />
1995<br />
1996<br />
1997<br />
1998<br />
1999<br />
2000<br />
2001<br />
2002<br />
2003<br />
2004<br />
2005<br />
2006<br />
Picture 2. Disruption dynamics at NPP<br />
Violation dynamics at NPPs with various nuclear installation types is presented<br />
in Picture 3 (% of total failures).<br />
Picture 3. Disruption dynamics at NPP of various nuclear installation types (% of total failures)<br />
In 2003, Russian NPPs achieved a maximum power capacity utilization factor of<br />
76.3% (at the best foreign power plants the power capacity utilization factor is approximately<br />
90%). Disruption magnitude increased by 12 comparable to 2002. Therefore, the<br />
„price” rises in the case of higher Russian NPP utilization.<br />
Picture 4 presents the power capacity utilization factor at Russian NPP (with<br />
respect to the nuclear installation type and average utilization factor of all the plants).<br />
Table 2 includes failure data with respect to equipment during 01.01.91–31.12.03.<br />
The key disruption reasons in the nuclear plants operation during 01.01.91–12.31.03 are<br />
presented in Table 3.<br />
Spent Fuel Management
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By the end of 2006, Russian NPPs and radiochemical facilities stockpiles had<br />
accumulated 18,500 tons of spent nuclear fuel. The volume of spent fuel is growing.<br />
In Russia, annual growth totals 850 tons (from a global growth of 11,000–12,000 tons.<br />
Russian spent fuel stockpiles contain 175 tons of plutonium.)<br />
Picture 4. Power capacity utilization factor at Russian NPP with different installations<br />
Failures due to equipment 01.01.91–12.31.03<br />
Table 2<br />
Equipment 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003<br />
Electrotechnical 48 50 33 24 23 22 25 31 8 11 14 19<br />
Heat-mechanic 75 92 46 45 84 34 53 46 33 17 10 15<br />
Electronics 55 15 23 8 11 8 2 11 10 5 5 -<br />
Control-measuring 17 8 19 12 8 1 4 5 2 10 5 9<br />
Other 11 4 19 10 8 4 7 9 16 16 3 8<br />
Reasons for disruptions in the NPP operation during 01.01.91–12.31.03<br />
Table 3<br />
Violation sources 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003<br />
Management 64 64 32 32 43 8 7 45 29 28 16 22<br />
Equipment production 23 20 21 8 9 5 7 6 10 4 3 9<br />
Design and construction 43 44 22 17 19 9 11 19 24 11 14 12<br />
Repair 14 9 8 3 3 2 3 4 5 3 0 0<br />
Other 56 34 43 40 23 4 7 16 1 3 2 3<br />
At Russian NPP spent fuel is mostly present in the European part of Russia,<br />
where the majority of nuclear plants are located. Spent fuel removal from NPP is not<br />
satisfactory (total absence of the spent fuel removal from the RBMK, EGP and AMB<br />
reactor types). The future of spent fuel from RBMK-1000 is not decided, because such<br />
fuel recycling is not economically profitable until 2010 at the earliest. Additionally,<br />
spent fuel removal from HPR and BN reactors is insufficient and this is caused by the<br />
absence of a plan for strategic fuel. Spent fuel stockpile growth at NPP decreases nuclear
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
safety and requires special security measure storage justifications in emergency cases.<br />
This problem is especially critical at the plants with RBMK reactors. Packed spent fuel<br />
storage is only a temporary solution for the stockpiling and operations at NPP.<br />
At the Kurskaya plant the average spent fuel storage capacity is 42%. The<br />
maximum storage capacity at facility 4 is 59.4%. The storage capacity at such facilities<br />
is 95.6% of the allowed amount. At the Leningradskaya plant the average<br />
accumulation is 71%. The maximum storage capacity at facility 4 is 79.3%. And<br />
the complete storage is 95.9% of the allowed amount. At the Smolenskaya plant the<br />
average storage capacity is 30%, and the maximum amount of waste storage is 72%<br />
of the designed volume. Spent fuel storage from Beloyarskaya plant’s 1 and 2 units<br />
is located at facilities where nuclear safety is maintained. The water cleaning system<br />
introduction to these facilities allowed lowering water activity and overall personnel<br />
radiation effects.<br />
Spent fuel treatment<br />
The Russian Federation government secured financing for the federal program<br />
„Nuclear and Radiological Safety in 2001–2006” only for 12.5% of the original plan. The<br />
level of spent fuel accumulation at NPPs in average makes up for 67%. The facilities in<br />
the Kol’skaya and Leningradskaya plants are filled up to 80 and 95% respectfully. The<br />
amount of spent fuel with medium radiation level averages 90.3% (not including spent<br />
fuel accumulation at the Rostovskaya plant); spent highly radioactive fuel level is 37.1%,<br />
at Kurskaya plant it is 95.4% filled, and in Smolenskaya up to 84.4%.<br />
Nuclear research installations and their safety<br />
Research nuclear installations are critical in nuclear energy development and nuclear<br />
installation safety supply. <strong>It</strong> is impossible to provide safety for nuclear facilities without a<br />
wide range of fundamental and applied research at nuclear research installations.<br />
As at all facilities utilizing nuclear energy, nuclear research installations are a<br />
source of nuclear and radiological threat. Despite their low capacity, and, therefore,<br />
lower amount of radioactive materials resulting from research installation operation,<br />
the overall danger for the environment and population remains high. Among the factors<br />
critical for the safety of such installations are: high frequency of working regime<br />
changes (launches, switch-offs, power variation in a wide range of dynamic experiments)<br />
and this causes most failures in research installations’ operation; constant active<br />
area overloads and constant replacement of radiated instruments (for the research, into<br />
the temporary pools, prolonged storage, operation); permanent high loads on the major<br />
installation of activity areas and first layer as a result of short and long-term tasks; high<br />
density of neutron flow in active research reactor zones, which lead to accumulation of<br />
fluency limit on elements of active zones and increase of probability of their failures;<br />
the presence of highly enriched fuel, which complicates nuclear nonproliferation and<br />
requires efficient systems for materials security and accounting; experiment equipment<br />
and related operation issues; comparable to power reactors, a fewer number of physical<br />
barriers to special materials proliferation, in particular near pool research reactors and
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
critical installations; nuclear research installations and their presence in large cities with<br />
dense city infrastructure and large populations.<br />
There are 93 nuclear research installations in operation on the former Soviet<br />
Union’s territory, particularly in Moscow and Saint-Petersburg. Table 4 represents all<br />
nuclear research installations in Russia.<br />
Nuclear research installations in Russia<br />
Table 4<br />
Title Total In operation<br />
Under reconstruction<br />
Frozen<br />
Being taken<br />
out of operation<br />
In construction<br />
Research Reactors 38 23 1 2 10 2<br />
Critical Installations 39 29 1 2 7 0<br />
Sub-critical Installations 16 6 0 5 4 1<br />
Total: 93 58 2 9 21 3<br />
The majority of nuclear research installations operated by Rosatom, the Scientific<br />
Research Center (RSC) „The Kurchatov Institute,” the Russian State Research Center<br />
(RSRC) Physics-Energy Institute, the RSRC Nuclear Research Institute of Atomic Reactors<br />
and other organizations were designed and built in the 1950–1960s, when the<br />
norms and standards for nuclear and radiation safety were not developed to the extent<br />
existing today. As a result, the reactors in one way or another do not comply with the<br />
requirements and standards for nuclear safety today. The analysis of existing Russian<br />
nuclear research installation conditions reveals the necessity to use such reactors for<br />
the future tasks of fuel cycle development and for research of nuclear energy industry’s<br />
safety and efficiency. The continuing aging and reduction of existing nuclear research<br />
installations is closely tied to the fact that in order to accomplish future experiments, we<br />
will have to increase the intensity of existing installations’ operation, and it will require<br />
meeting current safety and operation norms.<br />
The key problem of safety maintenance of the operating nuclear research installations<br />
is linked to the physical and obsolescence of their technical capacities. First of<br />
all, one relates to the installations set to operate in the 1950–1970s, and their renovations<br />
over the past decade are insufficient. Among the reasons for such conditions are<br />
objective and subjective factors: terminating production at the Russian equipment, basic<br />
systems and installation plants, which are required for installations’ design thirty-fifty<br />
years ago; significant lack of communication with equipment suppliers, which are currently<br />
outside Russia. In addition, the initial timeframe for the revision of replacing<br />
outdated equipment with new technologies or correction of existing schemes with their<br />
replacement is too long. Pictures 5 and 6 represents the operation timeframe of research<br />
reactors, critical installations and sub-critical stands.<br />
In 2003, 38% of violations were the result of external electricity systems distortions<br />
(1999 – 31%, 2000 – 31%, 2001 – 22%, 2002 – 39%), 8% of violations in research<br />
installations operation were the result of personnel (1999 – 8.5%, 2000 – 17%, 2001<br />
– 20%, 2002 – 18%).
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
In 2004, there were 33 violations in the organizations’ operation, which utilize<br />
nuclear research installations. Rosatom facilities had 16 of those failures (RSRC „Nuclear<br />
Research Institute of Atomic Reactors” – 14; The RSRC „Physics-Energy Institute”<br />
– 1; The Rosatom Radiological Materials Institute – 1), the rest happened at the facilities<br />
of other agencies (Dubna Nuclear Research Institute – 6; The Obninsk Research<br />
facility – 2; Tomsk – 5; Gatchina – 4). Picture 7 indicates the violation dynamics at the<br />
nuclear research installations during 1994–2004.<br />
Picture 5. Existing research reactors and their operation timeframe<br />
Picture 6. Critical installations and Sub-critical installations and their operation timeframe<br />
The human factor at nuclear research installations is significant for security maintenance.<br />
The personnel generation changes, some resign for to various reasons, and in<br />
some cases there is lack of personnel at the nuclear research installations (The RSRC<br />
„Nuclear Research Institute of Atomic Reactors”, the RSC „The Kurchatov Institute”, the<br />
Moscow Institute of Physics Research and other operating organizations). Prestige is lacking,<br />
the absence of young specialists, and personnel flow make the situation even more
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
complicated. A majority of the mistakes are made as a result of renovation or substitution<br />
of control and measuring equipment.<br />
100<br />
96<br />
80<br />
67<br />
60<br />
40<br />
41<br />
58<br />
34<br />
47<br />
47<br />
39<br />
38<br />
26<br />
33<br />
50<br />
47<br />
20<br />
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006<br />
Picture 7. Violation dynamics at nuclear research installations operations between 1994–2006<br />
Spent fuel and radiological waste at nuclear research installations<br />
Spent nuclear fuel is concentrated mainly at the following facilities: the RSC<br />
„Kurchatov Institute,” the RSRC „Physics-Energy Institute,” the RSRC „Nuclear Research<br />
Institute of Atomic Reactors,” and Sverdlovsk Facility of „the Research and<br />
Construction Institute of Energy Technics.” The decision on spent fuel removal from the<br />
Kurchatov Institute to the specialized facility for further storage has not yet been made.<br />
In the RSRC „Nuclear Research Institute of Atomic Reactors” a large number of highly<br />
radioactive metal waste from VK-50 has accumulated. The 30 tons accumulated from<br />
Rosatom Device Research Institute (Lytkarino, Moscow oblast) radiological waste have<br />
not been sent to storage, and additionally an upgrade for nuclear units that are currently<br />
closed needs further deconstruction processing. As a result of financial support, the radioactive<br />
metal fuel neutralization process (900 kg) has been terminated.<br />
Fluid radioactive waste of medium and low radioactivity levels removed from<br />
reactor installations and radio-chemical and material research labs of the Research<br />
Center in Dimitrovgrad are stored in absorbing container layers at 1,000 meters depth<br />
in the existing facility’s area. Their radioactivity volume does not exceed 10 -5 Ku/liter.<br />
For the long-term storage of medium and high activity of solutions and fulfilled ionchanging<br />
pitches with specific activity up to 2 Ku/liter, two radiological waste facilities<br />
are utilized with the capacity of 13,780 м 3. The waste is collected in the underground<br />
system, which is designed from non-corrosive pipes, located in ferroconcrete boxes,<br />
with hermetic cover from non-corrosive steel.<br />
The following installations are being decommissioned: a small reactor at the RSC<br />
„The Kurchatov Institute,” IVR-30 (United Institute for Nuclear Research), FG-5, SGO (the<br />
RSC, the Institute of Physics and Energy), TVR (the RSRC „The Physics-Energy Institute”),<br />
KS N2 („TVEL”), Bars-2, Tibr-1М (Research Center on Equipment Design); АSТ-1 (The<br />
RSRC „Nuclear Research Institute of Atomic Reactors”), FS-4, FS-5 (The Research and<br />
Construction Institute for Energy Technology), RG-1М (The Nadezhinsk State Metal Production<br />
Plant). In 2003, the following installations were taken out of operation: KS ST-659L<br />
(Experimental Machine Construction Bureau), IR IRV-1М (The Federal State Management<br />
of the Research Institute for Industry Construction), КOBR (The RSRC „The Physics-Energy
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Institute”), KS N7 („TVEL”). The installations’ decommissioning process is very slow due<br />
to a lack of financing. The industry’s program on decommissioning a number of facilities in<br />
2001–2010 is based on federal financing. <strong>It</strong> does not cover, however, all the nuclear research<br />
installations and the spent fuel storage facilities on their territory.<br />
Nuclear fuel cycle facilities and their safety<br />
The key elements of the modern fuel cycle were designed and implemented at<br />
the very beginning during a time when the basic issues and goals were different from<br />
today. Many decisions, adopted then, continue to function nowadays or influence industry<br />
operations. Table 5 indicates the list of nuclear cycle facilities.<br />
The list of nuclear fuel cycle facilities<br />
Table 5<br />
Facility title, its abbreviation,<br />
location<br />
Founded<br />
Key production<br />
Siberia Chemical Center, Seversk 1953 Industry reactors, Radio-chemical production,<br />
Chemical and metal production, Hexafluoride<br />
uranium production, Uranium isotope separation<br />
production<br />
„Mayak”, Ozersk 1948 Industry reactors, Radio-chemical production,<br />
Chemical and metal production, Isotope<br />
materials production<br />
Mining-Chemical Center, Zheleznogorsk<br />
Angarsk Electrolyze Chemical<br />
Center<br />
Urals Electrochemical Center,<br />
Novo Uralsk<br />
Machine Production Factory,<br />
Electrostal<br />
Novosibirsk Factory of Chemical<br />
Concentrates<br />
Chemical-Metallurgy Facility,<br />
Krasnoyarsk<br />
1950 Industry reactors, Radio-chemical production,<br />
Spent fuel storage from reactors HPR-1000<br />
1954 Hexafluoride uranium production, Uranium<br />
isotope separation production<br />
1945 Chemical and metal production, Uranium<br />
isotope separation production<br />
1945 Nuclear fuel production<br />
1949 Nuclear fuel production<br />
1948 Chemical and metal production<br />
Electro-Chemical Plant, Zelenogrsk 1955 Uranium isotope separation production<br />
Kirovo-Chepetsk Chemical Center 1949 Uranium isotope separation production<br />
Production Facility „Chepetsk<br />
Mechanical Factory”, Glazov<br />
Research and Production Union<br />
„Khlopin Radium Institute”<br />
1951 Chemical and metal production<br />
1922 Scientific and materials study research with<br />
nuclear materials utilization.<br />
The RRI of Chemical Technology 1951 Scientific and materials study research with<br />
nuclear materials utilization.<br />
The State Center „The Bocharov<br />
Russian Research Institute of Nonorganic<br />
materials”<br />
1945 Scientific and materials study research with<br />
nuclear materials utilization.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
The RSC „The Kurchatov Institute”<br />
1943 Scientific and materials study research with<br />
nuclear materials utilization<br />
There have been more than 250 accidents at the nuclear fuel cycle facilities since<br />
1949. The total violations amount in the facilities’ operation exceeds 100 during the last<br />
decade. Picture 8 indicates the incidents by year.<br />
30<br />
25<br />
20<br />
15<br />
10<br />
5<br />
0<br />
26<br />
21<br />
23<br />
14<br />
13<br />
10<br />
14<br />
8<br />
4<br />
4<br />
3<br />
2 1 1<br />
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006<br />
Picture 8. Number of violation accidents per year in the operation of Russian nuclear<br />
fuel cycle facilities during 1993–2006<br />
Transportation safety of nuclear energy industry<br />
Currently in Russia there are 8 vessels in operation with nuclear power installations<br />
aboard (5 ice-breakers – „Arktika”, „Siberia”, „Russia”, „The Soviet Union” and<br />
„Yamal”, two small ice-breakers – „Tajmyr” and „Vajgach”, and the light weight ship<br />
„Sevmorput’”). These vessels use 13 water reactors with pressure. Five ships require<br />
additional maintenance vessels, which include the two floating installations for charging<br />
and storing fresh and spent fuel („Imandra” and „Lotta”), floating storage („Volodarksy”),<br />
a special tanker „Serbrjanka” and a floating control-dosimeter installation<br />
„Rosta-1.” Table 6 includes the data of the nuclear fleet.<br />
Picture 9 indicates a sharp increase in operation incidents during the past decade.<br />
For example, 16 of 29 incidents in 2002 were caused by steam-generator leaks. One of<br />
the most critical issues is prolonging nuclear vessels service and keeping their equipment<br />
operational. The nuclear energy equipment (ОK-900А type), for the nuclear icebreakers<br />
„Arktika”, „Russia”, „The Soviet Union” and „Yamal,” with a general lifespan<br />
of 50,000–60,000 hours and 10–12 years service for the equipment resource and technical<br />
conditions, have been in operation for a period two or three times longer. The icebreakers<br />
„Russia,” „The Soviet Union,” and „Yamal” (design 10521) have therefore a<br />
longer operational period than normal. The same applies for „Tajmyr,” „Vajgach” and<br />
„Sevmorput.”<br />
Safety of the sources of ionizing radiation<br />
Currently in the agriculture sector there are 2,500 plants, organizations and facilities<br />
which utilize nuclear energy and possess 7,731 radioactively dangerous units –<br />
facilities, labs, technical units and other. Table 7 includes data on radiological accidents<br />
and related incidents, and their classification, according to „The rules of investigation
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
and accounting of violations in handling radiological sources and materials, utilized in<br />
agriculture.”<br />
Civil Nuclear Fleet<br />
Table 6<br />
Title of the<br />
ship<br />
Nuclear icebreaker<br />
(NIB)<br />
„Lenin”<br />
NIB<br />
„Arktika”<br />
NIB<br />
„Siberia”<br />
Design<br />
Construction<br />
year<br />
92М 1959 ОК-150<br />
ОК-900<br />
Nuclear<br />
power installation<br />
Reactors<br />
number<br />
3<br />
2<br />
Installation<br />
Generation<br />
1<br />
2<br />
Technical condition<br />
Is being prepared<br />
to be removed<br />
from operation.<br />
Active zones are<br />
removed. The<br />
ship is categorized<br />
as „nuclear<br />
safe.”<br />
1052-1 1975 ОК-900А 2 2 Operation<br />
reserve<br />
1052-2 1977 ОК-900А 2 2 Operation<br />
reserve<br />
NIB „Russia” 10521-1 1985 ОК-900А 2 2 In operation. Functions<br />
properly<br />
NIB „The Soviet<br />
Union”<br />
10521-2 1989 ОК-900А 2 2 In operation. Functions<br />
properly<br />
NIB „Yamal” 10521-3 1992 ОК-900А 2 2 In operation. Functions<br />
properly<br />
NIB<br />
„Tajmyr”<br />
NIB<br />
„Vajgach”<br />
Nuclear<br />
lighteraboard<br />
ship<br />
„Sevmorput”<br />
10580-1 1989 КLТ-40М 1 3 In operation. Functions<br />
properly.<br />
10580-2 1990 КLТ-40М 1 3 In operation. Functions<br />
properly.<br />
10081 1988 КLТ-40 1 3 In operation. Functions<br />
properly<br />
30<br />
25<br />
20<br />
15<br />
10<br />
5<br />
8<br />
6<br />
19<br />
14<br />
18<br />
16<br />
29<br />
21<br />
22<br />
21<br />
01 1<br />
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005<br />
Picture 9. Operational incidents during 1994–2005 on nuclear ice-breakersв
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
The special production units system „Rodon”, established in the 1960s for radiological<br />
waste collection and storage of medium radioactivity, outside the nuclear<br />
weapon complex, proved its necessity and efficiency. At the 16 special facilities in Russia,<br />
there is an accumulated ~2.0x10 5 м 3 of radiological waste with a radioactive level<br />
– 2.0x10 6 Ku. The storage reserve for such waste at various special facilities is 10–60<br />
years if the existing waste accumulation rate holds. Among the exceptions are facilities<br />
in Moscow, Kazan, Yekaterinburg, Murmansk, Chelyabinsk, Ufa and Leningrad Districts,<br />
where storage has reached the accumulation limits.<br />
Data on radiological accidents and related incidents<br />
Table 7<br />
Indicator / year 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004<br />
Number of accidents and related 34 29 40 55 38 30 40<br />
incidents<br />
Type of violation<br />
А 0 0 1 1 1 0 0<br />
(NP-014-2000)<br />
P-1 14 9 4 4 1 2 5<br />
P-2 20 20 35 50 36 28 35<br />
Conclusions<br />
Safety maintenance at the Nuclear Research Installations is the priority task for<br />
the state, which requires systematic efforts from the personnel at the dangerous production<br />
facilities, nuclear and radiological security specialists, leadership at industrial<br />
facilities, construction and design organizations, specialists and managers at the Federal<br />
Agency for the Atomic Energy. Based on the above safety analysis, the conclusions are:<br />
1. Regarding the safety conditions of the operating nuclear plants, the safety<br />
standards are based on the safety requirements and norms existing at the time of the<br />
plants’ construction, and therefore are included in the design of such nuclear plants.<br />
None of the plants meet modern safety requirements.<br />
2. Today, none of the operating NPP have reasonable safety procedures, which would<br />
include a potential outcomes analysis in case of violence of energy units exploitation.<br />
3. In general, in the past three years, there has been a reduction in the number of<br />
accidental automatic shut downs of power reactors. In average, the rate has been reduced<br />
two times compared to last year. The magnitude of automatic emergency shut off systems<br />
activation during 2002–2004 is in the range of 0.2–0.3 per power unit. Since 1998,<br />
there has been a tendency towards average violation case reduction at NPP. The current<br />
condition of Russian NPP safety is satisfactory and stable. Yet, the constant work on<br />
safety indicators improvement in the plant’s operation should be constantly maintained.<br />
For example, almost every other violation is based on repeating anomalies. This indicates<br />
that during the operating NPP analysis, during correction measures development<br />
and implementation, there is low efficiency based on previous experience.<br />
4. The answer to the question, „What is the chance for a large accident at the<br />
NPP” is „Yes, it can happen in case of poor equipment safety, qualified personnel, and<br />
personnel safety requirements.” A large design based accident at the modern reactors is<br />
related to the reactor’s explosion and the outcomes, which will largely exceed the allowed
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
norms for the population and environment. In case first generation power unit operation is<br />
extended at the present design imperfection the chance for accidents will only grow. The<br />
reconstruction conducted by Rosatom for the first NPP line with RBMK power units required<br />
significant resources, time, specialists, and equipment, but the required safety level<br />
was not achieved. Two key reasons are the lack of accident localization systems, and significant<br />
radioactive and spent fuel waste accumulation. <strong>It</strong> is critical to start projects earlier<br />
to shut down the first generation power units with their higher accident chances. Instead,<br />
in different periods and at a number of levels, the concept of putting the first generation<br />
power units at a 100% capacity may lead to catastrophe. In order to avoid a catastrophe<br />
similar to Chernobyl, the first generation reactors must be removed from operation earlier<br />
due to the high accident risk. Before these units are removed from operation, they should<br />
operate at reduced power levels with additional managerial and technical cautions.<br />
5. Since 1999, there has been a tendency for increased accidents at nuclear fuel<br />
cycle facilities. The key reasons are:<br />
––technology and technological requirements violations;<br />
––lack of professional training and discipline for specialists and workers;<br />
––lack of organizational measures to support technological process safety;<br />
––the unsatisfactory Russian nuclear facilities’ equipment and systems’ technical<br />
conditions;<br />
––unaccomplished equipment substitution schedule;<br />
––poor individual employee protection measures supplies;<br />
––poor control over technology norms and requirements on behalf of units, factories,<br />
and Rosatom agencies management;<br />
––design and construction documentation mistakes;<br />
––unilateral changes introduced in technology and equipment systems;<br />
––lack of systematic work to increase safety levels against nuclear, fire and explosion<br />
dangerous operations (for example, the established program does not occur at<br />
„Mayak”);<br />
––and dangerous facilities lack operational analysis. Such an analysis is absent<br />
in the facilities’ design, and over time has not been accomplished at either nuclear fuel<br />
cycle facility. The safety system analysis has been substituted with inefficient inspector<br />
work, who conducted their work after the accident took place. As a result, emergency<br />
cases were analyzed inefficiently and were incomplete. Take for example, the<br />
emergency regimes at radio-chemical factories during 1982–1985. The measures to<br />
eliminate emergencies were performed during seven years (1986–1992). An explosion<br />
happened at the same installation in April, 1993, and it initiated a radiological accident.<br />
The continuous incidents at the nuclear fuel cycle facilities happen because of severe<br />
technological and technological regime violations; specialist and operator professional<br />
preparedness short-comings and poor technological discipline; technological and ineffective<br />
organizational measures to support safety; the unsatisfactory equipment technology<br />
and systems condition at Russian nuclear facilities. At nuclear power facilities there<br />
is insufficient utilization capacity at all activity levels.<br />
Among the additional nuclear facility safety failures are:
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
––Lake Karachay remains a potential source for a large scale radiation accident<br />
due to delays in waste incineration installation construction and continued medium level<br />
radioactive waste fluids dumping;<br />
––hydro facilities of the Techensky cascade at the Mayak water facilities are<br />
operating without a license, the low level waste has achieved its maximum volume and<br />
threatens to destroy these hydro facilities (levies);<br />
–– at the nuclear fuel cycle facilities the obsolescence equipment is operated<br />
and represents a potential threat, including transportation packaging units which are to<br />
transport spent fuel (for example, TYK-6). This resource is exhausted and is a potential<br />
accident source;<br />
–– many facilities, and first of all radio-chemical production, can be under terrorist<br />
threat, which is why physical protection measures are critical.<br />
6. Data analysis of industrial nuclear reactor safety conditions indicates negative<br />
dynamics related to the inspection requirements and includes registration of all reactors<br />
switch-off. The key violation reasons were personnel mistakes, equipment failures, depressurization,<br />
and control-measuring equipment failure.<br />
7. Nuclear research reactors incidents, as a rule, are caused by security system<br />
shut offs as a result of external distortions. This fact requires a detailed study and analysis<br />
of the installations’ general security systems.<br />
8. The overall system is on survival’s edge due to the following factors: unsatisfactory<br />
current special facilities activities and measures financing under the Program of<br />
Nuclear Waste Management in regard to „Rodon” facility construction and upgrades;<br />
poor Russian Federation government and district government attention to special facility<br />
problems. The majority of storage facilities are close to their limits while the<br />
technical conditions of construction and equipment demand immediate renovation and<br />
upgrades. Radioactive facility security systems do not meet modern standards, and can<br />
lead to serious radioactive contamination of the population and environment. Besides,<br />
stable special facilities functions at „Radon” are complicated by an ineffective legislative<br />
basis, which regulates their operation. The majority of these facilities help maintain<br />
several organizations’ operations in different areas of Russia. Currently there is no federal<br />
level management system for the „Radon” special facilities.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Innovative Projects for Nuclear Energy Development<br />
Husein D. Chechenov, Vice-chair, Committee on Science,<br />
Health, Environment and Education, Russian Federation<br />
Council<br />
Dear Forum participants! I thought it necessary to give a talk because, as the<br />
Deputy Chairperson, I represent the Federation Council Committee on Health, Environment<br />
and Education. I would like to assure you that the issue of nuclear energy is not<br />
any less important than many other issues that are currently being addressed by the Federation<br />
Council. Today, they already have a Nuclear energy subcommission within the<br />
Commission on Natural Monopolies. There is also a coordination council on innovation<br />
technologies in the field of nuclear energy. The latter was created with the Committee<br />
on Science, Education, and Ecology.<br />
Everyone in this auditorium knows just as well as I do, or even better, that the<br />
biggest issues in energy today are those that have to do with hydrocarbons. We now<br />
have many innovations in the area of renewable energy. The most recent visit of the U.S.<br />
President to Brazil caused quite uproar. <strong>It</strong> was suggested there that one should switch<br />
20% of fuel use to biofuel. Such suggestions are made at the time when, according to<br />
various statistics, up to a million people in the world die of hunger every year! One<br />
would need 500 million tons of grain to get this biofuel.<br />
The moral and ethical questions, apparently, stay on the side. But with all the<br />
circumstances, even if all the hopes do come true and even if all the scientific, technical,<br />
material and financial programs will be implemented, it is hardly possible that we<br />
would be able to use these energy sources to provide enough heat for big cities, to melt<br />
steel and aluminum, and so on.<br />
Just now Gennady Alekseevich stated that in the next 30 years, we might have<br />
fusion energy. I highly doubt that. Because today, not even the most advanced specialists<br />
are able to obtain heat in such a way. At least in this century, we will not obtain such<br />
a commercially viable reactor.<br />
Why do I say this Because we should admit – whether we like it or not – that<br />
apparently there are no alternatives to nuclear energy. We need to admit it so we can<br />
solve energy problems and problems related to global energy security, especially in the<br />
post-petroleum period. This period is drawing near. According to various estimates,<br />
the hydrocarbon reserves will start to decline by 2010, optimistically by 2020–2025.<br />
Even in Russia, with all our vast natural gas reserves, we already have a deficit of some<br />
three billion cubic meters. <strong>It</strong> is not a secret that Russian internal gas prices are planned<br />
to match international ones by 2010. I suppose you can all draw both political and economic<br />
implications from this.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
I am pleased to talk about nuclear energy here, at this Forum with <strong>Green</strong> Cross,<br />
who has done such great things for the environment. So, even if we do it in a discussion<br />
format, we really need to state this imperative quite clearly: there are no substantial<br />
alternatives to nuclear energy today.<br />
In over sixty years of nuclear defense production and over half a century of nuclear<br />
energy, our country accumulated a lot of unique scientific, production, technical,<br />
technological, and educational experience. This history allows us to think that in the<br />
post-petroleum and post-natural gas era, we will continue to be in the leading positions<br />
that we are in today in the nuclear and hydrocarbon fields. At some point, the hydrocarbon<br />
period will end. Then a transitional period will follow.<br />
We need to meet this transitional period with the technologies that will allow us<br />
to continue to be competitive on the international market. I think that today, all those<br />
interested in developing our country and all those interested in peaceful development<br />
of the international community must understand and prepare for it. In my opinion, the<br />
recently adopted Federal Target Program (FTP), which is supported by the Federal Assembly,<br />
has major drawbacks. Anyone working in the nuclear field could confirm that<br />
Sredmash has always placed science first. Practical aspects followed, and so did caring<br />
for the people who bore this weight upon themselves.<br />
Unfortunately, the current FTP is state-funded only up to 45%. The rest must be<br />
either procured by the industry itself or by some investors. This FTP is the fifth one,<br />
and I am sure that it will be implemented. Up till now, the programs were only 30%<br />
completed. In order to achieve full implementation, everyone needs to work at full capacity.<br />
Yet apparently, FTP will undergo some changes in terms of our understanding.<br />
Just recently, we were at a point which S.V. Kirienko described so well by saying: „We<br />
quietly watched as the nuclear industry was dying.” Now, to everyone’s delight, we<br />
have passed that point and are facing the task of development. Hence, the FTP and the<br />
interested parties are working to make the nuclear energy industry grow.<br />
However, we are facing a number of problems. We know that everything created<br />
by Sredmash and by the nuclear industry as a whole, is now dispersed over a wide range<br />
of property and reporting levels, even if it is within the government structures. So, can<br />
we say with confidence that, for example, the Izhor plant will be able to handle its route<br />
map I have read today that Rosatom found a solution for the low-speed turbines. They<br />
will develop and produce such turbines along with a French firm. The project is supposed<br />
to be launched by 2010; but there is no time.<br />
Today, we have to discuss projects that have not yet been started. There are issues<br />
that will require making and implementing very tough decisions in terms of consolidating<br />
everything that makes up nuclear energy into one whole; not piece by piece,<br />
by various agencies or forms of property.<br />
Unfortunately, we did have the Federal Law №13 adopted. <strong>It</strong> stipulates „special<br />
forms of property management.” I voted for it, since there was nothing else. But it has<br />
this drawback: hardly anything is said about science, while the scientific component is<br />
imperative. We should start working towards changes in this law already. There should<br />
be some kind of change that would close this loophole. If there is no science, there is no<br />
nuclear energy and no nuclear industry as a whole! You can understand it very well.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Previously, we did not have funds. Now we do have funds, and we need to invest<br />
them where they will have a positive high-tech chain reaction, because we are still<br />
strong in these positions in Russia. In this regard, I would like to touch upon a few issues.<br />
The long-term energy development perspective in Russia in the post-hydrocarbon<br />
period demands long-term strategies. And this is where we have a problem.<br />
Consider the same FTP up to 2020, the HRWs and fast-neutron breeder reactors.<br />
One would think: what is so innovative and full of potential about it Yet with all due<br />
consideration for today’s problems, we must not stop. We must not say to ourselves:<br />
let us take a break until something new comes up. We need to support the NPP-2006,<br />
the HRWs and the FBRs that are being modernized, in any way we can. We need to<br />
continue, even though the French „superphoenix” of 1,200 MW (not just 600 MW) was<br />
stopped. Similar experiments in Germany and Japan also gave negative results and were<br />
stopped. By developing the FBR reactor on the Beloyarskaya NPP base, we at least<br />
continue scientific development.<br />
I have a question: does the fast-neutron breeder reactor present an export opportunity<br />
Gennady Alexeyevich said: hardly. The presence of 20 tons of plutonium in one<br />
unit and the necessity to equip such a plant with a radiochemical facility provide good<br />
reasons for his answer. <strong>It</strong> could hardly be a commodity for the external market. This<br />
trillion-dollar market needs to be conquered.<br />
Our colleagues do pursue such a policy line with a European ICBM-type reactor<br />
which is already working well in Finland. If it is realized by 2012, they can win a third<br />
of the market. They have all the prerequisite necessities for such programs. I doubt we<br />
have such prerequisites on the basis of the programs that we currently have today. A<br />
thousand mice put together will not form an elephant. We can improve and perfect the<br />
PWR endlessly, but it will not enable us to produce the next-generation reactors that are<br />
expected from us. That is hardly possible.<br />
Even if the breeder reactor programs are successfully implemented, with all the<br />
construction and other technological work completed, we would obtain them by 2020–<br />
2025. Do we have this kind of time The conclusion is simple: we can talk about gascooled,<br />
light-water, high-temperature and other types of reactors, but let us talk about the<br />
three positions stated by the President V.V. Putin. These positions are: to move away from<br />
fission materials (U and Pu) in the field of nuclear energy, as was said at the Millennium<br />
Summit; to make energy available to all countries (as was said on the St.-Petersburg Summit);<br />
and to fully commit to the nonproliferation of nuclear weapons.<br />
Let us respond to the President’s positions. The technological base that is currently<br />
in operation is unable to provide answers to these three questions. If we take<br />
into account the fact that nuclear renaissance started in „green” Europe, then how can<br />
we be reassured about the Persian Gulf countries such as Saudi Arabia and Qatar, once<br />
they make a decision to conduct nuclear energy research Even if they swear to us that<br />
they will only develop energy reactors, we cannot be assured that they will not obtain<br />
nuclear weapons to secure themselves against their opponents. <strong>It</strong> already happened in<br />
India and Pakistan.<br />
There are countries that must not under any circumstances obtain access to not<br />
only nuclear weapons but even to radioactive materials, if we want to have peace in the
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
world. With such a pace of nuclear energy spread, can we, along with the IAEA, other<br />
international organizations and the international community, ensure that such a thing<br />
does not happen<br />
We know from theory that there is a negative correlation between security and<br />
the amount of details. <strong>It</strong> is applicable to this situation: there is a negative correlation<br />
between nuclear technology nonproliferation and the number of countries that possess<br />
it. And nowadays we can see that they cannot stay away from nuclear energy, because<br />
even those who are sitting on petroleum reserves understand that one day, petroleum<br />
and gas will end.<br />
So, how do we go on Everyone knows the answer. That is why even the Persian<br />
Gulf countries with all their petroleum started getting into nuclear energy. So, on the<br />
one hand, we have the inevitable striving of countries such as Iran and North Korea<br />
developing nuclear energy programs – either with us or without us. On the other hand,<br />
if nuclear technology will be present in all the countries, how can we ensure security<br />
On the one hand, developing nuclear power is their right, but on the other hand, what do<br />
we do with the issue of nonproliferation I will not even mention the price of uranium.<br />
If I am not mistaken, it is $95 per pound, having grown four times during 2006. When<br />
everyone switches to nuclear energy with such prices and availability, there will be new<br />
problems.<br />
We should not discuss the shortcomings of others in this auditorium. Today, we<br />
are all familiar with the issues of radioactive materials storage, bomb materials, and<br />
other problems.<br />
Let us look again at those three positions of President V.V. Putin. The current<br />
technological base and even the current developments that will raise the security levels<br />
and make things more economical – they also have those three shortcomings, plus some<br />
other ones that I will not mention, but you know what they are. What is to be done<br />
I have been collaborating with the VNIIAM [All-Russian scientific and design<br />
institute for nuclear machine building] since 1983. This field is not new to me, although I<br />
do not consider myself an expert in nuclear science. This is because I was involved in<br />
security questions rather than in nuclear questions. So, what is now happening in the<br />
world <strong>It</strong> turns out that there are new approaches to solving these problems in Russia.<br />
These approaches not only address the three above-mentioned positions, but they also<br />
solve the problems of waste and fuel, because they can work on thorium. We have a lot<br />
of thorium in our country. And spent nuclear fuel could be used, as well.<br />
Karl Rubbia talked about it some time ago. This is a hundred-year old program<br />
that is being developed, if I am not mistaken, in the US. <strong>It</strong> is based on using non-fission<br />
materials (as per the President’s first position). <strong>It</strong> involves solutions for the waste problems,<br />
using accelerators, relativity clusters, thorium assemblies, and so on.<br />
Today, we are ready to support it. I see the solutions in the following: first, Rosatom<br />
should receive powerful support for its scientific activities, as well as for the Russian<br />
Academy of Sciences and all of those who traditionally works in this field. The support<br />
should come from the government and consist of funding for providing advanced<br />
science development. <strong>It</strong> was something that always helped Russia, and it should happen<br />
again. The money is available, the understanding of the issues is there, and the transitional
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
innovative economy is also there. In the President’s address which he will read in the next<br />
few days, he will surely talk about it, and we will then receive powerful support.<br />
We could get involved in the process on the Protvino base. As we know, similar<br />
programs can only be conducted in Los Alamos, CERN, and in Protvino. Moreover, I<br />
can tell you that evaluation experiments were paid for separately, and this year, the US<br />
is ready to continue financing them for up to $3 million, so that the authors who are unable<br />
to get into our offices, could already start working in Protvino. This is wise and the<br />
right thing to do. We should respond to this proposition in such a way so that no group or<br />
corporate interests of various schools can prevent us from working on our program. The<br />
state interests demand that we finally obtain the funding so that we can finish developing<br />
the physics of the process.<br />
The first contacts with our foreign colleagues, the civil servants, indicated that<br />
we can find support from a number of leading countries. Moreover, we could create an<br />
international scientific center in Protvino, just like ITERA. The international community<br />
is waiting for Russia to solve its problems with honor, to find solutions that would<br />
help to provide energy security for all the countries in the world in such a way that we<br />
could avoid the plague of nuclear weapons. This way, Russia could do it.<br />
If, however, we are not able to find such solutions, there are two problems. First,<br />
while thinking that we are conquering nature, we would in fact be just conquering ourselves.<br />
Recently, there were hearings conducted regarding water purity. So, my dear<br />
colleagues, right now we are on the verge of war not because of petroleum but because<br />
of water.<br />
Second: if we will find solutions for the energy problems of the post-petroleum<br />
period, the external economic methods of solving these problems will be inevitable.<br />
And what sort of methods those would be – let us not discuss it in this auditorium.<br />
Thank you all for your attention.<br />
Questions and Answers<br />
Q: Today there are no opponents to the environmental expertise. I can present<br />
conclusions made by a number of the state agencies that did not find any serious defects<br />
in the projects including the Severodvinsk floating plant. I wonder for how long IAEA<br />
will continue to operate without a reliable control from the international community. The<br />
organization did not correct estimates of the Chernobyl accident outcomes, accepted a<br />
false version of the accident causes and of its scale; IAEA was not able to evaluate the<br />
Gorykovkaya hydro-atomic electric plant and a new facility under Tomsk-7. I wonder<br />
how these aspects will be included in the new Russian atomic energy system.<br />
H. D. Chechenov: I cannot take responsibilities for the IAEA or the Russian<br />
executive power. I represent the Council of Federation Committee, but I can express<br />
my personal opinion. Today’s cooperative work of Rosatom and <strong>Green</strong> Cross Russia is<br />
a model for the future. I am confident that we are on the verge of a large scale nuclear<br />
energy expansion. If we do not commit to a safe way of cooperation between decisionmakers,<br />
we will make a huge mistake. Our previous experience was not successful.<br />
Today we face global issues, and that is why cooperation between civil society organizations<br />
and decision-makers is critical.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Question from A.M. Vinogradova: You decide to sell carbon resources, develop<br />
the atomic energy industry, while postponing colossal expenses on its consequences<br />
for the future generations, our children and grandchildren. I haven’t heard from you,<br />
a state representative, about our large energy supply activities and energy efficiency. I<br />
wonder how you can change your priorities towards this issue.<br />
H. D. Chechenov: This week I was invited to State Duma of Russia, Yazev’s<br />
energy industry Committee. We have this week included the project on energy supply<br />
and efficiency as a key issue on the „Yedinaya Rossia” Party list for the upcoming<br />
parliamentary elections. I was also charged to take care of the energy supply problems.<br />
Specialists state that it is critical to save energy. For example, if we introduce luminescent<br />
lamps, it will save Russia three billion kW-hour. Another solution is to substitute<br />
a 100 kW-hour engine with a 7 kW-hour one at the enrichment plant. The problem is<br />
really complicated. The problem is serious indeed. Today, energy supply and energy<br />
efficiency issues have become one of the key tasks on the program list for the largest<br />
Party in Russia. The program should also include sub-programs, such as housing and<br />
Russia’s energy consuming industries. I believe that a related document will be adopted<br />
by the Russian government soon. Everything that took place before – energy supply,<br />
projects, competitions and winners’ awards – all of it has not been able solve the energy<br />
problem yet.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Modern Energy Problems and Relative Heavy Nuclear Energy<br />
Igor N. Ostretsov, PhD, Deputy Director, All-Russian<br />
Scientific and Design Institute for Nuclear<br />
Machine Building.<br />
Today it is clear that energy problems of the upcoming century cannot be<br />
resolved without nuclear energy. Oil and gas supplies may be close to exhaustion<br />
and coal causes problems for the future century and has a negative<br />
impact on the environment. Twenty year long attempts made by European<br />
countries to introduce renewable sources of energy have failed.<br />
The Russian Federation Strategy for nuclear energy development is based on the<br />
following statements by President Vladimir Putin:<br />
1. „<strong>Global</strong> energy industry in the 21 st century must be saved from operation on<br />
highly enriched uranium and plutonium” (UN Millennium Summit).<br />
Further given quotes from press-conference statements in Kremlin (09/31/2006).<br />
2. Nuclear energy industry must develop, „I repeat, based on non-discriminatory<br />
access by all interested in it.”<br />
3. „We suggest establishment of a network of uranium enrichment cycle and provide<br />
access for all interested parties to participate in nuclear energy development work.”<br />
4. „There are so called fast reactors, which are relatively safe, and I already talked<br />
about it many times. Specialists know what to do in this area. We strongly hope for effective<br />
cooperation not only among „nuclear club” countries, but with everybody, who wants<br />
to participate in cooperation.”<br />
<strong>It</strong> is obvious, that the first quote excludes third and fourth quotes and visa versa.<br />
Today there are two paths for nuclear energy industry development, based on the<br />
guidelines indicated by the Russian President. My paper is devoted to this subject.<br />
Nuclear technologies applied today are geared towards operations based on 235 U.<br />
Our country is planning to build forty new nuclear power units. Both India and China have<br />
already announced a wide reliance on nuclear energy, as have countries of Latin America<br />
and South-East Asia. Due to the lack of any substantial alternatives, Europe and North<br />
America are close to taking similar decisions<br />
Widespread use of nuclear energy in the world, however, is impossible for the following<br />
reasons:<br />
1. Nuclear waste removal and storage related problems are not resolved. High level<br />
radioactive waste is still being stored at industrial grounds (nuclear power plants’ sites) or<br />
other intermediate facilities. Today almost all storages are filled in. Attempts to build storage<br />
facilities in stable geology formations, for example in the United States, have failed.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
2. Problems of nuclear power plant’s (NPP) removal of nuclear technologies from<br />
operation have not been solved. Today’s plan is to safeguard the plants, which have exhausted<br />
their resources. The cost for the conservation of a single power unit in Russia is<br />
projected to be 500 million dollars. Security and maintenance of the nuclear cycles at the<br />
conserved NPP will cost up to 60 million dollars per year. The removal of many NPPs in<br />
the next years will cause an extreme burden on the country’s budget. Russia’s Rosatom<br />
does everything possible to extend the operating life of nuclear power plans, which has<br />
already exhausted its resources. Despite the risks related to the operation of Chernobyltype<br />
NPP, despite the fact that these NPP have exhausted their resources, and contrary to<br />
the requests by Baltic sea and European countries, Rosatom does everything possible to<br />
extend the operation of Laningradskaya NPP operation. If the program on nuclear unit<br />
removal from operation was publicly announced, there would be a shock among society.<br />
3. High costs for atomic energy industry for majority of developing countries.<br />
4. Modern NPPs produce plutonium, a key material for nuclear bombs. This fact<br />
makes NPPs expansion to developing countries (where energy production growth is needed<br />
most of all) almost impossible. <strong>It</strong> is not a secret that any country possessing modern<br />
nuclear power technology is capable of nuclear weapons development. India was the first<br />
to demonstrate it in 1974. The country used a Canadian CONDU reactor and under the<br />
IAEA Watch organized and conducted a nuclear weapon and entered nuclear club without<br />
any authorization. <strong>It</strong> was a huge international scandal, but no practical measures were<br />
taken, and the situation is similar to the one in Iran today<br />
The Iranian crisis has demonstrated the existing problem of nuclear energy demand.<br />
The causes for the Iranian deadlock are listed next. First of all, in perspective,<br />
energy problems cannot be solved without atomic energy. Any country concerned with its<br />
nuclear security has the right and must develop atomic energy industry, including the full<br />
nuclear fuel cycle relevant to the existing nuclear technology. A proposal about uranium<br />
enrichment centers in the leading countries cannot solve developing countries’ problems.<br />
For example, Iran has significant quantities of low enriched uranium in other countries,<br />
but nobody is willing to give it back to Iran. Therefore, refusal of a complete fuel<br />
cycle on the territory of developing countries can be achieved only by means of power.<br />
Today, we know that this is not the way to resolve the problem. Iran’s case indicates the<br />
chain reaction of nuclear technology proliferation in the world. This highly dangerous<br />
process has already started as a number of Latin American countries have announced the<br />
start up of uranium enrichment on their territories.<br />
Currently in our country, atomic energy industry development is based on neutrons<br />
and reactors-multipliers, in other words, fast neutrons. Fast neutrons program development<br />
is related to the fact that 235 U reserves are equal to the oil reserves. Therefore, a<br />
large-scale program development based on fast neutrons will exhaust 235 U reserves in a<br />
short time. One of the indicators is enriched uranium price growth, even at the stage when<br />
atomic energy industry is relatively small. 235 U stockpiles preservation will be critical<br />
in the second half of the century, when there will be 10–12 billion of people and human<br />
problems could be solved only with industrial expansion to space.<br />
Chemical engines cannot solve large tasks in space. The only solution, given to<br />
people to solve this problem, is 235 U. Therefore, 235 U burned up in neutron reactors is a
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
crime against future generations. One of the solutions is conversion of 238 Pu by way of<br />
239<br />
Pu and 232 Th to 233 Pu. Breeder functions on artificial isotopes of 239 Pu and 233 U. This<br />
phenomenon has been known since the 1940s, when academician Leypunsky developed<br />
this program.<br />
What is a breeder Every NPP operating on a breeder program has a radio-chemical<br />
production in its fuel cycle. For every million kW at least 20 tons of 239 Pu or 233 U circulates<br />
in such a program. If NPPs are going to spread fast, which will be required by the<br />
2020s, there will be up to million tons of 239 Pu and 233 U in the world. What nuclear security<br />
discussion can take place This is a completely unreasonable program. Even supporters<br />
of the breeder program in our country accept the fact that such a program can remain<br />
only inside Russia. Russia, however, cannot remain uninvolved in global problems. That<br />
is why Vladimir Putin called for establishment of programs applicable by all countries. As<br />
a result, modern atomic energy industry perspectives remain extremely pessimistic.<br />
We can avoid such discussions and talk only about nuclear unit construction as the<br />
industry development in Russia. We live, however, in the same world and solution to a<br />
problem in one country does not help avoid global problems.<br />
Today intensive nuclear energy capacity development is observable mostly in the<br />
South-East Asia, particularly, in China and India. This fact closely relates to intensive<br />
weapons build-up programs in these countries, and as a result there is a need for nuclear<br />
technologies. These countries are repeating the path, taken earlier by the United States and<br />
the Soviet Union.<br />
As an alternative to nuclear energy, at present thermonuclear programs receive wide<br />
financial support. Thermonuclear technology is based on the ideas of the „hydrogen bomb”<br />
and has been developed since the end of the 1950s. Karl Rubbia, Nobel laureate, states in one<br />
of his interviews: „This technology can be accomplished at the industrial scale only by the<br />
end of the century, and we do not have this time. We have only twenty years.”<br />
According to many experts creating a solid wall in the thermo-nuclear reactor during<br />
its contact with plasma to milliard degrees is a very complicated task. <strong>It</strong> is important<br />
to remember that earlier forecasts with respect to thermo-nuclear energy industry did not<br />
prove to be reliable.<br />
Officially adopted global energy development schemes are absolutely unsatisfactory<br />
and lead to a global catastrophe. This fact is especially evident due to the growing<br />
global tensions. As a result it is necessary to find ways of nuclear energy industry growth<br />
and create a program, which could ease human problems of the 21 st century<br />
President Putin formulated the following geopolitical conceptual basis for such a<br />
program:<br />
1. Establishment of nuclear energy technology that can function without fissile<br />
materials ( 235 U and 239 Pu). In other words, development of such nuclear energy industry<br />
should be beneficial to all the countries, and not only the ones with nuclear weapons.<br />
2. Russia should obtain a status of a global energy leader.<br />
In order to achieve these goals, a program of nuclear energy industry should be established.<br />
This program must consolidate efforts of all countries to resolve global energy<br />
problems in the 21 st century.<br />
In our opinion, such a program must consist of the two major points:
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
1. Relative heave nuclear energy based on a direct fission of 238 U and Th by way<br />
of high energy neutrons.<br />
2. Nuclear space energy, based on 235 U in nuclear propulsion reactors.<br />
A team of four specialists from Federal State Enterprise ASDINMB with participation<br />
of a number of professional organizations in Russia and Belarus has initiated development<br />
of a technical and physical basis of a new nuclear industry. A dense nuclear energy<br />
industry is capable to resolve nuclear waste problem and nuclear non-proliferation.<br />
Relative dense nuclear energy represents a new technology, industrial application<br />
of which is based on the synthesis of the two unique Russian technologies. Direct burn<br />
up of 232 Th and 238 U without intermediate products, 239 Pu and 233 U (which it takes place<br />
in breeder programs), by neutrons with energy more than 10 MW. These neutrons are<br />
received by way of bombardment of these nuclei by protons with energy level equal to<br />
10–50 GW. Protons are generated by a compact three camera module accelerator at the<br />
forwarding wave. Spent nuclear fuel can be used in such new reactors in the future.<br />
An accelerator for the new reactor will initiate accelerating production, which is<br />
fundamental. This invention will lead to new areas of unknown nature. This will lead<br />
Russia to be one of the leaders in the fundamental physics. For the fundamental physics<br />
of high energy a one km accelerator, which already exists, is based on protons energy of<br />
0.5–1.0 TW with a number of accelerating particles up to 10 17 protons/second.<br />
An initial relative proton batch with 10–50 GW energy during interaction with<br />
238<br />
U and 232 Th generates a cascade of neutrons with high energy, which cause a fissionable<br />
chain reaction which do not fission in modern isotope reactors. Considering energy of particles<br />
deformation, for one initial proton there may be 7,000 neutrons with energy higher<br />
than fissionable threshold (which also initiates an energy of 1,200 GW). An acceleration<br />
coefficient of more than 20 makes discussed technology energy efficient at different levels<br />
of the present energy installation productivity.<br />
Hard spectrum of cascade and fissionable neutrons excludes formation of 233 U and<br />
239<br />
Pu, and also dismisses particle spectrum to a mass symmetry area. In the area of high<br />
energy neutrons, heavy nuclei fission forms neutron-deficit nuclei. Compared to today’s<br />
reactors, this new nuclear fuel cycle reduces the production of the most dangerous materials<br />
by two.<br />
The idea of a nuclear energy industry with lower levels of waste, based on 238 U and<br />
Th fission, was actively supported by an academician named A.M. Baldin. Thanks to him,<br />
a first experiment took place with large lead target at the accelerator in Dubna with proton<br />
energy equal to 5 GW.<br />
Despite complete lack of funding, in 2002 at the accelerator U-70 of the Major<br />
Scientific Center in Protvino, it became possible to conduct an experiment in a model lead<br />
framework. Analysis of the results and some follow up results from other experiments<br />
confirmed a probability of a new nuclear reactor scheme.<br />
Physical and technical basis for nuclear relative heavy energy and a complex Program<br />
was discussed at a number of Russian and international seminars, conferences, and<br />
forums, in particularly, at the Committee of the Russian Federal Council on science, culture,<br />
education, healthcare and environment. Russian Academy of Science members who<br />
took part in these discussions were: U.A. Israel, D.S. Livov, G.I. Marchuk, A.I. Savin,
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
V.I. Subbotin, G.A. Fillipov, along with specialists from professional organizations in<br />
Russia and Belarus.<br />
Technology level condition analysis and knowledge level on key elements of the<br />
studied scheme indicates that in case of resource consolidation, a key unit can be developed<br />
during the upcoming ten years. Program implementation expenses will correspond<br />
to the cost of a new 1,000 MW unit for the existing NPPs.<br />
There are only three places in the world, where experiments with relative heavy<br />
energy reactors are taking place: Los Alamos, CERN and Protvino. The best place to<br />
conduct the study is Protvino, in particular, because the program is based on the two<br />
Russian licenses.<br />
Nuclear propulsion engine studies took place only in two countries, the Soviet<br />
Union and the United States. A model for engines with large thrust (11B91 in the Soviet<br />
Union and „Nerva” in the United States with a thrust equal to 4 tons) and nuclearelectric<br />
engines were invented for operation in far space. For example, the „Nerva”<br />
engine allows for a Moon board capacity increase from 5 to 40 tons. This fact initiated<br />
a number of practical research steps on the Moon. Major industries for nuclear energy<br />
equipment support are located in Moscow Suburbs (Lytkarino and Podolsk). Another<br />
base is located in Kazakhstan (Semipalatinsk). The Soviet engine 11B91 is higher than<br />
American in its technology characteristics. <strong>It</strong> is important to note, that technology preparedness<br />
of these suggestions is much higher than the one in thermo-nuclear energy<br />
industry, because experience of space technology and other constructions is extensive<br />
and is constantly being improved.<br />
Development of works in these directions is based on a doctrine, presented by<br />
President Putin at the Millennium Summit and numerous interviews to international press.<br />
Only a comprehensive program will promote integration processes in the world, which in<br />
turn will be accepted by the people of the world and will help resolve the most complicated<br />
energy problems of the 21 st century.<br />
Fundamental energy programs, indicated above, will require large funds and can<br />
develop only with the state financial support. In the 20 st century large state (socialists)<br />
program development was based on the Soviet Union and US military industrial complex<br />
and space programs. Today, large programs of a socialist type exist only in the U.S. The<br />
21 st century will become a century where public wealth will depend only on public programs.<br />
<strong>It</strong> will require making very difficult decisions in economy, and first of all based on<br />
military programs reductions. Therefore, energy revolution in the 21 st century will be a<br />
social revolution as well.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Renewable Energy and Efficiency – European Path to<br />
Common Prosperity<br />
Rudolf Rechsteiner, Member of Parliament, Swiss National<br />
Council, Member Committee for the Environment,<br />
Spatial Planning and Energy<br />
Ladies and Gentlemen!<br />
I am very happy to present today. In the West and the East climate change and<br />
energy have become top discussion issues, and these topics are supported by the Switzerland<br />
Constitution. Despite all these words, Switzerland and international consumption<br />
of fossil fuel reached the limit.<br />
The Swiss Government developed a forecast for the energy consumption. Today<br />
the consumption per person is 17,500 kW-hour. Today, the average Swedish family (2<br />
adults and 2 children) daily energy consumption is 4,960 W per person. Our goal is to<br />
decrease this indicator to 1,950 W. Energy consumption must be based on renewable<br />
energy sources, but it should not be connected to the quality of life indicator. Nobody<br />
would say that the quality of life is lower in Switzerland than in the United States, where<br />
the energy consumption is two-three times higher. Reduction of fossil fuel use will<br />
require significant changes in buildings, constructions, equipment, as well as services<br />
related to energy.<br />
We wanted to make the materials and the processes more efficient. The key efficiency<br />
investment is electricity and automobile production. Let me give you several<br />
examples of how this task will be accomplished for buildings: Mr. Joseph Jyene and his<br />
company have developed the first energy-sufficient house in 1989. <strong>It</strong> uses only solar energy<br />
to produce its electricity need. Thousands of houses with similar heating and water<br />
supply systems were built by Jyene with the help of his technologies. The concept is<br />
simple: a system with a good isolation or several pools/tanks with water, concentrating<br />
solar energy, is used as a key mechanism here. These tanks are located in the center of<br />
the house and are installed at the beginning of the house construction and are linked to<br />
the roof. In practice, a number of systems exist and sometimes they are supplied with<br />
a small wood stove. Such system also works for the houses with several families. The<br />
temperature in such tanks reaches 90 degrees Celsius in November. During the winter,<br />
when the sun is seldom in Switzerland, the temperature falls down to 45-50 degrees<br />
Celsius. Everything works without gas and oil. In February, the daylight starts to last<br />
longer, and the temperature in the tank goes up. Therefore, the system provides heat and<br />
water supply all year round.<br />
We have exported our technologies and the house-design to Germany, where it<br />
received a special award. The Swiss Parliament supported this policy by a number of
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
laws. <strong>It</strong> has a special lower tax and a tax deduction for solar systems, and more additional<br />
legislation will be implemented soon.<br />
Swiss Energy & Climate Policy<br />
1. Tax on carbon/emissions:<br />
––0,09 CHF/ 0.06€/Liter heating oil, coal & gas;<br />
––Tax for heavy trucks by ton-km (favouring transports by trains).<br />
2. Tax reductions for:<br />
––Solar systems;<br />
––Biofuels and nat gas fuels.<br />
3. Feed in tariffs for electricity from Solar, wind, biogas, small hydro, geothermal.<br />
4. New efficiency standards announced.<br />
Due to the fact that oil and gas are very expensive in Western Europe, we have<br />
adopted Millerchi Standards. The houses consume 3-4 liters of oil per 1 square meter<br />
of space. Such houses require special solar panels, isolation, and specialized photoelements.<br />
As a result they become self-reliant from an energy perspective. Insulation<br />
needed is 25–30 cm, and special windows with three layers of insulation exist for such<br />
purposes. If such standards are to be reached, we can decrease energy consumption<br />
by 80% in Switzerland. We have many old houses, which work inefficiently, and new<br />
buildings are constructed with an improved self-reliant energy design.<br />
There are also innovations in the automobile industry. A hybrid system “Toyota-<br />
Prince” with electric engine is an example where the engine can be run with wind<br />
energy.<br />
From the Russian economy perspective, there is a reason to sell oil and gas at<br />
a higher price. One cannot view such incentives for renewable energy, efficiency and<br />
climate protection as a negative aspect in Russian policies. During the next decade oil<br />
and gas will remain key fuel sources, and Russia will remain the major source of energy<br />
and other goods. A new trend emerges, however, - renewable energy sources. In<br />
order to understand this trend, it is important to look at several factors. First, renewable<br />
energy is energy produced domestically. Nobody wants to be dependent on somebody<br />
else, and the Ukrainian crisis depicted this problem very well. Renewable energy is<br />
endless and safer than fossil fuels. Second, biomass, wind, geothermal sources are local<br />
and regional, which means the establishment of energy source at the local level. Third,<br />
many countries – the United States, Norway, Great Britain, Canada - face reduction in<br />
gas and oil production.<br />
Key factors for renewable energy<br />
1. Endless energy for a secure supply.<br />
2. Regional availability.<br />
3. Worldwide depletion of oil sources (<strong>USA</strong>, Indonesia, UK, Norway, Mexico,<br />
China).<br />
4. Rising marginal cost for oil & gas developments.<br />
5. Record prices for oil, gas coal and uranium.<br />
6. Climate change costs.<br />
7. Costs of renewables sinking fast. Declining oil production in many old oil areas.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
4000<br />
3500<br />
3000<br />
2500<br />
2000<br />
1500<br />
1000<br />
500<br />
0<br />
1965<br />
1967<br />
1969<br />
1971<br />
Norway<br />
1973<br />
1975<br />
1977<br />
Yearly Oil Production<br />
thous and barrels dayly<br />
U nited K ingdom<br />
1979<br />
1981<br />
1983<br />
1985<br />
1987<br />
1989<br />
1991<br />
1993<br />
1995<br />
1997<br />
1999<br />
2001<br />
2003<br />
2005<br />
Picture 1. Oil production in <strong>USA</strong><br />
(billion barrels)<br />
Picture 2. Oil production in Norway and UK<br />
US example: the Oil and Gas Trap: higher decline rates, deeper wells, raising<br />
costs, smaller discovery size (Pictures 3–5).<br />
Picture 3. Natural gas production in the <strong>USA</strong><br />
Picture 4. Deposits opening in the <strong>USA</strong><br />
Picture 5. Drilling depth of oil boreholes in the <strong>USA</strong><br />
In Russia the growth period has also passed. Another oil and gas production<br />
peak is expected in 2010. Oil and gas companies face similar problems: fast production<br />
decrease, deep drilling, and extraction decrease. Since 2000, key energy produced from
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
all sources has become more expensive, excluding renewable, – oil, gas, uranium (10<br />
time price increase), and to some extent coal. The record prices of the last summer have<br />
not been forgotten yet and that is why many states prefer building their own systems,<br />
and not being dependent on the others. The survey, conducted by the British companies,<br />
indicated that key expenditures in the future will be related to climate change. That<br />
is why the European Commission and the Ministry Council defend new policy in the<br />
energy production field, trying to limit CO 2<br />
emissions by 20% in 2020. Electric energy<br />
reform, opening for competition, and growth of renewable energy sources represent the<br />
key elements of this strategy and will lead us to a cleaner and environmentally friendly<br />
system. Contamination will be reduced and this fact will be reflected in prices.<br />
Key laws and regulations of the European Union in the area of energy supply<br />
and renewable energy sources<br />
––Directive 90/547<br />
––Electricity transits<br />
––Directive 2001/77 EG Renewables (RES)<br />
––Directive 2003/54/EG<br />
––Electricity market EU Regulation EG 1228/2003<br />
Directive security of supply: renewable goal: + 20%, CO 2<br />
reduction: - 20% by 2020.<br />
<strong>It</strong> is important to mention nuclear energy and why the European Commission<br />
does not promote it. Nuclear energy is a very controversial issue in Europe. Public<br />
surveys indicate that people prefer solar energy: 80% indicate support for solar energy;<br />
nuclear energy has only 20% support, where 37% of population is against nuclear energy.<br />
With regard to private investors’ perspective, high expenses on nuclear energy<br />
cannot be overridden at the open market. Uranium supply safety is not guaranteed in the<br />
long-run, and the future generation will have to deal with the waste management problem.<br />
Chernobyl and other accidents serve as an argument against nuclear technology.<br />
Radioactive outcomes of Chernobyl remain and cannot be forgotten. People are against<br />
nuclear energy even in those countries where nuclear energy is supported (for example,<br />
France). Austria, <strong>It</strong>aly, Germany and Sweden abandoned nuclear technology and began<br />
to actively implement renewable energy sources. One can observe this tendency even in<br />
France. At the same time such a tendency can be seen in China and India, where wind<br />
technology is in high demand. Overall, there is no nuclear renaissance and the growth<br />
indicates the real history. Sun, wind, biomass indicate this existing tendency. As Picture<br />
6 indicates, every three years, energy production from wind, and sun generated energy<br />
increased two times (Picture 7). Eight reactors were decommissioned at a slow pace<br />
despite a large addition of such reactors in East Asia. What will happen with nuclear<br />
technology in the future I just presented you facts that in Western Europe that a new<br />
less expensive technology development and growth takes place. Russia could use its<br />
timber and technology, because your country has enough timber supply. Biogas receives<br />
more interest, especially because it is produced from waste and compost.<br />
Problems of nuclear power:<br />
––high pollution in mining uranium;<br />
––risks of accidents, dangerous low dose radiation;
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
––no liability insurance, false prices;<br />
––high radiation and pollution by reprocessing of fuel rods;<br />
––no secure place for radioactive waste;<br />
––real risks with Plutonium: terrorism, theft, accidents;<br />
––no long term energy security (uranium scarcity within decades);<br />
––high costs and costs overrun in Oikiluotu (Finland);<br />
Picture 6. Electric energy production in the world, MW<br />
Picture 7. Solar energy production in the world, MW
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Renewable energies: the real boom behind oil & gas. What”s next:<br />
––heat by wood pellets:<br />
––more efficiency;<br />
––biomass/biogas;<br />
––geothermal;<br />
––wind;<br />
––solar.<br />
Average annual wind power growth 29% a year (10 year estimate).<br />
<strong>Global</strong> growth in wind-generated energy (15,000 MW) is ten times larger that<br />
in nuclear energy (1,050 MW), see Picture 8. Nuclear energy: average growth is 2.2%<br />
(15 year estimate). Wind-generated energy potential is sufficient for even a 100 times<br />
growth of energy demand (Cristina Archer, Mark Jacobson, Stanford University, 2005),<br />
see Picture 9.<br />
Picture 8. Growth rate relation between Wind-Generated (in grey) and Nuclear<br />
Energy (in black)<br />
One more energy source is geothermal energy combined with electricity.<br />
Solar and wind energy, however, will achieve the most success in the next tenure.<br />
Wind energy costs only 6 Euro kW-hour for the new installations. There is a boom<br />
of such technology in Eastern Europe and the United Kingdom, Germany and China,<br />
despite the fact that construction of such installations is rather complicated. We must<br />
understand that in the eastern part of the U.K. there is an opportunity to build turbines
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
on a 60,000 square km area, which can provide electric energy for the entire European<br />
Union, and it happens right now. Russia, as the largest country in the world, has a large<br />
potential in the wind-generated energy industry, and it can use it when there is no gas<br />
and oil. Moreover, capacities of such energy source will only grow and there is no doubt<br />
about it. By 2017, wind energy will grow larger than the nuclear energy industry.<br />
Picture 9. Wind-Generated Energy Growth Potential, TW<br />
Dynamic technological development onshore and offshore:<br />
––turbines 1990: 0,1 MW;<br />
––turbines 2000: 2 MW;<br />
––turbines 2007: 3–5 MW;<br />
––turbines 2010: 5–10 MW (the forecast is based on the data of new units of<br />
6MW capacity being under construction since 2005);<br />
Renewable energy sources are so large that they can satisfy the existing demand.<br />
There is no rise in price yet, despite the growing demand. There are no such cartels as<br />
OPEC: one can see that the potential is large enough to satisfy 40 times the global energy<br />
demand. Of course it can happen in the areas where the wind power is more than<br />
7 m/hour. Such growth is based on economy, and not policy. Expenses on renewable<br />
energy decrease, including 3–4% cost decrease for the wind-generated power, which is<br />
the lowest price for energy. Today technology develops fast. In 1990, we had 100 kW,<br />
in 2010 the turbines will have the capacity of 10 MW. Therefore, wind will substitute<br />
oil and gas, as a result of a number of advantages. The growth of wind installation<br />
is significant today. How one can deliver the wind-generated energy A new network<br />
system is needed. China has developed a special installation, which has an energy loss<br />
of only 3–4% for each 100 km. <strong>It</strong> is not significant, especially in comparison with gas<br />
pipeline construction. Taxes experiences wind energy installations boom, where technologies<br />
with a direct energy service to population take place. As a result of wind power<br />
differences, various systems are required for different distances. In case the turbines<br />
are spread around Europe, there is always a chance to catch the wind. There are special<br />
hydro storage facilities in Norway and a high voltage system was developed especially<br />
for that. There are similar facilities in Switzerland as well. In order to integrate wind<br />
energy, 6 billion Swiss francs were invested in the project.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Wind Energy: specific cost dropped by 59% since 1991. Why can renewables<br />
succeed Renewables market development:<br />
––no cost for primary energy;<br />
––cost Reduction of turbines,higher efficiency;<br />
––growing power demand;<br />
––no cooling water needed;<br />
––short construction periods;<br />
––abundant resource – wind, solar, onshore (roofs, façades), offshore (highways),<br />
floating turbines, semi-deserts, deserts.<br />
Conlusion I<br />
1. Climate Change is a real problem that should be tackled by cooperation:<br />
––Russia should export less oil and gas;<br />
––doing so Russia could sell at a higher price;<br />
––doing so Russia could sell over a longer time;<br />
––doing so Russia will earn more money!<br />
2. New growth business of the future:<br />
––is efficiency and renewable energy;<br />
––these technologies should be adopted by Russian academia, science and industry.<br />
Conlusion II<br />
1. There is a huge demand world wide for oil & gas.<br />
2. Rather than squandering it at home Russia should maximize its export – over<br />
the next five decades.<br />
3. For efficiency reasons, oil&gas-price should be correct:<br />
––international price levels in the long run;<br />
––revenue sharing of oil income;<br />
––personal or regional distribution.<br />
4. Energy efficiency:<br />
––is good for the economy;<br />
––is good for everybody”s health;<br />
––should be adopted with incentives and legal frameworks.<br />
Conlusion III<br />
1. Renewable energy is a world wide trend:<br />
––there is a general interest for a continental, low cost, clean wind and solar energy system;<br />
––to smooth fluctuations of renewable resources interconnection different weather zones;<br />
––wind and solar are a new important source of income for any region adopting<br />
these technologies;<br />
––cost reductions will continue. Russia should buy or create its own wind and solar sector.<br />
2. Energy security based on renewable energy is a peaceful affair for mutual prosperity.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Non-Nuclear Energy Scenario for Russia<br />
Vladimir A. Chuprov, Director, Energy Programme,<br />
<strong>Green</strong>peace, Moscow<br />
The Government of the Russian Federation is planning to announce and start an absolutely<br />
new energy plan 1 . The new energy strategy is supposed to be based on the maximum<br />
introduction of nuclear energy generation, hydro-power engineering, and coal plants while<br />
the „remainder will be filled with” energy based on gas.<br />
Such a policy, first of all, is a result of a desire to limit internal gas consumption, which<br />
takes more than half of the primary energy production, and increase natural gas exports.<br />
Picture 1. Existing balance of Russian primary energy production<br />
<strong>It</strong> is interesting to compare the existing and potential balances. Russia has the potential<br />
to realize enormous energy savings through improvements in energy efficiency.<br />
Moreover, new energy saving technologies can reduce energy consumption by<br />
up to 40% (Picture 2) including natural gas. By comparison, nuclear energy does not<br />
exceed 5% of the general energy balance.<br />
This presentation compares the two possible ways to reduce natural gas consumption<br />
in energy-production: „nuclear” (based on nuclear power plant construction, which is not<br />
connected directly with nuclear efficiency) and „steam-to-gas” (based on upgrading existing<br />
natural gas thermoelectric power stations) 2 .<br />
Existing energy capacities and status of energy production<br />
In Russia, 930 billion kilowatt (kW)-hours of energy is produced according to 2004<br />
data. Thermodynamic generation has an established capacity of 148 gigawatt (GW), which<br />
provides about 610 billion kW-hours, or 65% of the total electric power produced. Natural<br />
gas stations (part of the hydro-energy complex), with an established capacity of 90–100 GW<br />
(some sources give different estimates), consume 170 billion m 3 of gas, and produce according<br />
to various estimates between 380–430 billion kW-hours (40–60% of the total electric<br />
power, produced in Russia).<br />
1 The report was prepared on March 3, 2007.<br />
2 The article is based on I.V. Babaning, V.A. Chuprov, “Natural Gas Consumption Reduction and the Perspectives<br />
of the Power Industry: “nuclear” and “steam-to-gas” scenarios”, Moscow: “<strong>Green</strong>peace Council.”
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Picture 2. Comparison of the potentials of untraditional recycling energy, energy<br />
supply and nuclear energy share in the total energy balance<br />
Nuclear power plants (NPP) have an established capacity of 23 GW, which produce<br />
150 billion kW-hours or 16% of Russia’s total electricity production (see also table 1).<br />
Table 1<br />
Established electric power capacity and production at the thermodynamic plant and NPP<br />
Total thermodynamic<br />
Thermodynamic<br />
gas based from<br />
total hydro-energy<br />
plant<br />
Established<br />
Capacity, GW<br />
Electric energy<br />
production (billions,<br />
kW-hour<br />
per year)<br />
Share of energy<br />
production in<br />
the electricity<br />
balance<br />
Consumed/substituted<br />
natural<br />
gas, billion m 3<br />
148 610 65% 65%<br />
90–100<br />
(according to<br />
various estimates)<br />
380–430<br />
(according to<br />
various estimates)<br />
40–46%<br />
(according to<br />
various estimates)<br />
40–46%<br />
(according to<br />
various estimates)<br />
NPP 23 150 16% 16%<br />
Total electric power 190 930 100% 100%<br />
Plans for substituting natural gas with nuclear energy development<br />
Existing NPP provide an equivalent energy amount to forty billion m 3 of natural gas<br />
per year, assuming that thermodynamic natural gas plants have 34% efficiency.<br />
According to the project, it is estimated that by 2015 an additional 10 GW of<br />
new capacities will be created (replacing approximately 20 billion m 3 of natural gas<br />
or providing additional production of 70 billion kW-hours) and 40–50 GW (replacing<br />
80–100 billion m 3 of natural gas or additional production of 280–350 billion kW-hours)<br />
by 2030, while plant use capacity factor is 70%. For comparison, Russian Joint-Stock<br />
United Energy Systems (RAO UES) burns 140 billion m 3 of gas annually to produce<br />
electric power and heat.<br />
In the best case scenario, additional nuclear energy capacity can cover less than a<br />
third of the growing electric power shortage, resulting from increasing power consumption,<br />
but these capacities cannot substitute entirely for gas-produced energy. (Electric con-
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
sumption growth in Russia is estimated to increase by 435 billion kW-hours or 50% to 930<br />
billion kW-hours in 2004 and to 1365 kW-hours by 2020). See also Table 2.<br />
New capacities introduction in the nuclear power-engineering<br />
Table 2<br />
2004 2015 2020<br />
Introduction of the newly established NPP capacities relative to 2004 (GW) 0 10 20<br />
Additional natural gas substitution relative to 2004 (billion m 3 ) 0 20 40<br />
Additional electric energy production relative to 2004 (billion kW-hours) 0 60 120<br />
Energy consumption growth by 2020 relative to 2004 according to<br />
Russia’s Power Strategy indicators before 2020 (billion kW-hours)<br />
0 275 435<br />
In this case, one cannot talk about gas savings: if we take into account that the<br />
existing gas plants, which are supposed to be substituted, will not stop operating, the<br />
natural gas substitution effect equals zero. The best case scenario one can suggest is that<br />
the nuclear power industry will slow gas consumption due to the construction of fewer<br />
new gas thermodynamic plants (TDP).<br />
In the case of existing thermodynamic based gas plant substitution, excess NPP<br />
electricity production equals zero and, in this case, the electric energy deficit in the<br />
country worsens.<br />
Factors decreasing nuclear energy development indicators<br />
Below are some factors which significantly decrease nuclear energy indicators<br />
and accordingly planned volumes of the substituted gas and produced energy.<br />
1. Nuclear energy growth calculation does not take into account decommissioning<br />
old units – 3.7–5.6 GW by 2020 (according to various estimates) and approximately<br />
10 GW by 2030. This is the capacity volume, which exploitation period will exceed 45<br />
years by 2030. By 2020 gas substitution indicators or additional power production will<br />
be lowered by approximately 20–30%.<br />
2. There is a catastrophic shortage of energy units at present, when four small reactors<br />
with a capacity of 1 GW were decommissioned (the deficit is 6.5 billion rubles).<br />
Additionally, decommissioning is financed by earned profits, which are received from<br />
35 GW nuclear capacities. We can assume that after 2015, when NPP construction will<br />
become self-sustaining (at the expense of NPP tariff), there will not be enough resources<br />
to introduce two new energy units per year. The latter will also be affected by the mass<br />
decommissioning of old energy units and the necessity to resolve the growing nuclear<br />
waste management problem.<br />
3. When calculating gas substitution at the expense of new NPP, the gas-based TDP<br />
have a 34% efficiency factor. The latter is not correct relative to thermodynamic steam-togas<br />
plants which have a 50% efficiency factor. Upon the calculation of the substitution of<br />
steam-to-gas TDP with nuclear ones the substitution potential reduces to 30%.<br />
4. First of all, condensing plants (which produce only electric energy) are to be substituted.<br />
Such substitution prospects at the Russian European region (where the major construction<br />
of new NPPs will take place) will replace up to 30 billion m 3 of natural gas. This
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
amount of gas substitution will require 15 GW nuclear capacity introductions. After this potential<br />
is exhausted (only 40–50 GW will be introduced at a time by 2030), heat power plants,<br />
producing electric energy and heat, will have to be also substituted.<br />
5. In most cases, NPPs produce electric energy, but not heat. This type of technology<br />
does not allow building NPP within city borders, like Moscow for example,<br />
and at the same time provide heat for this city. This means that the nuclear scenario at<br />
a certain stage, after condensing plants are substituted, implies massive boiler-house<br />
construction, which at any rate would still use gas.<br />
6. Uranium used for stations design (thermal reactors) like this will be more rapidly<br />
exhausted than gas, whose stockpiles will still last for several decades. Russia and the rest of<br />
the world will experience a uranium deficit during the current generation’s lifetime. <strong>It</strong> is an<br />
extremely dangerous and expensive power source, and requires a separate discussion.<br />
7. In case construction of NPP is fulfilled, gas consumption reduction in the total<br />
power balance will constitute 4% by 2020, according to the Power Strategy (reduction<br />
from 50 to 40%). The reduction is planned not only at the expense of nuclear power, but<br />
coal as well. Nuclear energy share in the total power balance will increase from 4.5 to 6.4,<br />
and in electric – from 16 to 22–25%. Therefore, by 2020 the problem of switching from<br />
burning gas to NPP will not be absolutely solved. Especially that in absolute terms, the gas<br />
amounts burned will remain the same or even increase.<br />
Alternative scenarios on gas usage reduction and electric capacities growh<br />
Efficiency of gas-ased thermodynamic plants<br />
The average electric efficiency factor of the Russian gas-based TDP is extremely<br />
poor – only 30% (for RAO UES, including TDP work in the heating regime and boilerhouses).<br />
There are so called steam-to-gas technologies which help to increase electric<br />
plant efficiency by 1.5–2 times, up to 47–58%. Additionally, steam-to-gas TDP continue<br />
working in the thermal-clamping regime. Complete gas-based TDP renovation only in<br />
RAO UES (which would equal to introduction of 60 GW of steam-to-gas TDP capacity)<br />
would help save more than 50 billion m 3 of gas annually at current electricity production<br />
levels.<br />
Unfortunately, the currently adopted Power Strategy implies only one third of<br />
new technology introduction by 2020 and, even in the best case scenario the process<br />
will include only half of the gas-based TDP. By 2020, every year 35 billion m 3 of natural<br />
gas will be wasted in Russia because of the low generating units efficiency (and these<br />
estimates include only RAO UES).<br />
Price comparison of the „nuclear” and „steam-to-gas” scenarios<br />
If we consider only capital investments in new power construction, then the<br />
economic cost of one billion m 3 of natural gas in „nuclear” scenario will be 23% more<br />
expensive, than in the „steam-to-gas” scenario (685 million dollars against 558 million<br />
dollars accordingly). The calculation is based on the fact that for 1 billion m 3 of natural<br />
gas economy, one needs 0.57 GW of nuclear power and 1.08 „steam-to-gas” heat power<br />
plants, which substitutes for 1.08 GW of heat power plants with low steam-turbine<br />
technology efficiency.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Cost calculations of NPP decommissioning and a significant price increase in the new<br />
power plant construction process make this gap even larger. Additionally, every nuclear GW<br />
is 2.4–3.5 times more expensive than gas (US $1,230–1,800 million for 1 GW of established<br />
power capacity against $515 million accordingly). In other words, having the same investments<br />
and natural gas consumption, gas energy can provide greater capacities (Picture 3).<br />
1400<br />
1200<br />
1000<br />
800<br />
600<br />
400<br />
200<br />
0<br />
1230<br />
Cos t per unit inves tments , U.S .<br />
dollars /K W of the es tablis hed<br />
capacity<br />
685<br />
515 558<br />
Cos t per unit inves tments , million<br />
U.S .dollars per 1 billion c ubic<br />
meter of preserved gas<br />
Nuclear Scenario<br />
Steam-to-Gas Scenario<br />
Picture 3. Comparison of the various scenarios: costs per unit in terms of established<br />
capacity and unit of preserved gas<br />
According to the „nuclear” scenario supporters, the introduction of new steam-to-gas<br />
heat power plants does not have any advantage, because nuclear energy operating costs are<br />
lower than thermodynamic (which also includes gas). The natural gas economy cost calculation,<br />
from the point of capital investments and temporary factor, is not correct.<br />
Leaving on the side the argumentativeness of the thesis about low operating<br />
nuclear power component (which is, by the way, backed up by various nuclear energy<br />
subsidy schemes), it is important to say that the existing Russian energy paradigm views<br />
energy as not an object of market relations, but rather as the socio-economic basis for<br />
the country’s development. This is also confirmed by the fact that the nuclear industry<br />
management pays a lot of attention to a certain energy source, which is natural gas. In<br />
such conditions, the future energy strategy must first answer the question: „Will the<br />
country still be using gas” (<strong>It</strong> does not matter whether it is cheap or expensive), and<br />
not „How much will operating one kW-hour of gas-based TDP cost” Otherwise, getting<br />
involved in the construction of extremely expensive NPP with the „cheap” nuclear<br />
power hope, thermo-electric complex will continue to irrationally burn natural gas in<br />
the existing extremely inefficient TDP for the next 20–30 years. The latter leads to more<br />
gas loss, than what will be saved at relatively few new NPP in the long-term future (if<br />
the „nuclear scenario” is not interrupted by another radiation catastrophe, for example,<br />
as a result of a terrorist attack or economic crisis caused by an oil price fall).<br />
Timeframe comparison of the „nuclear” and „steam-to gas” scenarios<br />
RAO UES plans to introduce 20 GW of new power in the next 5–7 years, or 3–4 GW<br />
annually. Rosatom plans to introduce 10 GW (1 GW annually) by 2015 and probably 2 GW<br />
of nuclear power capacity after 2015. Nuclear energy will not be able to for substitute gasbased<br />
heat power plants (substitution needs only in RAO UES will be 60 GW). <strong>It</strong> is important<br />
to note that the deterioration of the existing capacity in the gas industry is 57%t
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Conclusions<br />
In general, modernization and efficiency factor growth in traditional heating<br />
power allows rejecting introducing new nuclear capabilities. In the future, when<br />
measures in the areas of power supply and development are achieved on the basis<br />
of renewable energy sources, the country will be able to secure energy security for<br />
unlimited term.<br />
In the short-run, the government should conduct a policy, where the maximum<br />
budget funds are allocated to nuclear energy, while gas-based energy industry does not<br />
receive any support. The government must find the means to substitute the existing heating<br />
power plants with steam-turbine technology to ones based on „steam-to-gas,” and<br />
additionally it is important to stop inefficient natural gas consumption. (According to<br />
open-source evaluations, today there are 90–100 GW heating power plants based on gas,<br />
but only 2 GW have new „steam-to-gas” technology with efficiency factor of 50%).<br />
Renovation Solutions for Heating Power Plants<br />
Both solutions for gas power modernization incur additional gas consumption.<br />
Both plans suggest rational utilization of existing natural gas stocks within gas industry,<br />
which remains dominant over the next few decades.<br />
The first solution proposal includes preservation of produced electric energy at<br />
the existing level with opportunity to save more than 50 billion m 3 on natural gas. This<br />
solution will require about 60 GW of high efficiency gas-based heating power plants<br />
only in RAO UES alone. The cost of this project (capital investment on capacities’ construction<br />
within RAO UES) is projected to be $30 billion. See table 3.<br />
Table 3<br />
Cost per unit of natural gas economy from a capital investment standpoint<br />
„Nuclear”<br />
scenario<br />
„Steamto-Gas”<br />
Scenario<br />
New capacity introduction by 2020 (GW) 20 60<br />
New capacity introduction (GW/year) 1,5 4,6<br />
Additional substitution/economy/ natural gas extraction<br />
by 2020 (billion cm 3 per year)<br />
Cost per unit capital investments substitution/economy/<br />
natural gas extraction (millions USD/1 billion<br />
m 3 per year)<br />
Total capital investments in new capacities construction<br />
before 2020 and investments in Shtockman<br />
deposits development (billions of USD)<br />
Cost per unit capital investment in new capacities<br />
construction (million USD/kW)<br />
40 More<br />
than 50<br />
Shtockman<br />
deposits development<br />
22,5<br />
685 558 450–580<br />
24,6 30,9 10–13<br />
1230 515<br />
Table 3 additionally includes comparative data relative to the cost of the new gas<br />
deposits’ development. Cost per unit of the Shtokman deposits is comparable or even<br />
more expensive than gas economy in case of the industry’s upgrading.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Picture 4 provides a comparison of the natural gas substitution potential under the<br />
condition of the same subsidy and capital investment.<br />
Picture 4. Gas substitution potential (A) and capacities volume received, GW of the<br />
established capacity (B), under the condition of the same subsidy and capital investment<br />
(30.6 billion dollars) into building of various electric plants 3<br />
The second solution – energy production is increased, but the gas consumption<br />
remains constant. This project requires the introduction of 100 GW of „steam-to-gas”<br />
heating plants only in RAO UES (with the 70% of established energy utilization factor<br />
and 10% gas utilization in boiler-houses). The cost (capital investment into the capacities<br />
construction) is projected to be $50 billion. During the consumption of the same<br />
gas volume (current RAO UES rate) – 140 billion m 3 – will produce an additional 260<br />
billion kW-hours 4 . See table 4.<br />
Table 4<br />
The comparison of additional energy received in „Nuclear” and „Steam-to-Gas” scenarios<br />
New capacities introduction<br />
by 2020 (GW)<br />
Additional received electric<br />
energy for the newly<br />
introduced capacity by 2020<br />
for nuclear and gas power<br />
industry after upgrading (billions<br />
kW-hours per year)<br />
New capacity introduction<br />
(GW/year)<br />
Total capital investments in<br />
the new capacity construction<br />
before 2020 (billions USD)<br />
Cost per unit capital investments<br />
in new capacity construction<br />
(millions USD/kW)<br />
„Nuclear” Scenario<br />
„Steam-to-Gas” Scenario<br />
20 100<br />
+ 120<br />
(Taking into account the fact<br />
that NPP do not substitute worn<br />
out gas capacities, and the gas<br />
consumption volume remains<br />
the same)<br />
+ 260<br />
(Taking into account production<br />
capacity substitution<br />
and gas consumption<br />
volumes preserved)<br />
1,5 7,7<br />
24,6<br />
(Supporting infrastructure cost is<br />
not included: waste storage etc.)<br />
51,5<br />
1230 515<br />
3. 30.6 billion USD is the amount of projected subsidies of new NPP, according to the Russian Nuclear<br />
Energy Strategy during the first half of the 20 th century<br />
4. The magnitude will have 10–15% increase, because gas-based heating power plants function not only<br />
under RAO UES
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Bioenergy – a Path to Solving Energy Problems<br />
Victor V. Mokhov, Director General,<br />
Company „<strong>Green</strong>Tech”<br />
Biomass of agricultural animals and poultry waste presents a massive environmental<br />
pollution source. In Russia, the amount of this waste reaches one billion<br />
m 2 . At the same time, this waste presents a significant source of renewable energy.<br />
The amount of energy that can potentially be extracted from waste on the territory of<br />
Privolzhskiy federal district is equivalent to 50 Gorkovsky hydroelectric power stations<br />
(about 30 GW).<br />
One of the possible ways of reprocessing any type of organic waste is through the<br />
methane fermentation method. <strong>It</strong> provides some unique opportunities, namely:<br />
––A wasteless production line;<br />
––Production of two secondary useful products from waste: biogas and organic<br />
fertilizers;<br />
––Using biogas for the „green” energy production (Kyoto protocol).<br />
Waste reprocessing with the use of methane fermentation technology is widely used<br />
in the EU countries, especially in Scandinavia and Germany, where the „green” energy production<br />
from renewable sources brings in a noticeable contribution to the energy balance of<br />
the countries and territories and has a noticeable tendency to grow. During the 1980s, similar<br />
technologies were also developing in USSR. However, in the past 15 years, these trends have<br />
virtually disappeared.<br />
Bio-energy installations are used for reprocessing various types of agricultural and<br />
food production waste. Any organic waste from animal farms, bird farms, creameries, meatprocessing<br />
facilities, etc, can be used as raw material. The resulting products are highly efficient<br />
organic fertilizers (feed additives) and biogas. The biogas that is a by-product of this<br />
installation consists of methane (CH 4<br />
) and carbon dioxide (CO 2<br />
). The caloric capacity ranges<br />
from 5,500 to 6,500 calories per m 3 . In a 24-hour period, one cubic meter-sized working reactor<br />
releases between 5 m 3 (bovine raw materials) to 10 m 3 (bird dung) of gas. This gas can be<br />
used for the farm’s own needs and electricity production. Judging from past experience, the<br />
farm’s own needs take no more than 20% of the released gas. Therefore, such a bio-energy<br />
installation is energy-sustainable and can cover a significant share of the farm main production<br />
energy use.<br />
This development profitably differs from other technologies not only in its usage<br />
characteristics, but also in terms of environmental purity of the process. The biogas release<br />
is 30 to 40% greater, while the installation cost is 40 to 50% lower than that of foreign-made<br />
installations.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Inclusion of bio-energy installations into production cycle allows attaining at least<br />
the following three goals:<br />
1) Use of waste from agriculture production and processing and improvement of<br />
environmental conditions;<br />
2) Gaining additional energy resources based on local raw materials;<br />
3) Obtaining inexpensive, environmentally safe and organic fertilizers and ensuring<br />
the process of recovery and increase of natural soil fertility.<br />
The use of these fertilizers provides 20 to 350% agricultural yield increases for<br />
various crops. <strong>It</strong> also reduces necessity for mineral fertilizers and can even eliminate their<br />
use completely; and decreases pesticide use. This allows to grow various crops more effectively<br />
economically and to harvest products with better consumer qualities, producing<br />
environmentally pure foodstuffs.<br />
The above-described technology can be used as one of the bases for creation of<br />
environmentally-pure, closed cycles of intensive agricultural production and ensuring a<br />
country’s food security. This constitutes one of the main tasks of agriculture-related National<br />
projects. The concept of waste disappears from the production process, because at<br />
some stage of production this waste turns into raw material for further processing, which<br />
can then be used to make ecologically pure products.<br />
Fertilizers<br />
Crops<br />
Poultry<br />
plant/farm<br />
Waste<br />
Bio-energy<br />
installation<br />
Feed<br />
additives/sup<br />
plements<br />
Bio-energy<br />
installation<br />
Waste<br />
Meat processing<br />
plant<br />
Picture 1.Conceptual diagram of an intensive agricultural, environmentally-pure,<br />
closed production cycle
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Chernobyl, Biosphere, and Humans: a Look into the Future<br />
Anatoly G. Nazarov, Director, Environmental Centre of the<br />
Vavilov Institute for Natural History and Technology, RAS,<br />
Vice-Chairman of Public Council of Rosatom, PhD,<br />
аcademician Russian Academy of Natural Sciences,<br />
Elena B. Burlakova, Chairwoman, Scientific Council on<br />
Radio-biology, RAS, Vice-Director of Biochemical physics<br />
Institut of RAS named after N.Emmanuel, PhD, prof.,<br />
Irina I. Pelevina, Laboratory Head, Institute for Biochemical<br />
physics of RAS named after N. Semenov, PhD, prof.,<br />
Ida V. Oradovskaya, Head of Laboratory, Institut<br />
immunology, Medical-biological Agency of the Russian<br />
Federation, PhD, prof.,<br />
Victor N. Letov, Chair of Extended Vocational Training<br />
for Radiation Hygiene, Russian Medical Academy of<br />
Post-Diploma Education, PhD, prof.<br />
The Landmarks in the Russian Radiation Research<br />
The pre-determining factors for intensive development of Russian radiation research<br />
formed at the end of the 19 th century (1896–1900). On May 21, 1896, Russian<br />
scientists N.G. Egorov and A.L. Gerschun conducted A. Becquerel experiments on the<br />
effects of uranium salts on photographic plate. The experiments were conducted at<br />
the Medical Military Academy. The discovery of natural radioactivity in 1896 gave<br />
a start to the research of physical effects of radioactive materials by the Petersburg<br />
University professor I.I. Borgman and his students: A.P. Afanasyev, F.N. Indrikson,<br />
and V.K. Lebedinsky. The studies included searching for radioactive minerals in the<br />
mineral collections of the Geology Committee in Petersburg. The first works on radioactive<br />
minerals and the museum collection studies were conducted by I.A. Antipov in<br />
1900–1903. At the same time, laboratory worker B.G. Karpov began to collect geological<br />
samples containing radioactive minerals from Ferghana valley.<br />
The roots of radiobiology in Russia date back to the very early 20 th century. The first<br />
experiments on the effects of radium rays on humans and animals were demonstrated in the
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Petersburg Institute of Experimental Medicine in 1903. <strong>It</strong> was just the dawn of radiobiology.<br />
The first Russian radiobiologists, in their practical recommendations on the limited application<br />
of the radium substances, were talking only about small doses and limited application<br />
time span. In the course of the experiments, they established the harmful effects of the radioactive<br />
rays upon the spinal cord and cerebrum, the central nervous system and the blood generation<br />
system. Later, the works of E.S. London, M. Zhukovsky and their followers allowed<br />
for the formulation of the basis of the Russian school of radiobiology.<br />
In 1903–1904, the first experiments with natural radioactivity were conducted.<br />
These objects included mineral water sources, therapeutic muds, other water sources<br />
and lakes, soils, and the air of certain areas and localities. These experiments led to the<br />
creation of radiobalneology in Russia.<br />
The first scientific radiation schools and centers were formed at physics laboratories<br />
of the Moscow University (A.P. Sokolov) and the St.-Petersburg University, the<br />
chemical laboratories of the Tomsk Technological Institute, the Tomsk University, Riga<br />
Polytechnical Institute, and the Direction of the Caucasus Mineral Waters and Technical<br />
Society (Odessa). In 1910, specialized radiological laboratories and the first related<br />
printed editions were created in Odessa.<br />
In 1900–1916, Russia began mining radioactive minerals. <strong>It</strong> is important to highlight<br />
the role of the academician V.I. Vernadsky and the Russian Academy of Sciences in<br />
establishing the fundamental scientific bases of radiology and in creating the uraniumradium<br />
production process. In 1914–1916, the work was conducted by the Radium Expedition,<br />
created by V.I. Vernadsky and A.E. Fersman. This is where specialists started<br />
realizing the power and the danger of nuclear energy exploration. In 1918, V.I. Vernadsky<br />
created the Radium Department in the Commission on Studying Production Power<br />
of Russia (RDCSPPR). From this department, he then created the State Radium Institute<br />
in 1922 in Leningrad (Petrograd) [2]. The cyclotron construction there opened new opportunities<br />
for nuclear energy exploration.<br />
At the same time, the study of physical qualities of natural radioactive substances<br />
went on. V.I. Vernadsky’s discovery of the general law on chemical elements<br />
dissipation (1911) was very significant. So did the studies of dissipation of<br />
radioactive elements such as uranium, thorium, radium, and others by V.I. Vernadsky,<br />
A.P. Vinogradov, D. Jolie, E. Rezerford, V.M. Goldschmidt , and others. They<br />
also conducted important studies on the migration and accumulation of radioactive<br />
elements in natural environments. Also, let us not forget the widespread development<br />
of radiological studies on the periphery and in the remote regions of Russia.<br />
The projects on determining radioactivity in the natural environments of South<br />
of Russia went quite far. These territories included Caucasus, Krasnodarsky Krai, and<br />
Central Asia. The searches for radon water sources and healing mineral water sources<br />
went on and included narzan, borzhomi, essentuki, etc. E.E. Karstens, E.S. Burkser,<br />
V.I. Spitsyn, L.S. Kolovrat-Chervinsky, V.I. Baranov and others were the outstanding<br />
organizers of comprehensive radiation studies in the Southern regions of Russia and the<br />
founders of scientific schools [3].<br />
V.I. Vernadsky also organized comprehensive radiological research in the Uzbek<br />
Ferghana Valley.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
The history of radiation research in Siberia and Altai is just as rich. The pioneer in<br />
radioactivity studies in Siberia was P.P. Orlov, a professor at Tomsk University. V.S. Titov<br />
conducted field radioactivity definitions and compared measurement methods according<br />
to Mach and Schmidt. The names of the radioactivity researchers of the Zabaikalye sources<br />
are also famous. They include Dr. I.A. Bogashev, a self-taught peasant researcher<br />
I.G. Prokhorov, V.K. Kotulsky, M.P. Orlova (one of the first women researchers of<br />
radioactivity), and other researchers of natural objects in Siberia [4].<br />
In 1920–1930, L.N. Bogoyavlensky was especially important. He was the creator<br />
of radiometric survey/plotting, and a prominent theoretician and practioner of nuclear<br />
and geophysical research. Thanks to the above-mentioned studies, a new fundamental<br />
radiological and biogeochemical concept was established – the concept of Natural Radiation<br />
Background.<br />
The period of open research of natural objects radioactivity lasted until the midforties.<br />
By this time, a significant amount was achieved: mineral sources of North-East<br />
and Middle Russia were tested for radioactivity; radioactivity was found in the petroleum<br />
stratum waters; studies were conducted on natural radioactivity in some of the<br />
seas, oceans, and hydrothermal systems of Kamchatka.<br />
The studies that were conducted allowed scientists to draw some conclusions<br />
on the fundamental theoretical and practical meaning of comprehensive radiation research<br />
in the center regions of Russia. This could be used for treating human tumors<br />
and malignant diseases. Natural radioactivity of various biosphere objects could also be<br />
used for other healing purposes (therapeutic muds, mineral and radon sources, radium<br />
emanations into the atmosphere). Research findings could also be used for radioactive<br />
mining and for the creation of raw material base for the future uranium and radium<br />
production.<br />
The next stage of the radiation research is characterized by the discovery of artificial<br />
radioactivity and the nucleus annihilation (1933–1934). Frederick (1900–1958)<br />
and Irene (1897–1956) Joliot-Curie stood at the forefront of this discovery and received<br />
the Nobel Prize in 1935. The late twenties and mid-thirties witnessed the birth of quantum<br />
mechanics, quantum statistics, and quantum field theory which constitutes the base<br />
of nuclear physics. The influential contributors of this stage include Einstein, Bohr,<br />
Dirak, Fermi, Rezerford, Pauli, Capiza, Lundow, Oppenheimer and others.<br />
Enrico Fermi’s contributions include the creation of the first nuclear reactor in<br />
the United States (1942), as well as achieving the first nuclear chain reaction and the<br />
first nuclear explosion.<br />
The creation of nuclear weapons in the United States and the detonation of nuclear<br />
bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki (August 6 and 9, 1945) marked the beginning<br />
of the Cold War. In 1946, the USSR already started building an industrial nuclear reactor.<br />
Thus, the creation of the nuclear shield began. Important individuals of this period<br />
include I.V. Kurchatov, A.D. Sakharov, Y.B. Khariton, Y. Zeldovich and other Soviet<br />
nuclear physicists. This period also marked the beginning of nuclear production in the<br />
United States, USSR, United Kingdom and other countries [5].<br />
The period of the nuclear arms race was marked by nuclear weapons tests in the<br />
air, under water, and under ground. On-the-ground nuclear detonations also took place
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with their harmful consequences upon the biosphere and humans. The nuclear polygons<br />
of Semipalatinsk, Novaya Zemlya, and Lobnor (Sin Tzyan, China) became the biggest<br />
sources of radiation pollution. In 1963, the Moscow international treaty on banning nuclear<br />
weapons tests in three environments became an important event in slowing down<br />
the nuclear arms race.<br />
Another event of great significance was the creation of the first nuclear power<br />
station in Obninsk (USSR, Kaluzhskaya oblast) in 1954, with 5 MW power. This plant<br />
marked the beginning of developing civil nuclear energy in the USSR and in the world.<br />
But at the same time, it was the beginning of massive technically-induced accidents<br />
and disasters. Radiation accidents were especially serious in terms of their impact upon<br />
humans and biosphere.<br />
The Age of Disasters (The concept of a radiation disaster)<br />
According to V.I. Vernadsky, throughout its entire history, human civilization has<br />
been „consciously dealing” with disasters and attempting to overcome them [6]. In the<br />
first millennia of human history, disasters and catastrophes had exclusively natural origins.<br />
By the Middle Ages and the New Era, in addition to natural disasters, humans started<br />
experiencing localized technical-induced disasters that occurred as a result of widespread<br />
development of various trades and industrial production [7]. Finally, the period of time<br />
that we call the age of disasters (the entire 19 th and 20 th centuries, and, as we suppose,<br />
the first third or half of the 21 st century) is characterized by a massive spread of technical<br />
disasters that fall into a broader category of „civilization disasters.” Here, we can include<br />
alcoholism, drug abuse, and disintegration of family life, loss of moral values, terrorism,<br />
signs of ecological crisis, and other developed and developing symptoms of our civilization’s<br />
„illnesses” and vices that might have unpredictable disastrous consequences [8].<br />
A distinct feature of the last five decades of this period has been the transition<br />
from local/regional to global/planetary type of technical disasters. The Chernobyl radiation<br />
disaster that spread over the entire territory of the USSR, other countries and even<br />
continents serves as a stark example of this trend [9].<br />
In the course of some 50 or 20 years separating us from the Kyshtym and the Chernobyl<br />
events, we are constantly coming against the indefinable concept of disaster. What<br />
are they, really – accidents or disasters In their articles, atomic industry representatives<br />
tend to write „accidents;” representatives of environmental and healthcare organizations<br />
sometimes write „disasters,” but more often – „accidents.” <strong>It</strong> is becoming obvious that<br />
this question of categorization has a profound social, philosophical, historical, scientific,<br />
and technical meaning, and needs to be considered with special attention.<br />
<strong>It</strong> may seem like a paradox, but to this time, there is no commonly accepted scientific<br />
definition of the disaster concept. When using this concept, people might mean<br />
„accident,” „cataclysmic event,” a massive „incident,” „extreme situation of technical<br />
character,” environmental „crisis,” and so on. Such a wide spectrum of understandings<br />
of this concept indicates the lack of specific criteria for categorizing a certain natural or<br />
technical event like a disaster. The substance of this concept is not defined.<br />
While studying radiation disasters over a number of years, authors start to understand<br />
that, at the base of any disaster (whether natural or technical), lies an irremovable
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fundamental quality that constitutes the difference between a disaster and an accident<br />
or another extreme event. If it is really so, then there is a possibility to find common<br />
substantive attributes of many different kinds of disasters and to develop scientific approaches<br />
to systemize and study in-depth these disasters.<br />
Within the scheme of the historical-scientific timeline outlined above, it is important<br />
to highlight the stage of scientific understanding/conceptualizing of disasters<br />
which lasted about 150 years, from the first third of the 19 th century (1820s–1830s) to<br />
the second half of the 20 th century (1960s–1990s). This is when the scientific bases of<br />
theories of disasters were laid down, and when the main distinct criterion of disaster<br />
was determined [10]. The largest amount of scientific interest for the purposes of our research<br />
is present at the beginning of the stage that was connected to the work of George<br />
Cuvier (1769–1832).<br />
The prominent Russian geologist academic A.P. Pavlov, the creator of the term<br />
„anthropogenic era” and of the understanding of the geological impact of humanity, was<br />
also one of Vernadsky’s mentors and was connected to him by many years of friendship.<br />
Apparently, he was the first Russian scientist to have fully realized the meaning of Cuvier’s<br />
disasters theory and his works for the future development of science. In 1921, he<br />
wrote: „Cuvier… was not a stubborn opponent of the idea of organisms’ development<br />
and a proponent of sudden appearance of new life forms, as he is often presented. He<br />
wished to base his work only upon the facts that were established strictly by science. His<br />
work „On the overturns on the Earth’s surface,” after an initial profound effect on his<br />
contemporaries, was forgotten and even discredited. And yet, one can say that this work<br />
powerfully contributed to the rise and development of many of those brilliant theories<br />
and fruitful directions in science that made up the glory of the 19 th century.” [11]. The<br />
outstanding role of G. Cuvier as the creator of disaster theory was also noted by the<br />
radiology founder V.I. Vernadsky in his works [12].<br />
The ingenious naturalist George Cuvier anticipated, and for the first time scientifically<br />
discovered the profound substance of any disaster: the loss of organization.<br />
This means full, systemic, and irreversible loss. This means full loss of structural and<br />
functional organization, when „nothing but rubble is left from the past” [13].<br />
Therefore, from G. Cuvier’s ideas, we can draw the main distinctive criterion of<br />
disaster that defines its substance: a disaster is always irreversible. <strong>It</strong> overthrows the<br />
old organizational structure, the relationship between the whole and its parts, and the<br />
means (technology) of this holistic functioning. When only rubble is left from the past,<br />
its togetherness is lost. In this way, disaster defines the necessity of transition to a new<br />
organizational structure of the disintegrated whole.<br />
In relation to radiation and other technical disasters of human civilization, it signifies<br />
a transition to new stages of scientific and technical progress, to a new scientific<br />
paradigm. But a new paradigm a substantial system of outlooks in a given historical<br />
period of development – must operate as a whole and not with its separate parts, no<br />
matter how important they might seem. If a disaster did occur, one cannot „repair it a little<br />
bit,” reconstructing its separate parts, be it nuclear installations, accident protection<br />
systems, construction materials, or main circulation pumps and other details of nuclear<br />
facility significance.
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The above-mentioned disaster characteristics that have to do with irreversible disintegration<br />
of the whole and, therefore, make it „recognizable,” allow us to determine<br />
its differences from an accident and other technical „incidents.” An accident is always<br />
localized, no matter how significant its consequences are. <strong>It</strong> does not cross the boundary<br />
of its small territorial manifestations. After repairing the broken parts, an accident allows<br />
a return to the former organizational structure, and in this sense, it is reversible.<br />
Numerous examples of reversible radiation and non-radiation accidents (malfunctioning,<br />
damages, disruptions, etc) are exemplified in many works, and there is no<br />
need to describe them here in detail. <strong>It</strong> seems that a distinct feature of an accident is its<br />
reversibility, which we draw as a consequence, as opposed to the irreversibility of disasters<br />
(„overturns”). This is quite realistic; the concept of an accident in Cuvier’s theory<br />
of natural disasters is closer to the concept of change.<br />
An off-design accident in nuclear energy, connected with breaking of the nuclear<br />
reactor and ejection of large masses of radionuclides into the environment, can be an accident.<br />
But, if it is not localized, it can momentarily grow into an irreversible radiation<br />
disaster, destroying large biosphere spaces (or the entire Earth biosphere) and massive<br />
amounts of people. Such was in the case of the Chernobyl disaster. Comparatively small<br />
disasters, on the other hand, are usually termed as accidents.<br />
The nuclear complex and the Biosphere: the problem of compatibility<br />
Sometimes, mistakes in nuclear energy plant construction happen even at the<br />
pre-project stage, during the planning of the future facility. What are the reasons for<br />
such mistakes As historical and scientific analysis indicates, there is not one but many<br />
reasons, each of them occurring at different stages of the facility creation, its functioning<br />
and exploitation. But, from the point of view of Cuvier and his followers, one of<br />
the main reasons for the emerging collisions between the practiced technique and its<br />
further exploitation in the biosphere is rooted in the lack of knowledge of the structure<br />
and functioning of the biosphere by the experts and technicians. The technical, dangerous<br />
radiation plants along with their personnel and the surrounding population „live”<br />
not in some hypothetical abstract space, but in a real time-space of the biosphere, its<br />
ecoregions, its natural ecosystems, and sometimes even beyond. In the end, it is the<br />
level of harmony and compatibility of these plants with the biosphere and its general organizational<br />
structure that determines the biosphere stability and the safety of humans<br />
and other living organisms.<br />
According to V.I. Vernadsky, the organizational structure of the biosphere presents<br />
in itself a dynamic balance („stable misbalance”) between the lifeless, inert bodies of the<br />
biosphere (minerals, rock formations) and its active geological power, live matter, living<br />
organisms, including humans. In the geological history of the biosphere, the balance between<br />
the inert and living is supported by the incessant biogenic flow of atoms. A distinct<br />
feature of the established „stable misbalance” is that not a single biosphere element (a<br />
chemical element or an atom) ever goes back to its former state. The biosphere as a whole<br />
of the highest class is constantly developing, its structure becoming ever more complex.<br />
<strong>It</strong>s organization is constantly perfected as a result of evolutionary processes and the catastrophic/disastrous<br />
renewal processes that periodically happen on Earth. These renewal
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processes include the change of the formerly established living organism communities<br />
and geologic-geographic and ecological conditions of their habitation.<br />
From Cuvier’s disasters theory and from V.I. Vernadsky’s general teachings on<br />
biosphere, one can conclude that natural disasters are a necessary condition for biosphere<br />
development. They are an imminent/intrinsic part of biosphere, its inherent attribute.<br />
They do not lead to its destruction. Natural disasters of various strength and<br />
frequency have always been happening in the history of Earth’s development; they continue<br />
to happen regularly today.<br />
Technical disasters, on the other hand, are a completely different matter. <strong>It</strong> especially<br />
concerns those of nuclear energy and chemical production origins. Any technical<br />
object is a foreign object to the natural biosphere. <strong>It</strong> is not inherent to its organization or<br />
to its dynamic balance that was developing for billions of years; it is not intrinsic to its<br />
biogenic atom flow. The biosphere compatibility level of the vast majority of humancreated<br />
objects is still extremely low. To a significant extent, it is due to the gap between<br />
technical thinking and the fundamental achievements in the sphere of laws of nature, the<br />
knowledge of the biosphere and its structure and functioning.<br />
In the 19th century, an ingenious naturalist scientist, academician K.M. Behr<br />
quite perceptively noted that „for industrial development in different directions, a significant<br />
spread of natural sciences is extremely important for Russia” [14, p. 120]. We<br />
must not forget about the biosphere’s responding reaction to the invasion of technical<br />
objects. The biosphere possesses complex systems: natural gases and water, microorganisms,<br />
soil mezzo and macro fauna, the soil itself with its acidity or base, primitive<br />
and higher flora, biosphere climate, the solar radiation and other cosmic rays permeating<br />
into the biosphere. These entire systems attempt „to digest” the intruding foreign<br />
objects; often, the response of the biosphere turns out to be a large or a small technical<br />
disaster for the constructed buildings, transportation systems, and industrial objects, and<br />
can even lead to numerous human casualties.<br />
Is it possible to avoid technical, especially radiation-related disasters Unfortunately,<br />
I do not think so. From the works of Cuvier and other naturalist classics (K.M. Behr,<br />
V.I. Vernadsky, A.P. Pavlov, L.S. Berg, etc.), one can theoretically reach a conclusion that<br />
is most important but difficult to understand. The path of disasters is, apparently, the<br />
most common path of development. <strong>It</strong> includes evolutionism in itself like a part into the<br />
whole. If practice is really the criteria of truth, then the practice of the current stage of<br />
civilization development fully supports Cuvier’s scientific prognosis, and places in front<br />
of science completely new challenges of studying this new reality of Being.<br />
In this newly-unfolding reality of man-made effects on the biosphere of our<br />
times, it is extremely difficult, and often altogether impossible to prevent technical disasters.<br />
The avalanche of „civilization disasters” is ever-increasing and unstoppable, and<br />
the contemporary world has indeed entered the era of disasters. In order to understand<br />
and accept this non-traditional conclusion (which is based on many facts), let us ask<br />
ourselves a question: why in almost four billion years of geological history, the Earth’s<br />
natural disasters still have not destroyed the biosphere, this „thin film on the Earth’s<br />
surface,” as Cuvier said V.I. Vernadsky’s teaching on the biosphere offers us a clear<br />
answer. The biosphere, modified by human activities, becomes the most complex sys-
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tem in the universe. Despite its seeming fragility, the biosphere as the planet membrane<br />
due to its organization presents in itself a stable system with a large number of freedom<br />
stages. <strong>It</strong>s structure and functions are supported by the cosmos and Earth dynamic balance<br />
between living, bio-inert, biogenic, and inert (non-living) biosphere subsystems.<br />
Even in the event of a global radiation disaster and „nuclear winter,” the biosphere<br />
functioning will continue due to the biogeochemical activity of algae, microorganisms,<br />
primitive plants and animals able to survive high radiation doses. Alas, the biosphere<br />
would then be without humans and complex plants and animals.<br />
Technical creations of humans seem – as they are – quite defenseless in comparison<br />
to biosphere. They are incompatible with the biosphere in material-energy or in informational<br />
sense. In comparison with any natural objects, the number of their freedom<br />
stages is decreasingly small. That is why every large multifunctional technical object<br />
(including nuclear power plants, nuclear submarines (NS), waste reprocessing facilities,<br />
and other radiation constructions) always hold a potential for developing disastrous<br />
events. Overall, the number of industrial production plants in the world is growing, and<br />
many of them have been built by old technologies and have already reached their time<br />
limit of exploitation. Based on this, one can already predict increasing technical disasters<br />
in the coming two-three decades. Technical pressure upon natural ecosystems and<br />
the biosphere in general will increase correspondingly.<br />
The biosphere problems of the nuclear complex are part of the overall security<br />
and safety problem which defines the possibilities of radiation disasters eruption and<br />
flow to a substantial degree.<br />
When it comes to the question of getting rid of disasters’ consequences completely,<br />
it is impossible due to the long half-life periods of many radionuclides. For<br />
example, 239 Pu has a half-life of 244,000 years, and 129 I has a half-life of 17 million<br />
years. These radionuclides form only in nuclear reactors. They did not exist in nature<br />
prior to the atomic era. That is why the effect of radionuclides upon humans and living<br />
organisms of biosphere after radiation accidents and disasters will continue to happen<br />
throughout many generations.<br />
On the one hand, there is the problem of the compatibility of nuclear energy and<br />
radiation objects with the biosphere and achieving its maximum „embeddedness” into the<br />
biosphere. On the other hand, there is the issue of finding effective ways of reducing the<br />
legacy of radiation, of the Cold War, and of contemporary nuclear energy. Together, these<br />
problems present some of the most complex issue of the current stage of human civilization<br />
development. Specific examples of disastrous events that occurred during the early and modern<br />
periods of the Russian and world nuclear complex are largely results not only of technical<br />
and technological problems and personnel errors, but also the above-described problems of<br />
biosphere compatibility and the „biosphere response” to the radiation effects.<br />
The Chernobyl Disaster: an accident<br />
From the ecological point of view, the history of humankind entering the nuclear<br />
era can be presented as a history of radiation disasters. Large and smaller radiation<br />
disasters serve as expression of human effects upon ecology. Many of them occur at<br />
very high speed, thus preventing us from having any control over the first stages of the
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emerged disaster. This so-called „Time point” (the term of V.I. Vernadsky) serves as a<br />
base indicator of disaster irreversibility. For the Chernobyl disaster, the „time point” of<br />
technological disaster with an LWGR reactor rupture into a radiation disaster consisted<br />
only of 56 seconds. This short time period practically excluded any possibility of response<br />
and prevention of the catastrophe. In this way, achievement of unstable extreme<br />
condition of the technical system with disaster signs, and its subsequent transition to the<br />
irreversible destruction of the entire whole through the „time point” is the indicator of<br />
the disaster that begun, of the irreversible natural-anthropogenic process. <strong>It</strong> is impossible<br />
to stop and return the system into the former stable state.<br />
The issues of the biosphere and the nuclear complex, considered above, are part<br />
of the overall security problem which defines the possibilities of uprise and development<br />
of radiation disasters and the elimination of their consequences. Yet theoretical premises<br />
and practical experience of the so-called „elimination” of the consequences indicate that<br />
ecological consequences of such disasters cannot be fully eliminated. They continue to<br />
manifest themselves decades, centuries, and millennia later (due to the half-lives of radionuclides<br />
of plutonium, americium, curium, etc). The effects of radiation on humans<br />
and other biosphere organisms should and is manifested over several generations [15].<br />
The concept of radiation security does not have a single scientific definition.<br />
Although its practical importance for society is quite obvious, it has not yet become an<br />
object of keen and multi-sided study of fundamental science. There are several reasons<br />
for this in Russia, the most important of which is the command administrative system<br />
of nuclear energy. <strong>It</strong> is also the resulting secrecy of radiation security problems over the<br />
course of six decades, which is partly still existing and continuing into the future. A special<br />
secrecy of the work connected with the production and testing of nuclear weapons<br />
(1945–1985), arms race, NS fleet development, „peaceful” nuclear energy, and other<br />
nuclear objects created a substantial shift in the system of priorities. In this system,<br />
radiation security – with all its lack of scientific work and practical experience – was on<br />
one of the last priorities. [16].<br />
The pre-conditions of the Chernobyl disaster were rooted in the whole system of<br />
social planning set up in the USSR in the late 1920s-early 1930s. This connection of Chernobyl<br />
with the „age of social planning” so far did not attract special historical-scientific<br />
analysis. Indeed, at first glance it seems rather artificial to compare the Chernobyl disaster<br />
as a logical consequence of the Soviet nuclear project with the projects of rivers diversion<br />
and other large national development projects and programs. But all the factual data and<br />
the underlying historical-scientific analysis of the social planning age as a holistic socioeconomic<br />
and political phenomenon indicate an unbreakable genetic link between all the<br />
social projects and the Soviet command administration system that brought them to life.<br />
The shortcomings of the system reflected on the atomic project, and, finally, led<br />
to one of the gravest disasters in all the history of human civilization. Many important<br />
scientists, public activists, and government officials (such as A.L. Yanshin, V.A. Kovda,<br />
D.S. Likhachev, N.I. Ryzhkov, V.I. Vorotnikov, and others) understood the profound connection<br />
of Chernobyl with other social „projects of the century.” Another such project was<br />
the proposed diversion of North and Siberian rivers. Had that project been implemented, it<br />
would have had catastrophic consequences for the country’s economy and culture.
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At the same time, the nuclear project, as any large project of the social planning<br />
age, has its distinctive features; some of them drew the tragic Chernobyl ending nearer.<br />
The comprehensive study of the Chernobyl disaster causes and consequences indicated<br />
that there is no single cause of the tragedy [17]. <strong>It</strong> happened as a result of a long and complex<br />
chain of events. We studied the protocols of the Politburo Operational Group of the<br />
Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The Politburo member<br />
and the Chair of the USSR Council of Ministers N.I. Ryzhkov led the group. Our study<br />
revealed that already in 1986, the Chairperson and some members of the Operational<br />
Group and the Governmental Commission realized that this event was not accidental.<br />
During one of the first Operational Group sessions, N.I. Ryzhkov stated that the accident<br />
at the Chernobyl NPP was not accidental, and atomic energy led to this event with a<br />
certain degree of unavoidability [18]. Academic V. Legasov noted the same in his famous<br />
publications in Pravda, some of which were published post-mortem [19, 20].<br />
In the analysis of the nuclear energy development problems that led to the Chernobyl<br />
disaster, the military-political genesis of nuclear energy is usually indicated as<br />
the root of all problems [17]. This is, of course, true, but only partly. Other large social<br />
projects were also directed towards military needs, especially in the post-WWII period,<br />
when the two world systems’ confrontation really took off and led the world to the brink<br />
of nuclear war. Providing defense power for the country became the first priority. This,<br />
in turn, led to the militarization of economy and science. The Soviet’s own nuclear<br />
weapons were created in record short period of time – only six years, from late 1943 to<br />
September 1949 when the first Soviet nuclear bomb test occurred. This crash project<br />
required substantial restructuring of many industrial branches, as well as scientific research<br />
and practical work (research and advanced development).<br />
The second stage of the Soviet nuclear development (following the successful testing<br />
of the first bombs in 1949–1950) involved further improvement of nuclear weapons and creation<br />
of a NS fleet. This stage saw the appearance of the predecessors of the future civil nuclear<br />
energy reactors, military industry reactors that were used for the weapon-grade plutonium<br />
development, and corpus reactors used for submarines. In the sixties, based on these „predecessors,”<br />
the first civilian reactors were built. These reactors were the LWGR and the PWR<br />
reactors, and they have determined the future of the civil nuclear energy development.<br />
The stemming of nuclear energy from the military industry complex was not<br />
unique to USSR. <strong>It</strong> was also the case in the United States and the United Kingdom. The<br />
first large accidents occurred on the military nuclear installations: in Windscale (England)<br />
and in Chelyabinsk-40 (the Kyshtym disaster of 1957). They have brought to light<br />
the problem of dealing with nuclear waste which later became one of the most serious<br />
problems in modern nuclear energy development.<br />
Was the creation of nuclear energy necessary in the fifties, when the first NPP with<br />
only 5 MW of electric power was built in Obninsk The analysis indicates that there was<br />
no such necessity at that time. Both in Russia and abroad, the energy supplied by traditional<br />
means was quite sufficient. <strong>It</strong> is interesting to consider the views of I.V. Kurchatov<br />
himself, the nuclear project leader. In the late fifties, he was responding to a question of<br />
one of the secretaries of the Central Committee of the USSR Communist Party on the reasons<br />
and profitability of the NPP construction at the Kremlin conference. In his response,
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I.V. Kurchatov emphasized the lack of profitability of nuclear energy development at that<br />
particular point of time and in the foreseeable future. He said, „<strong>It</strong> will be a costly experiment<br />
for another thirty years or so.” (See [21, p. 18]). I.V. Kurchatov’s opinion reflects the<br />
views from within: „the father of nuclear energy” unlike anyone else distinctly realized<br />
all the complexity and lack of preparedness for widespread use of peaceful nuclear energy<br />
in the country. Of course, it does not mean that the transition to the NPP construction was<br />
a mistake as such; but we are talking about the time frames and preparedness for such a<br />
transition. <strong>It</strong> was important for a clear strategy development to come before this transition.<br />
Such a strategy was never developed.<br />
In the context of the military industry complex and the command administration<br />
of the R&D deliverables, different ideological tendencies were defining. The question<br />
of a real or possible loss of leadership was one of the first priorities. This concerned not<br />
only nuclear program, but also other large programs. First and foremost, it was the space<br />
program. This again emphasizes the interconnection of all social projects. The development<br />
of industrial production NPP programs with large and powerful energy units in the<br />
West immediately caused a response in the USSR, even though, as we already said, the<br />
country’s industry and science were not ready for a full-scale nuclear energy development<br />
at that time. In practice, it resulted in the accidents at the first energy units, in the<br />
absence of a comprehensive program of providing nuclear and radiation security. This<br />
topic was discussed extensively at scientific forums and in open publications.<br />
One of the defining preconditioning factors for the Chernobyl disaster was the<br />
total secrecy that was coming from the depths of the military industry complex and the<br />
command administrative system. This secrecy was complemented and fortified by the<br />
directive style of governing, typical for army but out of place and ineffective in the field<br />
of science and technology. This governing style ruled throughout the entire era of social<br />
projects, especially in the frequent periods of crash efforts and skunk works that became<br />
widespread in the mid-twenties and early thirties.<br />
The fact that nuclear energy was so closed from public and from the experts<br />
themselves, to a large extent facilitated not accidental but quite characteristic disastrous<br />
development of events. The brightest example is the accident at the LNPP in 1975<br />
involving the melting of the technological channel in the active reactor zone. The events<br />
took a course similar to that of the Chernobyl disaster, but it was successfully stopped,<br />
possibly, due to better handling by the personnel and a luckier combination of circumstances.<br />
However, the information about this incident was immediately classified and<br />
not disclosed to the personnel of other NPPs with the same type of LWGR reactors.<br />
One would think that such an unstable functioning of a nuclear reactor would<br />
become a serious caution for the atomic scientists and the surveillance bodies; but it<br />
did not. The nuclear complex was unstoppably moving towards a heavy „off-limits<br />
accident” with the reactor fracture and the ejection of radionuclides into the environment.<br />
One could name several other preconditioning factors for this nuclear disaster (for<br />
more detail, see [17, 22-25]), but from what was said above, the non-randomness of the<br />
Chernobyl disaster is quite clear. So is its unavoidability as a consequence of the entire<br />
extensive path of national development projects implementation with all its secrecy,<br />
prescriptiveness, and extreme closedness to public opinion.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
When we ask ourselves a question of whether it was possible to prevent the Chernobyl<br />
disaster, the response based on a large amount of documented facts states that,<br />
technically, it was possible. Yet technological prevention would only have a temporary<br />
effect. <strong>It</strong> would only postpone the possibility of a significant accident for an undetermined<br />
period of time. The causes of the Chernobyl disaster were systemic, they touch<br />
many causes and effects, among which the technical causes are in turn effects of social,<br />
economic and psychological causes that played a big role in the administrative decisionmaking<br />
process. What was necessary was the restructuring of the entire nuclear field,<br />
followed by that of the adjacent industries, such as mechanical engineering, , materials<br />
technology, Research and Advanced Development, and other fields without which safe<br />
nuclear energy is impossible. In 1986, one could feel the fresh breath of the „air of changes,”<br />
but the changes themselves had not yet come. We have paid too much of a price by<br />
going into the long-awaited Perestroika through the struggle with the river diversion, the<br />
Chernobyl disaster, and the subsequent collapse of national development.<br />
The key to the truthful re-creation of the preconditioning factors, causes, consequences,<br />
and responsibilities of the Chernobyl disaster as a non-accidental result of the<br />
nuclear project development (as is the case with the other „century projects”) is in the<br />
coherent application of historical and scientific methodology. <strong>It</strong> demands the research<br />
of common paths of the scientific-technological and public process formation and development.<br />
We shall never fully understand how the largest social programs and projects<br />
are implemented, their rises and falls without having studied the general and distinctive<br />
features of the entire era of social projects. We have lived according to the laws of this<br />
era for several generations. We still need many years in order to scientifically study<br />
the accumulated problems and unresolved questions of safety and security of large social<br />
programs implementation. To study them scientifically means to obtain knowledge,<br />
compulsory for all, as V.I. Vernadsky was saying. We need to obtain it in the process of<br />
research regardless of whether we like it or not. <strong>It</strong> is necessary so that we can develop a<br />
scientific view on the further development. <strong>It</strong> is impossible without the society solving<br />
such large social programs and scientific and technological projects. This means that, if<br />
we will simply leave this „social projects era” in the past, we will continue to bump into<br />
its problems. This is the main lesson of the Chernobyl disaster: not to forget the past.<br />
The main results of the Chernobyl’s 20th anniversary<br />
The consequences of small-dosage low-intensity radiation<br />
Twenty years have elapsed since the Chernobyl disaster, 50 years since the Kyshtym<br />
event and the Mayak dumping radioactive waste into the Techa River, and 60<br />
years since the nuclear bombing of Japan. Even so, it is still early to give a final evaluation<br />
of all the indirect medical consequences of Chernobyl and the massive emersion<br />
of malignant tumors. However, the official viewpoint of some Russian and international<br />
organizations is that there are no serious medical consequences except for thyroid cancer<br />
[26]. Such viewpoints continue, when over 50 years since the disasters, epidemiological<br />
and radiobiological research continues on the Japanese and Chelyabinsk populations,<br />
and the last words have not been said yet. The risks of the small-dosage low-intensity<br />
radiation are being re-considered [27-31].
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Following the Chernobyl NPP disaster, a significant number of people was affected<br />
by small-dosage radiation. At that time, Chernobyl began a new era in radiobiology<br />
development. The whole world started paying much more attention to the effects<br />
of radiation in small doses. A significant role in understanding the post-Chernobyl effects<br />
was played by the experimental research on isolated cells, animals, and lymphatic<br />
cells of the radiation-affected individuals (the emergency responders and the polluted<br />
regions’ population). This research enabled scientists to understand the mechanisms of<br />
early and indirect consequences of small-dosage radiation.<br />
Currently, the effects of such radiation are described as „non-target” effects: the<br />
genome instability (GI); adaptive response (AR); bystander effect; hormesis; and clastogenic<br />
effect on the organism level [32-38].<br />
The reaction to small-dosage radiation is different from that in large dosages.<br />
The classic model of radiation effects suggests that the discrete cell target has an individual<br />
reaction depending on the quantity of unrepaired or incorrectly repaired DNA<br />
damages. According to contemporary understanding, the reaction processes can occur<br />
over distances exceeding the cell size. They are controlled by the cell signal systems;<br />
direct impact is not necessary in order for a cell to become damaged. Then we have to<br />
accept the fact that the dose-effect dependency is changing. The gene expression will<br />
then be significant, which can lead to malignant transformation without direct mutations.<br />
Cells unaffected by radiation exhibit gene expression changes; DNA reparation;<br />
chromosome aberration, mutations and death; and radiation-induced genome instability<br />
that can be connected to the formation of malignant tumors. Radiosensitive genes as<br />
markers of genetic sensitivity of individuals and populations are studied in the epidemiological<br />
research and for risk assessment (See [31, 39]).<br />
We suppose that the problem of Chernobyl’s indirect consequences to a significant<br />
degree is attributable to the understanding of the substance of small-dose radiation<br />
effects and mechanisms. This leads to emergence of a new phenotype, a new cell population<br />
with its own distinct features. What seems especially important is that the genome<br />
instability is induced, leading to other reactions to external factors such as stress and<br />
radiation. That is why one can suggest that in the case of many emergency responders,<br />
the main phenomenon following small-dose radiation and living on polluted territories<br />
is the genome instability that leads to a whole row of consequences [40].<br />
The genome instability (GI) is a type of genome damage that is transferred<br />
through cell generation and leads to increased mutation rate, chromosome aberrations<br />
and death among the radiation-affected cell offsprings. <strong>It</strong> is observed both in vitro and<br />
in vivo. GI can increase sensitivity to physical and chemical agents. The presence of<br />
GI makes extrapolation of radiation effects from large doses to small ones impossible,<br />
because it can modify the biological effects and demands reconsideration of the risk<br />
assessment concept.<br />
The study of radiation effects upon the health of the disaster emergency responders<br />
and of the Chernobyl zone population began practically immediately following the<br />
disaster by a number of medical and biological organizations. In the first years after the<br />
Chernobyl event, many aspects of radiation effects on human body remained unclear. A<br />
large amount of observations and laboratory experiments on animals were needed. They
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
were conducted for various purposes by the scientific organizations of the Academy of<br />
Sciences and other agencies. The experiment data analysis and synthesis continues to be<br />
conducted today. A number of important conclusions of fundamental meaning for science<br />
and practice occurred 20 years after Chernobyl. Let us examine the main results of many<br />
years of experimental laboratory data, clinical studies and biomedical monitoring.<br />
A number of tissue culture cells (HeLa) were exposed in the disaster zone for 1,<br />
4, and 6 twenty-four-hour periods (the sum doses of radiation constitute 0.083, 0.331,<br />
and 0.497 Gr, respectively, with the gamma-radiation power of 100–300 reaction mass<br />
per hour). The cells were then cultivated in regular laboratory conditions for many generations.<br />
The following GI signs were observed (the controlled cultures were contained<br />
under the same environmental and other parameters on the non-radionuclide polluted<br />
territories): slowing down of the cell proliferation activity in the course of 6–7 generations<br />
following the end of exposing them in the Chernobyl zone (Picture 1); the<br />
control level is only reached at the 8 th generation. The number of the controlled HeLa<br />
cells increases on average ~7,5 times; following the exposure to the Chernobyl zone,<br />
the growth coefficient value immediately decreases by ~2 times. One can suppose that<br />
the observed decrease of proliferation activity can be explained by the induced GI and<br />
the death of cells in remote generations. This supposition is confirmed by the fact that<br />
in the course of 24 generations, there is a marked decrease of clonogenic cell ability.<br />
The analogous situation is observed in the study of the number of gigantic cells: their<br />
amount augments twice and more and does not decrease for 20 generations.<br />
Picture 1. Slowing down of the cell proliferation activity in the course of 6–7 generations<br />
following the end of exposing them in the Chernobyl zone<br />
There is yet another important phenomenon that can be regarded as a GI manifestation<br />
with the offspring of the exposed cells: the increase of their radiosensitivity.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
With additional radiation of 3.0 Gr, the rate of survival (the clonogenic ability) of the<br />
exposed cells becomes lower than that of the controlled cells. The frequency of formation<br />
of cells with micronuclei as well as gigantic cells increases over 9–12 generations.<br />
From these results, one can also conclude that prolonged cell radiation on the polluted<br />
territories does not induce the adaptive reaction (AR). Such a reaction manifests itself<br />
by increased radio-resistance, because acute radiation of the exposed cells only leads to<br />
the increase of their radio-sensitivity.<br />
The fibroblast cultures, obtained from the embryos of mice that were paired up<br />
in the disaster zone, were subjected to the whole series of experiments. The cytogenetic<br />
analysis revealed a credible increase of cells with chromosome restructuring of up to<br />
24.5%. <strong>It</strong> also revealed the emergence of cells with multiple chromosome aberrations,<br />
their dose in the overall number of aberration metaphases reaching 8%.<br />
Thus, exposing the cells in the tissue culture to the Chernobyl zone causes GI,<br />
which is manifested in the radiation-affected cell offspring by a slowing proliferation<br />
speed, cell death over generations, increase in number of cells with МI, increase in<br />
number of gigantic cells, lack of AR, and increase in sensitivity to additional radiation.<br />
Naturally, the question arises whether radiation in itself can cause such effects. In<br />
order to answer this question, model experiments were conducted on various cell lines<br />
with the radiation of 10–40 Gr with the dosage power similar to that of the Chernobyl<br />
experiments [41-43]. The observations revealed that remote offspring of the radiationaffected<br />
cells exhibit reproduction death and increase in number of cells with МI. This<br />
allows us to think that the described effects, caused by the exposure of the cells in the<br />
tissue culture to the 10 km radiation-polluted Chernobyl zone, are mostly due to the prolonged<br />
small-dose radiation.<br />
Similar effects were observed on the organism level of mice exposed to the zone<br />
for various periods of time in the cells that were faveolate on all the sides, and with a<br />
separate dosemeter under every cell. Following chronic, ongoing radiation of 0,024–0,336<br />
Gr (with the exposure time of 1 to 14 days), the animals were brought to Moscow. In<br />
Moscow, after 2, 7, and 30 days, they were affected by 3, 5, 7, and 9 Gr radiation. All the<br />
controlled animals were contained in the same ecological (and other) conditions, in the<br />
non-radionuclide polluted zone. The survival rate of the animals was studied for 30 days<br />
(Picture 2). <strong>It</strong> was found that with an additional radiation of 9 Gr (with the 2-day interval<br />
following the zone exposure), the animal fatality sharply increased and reached 100% by<br />
the ninth day. The effect of increasing radio-sensitivity to a substantial degree depends<br />
on the time interval between the end of exposure and the additional acute radiation. For<br />
example, in a two-day time interval, the increase in fatality is determined by the marrowy<br />
syndrome rate, whereas with the time interval of 30 days, it is determined by the gastrointestinal<br />
rate. This data indicates that on the whole organism-level, the prolonged radiation<br />
and other factors effects in the zone lead to the increase in radio-sensitivity of mice.<br />
In a separate series of experiments, the exposed animals were studied for the endotheliocyte<br />
density in different portions of the brain using the fluorescence-histochemical<br />
method (Picture 3). The mice were subjected to prolonged radiation of 2.0 Gr (as a<br />
result of being exposed to the zone for one month). One year following the exposure, a<br />
reduction of endotheliocyte density in various brain parts was observed [44].
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Picture 2. Survival rate of the animals for 30 days: after ongoing radiation of<br />
0,024–0,336 Gr (with the exposure time of 1 to 14 days), they after 2, 7, and 30 days,<br />
were affected by 3, 5, 7, and 9 Gr radiation<br />
Picture 3. Endotheliocyte density in different portions of the brain of controlled animals<br />
14-months age (А) and after one year following the exposure in the Chernobyl<br />
zone, total doze – 2 Gr (B)<br />
Therefore, the experiments on animals, much like those on the cell level, reveal<br />
the increase in radio-sensitivity and the remote death of brain endotheliocytes. The effect<br />
of the remote death of brain endotheliocytes might be an indication of a possibility<br />
of cerebrovascular failures following exposure to the disaster zone.<br />
Experiments were also conducted on the blood lymphatic cells, stimulated by<br />
phytohemagglutinin (PHA), taken from children and adults residing in the polluted<br />
zones (Vyshkov, Klintsy, Novozybkov with the pollution density reaching 40 Ku/km 2 ),<br />
as well as from emergency responders. The cells were taken with a micronuclear test<br />
using cytokinetic block by/of cytochalasin. In the course of the experiment, the scientists<br />
studied the spontaneous frequency of damaged lymphatic cells, their radio-sen-
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
sitivity (after being radiated with the dose of 1 Gr), as well as the presence of the AR<br />
following the radiation of 0.05 Gr (adapting) and 1 Gr (permitting) after 5 hours.<br />
<strong>It</strong> is noteworthy that children from Novozybkov and adults from Vyshkov had<br />
a significantly lower lymphatic receptivity to the phytohemagglutinin stimulation: the<br />
frequency of stimulated cells was 1.5–2 times lower. Similar results in the same population<br />
were obtained by A.A. Yarilin (personal note).<br />
<strong>It</strong> was discovered that the spontaneous level of lymphatic cell damage in adult individuals<br />
was not significantly different from that of the observed Moscow residents (See<br />
[40]). However, selected residents of polluted regions were found to have a high level of<br />
individual variability. Some emergency responders were registered with a very high frequency<br />
of lymphatic cells damage. Children were noted to have increased spontaneous<br />
frequency of lymphatic cells with MN more than twice the amount of adults (Picture 4).<br />
With the 1 Gr dose of radiation, neither the emergency responders nor the polluted<br />
regions residents were observed to have increased levels of radio-resistance. That is, prolonged<br />
radiation effects in these regions do not induce the residents’ AR. However, when the<br />
residents of South Ural region living on the shores of Techa River were observed, the picture<br />
looked different. Even after over 50 years following the radioactive waste dumping, they<br />
were found to have increased radio-resistance. That is, chronic radiation in that region led to<br />
inducing the AR [45, 46]. Apparently, these differences in the AR induction on the territories<br />
of radioactive pollution can be caused by a different spectrum of radionuclides in the environment<br />
(mostly strontium in the Urals and cesium in Chernobyl), as well as by different observation<br />
timing and radioactive pollution patterns, different ecological situations, differences in<br />
human populations, different critical damage systems, and other factors.<br />
More data was collected in the research with the AR induced by the additional<br />
radiation of 0.05 Gr and the following registered radiation of 1 Gr. <strong>It</strong> revealed the tendency<br />
for the the children (Picture 5) residing on the polluted territories and for emergency<br />
responders and adults (Picture 6) to have a decreased frequency of individuals<br />
with the valid AR. The same was observed with the Techa River residents (See [45]).<br />
Picture 4 Spontaneous level of cytogenetic Picture 5 Level of children (%) with the<br />
damage in lymphatic cells of children of<br />
AR amond children of<br />
Novozybkov and Moscow cities
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
At the same time, a different effect was registered: that of an increase in radiosensitivity<br />
of emergency responders, all adult residents of the radionuclide-polluted<br />
territories (Picture 7) and children. This phenomenon is quite important for human<br />
population and, possibly, depends on the original level of damaged cells, ecological<br />
factors, defects in the DNA-repair systems, humoral and cell immune system condition,<br />
individual particularities of the organism, and the presence of somatic diseases [47–49].<br />
<strong>It</strong> is also important not to exclude the role of clastogenic factors in shaping the phenomenon<br />
of increased radio-sensitivity. Clastogenic factors are found in the blood serum of<br />
humans and animals subjected to low-dose radiation. They cause cell death, chromosome<br />
aberrations, mutations, etc. (i.e. if one adds blood serum of a radiated individual<br />
to the cells of tissue culture). This was described in the research for the first time [32].<br />
However, a igh level of individual variability in the ability to shape clastogenic factors<br />
was noted [50]. The appearance of individuals with high sensitivity to extreme factors<br />
after being affected by low-dose chemical and physical agents possibly presents one of<br />
distinct features of humans and other organisms inhabiting nuclear disaster territories.<br />
Picture 6. Level of individuals (%) with Picture 7. Level of individuals (%) with<br />
the AR among residents of Moscow (1),<br />
increased in radio-sensitivity after<br />
radionuclide-polluted sites: adapting radiation of risidents of Moscow (1),<br />
Klintsy (2), Vyshkov (3) radionuclide-polluted city Klintsy (2),<br />
emergency responders (4) emergency responders (3)<br />
Thus, the obtained experiment results indicate the emergence of radiobiological<br />
effects of low-intensity chronic radiation that happened as a result of the Chernobyl<br />
disaster and its consequences over the 20-year period.<br />
One can say that there is a new population of cells, animals, and, possibly, humans<br />
with special characteristics, special phenotype. <strong>It</strong> is more sensitive to additional effects of<br />
damaging factors. <strong>It</strong> has a lower ability for the adaptive response. <strong>It</strong> has a high individual<br />
variability when it comes to spontaneous level of damage in molecular and cellular structures;<br />
radio-sensitivity; and the adaptive response. This population exhibits the phenomenon<br />
of increased radio-sensitivity following low-dose radiation more frequently.<br />
As a result of radiobiological experiments, conducted in the post-Chernobyl period,<br />
the following conclusions were drawn:<br />
1. Low doses of radiation have an active effect on human and animal metabolism.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
2. With certain dose intervals, low-intensity radiation is even more effective<br />
than high-intensity radiation.<br />
3. The dependency of effect from radiation dose [the relationship between effect<br />
and radiation dose] can be of non-linear, non-monotonous, polymodal character.<br />
4. The doses at which extremes are observed depend on radiation intensity and<br />
decrease when radiation dose decreases.<br />
5. Low-dose radiation leads to changes (in most cases, to increase) in sensitivity<br />
to damaging factors.<br />
The non-linear and non-monotonous type of dose-effect relationship that we obtained<br />
in the experiments can be explained by the changes in relationships between<br />
damages on the one hand, and the damage repair on the other hand, with the low-intensity<br />
low-dose radiation. With this radiation, the reparation systems, as we understand,<br />
are either not induced at all, or are functioning with a substantially lower intensity and<br />
are „turned on” at a later time, when the radiated object already acquired radiation damages<br />
[51, 52].<br />
“Safe living” in the Chernobyl zone<br />
In fall 2005, the UN Scientific Committee on Atomic Energy, as well as the<br />
IAEA, WHO, and the UNDP published reports and materials on the results of the<br />
Chernobyl NPP accident. The materials also included evaluation of negative effects on<br />
health of the population and emergency responders [53]. To a certain extent, this data<br />
contradicts a number of Russian research publications and those of other international<br />
organizations, such as the American BEIR (Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation)<br />
Committee. The contradictions come, first and foremost, from underestimation and insufficient<br />
understanding of low-dose radiation, lack of willingness to introduce different<br />
criteria of evaluation, and unsubstantiated certitude that low doses do not cause any<br />
damages or cause only negligible effects.<br />
The IAEA and the WHO did not take into account the new factors that appear<br />
with low-dose radiation and increase risks of the programmed cell death (apoptosis),<br />
the bystander effect, the radiation-induced genome instability which in turn causes increased<br />
sensitivity to other damaging factors and to more difficult forms of the existing<br />
diseases that an organism might have (even including non-radiation caused diseases). In<br />
its report, BEIR-7 published the sources of errors that were committed in evaluations of<br />
health condition of radiated groups of people and of the danger of low-intensity ionizing<br />
radiation to their health. This report confirms the earlier conclusion that there is no safe<br />
level of radiation and that even very low doses can cause cancer, among other diseases.<br />
Low-intensity radiation causes other health problems also, such as heart disease and<br />
stroke, liver disease, nervous system and psychiatric disorders, and so on.<br />
The factor of dose effect and radiation power in relation to low doses is down<br />
from 2 to 1.5. This means that the amount of negative effects on human health is greater<br />
than was thought before [54].<br />
The same recommendations on the risk assessment of low doses were made by<br />
the Russian scientists who published five monographs devoted to the effects of lowdose<br />
radiation on health.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Let us emphasize again some remarks concerning the reports of the IAEA,<br />
WHO, and UNDP.<br />
1. The changes in disease patterns that, according to experts, were connected to<br />
the accident as a social but not radiation factor, were not accounted for. By the social<br />
factor we mean the stress caused by the accident, relocation to different regions, change<br />
in the living conditions, radio phobia (fear of radiation), and so on. The IAEA and the<br />
WHO do not consider diseases caused by these factors as the results of the accident.<br />
2. For a portion of cancer diseases, there was no usual dose-dependency that<br />
could be explained by certain models. Radiogenic causes of diseases with low-dose<br />
radiation should be determined according to specific biomarkers as is done in molecular<br />
epidemiology, and not on the basis of dose dependence. Nevertheless, this portion of<br />
cancer diseases was not accounted for.<br />
3. A number of other non-cancer somatic diseases were unaccounted for, even<br />
though, according to the D. Preston et al [55] data, for the majority of such diseases, the<br />
radiation component is the important one. V.K. Ivanov and his co-authors demonstrated<br />
that cerebrovascular diseases in emergency responders are of radiogenic nature [56].<br />
One must also not deny the possibility of increase of such diseases among the affected<br />
population. For example, the number of non-cancer thyroid diseases in children, caused<br />
by radiation, should also be accounted for in drawing conclusions of radiation health<br />
effects. Neither the IAEA nor the WHO does that.<br />
4. Neither the IAEA nor the WHO take into account the increased rate of disability<br />
in emergency responders. About 57% of emergency responders are officially disabled;<br />
95% of their disabilities are connected to the Chernobyl NPP accident (Picture 8).<br />
Picture 8. Indexes of disabilities for emergency responders Chernobyl NPP residing<br />
in Krasnoyarsky kray (monitoring data for 2001–2004)<br />
5. Recently, the question of premature aging of emergency responders is widely<br />
discussed. There is a significant gap between their biological age and their passport<br />
(chronological) age. This phenomenon occurs in connection with deterioration of their<br />
health, yet it is also unaccounted for.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
6. The IAEA and the WHO recognize only thyroid cancer as a negative health<br />
consequence in children affected by the accident. At the same time, these children’s<br />
health deterioration connected with the presence of more than one chronic illness, is<br />
not taken into account. Neither is the health deterioration of the children of emergency<br />
responders is taken into account.<br />
We should also consider the evaluation errors connected to the choice of control.<br />
Usually, in order to establish a connection between certain diseases and radiation, two<br />
types of control are used. The internal control is used for people who reside in the same<br />
conditions, are in the same age groups, etc, as the target group, but who received much<br />
lower radiation doses than the main mass of the studied population. The external control<br />
is used for studying average values for the Russian population or for overall other<br />
regions. Both of these approaches have advantages and drawbacks. If the dose-effect<br />
curve does not have a threshold but is basically non-linear and has extremes in the low<br />
dose area, choosing internal control can lead to artificial decrease of the relative risk of<br />
disease in the main mass of the studied population and create an erroneous perception<br />
of a positive radiation effect.<br />
<strong>It</strong> is important to note that neither the IAEA nor the WHO directly deny the radiogenic<br />
nature of the majority of somatic diseases. However, they do not regard these diseases as an<br />
effect of the Chernobyl NPP accident. They stop themselves at saying that there is lack of statistical<br />
validity for drawing conclusions about the radiation effects for such kind of diseases.<br />
However, when it comes to statistical approach, there are other points of view.<br />
As was said before, the problem of formation and manifestation of the Chernobyl<br />
disaster consequences in many respects comes to understanding the mechanisms and<br />
effects of low-dose ionizing radiation. In the US, there is a 10-year research program<br />
on low-dose ionizing radiation effects, funded with $21 million per year. They plan to<br />
study biological effects of ~ 0.1 Gr dose radiation with low LPE (in-Russian – ЛПЭ).<br />
Another part of the program is to support fundamental research with the use of molecular<br />
biology methods, cellular biology, and genetics, all directed to the study of low-dose<br />
radiation mechanisms and effects (See [31]).<br />
The main criteria of any disaster consequences evaluation (whether a natural<br />
disaster or a technical one) is its impact on human health and on the conditions of the<br />
territories they continue to inhabit. The Chernobyl disaster, being the largest disaster in<br />
the history of human civilization, continues to be evaluated with differing results. There<br />
have been attempts by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and the Federal<br />
Agency for the Atomic Energy (Minatom) to lower the possible effects of the Chernobyl<br />
accident consequences. In 1988, the IAEA experts, with the active participation of the<br />
USSR Minatom and Minzdrav, declared the Chernobyl-affected territories „practically<br />
safe for residence,” according to the results of their „independent expertise.” Echoes<br />
of this „expertise” are still audible in presentations of the IAEA representatives today,<br />
20 years following the disaster. We know what the reaction of the affected regions’<br />
population to such evaluations of their „safe and unharmed residence.” In 1988–1989,<br />
popular movements and public organizations formed and demanded declassifying the<br />
Chernobyl disaster materials and taking measures to improve health of the territories<br />
and aid the affected people.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Intensity are „turned on” at a later time, when the radiated object already acquired<br />
the detected tendencies allow us to conclude that, the lower the radiation intensity,<br />
the later the reparation systems begin to work.<br />
Therefore, the obtained results indicate a high biological activity of low-dose<br />
radiation and an existence of different ways of impacting cellular metabolism than in<br />
the case of high doses.<br />
The second fundamental summary point of the experiment data, having an important<br />
practical meaning, is the increase of sensitivity of living organisms affected<br />
by low-dose radiation and the subsequent increase in susceptibility of biochemical<br />
processes to other damaging agents. Most likely, this fact can be explained by radiation-caused<br />
genome instability.<br />
We attribute a very significant meaning to these facts, because a change in sensitivity<br />
to the effects of many other damaging factors after being exposed to low-dose<br />
radiation can be (and really is!) the cause of development of many diseases and disruptions<br />
in adaptability mechanisms of humans. We would like to emphasize that these<br />
processes are quite tightly connected with the aging process. In the process of aging, we<br />
can also observe such increase in sensitivity to the effects of damaging factors and the<br />
increase of likelihood of the eventual fatality.<br />
Our purpose here is not to give a full analysis of changes in the biochemical and<br />
biophysical processes in organisms affected by low-dose radiation. But the presented<br />
data shows that these changes can cause various diseases and somatic illnesses. For<br />
example, changes of correlation between various indicators of antioxidant and immune<br />
status, connected with cellular membranes, were shown. That is why changes in contents,<br />
structure, and functional activity of membranes are the most important indicators<br />
of disruptions in cellular metabolism and can serve as a prognosis factors for disease development.<br />
A portion of emergency responders received antioxidants and vitamins for a<br />
period of a month as part of their treatment, and then was examined again. <strong>It</strong> was found<br />
that 70% of changed values of the AR status and immunological indicators normalized<br />
following the antioxidants intake.<br />
The above-outlined tendencies came as a result of summarizing many experiments.<br />
They are, we suppose, of a general biological character. Therefore, they can be applied in<br />
the analysis of Chernobyl residents’ health and in answering the questions of whether one<br />
can safely live on radiation-polluted territories that are a part of the Chernobyl zone.<br />
The results on indirect consequences of low-intensity low-dose radiation on the<br />
protective antioxidant human system demonstrate that young people under 30 years of<br />
age constitute the extremely sensitive portion of the population next to children, while<br />
middle-aged individuals are the most resistant to radiation. <strong>It</strong> is especially important to<br />
note the latter in defining high-risk groups of industry production workers chronically<br />
affected by low-intensity radiation. As for the young people, low-intensity low-dose radiation<br />
causes misbalance in their antioxidant systems, typical for an aging organism.<br />
L.S. Baleva and her colleagues measured some of these characteristics among<br />
children population residing on the polluted territories. [57] The biggest changes were<br />
found in children born between 1986 and 1987 who remained on the radio-nuclide polluted<br />
territories. Serious deviations from norm were also observed in other age groups,
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such as children who were born before 1986, lived through the disaster, and stayed on<br />
the affected territories.<br />
The Medical Radiological Science Center of the Russian Academy of Medical<br />
Sciences conducts ongoing observation of the health status of emergency responders<br />
and the population of the polluted territories. The observations that were conducted<br />
from 1991 to 1996 indicated that in that time the emergency responders’ health deteriorated<br />
significantly. In 1991, about 20% of emergency responders were in the I group<br />
of health (overall healthy), 50% – in the II group, and 27% – in the III group (suffering<br />
from three or more chronic diseases). By 1996, only 8% belonged in the I group,<br />
while the III group grew to 68%. In 2002–2003, the picture looked even grimmer. No<br />
healthy people whatsoever were found among the emergency responders residing in<br />
Moscow or Moscow oblast, while emergency responders suffering from three or more<br />
chronic diseases amounted to 100% in Moscow oblast, and to 85% in St.-Petersburg and<br />
Leningradskaya oblast (Pictures 9–11). The number of emergency responders with the<br />
disability status reached 37% (in 1999, it was 31%). From this number, the disability<br />
connected to their work in Chernobyl was marked as 95%.<br />
Picture 9. Level of emergency responders chronic diseases from Moscow and Moscow<br />
oblast both with and without disability (monitoring 2003)<br />
As is evident from this table, there is a tendency towards diseases that are more<br />
typical for aged population. Indeed, the age of the emergency responders was up to<br />
10–15 years lower than what one would assume from this evaluation.<br />
Foreign physicians try to explain all the health problems of the emergency responders<br />
and the population (adults and children) by the lack of medical care and difficult<br />
social situation. <strong>It</strong> would be unfair to deny that our country is indeed struggling with such<br />
difficulties. But the „local” comparison of radiated and non-radiated groups of people<br />
residing in the same conditions and even working at harmful industrial productions, allows<br />
us to conclude that radiation undoubtedly made its contribution into loss of health for<br />
the radiated people in general and especially for the emergency responders and children.<br />
We already demonstrated that the dose-effect connection is not necessarily the same for
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low-intensity radiation as it is for high-intensity radiation. The effect might not only be<br />
a non-linear, but even non-monotonous. In connection with these findings, discovering<br />
radiogenic nature of low and high radiation doses will be quite varied, and it would not<br />
be valid to present unambiguous criteria and approaches. We suppose that the criteria for<br />
establishing the dose-effect connection should be based on molecular epidemiology data.<br />
Currently, the search for connection between somatic diseases and cytogenetic disorders<br />
of radiation-affected people is a promising direction. The amount of works in which such<br />
a connection was discovered, is rapidly growing.<br />
Picture 10. Dinamic of diseases of blood circulation system, digestive organs and<br />
musculo-skeletal systems of emergency responders residents of North-West of Russia<br />
(per 1000 individuals), 1988–2004<br />
Picture 11. Frequency (%) of blood circulation system diseases of emergency<br />
responders residents of Moscow and Moscow oblast in depend of age<br />
(monitoring 2001–2004)
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Table<br />
Frequency of chronic diseases in persons who participated in the accident consequences<br />
elimination [ACE] on the Chernobyl NPP according to the monitoring data, 2001–2003<br />
Diseases<br />
Moscow,<br />
Moscow<br />
oblast<br />
North-West,<br />
Leningradskaya<br />
oblast<br />
Krasnoyarsky<br />
kray<br />
2003 2002 2003 2002 2003 2002<br />
n=110 n=133 n=104 n=108 n=74 n=194<br />
Blood circulation system diseases 98,18 85,71 85,58 72,22 85,14 81,44<br />
1 Atherosclerosis + hypertensive disease 82,72 56,39 63,46 47,22 58,11 44,32<br />
2 Coronary disease 71,81 48,87 40,38 43,52 36,49 26,80<br />
3. Angioneurosis, cardiopsychoneurosis 13,64 25,56 14,42 13,89 21,62 25,77<br />
4 DEP – [dis]circulatory encephalopathy 86,36 49,62 59,62 42,59 71,62 51,03<br />
Nervous system/psychiatric pathologies 80,0 41,99 34,62 25,93 82,43 40,72<br />
5 Asthenia, neurasthenia 53,63 20,30 15,38 9,26 13,51 9,28<br />
6 Chronic fatigue syndrome 62,72 19,55 17,31 18,52 78,38 22,68<br />
7 Organic brain diseases, psychoorganic<br />
syndrome<br />
14,54 12,78 5,77 2,78 25,68 14,43<br />
8 Polyneuropathy 9,09 3,03 0,96 - 2,70 4,12<br />
Digestive organs diseases (total) 96,36 72,18 66,35 52,78 64,87 63,92<br />
9 Gastrointestinal tract diseases<br />
(chronic gastritis, gastroduodenitis,<br />
stomach IB, 1–2 PK), total<br />
10 Chronic cholecystitis, cholecystopancreatitis<br />
95,45 51,88 56,73 47,22 47,30 42,27<br />
49,09 40,60 25,96 20,59 45,95 41,24<br />
11 Fatty hepatosis, hepatic steatosis 17,27 5,26 9,62 5,56 16,22 8,69<br />
Musculo-skeletal system diseases 100,0 66,17 53,85 53,7 52,70 52,06<br />
12 Deforming spinal osteochondrosis 91,81 56,39 48,08 46,30 48,65 44,32<br />
13 Chronic polyarthritis, osteoarthritis 39,09 14,29 1,92 6,48 8,11 7,22<br />
14 Osteoarthrisis 31,82 12,78 10,58 6,48 1,35 1,56<br />
Other chronic pathologies<br />
15 Vein diseases 8,17 6,79 15,39 10,19 4,05 4,12<br />
16 Multiple cavities 10,0 6,02 0 3,72 1,35 4,12<br />
17 Thyroid disease with AT 42,72 30,08 26,92 26,85 24,39 22,16<br />
18 Visual pathology of non-infectious<br />
etiology<br />
50,0 9,77 8,65 8,33 16,22 6,19<br />
19 Radial cataracts 8,18 3,76 0 4,63 2,70 2,06<br />
20 Hearing pathology of non-infectious<br />
etiology<br />
6,36 1,50 0,96 0,93 4,05 1,55<br />
21 Dyshidrotic eczema (non-allergic) 3,63 0,75 - - - -
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22 MSD (in-Russian – МКБ) 26,36 16,03 10,58 11,11 13,51 7,22<br />
23 CKD (Chronic Kidney Disease) 4,54 - - - 1,35 0,52<br />
24 Diabetes, type II 4,54 3,01 0 0,93 2,70 2,06<br />
25 Benign tumors 35,45 14,10 12,50 16,67 13,51 4,12<br />
26 Conditions following removal of<br />
malignant tumor<br />
2,72 1,50 3,85 2,78 4,05 4,12<br />
27 Overall healthy 0 0 0 0 0 2,06<br />
28 Presence of 3 or more diseases (polymorbidity)<br />
100,0 84,21 86,54 72,22 77,03 74,23<br />
29 Chronic diseases (total) 100,0 96,99 100,0 89,81 86,49 97,94<br />
30 Disability in connection with the<br />
ChNPP clean-up<br />
35,45 33,08 26,92 25,93 43,24 38,66<br />
including: I group 0,9 0,75 0 0,93 4,05 1,55<br />
II group 25,45 23,31 20,19 13,21 18,92 18,04<br />
III group 9,09 8,27 5,77 12,04 20;27 19,07<br />
31 On overall diseases: 19,09 19,08 5,77 3,72 5,41 3,61<br />
32 Total 54,55 51,13 32,69 29,63 48,65 42,27<br />
Brief summary and conclusion<br />
A cycle of complex experimental biomedical, biochemical, biophysical and cytogenetic<br />
research was conducted in the post-Chernobyl period. This research included extensive<br />
use of data on the Chernobyl disaster impact upon the health of the disaster emergency responders<br />
and the population of the radiation-affected regions of Ukraine, Russia, and Belarus.<br />
Two fundamental general biological tendencies were found. One of these tendencies scientifically<br />
and with full validity establishes the role and effects of low-dose low-intensity radiation<br />
on humans and natural environment objects. The second tendency, tightly connected with the<br />
first one, indicates an increase in sensitivity of low-intensity radiation affected objects to other<br />
types of damaging factors including higher doses of radiation.<br />
Within these tendencies, new ones were found, specifying other effects of lowdose<br />
radiation. Among them, the relationship between the destructive effect and the<br />
damages repair effect; the defining defensive role of cellular membranes; the high value<br />
of antioxidant stability process and the immune status with the low-dose impact; the<br />
complex nature of dose-effect relationship in connection with several subsystem’s interaction;<br />
information/signal nature of biologically significant low-intensity radiation; the<br />
features of population response to low-dose impact; and other tendencies.<br />
Although some of these findings do need to be further researched, overall, the<br />
discovered tendencies and the new factual data can serve as a theoretical base for the<br />
prognosis of the health conditions of the affected population, as well as for developing<br />
practical recommendations for treatment and improving health conditions.<br />
All of the above results present evidence of rapid and inevitable health deterioration<br />
of all affected individuals. <strong>It</strong> is expressed in developing processes of rapid<br />
aging and in widespread syndrome of the so-called polymorbidity – the presence in an
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
individual of three or more chronic diseases. By now, this serious syndrome among the<br />
Chernobyl accident emergency responders reached 100% in Moscow and the Moscow<br />
oblast, and 85% in Leningradskaya oblast.<br />
Determining the impact of low-dose radiation for various age groups is also an<br />
important conclusion of the conducted observation. Middle-aged individuals are particularly<br />
resistant to the effects, whereas children, individuals under the age of 30 and<br />
those over the age of 60 are most vulnerable. From a practical standpoint, this is a very<br />
important finding. <strong>It</strong> can allow us to make estimates of the population’s occupations by<br />
looking at various age groups in radiation-affected regions and the industry production<br />
facilities with low-intensity radiation.<br />
The question of whether one can live on the affected territories, stated in this<br />
paper’s subheading, is, of course, of a rather polemic nature. <strong>It</strong> is also connected to<br />
the IAEA position. Over many years, and especially in their most recent declaration of<br />
2005, the employees and experts of this organization have been insistently attempting<br />
to prove – no, to indoctrinate without solid proof – to the world community the idea<br />
of „overall safe living” in the Chernobyl-affected regions. They have also been talking<br />
about the „many measures” supposedly taken by the government to provide „fullfledged<br />
help to the affected population.”<br />
To any unprejudiced and untied by corporative interests researcher who has been at<br />
least once in the Chernobyl region (especially in its Russian section, although the Ukrainian<br />
and the Belorussian would make the same impression), the very thought of „excessive<br />
measures” towards these poor people would seem a blasphemy. If we are to stay faithful to<br />
scientific principles, then we can claim that there is no scientific proof of not only fictitiously<br />
„excessive measures,” but even the minimum necessary measures for a normal life of the affected<br />
population. The medical resources are insufficient for the necessary treatments, and so<br />
are the social conditions directed at improving the quality of their life styles [62, 63].<br />
Perhaps this is one of the biggest lessons of this most serious disaster in the<br />
history of civilization: disaster is always irreversible by its nature. This irreversibility<br />
concerns both humans and the environment. That is why the very question of the „possibility<br />
of safe living on the radiation-affected territories” does not make any sense. One<br />
can reside safely, but not in Chernobyl.<br />
Today, we can analyze only indirect consequences of the Chernobyl disaster.<br />
The results that we obtained demonstrate that the 20-year post-Chernobyl period is, apparently,<br />
sufficient for analyzing the post-disaster events, but too little to detect indirect<br />
consequences. If we assume that genome instability and the associated genetic apparatus<br />
malfunctions, increase in radiosensitivity, absence of AR, and damages to the brain<br />
vessels morphology are risk factors and increase the possibility of obtaining malignant<br />
tumors along with a number of non-cancerous illnesses, then the development of these<br />
pathological processes can happen in the significantly more distant future. But it would<br />
not be distant enough to avoid the current and the next generation: most likely, 30–40<br />
years. We hope that by that time, humanity will have developed new principles of safe<br />
low-waste nuclear energy [64]. We also hope that the contemporary „dirty,” potentially<br />
dangerous nuclear energy using fuel neutrons, which brought so much suffering to millions<br />
of people, will only remain as a subject of the history of science and technology.
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in the Kaluga and Bryansk regions exposed to radiation. See also: Ivanov V.K., Maksyutov<br />
M.A., Chekin S.Yu., i dr. // Radiats. biologiya. Radioekologiya. 2005. T 45. №3. pp. 261–270.<br />
57. Baleva L.S., Sypyagina A.P., in the book „20 Years after Chernobyl Catastrophe”,<br />
2006 (in press).<br />
58. Oradovskaya I.V. Analiz sostoyaniya zdorov’ya likvidatorov posledstviy avarii na<br />
Chernobyl’koy AES v otdalennyy period po itogam 17-letnih nablyudeniy, – Fiziologiya i patologiya<br />
immunnoy sistemy, – 2004 – №4 – pp. 8–23.<br />
59. Oradovskaya I.V., Leyko I.A., Oprishchenko M.A. Analiz rezul’tatov immunologicheskogo<br />
monitoringa i zabolevaemosti kontingenta lits, prinimavshikh uchastie v likvidatsii<br />
posledstviy avarii (LPA) na Chernobyl’skoy AES v otdalennyy period. <strong>It</strong>ogi mnogoletnih nablyudeniy<br />
// Sb. nauchnykh trudov po probleme preodoleniya posledstviy Chernobyl’skoy katastrofy,<br />
M. 2001- pp. 73–96.<br />
60. Oradovskaya I.V., in the book „20 Years after Chernobyl Catastrophe”, 2006 (in press).<br />
61. Oradovskaya I.V., Feoktistov V.V., Leyko I.A. i soavt. // Fiziologiya i patologiya immunnoy<br />
sistemy, – 2005 – №4 – pp. 12–35.<br />
62. Burlakova E.B., Nazarov A.G. Mozhno li bezopasno zhit’ na radiatsionno zagryaznennykh<br />
territoriyakh // Neizvestnyy Chernobyl’: istoriya, sobytiya, fakty, uroki. Monografiya. M.:<br />
Izd-vo MNEPU, 2006. pp. 340–356.<br />
63. Burlakova E.B., Nazarov A.G. O vozmozhnosti „bezopasnogo” prozhivaniya na radiatsionno<br />
porazhennykh chernobyl’skikh territoriyakh. Posledstviya Chernobyl’skoy katastrofy<br />
cherez 20 let // <strong>Global</strong>’nye problemy bezopasnosti sovremennoy energetiki (materialy mezhdunarodnoy<br />
nauchnoy konferentsii). K 20-letiyu katastrofy na Chernobyl’skoy AES (Moskva, 4–6<br />
aprelya 2006 g.). – M.: Izd-vo MNEPU, 2006. pp. 262–268 (angl.: E.B. Burlakova, A.G. Nazarov.<br />
Is it Safe to Live on Radiation-Contaminated Territories Consequences of the Chernobyl Accident<br />
20 Years Later // Unknown Chernobyl: History, Events, Facts, Lessons. Monograph. Chapter<br />
7..— Moscow, Medium, 2006. pp. 109–123).<br />
64. Letov V.N. Meditsinskie posledstviya kak plata za progress yadernoy energetiki //<br />
<strong>Global</strong>’nye problemy bezopasnosti sovremennoy energetiki (materialy mezhdunarodnoy nauchnoy<br />
konferentsii). K 20-letiyu katastrofy na Chernobyl’skoy AES (Moskva, 4–6 April 2006).<br />
– M.: Izd-vo MNEPU, 2006. pp. 238–246.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Color Insert
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Radiation Risks Assessment for Rosatom Personnel Within<br />
the Framework of International Standards<br />
Victor K. Ivanov, Deputy Director, Medical-Radiological<br />
Scientific Centre, Russian Academy of Medical Sciences,<br />
Obninsk<br />
On 19–21 March, 2007, a meeting with the Head of the International Commission<br />
of Radiological Protection (ICRP) took place in Essen, Germany. During this meeting a<br />
new edition of ICRP Recommendations for radiological protection was approved.<br />
As was repeatedly mentioned at the highest state level, successful and effective<br />
nuclear energy development in our country is possible only with complete implementation<br />
of the radiological protection standards for employees and the population, which<br />
were approved by authoritative international organizations (ICRP, IAEA, UNSCNR).<br />
New ICRP recommendations introduce strict limits for radiation levels during<br />
operations, optimizing employee and population radiation protection.<br />
The appropriateness of this decision is supported by the results of the assessment of<br />
medical consequences of the Chernobyl catastrophe, received by the National Radiation-Epidemic<br />
Registrar at the Russian Academy of Medical Science, Obninsk. In the most radioactive<br />
nuclide-polluted areas in Russia (Brianskaya, Kaluzhskaya, Tulskaya and Orlovskaya oblasts),<br />
a significant number of the population was irradiated with a small dose of radiation. Collective<br />
dose assessment shows that, by this time, 1,000–1,500 additional oncological diseases should<br />
have been expected as a result of radiation. Such diseases, however, were not discovered; and<br />
this fact confirms the accuracy of the ICRP’s proposed regulations with regard to utilization of<br />
collective dose magnitude in optimizing the radiation protection system.<br />
In the ICRP publication №101, which is devoted to radiation protection optimization,<br />
the concept „dose matrix” is introduced. This matrix should take into account the<br />
dynamics of the various dosages received by an employee, through the establishment of<br />
individual radiation exposure control, and it should serve as the basis to assess each individual’s<br />
personal risk. Individual radiological risk is assessed according to the UNSCNR<br />
model, which, was developed through the studies conducted among the Japanese population<br />
exposed to radiation as a result of the 1945 atomic bombings.<br />
At present, the Administration of Nuclear and Radiological Security of Rosatom,<br />
in partnership with the National Radiation-Epidemic Registrar, has started forming potential<br />
risk groups among the employees of organizations in the industry and creating<br />
automated mechanisms for individual risk assessment in order to develop the technology<br />
for the optimization of radiological protection [1].<br />
At this stage the „dose matrixes” have been organized for forty-three thousand<br />
employees in the industry branch who are registered for dosimetric control (table 1)
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Table 1<br />
Number of people in each employee group included in radio-epidemiology analysis<br />
Branch Plant Number<br />
of people<br />
Rosenergoatom All nuclear power plants 22,626<br />
TVEL<br />
Industrial<br />
Nuclear<br />
Materials<br />
Management<br />
Science<br />
Machine-building plant, Electrostal City Chepetsk Mechanical<br />
plant, Glazov City<br />
Angarsk Electrolyze Chemical Works, Mining Works (Zheleznogorsk<br />
City), Urals Electrochemical Industrial Works (Novouralsk<br />
City), Industrial Complex „Mayak” (Ozersk City), Siberian<br />
Chemical Works (Seversk City)<br />
State Scientific Center of the Russia – Phisico-Energetic Institute<br />
(Obninsk City), State Scientific Center of the Russia – Scientific<br />
Research Institute of atomic reactors (Dimitrovgrad City), Institute<br />
of reactor materials (Zarechnyj City)<br />
1,918<br />
14,724<br />
4,246<br />
Total: 43,514<br />
Picture 1 shows the employee distribution (43,514 individuals) according to the<br />
increase of individual attributive (i.e. determined by radiation) risk of potential leucosis<br />
induction (threshold 75%) and solid carcinoma (threshold 20%). <strong>It</strong> is significant that the<br />
majority of employees (98.64%) do not fall under the category of high potential risk.<br />
The risk group is 1.4% of the personnel (587 individuals) for both – leucosis and carcinoma:<br />
leucosis – 0.95% of the personnel; solid carcinoma – 0.41% of the personnel;<br />
Picture 1. Individual risks of rosatom employees (43,531 individuals) based on the „dose matrix”<br />
Pictures 2 and 3 indicate the distribution of high potential risk groups on the<br />
basis of seniority at Individual dosemetric control (IDC) and age. In the high potential<br />
risk group for solid carcinoma, the average seniority at IDC is 40 years, and the average<br />
age is 62. In the high potential risk group for leucosis, the average seniority at EIC is 13<br />
years, and average age is 35.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Picture 2. High potential risk group distribution by seniority at IDC and age (solid carcinoma)<br />
Picture. 3. High potential risk group distribution by seniority at IDC and age (leucosis)<br />
The technique for outlining the potential risk groups, based on the IAEA methodology<br />
and developed by the „MedInfo” Scientific-Production Enterprise, is applied in the<br />
Automated Work Place Individual Risk Assessment (ARMIR) program. In the Rosatom<br />
letter №02-6881, dated 8 November 2006, to the business heads, it is recommended:<br />
––To introduce the ARMIR system at all plants in the industry;<br />
––To utilize the ARMIR system for evaluating the condition and optimization of<br />
radiological protection supply for personnel at the industry and individual facility levels;<br />
––To use the results, received on the basis of this technique, in the system of<br />
voluntary medical insurance adjusted for an option of special clinic-diagnosis service to<br />
those in the group of high risk.<br />
Reference<br />
Ivanov, V.K., Tsyb A.F., Panfilov, A.P., Agapov, A.M. Optimization of radiological protection:<br />
„dose matrix”. – Moscow: Medicine, 2006. – 304 pages
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Experience in solving social and environmental questions<br />
in problem areas: The example of Muslyumovo village in the<br />
Chelyabinskaya Oblast<br />
Igor V. Konyshev, Advisor to the Head of the Russian<br />
Federal Atomic Energy<br />
Good evening, dear colleagues! I will try not take too much of your time and will<br />
briefly talk about the situation in Muslyumovo. I will cover our work together with the<br />
Chelyabinsk oblast Government about last year’s decision on a new approach to move<br />
out (clear out) the population from the village.<br />
Let me remind you that Muslyumovo is located near the Techa River, which was<br />
polluted by the waste from the Mayak enterprise in the end of the 1940–1950s. Let me<br />
clarify that the river was contaminated only by regulated waste at that time, when the<br />
key standard in the Soviet Union, as well as in the United States, France and other countries<br />
with nuclear industry, anticipated discharge of low-activity level waste into natural<br />
water systems. This problem is more than fifty years old, and one way or the other, it<br />
relates to the nuclear weapons race, experienced by the key participant countries in the<br />
middle of the previous century.<br />
Muslyumovo is the largest village from all those located near the Techa River. <strong>It</strong> is<br />
located eighty kilometers from the current Mayak facility on the hills, and only the riverbanks<br />
are contaminated (between 15–30 meters wide on each side of the river). The rest<br />
of the territory, including villages and train stops, remains clean. This fact is confirmed by<br />
regular studies conducted by Chelyabinsk specialists and independent experts.<br />
So, why it is necessary to clear out Muslyumovo I believe that the key reason is<br />
that the population accumulated more that 1mZv/year as a result of interaction with the<br />
river. As I said earlier, the river goes through the village. In spite of our warnings and<br />
attempts to close access to the river, the people continue to use the river for their cattle,<br />
and the water meadows as hayfields. We offered a voluntary move out from the village,<br />
which we have been conducting since last year.<br />
I have collected a number of the documents, adopted together with Rosatom<br />
and the Chelyabinsk oblast Administration, in order to show the decision-making process<br />
and its efficiency. The first protocols refer to the end of May – mid July, 2006. The<br />
Rosatom and oblast directors at the meetings confirmed that it was necessary to resolve<br />
social problems. First of all, it is essential to improve the quality of life of the Muslyumovo<br />
population.<br />
A decision, offered by Chelyabinskaya oblast to clear out 741 households from<br />
the village, was discussed and an amount of 1.05 billion rubles was proposed to help the
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
project. The amount was divided the following way: Rosatom was responsible for 600<br />
million, and 450 million rubles was the Chelyabinsk oblast Government’s responsibility.<br />
Rosatom used the money from its own profits, which were received through the Russian<br />
Federation Government for environmental and social problems in the regions affected<br />
by Rosatom activities. At the end of 2006, Chelyabinsk oblast allocated 250 and 200<br />
million rubles for its 2007 and 2008 budgets accordingly. After Rosatom received the<br />
money in October 2006, we coordinated a general plan with the Chelyabinsk oblast<br />
Government (four months after the original proposal). We put down all the variables<br />
and indicators to resolve the problem by September–November, 2009. We decided to<br />
launch the process at the end of 2006, and finish no later than the second half of 2009.<br />
Further to the agreement paper between the Rosatom and the Chelyabinskaya<br />
oblast Government on funding of support to the Muslyumovo population, the plan was<br />
adopted. The agreement on the first voluntary move out from the village was signed on<br />
November 30, 2006 (five month ago).<br />
The conditions we were able to propose for the Muslyumovo population are the<br />
following: any citizen can take advantage of the voluntary move out from the village,<br />
if he/she has a household there and is registered in Muslyumovo (before November<br />
30, 2006). We agreed the law is straight forward and cannot be misinterpreted, and the<br />
people have the right whether to be moved out and do it voluntarily. Households where<br />
the inhabitants are registered must meet the living conditions. We are working on the<br />
people’s problem, and not the house one. If a person is registered in Muslyumovo, but<br />
has not lived there during the past 10–15 years, his problem should be solved on an individual<br />
basis. A person must have ownership rights and when receiving compensation<br />
for the house, he/she loses possession. <strong>It</strong> is a very important feature of the program. In<br />
the past (Chernobyl and Chelyabinsk ecology programs) people received new houses,<br />
but they did not lose possession of their old one and the problem, in the end, was not<br />
resolved. People stayed in the old housing. Our funds allow pursing a radical approach<br />
giving residents ownership of new housing and removing ownership of the old house<br />
in Muslyumovo.<br />
Here are some options for citizens. Every household receives one million rubles.<br />
Further, he/she can use this million independently to: buy a new house or use for other<br />
purposes in case the household members can prove they already possess another property<br />
somewhere else in Muslyumovo. Another case would be when the person does not<br />
want to buy a new place and wants to move out of Muslyumovo. The third possibility<br />
is for people to build a new house near the Muslyumovo train station (which is 3 km<br />
away from the village). We conducted a number of studies and they confirmed that the<br />
location is environmentally safe. Today, only 96 households want to move near the train<br />
station. <strong>It</strong> was an interesting situation for me. I do not understand why people make this<br />
decision (either older people want to stay in the area or younger people prefer to stay<br />
near the family, or maybe it’s due to other related social issues). For us it is a mystery,<br />
why people with an opportunity to leave the territory and buy a new household want<br />
to stay here (96+7=103 individuals or 15% of the entire population). <strong>It</strong> is a volunteer<br />
clean out and we do not have the right to oppose construction of new houses near the<br />
Muslyumovo train station.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
What can one buy for this million Of the 96 families, 48 bought new houses<br />
(one or two bedroom apartments in Muslyumovo). From the 48 families only three used<br />
credit, and the rest were able to buy within the one million limit and bought apartments<br />
in the following cities: 5 people in Kopeysk, 1 in Kurgan, 1 in Bashkortostan, 26 in the<br />
Kunashaksky rayon (Kunashak city is the capital of municipality), 7 from 26 people in<br />
Muslyumovo, 7 in Chelyabinsk, while 7 preferred to receive the money compensation.<br />
May 2007 is the beginning of construction and the end of the project is in 2009.<br />
Questions and Answers on the Presentation by<br />
––Q:<br />
Several families bought apartments in Chelyabinsk. I would like to know the<br />
price per square meter in Chelyabinsk<br />
––I.V. Konyshev A one-bedroom apartment at Chelyabinsky metallurgical plant,<br />
(plant is not a new location, but a city area downtown), despite the fact there are apartments<br />
in the city’s business center, costs 1,700,000 roubles. People get a credit if it is<br />
over 700,000. One can still buy an apartment at Chelyabinsky metallurgical plant or<br />
Chelyabinsky katerpillar plant for up to 1,000,000 roubles.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Outstanding Problems of the Nuclear Industry<br />
Lidiya V. Popova, Centre for nuclear ecology and energy<br />
policies, Socio-ecological Union International,<br />
Valery F. Men’shchikov, Co-director, Programme for nuclear<br />
and radiation safety of the Centre for environmental<br />
policy of Russia (CEPR) and Socio-ecological Union<br />
International,<br />
Alexey V. Yablokov, CEPR<br />
By 2030 Russia plans to build up to 50 new reactors of 1,000 MW capacity. However,<br />
some important issues are still to be resolved, including nuclear reactor safety. The safe<br />
storage and disposal of radioactive waste and spent nuclear fuel (including radioactive waste<br />
resulting from reactor decommissioning and spent nuclear fuel recycling) and the safety of<br />
radioactive and chemical substances emitted by the nuclear fuel cycle plants need to be evaluated.<br />
Both the profitability of the nuclear power industry and the claim that new nuclear plants<br />
can reduce the effects of global climate change are questionable. The issue of whether the<br />
nuclear power industry is socially acceptable and trustworthy also remains unresolved.<br />
1. Nuclear reactor safaty issues<br />
All contemporary nuclear reactors (both thermal and fast) work on 235 U and 239 Pu<br />
being burnt in the core of the reactor. The staff uses greater amounts of active material<br />
than is necessary to keep production above the critical level. Therefore, there could be<br />
several scenarios resulting in reactor explosion.<br />
a) As a result of erroneous or intentional (act of terrorism, suicide) actions of the<br />
staff, the control rods may get out of the reactor core. Hypothetically speaking of pressurized<br />
water reactors (PWR), this may happen as a result of intentional or accidental<br />
damage of the mechanisms that keep the rods inside the core. <strong>It</strong> is impossible to predict<br />
and prevent all the situations that might cause rods to get out of the reactor, which would<br />
result in a runaway chain reaction.<br />
„… None of existing reactors functioning on the basis of burn-up processes can be<br />
deemed totally safe as in case control rods get out of the core, considerable supercriticality<br />
arises. Chain reaction in such cases may be so fast that no safety system would be effective.”<br />
Runaway chain reaction meltdowns happened in 1979 at Three Mile Island nuclear power<br />
plant (NPP), <strong>USA</strong> (human error) and in 1999 at Siga power plant in Japan (human error).<br />
b) Power surge, outdated equipment, and/or lack of coordination among divisions<br />
in case of a back-up oil-electrical engine fault may also entail a meltdown. Such<br />
accidents have recently threatened the world’s nuclear safety:
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
––In 2000, as a result of technical error in the Ural power supply system, nuclear<br />
production unit „Mayak” was left without centralized power supply for more than half<br />
an hour. Back-up electrical oil engines could only be started several minutes before a<br />
serious meltdown was to happen.<br />
––In 2006, a short circuit at a substation off Forsmark NPP in Sweden resulted in<br />
an emergency shutdown of the reactor. Only two out of four oil electrical engines turned<br />
on. Ex-director of the power plant, Mr. Lars-Olov Heglund, says, „<strong>It</strong> is a mere stroke of<br />
luck that the core didn’t melt down. A simple short circuit could lead to a catastrophe”.<br />
c) The following situations are also extremely dangerous:<br />
––reactor destruction as a result of a hydrogen solution thermal explosion<br />
(Chernobyl);<br />
––emergency break of thermal liquid from the first stage of the reactor’s<br />
cooling system;<br />
––possible emergency cases of reactor after-cooling and consequences thereof;<br />
––possible natural and man-made catastrophes (earthquakes, tornadoes, etc).<br />
NPPs are perfect targets for terrorists. In case of hostilities, destruction of a NPP<br />
would be more hazardous than demolition of any other target. Terrorists do not need to<br />
hijack a NPP; all it takes is a missile brought by car and launched from a distance of<br />
several kilometers or a mere electricity cut-off. Demolition of spent nuclear fuel (SNF)<br />
storage could also be extremely hazardous.<br />
D. Sakharov and Ed. Teller suggested building NPPs underground. Even if we<br />
disregard the possible radioactive nuclide pollution of subterranean waters in case of<br />
reactor damage, this step would make the industry even less competitive<br />
2. Radioactive waste and SNF<br />
Nuclear fuel production, nuclear reactor maintenance and the use of ionizing radiation<br />
sources involve production of big amounts of liquid, solid and gaseous radioactive<br />
waste. In 33 regions on the territory of Russia, 1,170 radioactive waste storage sites<br />
account for almost half of all the radioactive waste in the world. As of the end of 2003,<br />
the amount of total liquid radioactive waste equaled 480 million m 3 . Solid radioactive<br />
waste was over 75 million tons including 14 million tons at the tailing dump at the<br />
hydrometallurgical plant in Lermontov, Northern Caucasia [2]. Around 5 million m 3 of<br />
liquid radioactive waste and 1 million tons of solid radioactive waste are added annually.<br />
Cumulative activity of radioactive waste stored in Russia amounts to over 2 billion<br />
Ku [3]. Furthermore, cooling ponds of nuclear power stations and other storages contain<br />
over 17,000 tons of SNF.<br />
Classification of radioactive waste on the basis of specific activity adopted in<br />
Russia and set forth in the Basic Sanitary Regulations cannot be deemed effective as<br />
it disregards the impact that a radioactive nuclide has on the biosphere as well as the<br />
danger of fissionable substance spreading<br />
The main sources of radioactive waste in Russia are the following:<br />
––Ural and Siberia radiochemical plants producing plutonium;<br />
––Uranium mines, hydrometallurgical plants, nuclear fuel production, NPPs, nuclear<br />
navy, SNF recycling plants;
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
––Research centers;<br />
––Testing ground for nuclear arms and other venues of underground nuclear<br />
explosions;<br />
––Areas polluted due to prior nuclear catastrophes (Ural, Chernobyl, Primorye)<br />
––Shipbuilding facilities and shipyards in Northern Russia and in the Far East<br />
that build, maintain, and utilize vessels carrying nuclear power installations;<br />
––Ionizing radiation sources;<br />
––Military bases and scientific facilities conducting research involving radioactive<br />
substances;<br />
––Oil and gas producing enterprises; and<br />
––Ash-dumps of electric power stations<br />
An RMBK reactor produces ca 100,000 m 3 of liquid radioactive waste a year,<br />
PWR produce 40,000 to 135,000 m 3 a year. The major part of the waste is simply dumped<br />
into bodies of water [6]. Solidification of liquid radioactive waste increases the amount of<br />
solid radioactive wastes. Solid and solidified radioactive waste storages at NPPs are overloaded.<br />
Much solid radioactive waste stored is simply piled up. Closing these storages up<br />
and building new ones would mean producing more waste and land alienation. Considerable<br />
investment as well as operational costs would also result.<br />
Most liquid radioactive waste is produced and stored at plutonium producing<br />
plants. Medium and low level waste is normally stored in water or underground reservoirs.<br />
Some high-level waste is also stored in underground reservoirs. High-level<br />
waste storage requires proper control and maintenance. Since 1991, „Mayak” has<br />
glazed 12,500 m 3 of high-level waste (with cumulative activity of 300 million Ku) [7].<br />
However, only nitrate solutions of high-level waste have been glazed. „Old” waste<br />
(their cumulative activity amounts to 146.2 million Ku), is not recycled due to the absence<br />
of adequate technology and has been stored in tanks since 1967 [5].<br />
Processing one ton of SNF at RT-1 involves production of over 2,000 tons of liquid<br />
radioactive waste (45 m 3 high-level waste of up to 10 Ku/l; 150 medium-level waste<br />
of up to 1 Ku/l; 2,000 m 3 low-level waste of up to 10 -5 Ku/l) and over 7 tons of solid<br />
radioactive waste (1 ton of high-level waste of up to 6 Ku/kg; 3 ton of medium-level<br />
waste of up to 0.1 Ku/kg; 3.5 ton of low-level waste of up to 10 -3 Ku/kg) [8]. In addition,<br />
medium-level waste is still dumped into Lake Karachai, which has turned into an informal<br />
radioactive waste storage, as well as into the Techa River system.<br />
The common notion of handling radioactive waste based on the idea that they<br />
should be stored for 30 to 50 years with the possibility of prolonging the storage term<br />
has led to the current situation. There is no typical radioactive waste isolation solution.<br />
The storages do not meet the safety standards; there are no provisions for their decommissioning<br />
and further rehabilitation of the territories [2]. „Cylinder platforms” of isotope-fractionation<br />
plants in Tomsk, Irkutsk, Sverdlovsk and Krasnoyarsk regions contain<br />
almost 0.5 million tons of depleted uranium (as a rule in the form of hexafluoride) [9].<br />
Russian NPPs produce up to 650 tons of SNF which is stored at the plants in<br />
special basins, at the storage of RT-1 plant („Mayak”) and a storage at the plant RT-2 (the<br />
plant is still being built). Annually „Mayak” receives about 120 tons of SNF, the storage<br />
– about 150 tons of SNF [10].
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Although RT-1 has a planned capacity to recycle 400 tons/year, local authorities<br />
have only issued a permit for up to 230 tons/year. The reasons thereof are related to the<br />
unfavorable environmental conditions in South Ural that have been formed in the first<br />
place due to the activities of radiochemical plants.<br />
Table 1 shows the capacity of SNF recycled at RT-1 in 2001–2004.<br />
Table 1<br />
Recycling of SNF (in tons) at „Mayak” during 2001–2004 (based on data Rosatom)<br />
2001 2002 2003 2004<br />
130 171,2 121 165,8<br />
After PWR-440 reactor spent nuclear fuel is recycled, regenerated uranium is<br />
mixed with higher enriched uranium, e.g. nuclear submarine fuel. Later this mixture is<br />
made into uranium fuel for RBMK reactors, whose initial 235 U enrichment is 2% (for<br />
regenerated uranium it is higher due to the necessity to compensate for 236 U isotope).<br />
Regenerated fuel must not be re-recycled: nuclear reactions result in production<br />
of 232 U (strong gamma emitter) and the staff involved may be over-irradiated. Manipulators<br />
must be used for work with regenerated fuel. Spent regenerated fuel must be<br />
disposed of.<br />
Dry storage for PWR-1000 SNF is being built at the Balakovskaya NPP. Dry<br />
storage for RBMK fuel installations (7 meters) is to be built at Leningradskaya NPP.<br />
The installations are to be cut in half at the NPP site (the project has not been evaluated<br />
in regards to its environmental influence).<br />
SNF accumulation at Rosenergoatom NPP is given in Table 2 below.<br />
Table 2<br />
Production and accumulation of SNF at Rosenergoatom reactors in 2001–2004<br />
(data provided by Rosatom)<br />
Spent Nuclear Fuel 2001 2002 2003 2004<br />
Annual production 537 601 654 616<br />
Annual recycling 130 171,2 121 165,8<br />
Accumulated as of the end of the year 13 480 14 196 14 768 15 537<br />
Russia has fourteen radon industrial complexes with regional storages of lowlevel<br />
and medium-level solid radioactive waste that are produced in health care, heavy<br />
industry, the agricultural sector and research institutes. The Grozno complex was destroyed<br />
during the war, and the Murmansk complex was closed on the grounds of having<br />
been used to its capacity and not meeting contemporary criteria [2].<br />
Much radioactive waste related data, especially liquid radioactive waste, is approximate<br />
(including hundreds of kilograms of plutonium being stored underground or<br />
in open pools).<br />
Russia still has no legislation on handling radioactive waste and thus the actions<br />
and measures taken are not properly coordinated, and radioactive waste other than SNF<br />
is not dealt with. Many of the regulations on radioactive waste are outdated: they were<br />
made by different departments and thus can sometimes be contradictory; they are hardly
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
applicable to radioactive waste in tailing dumps as well as natural and artificial water<br />
bodies [11].<br />
Gaseous radioactive waste from nuclear heating plants are mainly inert gases,<br />
222<br />
Rn, tritium, 137 Cs and radioactive iodine. Mid-1990s saw decreases in nuclear heating<br />
and power plants’ radioactive emissions both due to the economic recession and filter<br />
installation. However, at the same time, emergency situations at Leningradskaya NPP and<br />
the Siberian chemical complex led to considerable increase (almost by 50%) in radioactive<br />
iodine emission [12]. At the parliamentary session of October 31, 1995, it was stated<br />
that inert gases and 14 C emission monitoring is not conducted and random measuring of<br />
these emissions is not sufficient. Gosatomnadzor claims that, at some plants (i.e. uranium<br />
isotope fractionation plants), some emissions containing radioactive nuclides are not filtered<br />
because of the poor condition of the ventilation system [5].<br />
Radioactive waste management is complicated and expensive. Billions of dollars<br />
are needed for conditioning and burial of military program radioactive waste only.<br />
Based on the data obtained through controlled implementation of subprogram, handling<br />
radioactive waste and SNF, their utilization and burial and of the federal program,<br />
nuclear and radioactive safety in Russia 2000–2006, the Chamber of Accounts of the<br />
Russian Federation concluded that the handling of waste and SNF in Russia is in a critical<br />
condition (only 10.7% of the necessary funds were allocated). At the State Council<br />
meeting on December 16, 2004 the president of Russia admitted that the radioactive<br />
water recycling infrastructure is not properly developed.<br />
3. Solvency of the Russian nuclear industry<br />
On March 17, 2005, a Parliament meeting was held to tackle the issue of a legislative<br />
basis for innovative development of nuclear industry.<br />
Innovative development implied in the first place use of fast reactors with closed<br />
fuel cycles. Based on the discussion results, the following recommendations were made:<br />
––prepare a federal program of nuclear industry development involving fast reactors<br />
with a closed fuel cycle and consider it for priority funding from the national budget;<br />
––consider the above national program as a basis for updating the federal program<br />
Energy Efficient Economy in 2002–2005 and for strategic planning up to 2010.<br />
Nuclear power industry advocates constantly call for state support of their<br />
projects, thus trying to single it out in the system of energy production. For example,<br />
Vestnik Leningradskaya NPP (LAES) Herald, issue №8 of February 27, 2006 printed<br />
the message from the Union of territories and plants in nuclear energy production that<br />
urges the government to create a plan of actions „to develop nuclear energy production<br />
and nuclear fuel cycles as well as the necessary mechanisms of their full funding including<br />
funds allocated by the government.”<br />
The facts mentioned above help demonstrate that despite the declared low costs<br />
of electricity produced at NPPs, Russian nuclear energy production cannot develop<br />
without considerable investment and state subsidies.<br />
Another serious problem is related to decommissioning of outdated reactors<br />
and SNF. The parliamentary meeting mentioned above also included discussions of<br />
legislation On creation and use of special provision to cover current and future ex-
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
penses of handling SNF and decommissioning of NPPs that would stipulate the legislative<br />
base of such funds, their security, and use. As Andrey Malyshev, ex-head<br />
of Russian Federal Service for Environmental, Technical and Atomic Supervision,<br />
states, the reserve for decommissioning outdated reactors that is used now was created<br />
by the government in 2001 and is almost empty now.<br />
For now there are no reliable estimates of the cost of decommissioning the reactors<br />
at existing installations. However, the amount of investment can be estimated<br />
on the basis of the cost of the Greifswald power plant decommissioning in Germany.<br />
Dismantling of five PWR-440 reactors build by USSR, construction of solid waste storages,<br />
site and object deactivation lasted 10 years and cost 3.5 billion Euros.<br />
On February 17, 2005, the issue of the nuclear industry resource base was discussed<br />
at the meeting of Nuclear energy section of the expert council of State Duma<br />
Committee on energy, transport and communications. According to the materials presented<br />
at the meeting, raw materials provided for the NPPs of Russia mainly include<br />
dump uranium hexafluoride, stocks of various produce, customer-supplied raw materials,<br />
and spent fuel recycling products (total 72%). By 2020 these sources are expected to<br />
be reduced by 25%, whereas due to nuclear industry development, demand of uranium,<br />
raw material will increase by 1.2%.<br />
The whole world is running out of uranium while demand is growing: by 2010 it<br />
is necessary to increase uranium production by 140%, by 2020 – by 340%. <strong>It</strong> is the only<br />
way to develop Russian nuclear energy production based on our own raw materials, as<br />
well as keeping our export potential on the market of new nuclear fuel and low-enriched<br />
uranium. <strong>It</strong> would take billions of dollars to increase uranium production at existing<br />
sites and develop new fields. TVEL, the only Russian company that produces nuclear<br />
fuel and its components and mines uranium, will not be able to eliminate this uranium<br />
deficit without assistance of the state. Members of the Section pointed out that delay<br />
in uranium raw material development may in 7 to 10 years lead to crisis both for the<br />
nuclear industry of Russia and nuclear fuel export.<br />
The $50 billion allocated for the development of nuclear industry are just a<br />
small part (10–15%) of the funds needed to handle radioactive waste, decommissioning<br />
of outdated reactors, uranium production development, and measures to rehabilitate<br />
polluted territories and alleviate the consequences of nuclear catastrophes for the<br />
population.<br />
4. Questionable claims of new NPP reducing climate change<br />
<strong>Global</strong> climate change is one of the most acute environmental problems related<br />
to reduction and consumption of energy. About 80% of СО 2<br />
is emitted due to fossil fuel<br />
burning. NPPs do not emit greenhouse gases, so nuclear energy production apologists<br />
see it as almost the only way to reduce global climate change.<br />
There are two reasons why NPPs will never become our saviors:<br />
1. NPP do not considerably reduce СО emission. If world energy production<br />
2<br />
develops in the same pattern, i.e. intensively using carbon fuel, especially coal and<br />
petroleum, by 2050 greenhouse gas emissions may total 40 to 50 billion ton of СО 2.<br />
If<br />
we make an effort to stop climate change, CO 2<br />
emissions may decrease by 30% to 60%
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
against 1990 and amount to 10 to 15 billion ton CO 2<br />
. The 25 to 40 billion ton CO 2<br />
difference<br />
may be covered by various measures to stop climate change.[13]<br />
However, nuclear energy production with the huge investment it requires will<br />
not be able to influence the situation with climate change. Even if overall capacity of all<br />
NPPs in the world tripled, it would reduce CO 2<br />
emission by 5 billion tons, which would<br />
not be significant.<br />
To achieve this insignificant reduction it would take:<br />
––Annual introduction of additional 25 GW capacity, including replacement of<br />
outdated reactors;<br />
––Getting back to reprocessing and breeder technology, i.e. construction of 50<br />
new radiochemical plants;<br />
––Creation of permanent storages for SNF, equivalent to 14 Yucca Mountain<br />
projects;<br />
––Considerable investment into the energy production cycle [13].<br />
Annual plutonium accumulation would increase by 560 tons, which would aggravate<br />
the issue of terrorism and nuclear weapons proliferation.<br />
The calculations of CO 2<br />
amounts should be corrected. We need to account for CO 2<br />
emissions that are released in the process of production and enrichment of nuclear fuel,<br />
production of fuel elements, handling radioactive waste, etc., rather than only emissions<br />
released at the stage of NPP. Including these emissions shows that due to nuclear industry<br />
development, cumulative CO 2<br />
emissions will increase rather than go down.<br />
2. Increased conductance of the atmosphere due to NPP emissions. In 1984 V. Leghasov<br />
calculated that 85 Kr emissions (inter radioactive gas emitted by NPPs as gaseous radioactive<br />
waste) must lead to a change in the Earth’s atmosphere conductance, which in turn would<br />
entail change in frequency and strength of typhoons, cyclones and storms [14]. The current<br />
amount of 85 Kr in the atmosphere is many times higher than that before the nuclear age.<br />
If climate policy is based on nuclear industry development, it is very likely that a<br />
single meltdown comparable with Chernobyl would ruin the policy itself, as investment<br />
would stop and huge funds would need to be allocated to fight the consequences of the<br />
catastrophe. <strong>It</strong> is worth reminding the reader that the total costs incurred by all countries<br />
affected by the Chernobyl catastrophe over 10-year period amounted to over $500 billion<br />
and will long be no less than several million dollars annually.<br />
5. The importance of civil society in solving problems related to nuclear<br />
industry safety<br />
Nuclear industry representatives admit that „opinion of the society, including<br />
that related to overly acute perception of radiation risks, greatly influences nuclear<br />
power production development prospects in Russia as well as in other countries…The<br />
problems that make it hard to alter the social perception are firstly, long-term delays<br />
in handling radioactive waste accumulated earlier and secondly, absence of clear and<br />
documented information policy of the state regarding use of nuclear energy.”[7]<br />
Polls of the population both in Russia and the European Union show that in radioactive<br />
risk evaluation people tend to trust independent experts more than representatives<br />
of the nuclear industry. Thus, we may conclude that nuclear industry representa-
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
tives have to listen to the fears voiced by independent experts, otherwise society would<br />
not let them implement many projects (even if the necessary funds are available). The<br />
authorities of such countries as <strong>It</strong>aly, Sweden, Norway, Austria, Spain, Germany and<br />
many others pay closer attention to this issue.<br />
Russia’s approach to creating a link with independent experts has recently worsened.<br />
In this industry we are back to the times when information on environmental<br />
problems was top secret and whoever tried to release it, was persecuted. Rosatom representatives<br />
state that we need to inform the population and create „adequate attitude<br />
to the work of nuclear industry and thus erase the consequences of statements of uninformed<br />
critics of the industry.” [7] Issues of radioactive waste, lack of planning the<br />
economy of the industry, reactor safety, etc. prove that criticism of independent experts<br />
is often more reasonable than the position of the apologists of the industry.<br />
References<br />
1. Lev Feoktistov. The Weapon that Has Exhausted <strong>It</strong>self. M., 1999, p 227.<br />
2. O.E. Muratov „Strategic Tasks of Radioactive Waste Handling.” Material from the<br />
seminar „SNF and Radioactive Fuel in North-Western Russia. Problems and Possible Solutions.”<br />
November 23–24, 2006, Murmansk.<br />
3. V.A. Lebedev „State Regulation of Radioactive Waste and SNF Handling in Russia.<br />
Standpoint of Rosatom.” Material from the seminar „Spent Nuclear Fuel and Radioactive Fuel in<br />
North-West Russia. Problems and Possible Solutions.” November 23–24, 2006, Murmansk.<br />
4. Information provided by Rosatom.<br />
5. Information provided by Gosatomnadzor (State Control Bureau over Nuclear Industry).<br />
Environmental Safety in Russia. Security Council of the Russia. M., Yuridicheskaya Literatura.<br />
1996.<br />
6. V.F. Menschikov Spent Nuclear Fuel: Scale and Problems. Yadernyj Kontrol (Nuclear<br />
monitoring), №5, 1997.<br />
7. http://nuclearwaste.report.ru/material.aspMID=471.<br />
8. Bulletin of the Environmental Center Mayak, №6, 1994.<br />
9. V.F. Menschikov Environmental Risks of Radioactive Waste and Spent Nuclear Fuel<br />
Handling. <strong>Global</strong> Problems of Cntemporary Energy Production Safety (material from an international<br />
conference). 20 years since the Catastrophe at Chernobyl NPP (Moscow, April 4–6, 2006).<br />
– M: MNEPU, 2006. – 562 p.<br />
10. Russian Nuclear Industry. Need of Change. Belonna Report №4 – 2004.<br />
11. B.G. Gordon, R.B. Sharafutdinov On Legislative Regulation of Radioactive Waste<br />
Handling Safety. Industrial North.<br />
12. http://abc/kolaland/ru/lib/promsev/SWF/HTML/art_11_2002/htm.<br />
13. State Committe for Environmental Protection and Natural Resources. Report „On Environmental<br />
Situation in the Russian Federation in 1994,” M., 1995.<br />
14. Felix Chr. Matthes. Nuclear Energy and Climate Change. Nuclear Issues Paper №6.<br />
Nov. 2005. Heinrich Boell Stiftung.<br />
15. V.A. Legasov, I.I. Kuzmin, A.N. Chernoplektov 1984. Impact of Energy Production<br />
on Climate. AN SSSR (Academy of Sciences of the USSR), „Physics of Atmosphere and Ocean,”<br />
volume 20, №11, pp. 1089–1103.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Nuclear Energy: Ecological Safety and Sustainable<br />
Development<br />
Rafael V. Arutyunyan, First Deputy Director, Institute of<br />
the Safe Development of Nuclear Energy (SDNE) RAS, PhD<br />
L.M. Vorob’yova, senior officer, ISDNE RAS<br />
I.I. Linge, Director, Department of Environment Safety,<br />
ISDNE RAS, PhD<br />
E.M. Melikhova, Head of Department, ISDNE RAS, PhD<br />
In evaluating the safety levels of any production activity, including enterprises that<br />
are using nuclear technology, one needs to follow the current environmental policy, norms<br />
and rules to ensure radiation and chemical safety. However, basing ecological safety on<br />
the regulation indicators does not provide a clear evaluation of the impact of various<br />
technogenic factors upon the environment and human health. An intelligent, comparative<br />
analysis is possible if we use a single impact measure – the population health risks.<br />
There are scientific evaluations of the existing risk levels to the human health in<br />
connection with the ionizing radiation. They indicate that currently, the ongoing activity<br />
of the enterprises which use nuclear technology, as well as residing in the areas affected<br />
by radioactive accidents, causes risks of negligible or acceptable proportions (see Table<br />
1). At the same time, a significant portion of the population is subjected to much higher<br />
risks connected with chemical pollution of the environment.<br />
One of the factors that present a particularly alarming threat to human health in<br />
Russia has become atmospheric pollution in the cities. The pollution of the atmosphere<br />
by suspended particles causes over 18,000 additional deaths per annum. [G.G. Onishchenko,<br />
S.M. Novikov, Y.A. Rakhmanin, S.L. Avaliani, K.A. Bushtueva. The Bases of<br />
Evaluation of Polluting Chemicals upon Human Health. M., 2002, 408].<br />
Energy installations (especially those using coal) make substantial contributions<br />
to atmospheric pollution in the cities. Calculations of the death risks for the population<br />
residing in the cities with large coal-based electricity plants indicate that annual individual<br />
risks constitute 10 -3 –10 -4 . The annual individual risks that occur in connection with<br />
gas and aerosol ejections of the Nuclear Power Plant (NPP) constitute 2x10 -8 – 8x10 -7 .<br />
One can compare the risk levels caused by the activities of two electricity-generating<br />
plants: the Beloyarskaya NPP and the coal-based Reftinskaya. As the evidence indicates,<br />
the difference between their risk values is as much as 4 orders of magnitude.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Death risks among Russian population per year<br />
Table 1<br />
Causes<br />
Confirmed,<br />
in millions<br />
Risks Deaths /<br />
annum<br />
All causes 69 (men) 1,5х10 -2 1060000<br />
Accidents 69 (men) 3,4х10 -3 240000<br />
Extensive atmospheric pollution by typical<br />
pollutants (as per the monitoring data)<br />
Atmospheric pollution by carcinogenic<br />
chemicals (as per the monitoring data):<br />
– in Russian cities,<br />
– in Moscow,<br />
– in St.-Petersburg<br />
43 10 -4 х10 -3 21 000<br />
50<br />
8,6<br />
4,7<br />
10 -5 – 10 -7 620<br />
43<br />
10,4<br />
Population in the „Mayak” monitoring zone 0,21 5,3х10 -6 – 2,3х10 -5 1,4<br />
Chelyabinsk and Magnitogorsk population by<br />
atmospheric pollution:<br />
– by suspended particles<br />
– by the ethylbenzene<br />
Population in the mining and chemical factory<br />
monitoring zone<br />
1,58 3,3х10 -4 – 1,0х10 -3 808<br />
3,0х10 -5 5,2<br />
0,22 6х10 -6 – 3х10 -7
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Picture 2. Various electricity-production fuel types: negative effects upon the health<br />
of European population<br />
Picture 3. Individual carcinogenic fatality risks from the yearly permissible dose of radiation<br />
(1 mZv/year) and from atmospheric exposure to various chemicals (of the HPC-level<br />
= the Highest Permissible Concentration) in populated areas<br />
As demonstrated above, the risk from radiation exposure turns out to be hundreds<br />
of times smaller than atmospheric exposure to certain common chemical carcinogens<br />
at their Highest permissible concentration-levels. Even in the cases of radiation<br />
accidents, the real health consequences are much smaller than those from other types of<br />
technogenic accidents (Table 2).<br />
Today’s dosages of additional radiation connected to the use of nuclear energy<br />
present a very small portion of exposure from natural background radiation. The levels<br />
of additional technogenic stresses are substantially lower than the natural radiation<br />
background fluctuations of various regions and countries (Picture 4).<br />
The plants and enterprises that use nuclear technology contribute relatively insignificantly<br />
to the technogenic pollution of the country’s surface water. Only the small Techa<br />
River has radioactive strontium above the permissible level. At the same time, many large<br />
water bodies, such as the Ob and Enisey rivers, are polluted by harmful chemicals such as<br />
phenols, petroleum products, copper, etc. In the majority of cases, their pollution exceeds<br />
the highest permissible concentration-levels by 40, 50, and even 120 times.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Table 2<br />
Discovered effects of three accidents with significant radioactive releases<br />
Region<br />
Monitoring<br />
period, cohort<br />
number<br />
Main<br />
scientific organization<br />
The discovered effects<br />
Techa river,<br />
South Ural<br />
1949–1956<br />
1951 – till now<br />
50 971 people<br />
(31 234 radiated<br />
and 19 737<br />
their posterity)<br />
ESPC – MR<br />
– 66 verified cases of chronic radiation<br />
sickness with the dosages of 1 Zv for<br />
KKM<br />
– 30 extra cases of serious cancer<br />
– 20 radiation-induced leucosis<br />
East Ural<br />
radioactive<br />
trace South<br />
Ural 1957<br />
1957 – till now<br />
30 417 people<br />
ESPC – MR<br />
Increase (statistically unsubstantiated) of<br />
fatality coefficients of the radiated persons<br />
(from 590 to 950 mZv) within the first five<br />
years following the accident<br />
Chernobyl<br />
1986<br />
1989 – till now<br />
550076 people<br />
(including<br />
179923 emergency<br />
responders)<br />
SCC IBPh:<br />
IRSC<br />
Russian<br />
Academy<br />
of Medical<br />
Sciences<br />
28 persons died from the acute radiation<br />
syndrome. Remote consequences for Russia:<br />
50 radiation-induced leucosis and 12 radiation-induced<br />
thyroid cancer cases among the<br />
liquidators; 120 (226) radiation-induced thyroid<br />
cancer among children (at the time of the<br />
accident) in Bryanskaya oblast (1991–2003)<br />
Picture 4. Average annual radiation doses from various sources among population, mZv per year<br />
Taking into account our massive experience with nuclear technology and the<br />
consequences of past serious accidents, we can state that radiation safety for humans<br />
and environment can be provided by the following:<br />
––Keeping the personnel and the population within the dosage limits for normal<br />
nuclear operations;<br />
––Limiting the possibility of accidents, depending upon their seriousness;<br />
––Preparing to minimize the accident consequences if an accident does occur.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Theoretical Analysis of Small Dosed of Radiation Concep<br />
Vladimir N. Sorokin, Chief Researcher, United Institute<br />
of Energetics and Nuclear Investigations, Minsk (Sosny),<br />
Belarus<br />
Today the effects of small doses of radiation on the human body are being studied<br />
all over the world [1–2]. This type of research received additional impulse due to atomic<br />
energy reemergence and the twenty-year anniversary of the Chernobyl catastrophe.<br />
A small dose radiation impact is unclear at the quality level [1–3]. Quantity estimates<br />
are different from experimental data. The impact of a small dose from the Chernobyl<br />
catastrophe is impossible to determine in practice. Estimative results, produced by<br />
various groups, do not correspond with each other [1–4]. Our preset knowledge does not<br />
allow us to evaluate potential small radiation dose impact on humans.<br />
Let’s look at the analysis of oncology consequences of radiation. Any radiation<br />
dose has the risk of tumor development [2, 4]. Oncology disease can be caused by<br />
chemical elements (carcinogens) and radiation. Radiation-induced malignant growth<br />
in its qualities and appearance are not different from spontaneous growth, which are<br />
not caused by radiation, but rather caused by some chemical agent. Radiation does not<br />
cause new types of diseases and does not change quantity proportion of known cancer<br />
cases. All the cases increase in the same proportion [5].<br />
Radiation does not disturb proportionality between cancer cell quantity growth and<br />
age. Average level of a certain cancer type varies by country. Radiation, in this case, increases<br />
the number of cancer diseases in proportion to the number of the diseases in the country [5].<br />
Radiation effects on the population did not reveal any unknown diseases, but<br />
rather a proportionate growth of all known cancer types took place. Additionally, some<br />
diseases not related to structural changes of cells’ functions, chromosomes and deoxyribonucleic<br />
acid (DNA) were noticed, such as flu or lung diseases. <strong>It</strong> was also noticed<br />
that radiation impact on parents does not affect children’s health [5]. To date, radiation<br />
effects on children born from contaminated parents are not proved by science [5, 6].<br />
DNA damage, observed after radiation, is similar to damage observed from impacts<br />
from chemical elements [5]. The temporary delay between a disease onset and<br />
development is similar to the one initiated by chemical carcinogens and radiation [7].<br />
In cases of small radiation doses, there is a smaller chance of developing cancer than in medium<br />
dose cases, which in turn is smaller than in high radiation dose cases [2, 5]. <strong>It</strong> was also found<br />
that radiation effects can be seen in elements (cells or objects) that were not under the direct radiation<br />
effect, but were located near an irradiated cell or object (bystander effect) [1, 2].<br />
The specific radiation consequences listed above are only possible with ionized radiation<br />
is not direct, but it still imitates the synthesis mechanism of carcinogenic and toxic<br />
chemical substances. Chemical substances cause disease only when some specific substances
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
and milieu are present in the body. Radiation effects work the same way. The physical mechanism<br />
of this process is as follows: When a cell splits into two to form two cell, only 1.6-2%<br />
of the „birth’ energy is spent on this process. The other 98% is transferred to a wide area of<br />
nearby neighboring cells. The energy is transmitted on a specific wavelength frequency and<br />
transmitted from cell to cell. If there is a weak or malfunctioning cell, this cell accumulates<br />
too much energy and free radicals are formed within the cell. If there are no weak cells, the<br />
energy wavelength spreads evenly through the neighboring cells. The formed radicals react<br />
fast in the presence of radiation, and form very different substances that can damage and<br />
impair the cell. The new foreign substances found can kill the cell or create malfunctioning in<br />
the reproductive function and thus causing cancer to form.<br />
Under the proposed approach, further small dose irradiation consequences are expected<br />
to be limited and unpredictable. The consequences exist, because any increase in<br />
carcinogen and toxin amount raises cancer risk. The consequences are limited: small radiation<br />
doses are contradicted by the small magnitude of negative substances magnitude and<br />
a low level of cancer. Small dose radiation does not have a threshold for consequences.<br />
Small radiation dose impact does not contain unpredictable long-term consequences.<br />
Additional carcinogen and toxic synthesis, caused by irradiation, in this environment<br />
will result in proportional growth of known diseases, which are typical for the<br />
population of the region. Observable general growth of diseases is an attribute of this<br />
civilization, and a small dose radiation effect is a small contributor to this reality.<br />
A good measure for disease prevention can be effective radiation protection<br />
measures. Decrease in the level of preexisting carcinogens and toxins in a human body<br />
can decrease the negative impact of small radiation effects on humans.<br />
For an adequate quantitative analysis on small dose radiation effects, it is important<br />
to consider the dose size, its capability, anthropogenic environmental contamination,<br />
nutrition quality, a person’s lifestyle and individual antitoxic immune system.<br />
References<br />
1. Burlakova, E.B., Najdich, V.I. “Radiation Safety as a Research Problem.” Vestnik<br />
RAN. 2006. Vol. 76, №11, pp. 1034–1037.<br />
2. Health Risks from Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation. BEIR VII. Phase 2.<br />
Washington, D. C.: The National Academic Press, 2006. 424 р.<br />
3. Butomo, N.V. et al. Medical radiobiology basics. S-Pb: “Izdatelstvo Foliant.” 2004. 384 p.<br />
4. Ilyin, L.A. “Radiation Accidents: Medical Consequences and Contra-Radiation Protection<br />
Experience.” Atomic Energy. 2002. Vol. 92, №2, pp. 143–152.<br />
5. Goffman, D. Chernobyl Accident: Radiation Consequences for The Present and Future<br />
Generations. Minsk: Vyschaya Shkola.1994. 574 p.<br />
6. Doll R. “Effects of small doses of ionizing radiation” J. radiol. protect. 1998. Vol.18, №3 pp. 163–174<br />
7. Demin V.F. et al. “Regulation and Comparison Human Health Risks From Various<br />
Harmful Sources.” Atomic Energy. 2001. Vol.90, №5: 385–397.<br />
8. Kudryashov, U.B. “Major Radio-Biology Principles.” Radiation Biology. Radio Ecology.<br />
2001. Vo. 41, №5, pp. 531–547.<br />
9. Vorbyev,. E.I., Stepanov, R.P. Ionizing Radiation and Circulatory Systems. Moscow,<br />
Energoizdat. 1985. 124 p.<br />
10. Shuker D. “Endogenous nitrozation and cancer.” Hum. and Exp. Toxycol., 1998.<br />
Vol.17, №9. p.480
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Public Discussion of the Nuclear Capacity Development<br />
Plans at the Siberian Chemical Plant<br />
Alexei V. Toropov, Director, Siberian Environmental<br />
Agency, Director <strong>Green</strong> Cross Russia Tomsk Office<br />
The Siberian Chemical Plant (SCP) is located in the largest „closed city” ZATO<br />
Seversk and has a population of 120,000 people. Seversk borders with the regional<br />
center, Tomsk, with 500,000 in population. The closest SCP facilities are located within<br />
1 km from the living quarters in Seversk and within 5–6 km from the living quarters in<br />
the Shtamovo and Kuzovlevo communities near Tomsk. This is an unprecedented case<br />
of a chemical plant being located so close to a regional center. 70% (700,000 people) of<br />
the Tomskaya oblast population lives within the 30 km radius of the plant.<br />
The SCP, which began its history in 1949, is the largest nuclear fuel cycle enterprise<br />
in the world. Uranium ore mining and processing is the only stage not represented<br />
in the uranium production chain at the plant. The following facilities for nuclear weapon<br />
production were built during the 1950–1960s at the SCP: sublimate factory (uranium<br />
hexafluoride production), isotope separation plant (uranium enrichment), radiochemical<br />
plant (plutonium extraction from irradiated uranium rods), and metallurgical plant<br />
(metal weapons-grade uranium and plutonium production). Additionally, five uranium<br />
graphite reactors were built and put in operation. The SCP has developed a colossal<br />
amount of radioactive waste during its 50 years of operation. More than 1.1 billion Ci of<br />
first-grade liquid radioactive waste has accumulated in the underground water-bearing<br />
layers at the SCP. There are also open pools with liquid radioactive waste, solid radioactive<br />
waste storage and burial grounds.<br />
From 1990 to 1992, the operation of three plutonium reactors was terminated. At<br />
present, the basis of SCP production is the isotope separation plant, additional production<br />
facilities and two plutonium reactors, ADE-4 and ADE-5.<br />
There were several stages of SCP nuclear facilities already built when an open<br />
discussion of socio-economic problems of the Russian Nuclear Weapon Complex was<br />
conducted. At the beginning of the 1990s, the Tomsk community collected 100,000 signatures<br />
against the building of a long-term fissile materials storage facility at SCP. Despite<br />
the fact that the U.S. had allocated money for such a facility in Seversk, the storage<br />
location for the weapons-grade uranium and excess plutonium became Chelyabinskaya<br />
oblast. Long-term fissile materials storage was built 70 km away from Chelyabinsk, and<br />
not 5–6 km from the living quarters in Tomsk. The environmental movement in Tomsk<br />
originated from the Tomsk community’s opposition to the storage facility construction.
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Over ten years, starting in the mid 1990s, there have been several discussions regarding<br />
the nuclear power plant (AST-500) construction in Seversk, which was supposed<br />
to substitute for the Seversk plutonium reactors taken out of operation. In 2000, two<br />
public environmental expert meetings about the AST-500 project took place. The state<br />
environmental review board approved the AST-500 project, but the plant was not built<br />
due to the lack of investment and absence of any interest in an unprofitable project.<br />
As a consequence of the SCP’s intent to build the AST-500 plant, the termination<br />
of the ADE-4 and ADE-5 plutonium plants was delayed. In 2003, the SCP and Minatom<br />
management finally agreed to the U.S. financing of modernization and capacity increase at<br />
the Severskaya Heating Plant. The modernization allowed substitution of plutonium reactor<br />
capacities. As a result, the operation of plutonium reactors, ADE-4 and ADE-5, will be terminated<br />
in 2008 according to the Gore-Chernomyrdin Agreement. In the meantime, Russia has<br />
produced several additional tons of weapons-grade plutonium, which is in excess already.<br />
In 2001, public hearings took place during the state environmental review of the<br />
project extension on deep storage of liquid radioactive waste in Seversk. Despite the<br />
number of critical points related to the legal aspects of such storage in the underground<br />
water-bearing levels, the state commissioner approved the technical and economic justification<br />
of the project.<br />
From 2003 to 2005, the construction of a MOX-fuel facility in Tomsk was discussed.<br />
The Tomsk „green” activists announced their protest as soon as they learnt<br />
about Minatom plans to build a MOX-fuel plant at the SCP. The first significant action<br />
was an international protest against the MOX-fuel program on May 27, 2003. The main<br />
demand of the „green” activists was that, if the MOX-fuel plant passed the expert evaluations,<br />
it was essential to consider the inhabitants’ opinions within the SCP’s 30 km<br />
radius zone. A citizen’s initiative group was later organized in Tomsk to collect signatures
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against the MOX-fuel plant construction. Several groups of Tomsk entrepreneurs also<br />
began to show a negative attitude to MFFF-R construction in the oblast. More than 10,000<br />
signatures of the Tomsk citizens against MFFF-R construction were collected and sent to<br />
the local government, the Russian Federation President, and the US Congress.<br />
During the Fall 2004, a city-wide protest, „Say No to MOX,” took place in<br />
Tomsk. Russian environmental organizations, foreign representatives, and a local rock<br />
band, „Chaif,” participated in the protest. Hundreds of letters were sent from the Tomsk<br />
citizens to the local government, authorities, officials of different levels, as well as public<br />
and media organizations against MOX-fuel plant construction.<br />
The Tomsk State Duma discussed the MFFF-R construction numerous times. A<br />
committee of deputies was organized by the Representative Alexander Deyev in October<br />
2003, and the committee confirmed that the MFFF-R construction should include<br />
Tomsk citizens’ opinions. With the help of independent lawyers, the committee wrote<br />
a bill called the „Discussion order of nuclear energy use in Tomskaya oblast.” The bill<br />
does not guarantee adequate inclusion of the public opinion on MFFF-R construction,<br />
but such an initiative from local officials in Russia deserves special attention.<br />
Political parties also participated in the discussion of the MOX-fuel plant construction.<br />
The Seversk City office of the United Russia decided to support the SCP development<br />
program, which includes MOX-fuel plant construction. The Tomsk Regional<br />
Party office did not make a formal decision to support the program. However, at the<br />
regional conference, in November 2004, the leader of the Tomsk United Russia Party<br />
members, Vladimir Zhydkikh, noted that the plant construction is a priority and criticized<br />
the SCP management for poor promotion of the project. After numerous phone<br />
calls from Tomsk citizens, who were astonished by the Zhydkikh position, the MOXfuel<br />
plant issue was not discussed by the United Russia in public any more.<br />
Tomsk Democrats, on the contrary, believe that the MOX-fuel plant construction<br />
at SCP is antisocial and against public interest. A presentation made by MOX-fuel project<br />
representatives in 2005 did not convince the representatives of the United Political Council<br />
of Pre-Election Union comprised from the Union of Right Forces and „Yabloko.”<br />
Tomsk citizens believe that their opinion should be taken into account during<br />
the MFFF-R project discussion. According to the interactive survey conducted by the<br />
State TV channel „Tomsk” in December 2004, 789 of 861 Tomsk citizens responded<br />
„yes” to the question: „Whether the public opinion should be taken into account during<br />
the MOX-fuel plant construction” However, this survey does not reflect the attitude<br />
towards the MFFF-R construction.<br />
According to the interactive survey conducted on October 18, 2004 by TV-2<br />
broadcasting company (2,537 responders), 83% believe that „peaceful atoms” is an<br />
environmental threat, 11% – „future of the energy industry”, 6% – the driver for science<br />
in Tomsk. This survey is based on the perception of an active TV-2 viewers group, and<br />
therefore, these results cannot be used for an objective public opinion evaluation.<br />
Public opinion on the MFFF-R construction, which does not depend on any media<br />
channel preference, was surveyed by sociologist A.V. Konyashkin and Tomsk Ecology<br />
Student Inspection (TESI) in December 2004. Out of 662 survey respondents to the<br />
question „Do you know that near Tomsk Minatom facility there will be constructed a
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new weapons-grade plutonium plant („MOX-fuel Project)” 50% answered „Yes” and<br />
50% answered „No”. Independently from the above question, another question was<br />
asked: „TESI is against MOX-fuel plant construction. Are you ready to support this<br />
act” 83% responded „Yes” and indicated various types of support (signature on a petition,<br />
public protest and other).<br />
Tomsk citizens’ attitudes towards the plant construction remain negative. In<br />
2000, 80% of Tomsk citizens supported the „green” activists in an attempt to stop construction<br />
of dangerous nuclear and radiological production facilities (based on the results<br />
of the „Tomsk and Ecology” survey, conducted by TESI under sociologist N.L.<br />
Kutepova leadership, Ozersk, August 2000).<br />
A question still remains: what territory around MFFF-R or municipal unit should<br />
be strongly included during the decision making process If one does not take into account<br />
potential consequences of a large-scale accident at the nuclear facility, the social<br />
and economic consequences will affect oblast citizens only (the fallout was registered<br />
on all Northern Hemisphere Continents; the soil with „radioactive contamination” status<br />
is accounted for hundred thousand square km”). The entire regional center with key<br />
transport connections are in the 30 km radius of SCP.<br />
In 2005, based on the initiative of the public organizations Russian <strong>Green</strong>peace,<br />
„Ecozashita!” and the Tomsk „green” activists, foreign import of uranium hexafluoride<br />
was brought into discussion. As a result of Russian and foreign nuclear entrepreneurs,<br />
90% of this imported material remains at Russian facilities, including at SCP. According<br />
to the report of the Russian Federal Inspection on Nuclear and Radiological Security,<br />
in 2003 the storage of uranium hexafluoride at a number of facilities does not comply<br />
with safety requirements.<br />
On April 12, 2006, at the meeting with the Tomsk public, Sergey Kirienko, Rosatom<br />
Director, responded to the question from the Tomsk Center for Nuclear and Radiological<br />
Safety: „If foreign import of uranium hexafluoride is profitable, then what<br />
method and finances will be used to reprocess uranium tails leftovers, accumulated as<br />
a result of such contracts” Kirienko answered, „I support your approach. Currently we<br />
review three ways to facilitate reprocessing. If we do not accept one of them, I am ready<br />
to make a decision to stop import of this material.” <strong>It</strong> is known that Rosatom adopted<br />
the Convention of Uranium Tails Safe Facilitation on December 27, 2006. The content<br />
and concrete solutions to the above indicated problems were not shared with Tomsk<br />
citizens. They are still awaiting the answers.<br />
During the past few years, the Rosatom management has demonstrated a readiness<br />
to an open dialogue with the population close to nuclear fuel cycle facilities. SCP<br />
management, however, continues to not learn how to respond to the Tomsk citizens<br />
concerns. On the contrary, there is misinformation, an inability to answer the questions,<br />
facts fabrication, and attempts to misrepresent the real facts.<br />
The state environmental review has not been accomplished for the AST-500 nuclear<br />
power plant (NPP) in Seversk, when the 2000 brochure invited to the „excursions<br />
at the operating facilities of SCP”, which also included „AST-500, buildings, constructions<br />
and plant communication system.” Another booklet under the heading „Neighbors<br />
Make Friendship through Cities,” published biannually in 500,000 copies, describes
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the SCP participation in the Tomsk social programs. Special attention in the booklet<br />
is devoted to the children’s support: „Siberian Chemical Plant takes care of the Urtam<br />
school-orphanage, Naumovskaya middle school pupils and schoolchildren of Tomsk.”<br />
<strong>It</strong> is true that SCP has been supporting the Urtam school-orphanage for the past ten<br />
years. The Naumovskaya middle school director, however, says that the school never<br />
received any help from SCP.<br />
The discussion about MOX-fuel plant construction started in 2004. A formal<br />
step towards the plant construction was a declaration from the TVEL Company to the<br />
Administration of oblast about intentions to build an MFFF-R plant. The grounds for<br />
construction, however, have already been prepared. A director of a radiochemical plant,<br />
located in a close proximity to the MOX-fuel plant grounds, complained to the media,<br />
that the trucks spread radioactive dirt near his plant. Today the decision to construct a<br />
MOX-fuel plant at SCP is set aside. Anyone, however, can see the plant’s grounds for<br />
construction at Google satellite pictures.<br />
Misinformation by the Severskaya NPP lobby group is a new element in the<br />
history of the project. Below is one example of misinformation tactics used: „If there<br />
is no new NPP, the two dangerous old plutonium reactors will continue to operate near<br />
Tomsk.” The authors of this claim know that Severskaya NPP construction does not<br />
relate to reactors’ operation. The termination of the two plutonium reactors’ operation is<br />
already confirmed. The U.S. Department of State allocated $240 million for the Russian<br />
nuclear specialists to substitute the two reactors’ capacities.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Unfortunately, lately, Governor Kress, who was directly elected by the local citizens,<br />
has become an active member of the lobby group, which promotes the Severskaya<br />
NPP construction. A year ago, Governor Kress stated that the NPP construction in Seversk<br />
will occur only if it is approved by the citizens. Today, he seems to have forgotten<br />
that claim, and stays besides the local government that is interested in attracting nuclear<br />
investments. Additionally Sergey Kirienko, Rosatom Director, also confirmed in 2006<br />
that NPP construction in Seversk will occur only if it is approved by the citizens.<br />
<strong>It</strong> seems that Governor Kress does not care what Mr. Kirienko or the population<br />
think, especially after the Russian Federation President appointed him for another term.<br />
Local officials prefer to rely on such concepts as „attracting investments per capita.”<br />
Tomskaya oblast is on 6 th place on the list, according to this indicator, among the Russian<br />
regions. Once there are investments in NPP construction, one might get to the third<br />
place, after Moscow and Saint-Petersburg.<br />
In July 2006, Viktor Kress initiated a group to work on „Proposals for the NPP<br />
construction in Tomskaya oblast”, which did not meet once until March, 2007. The<br />
group finally met, after a meeting of the Tomsk „green” activists on March 15, 2007.<br />
The only member who was not invited was the only public representative; the other 16<br />
members were public officials. The decisions made by the group were geared towards<br />
public signs of support of the NPP construction, including a number of TV and radio<br />
shows on nuclear energy use (6 shows), a separate page on the Tomsk Administration<br />
website about nuclear energy development, training of municipal chief officers in<br />
Tomsk about nuclear energy perspectives in Russia; organizing a media-club on the<br />
NPP construction.<br />
But the efforts of Governor Cress and SCP management cannot convince the<br />
Tomsk public to support the plant construction. On April 16, 2007, when a decision on<br />
nuclear reactors installation „road map” has not been taken, under a heavy rain, a public<br />
protest took place. A decision about writing a letter to President Vladimir Putin was taken<br />
at the meeting. Tomsk citizens began to collect signatures against NPP construction and a<br />
movement called „For the nuclear free Tomsk future!” was established.<br />
Rosatom’s and „Rosenergoatom” enterprise top management often states: „We<br />
are building NPPs in the regions due to the public request,” but there is no such request<br />
from Tomskaya oblast.<br />
Conclusions<br />
––Cooperation between Rosatom, regional authorities, and the nuclear industry<br />
with local populations on nuclear facilities construction must be built on fair principles<br />
and dialogue.<br />
––Public opinion in the regions must be taken into account when a decision on<br />
nuclear facilities construction takes place.<br />
––The basis for public discussion of the nuclear energy plans must be documents<br />
and decisions of the public environmental reviewers, conducted independently.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Social environmental review experience of Balakovskaya<br />
Nuclear Power Plant, Units 5 and 6<br />
Anna M. Vinogradova, Head, Balakovsko affiliate (Saratovskaya<br />
oblast) of the All-Russian society for conservation<br />
of nature<br />
Environmental review in Russia originally was planned to be a unique institution<br />
of the state control, which would allow for the state to make decisions and plan activities<br />
without listening to public opinion. This decision complies with the international<br />
environmental law, which views environmental review as implication of preventive<br />
policy, environmental impact evaluation, and active public participation at all the stages<br />
of review and decision-making during the project, and additionally publication of the<br />
review results.<br />
Previous environmental review experience in Russia set the basis for norm regulation<br />
and its improvement, and it also indicated several problems, solutions for which<br />
will impact Russian success and position in the international community. Formalities,<br />
excessive bureaucratic procedures, and various abuses of power partially come from the<br />
absence of productive and planned work. Such bureaucratic mechanism sets poor credit<br />
for environmental review, its independence and objectivity. The poor mechanism for<br />
environmental review has changed to such extent that it does not take into account the<br />
importance of social and economic needs and activities of the population.<br />
Balakovo (Saratovskaya oblast) has been on the list of the fifty most environmentally<br />
unfriendly Russian cities. New industrial construction and development of the<br />
existing production facilities was prohibited here by the USSR Ministry Council Act<br />
№567, dated June, 18, 1981. The atmospheric contamination index (ACI) in Balakovo<br />
currently equals 15, which is very high. The Balakovo branch of the All-Russian society<br />
for conservation of nature is monitoring since 1989 all the decisions made about the activities<br />
planned on the territory of Balakovo Municipality. We try to exercise our rights<br />
in this decision-making process, basing it on the public environmental review, inviting<br />
independent scientists and specialists in the discussion. Before the Federal Law „Environmental<br />
Review” was adopted, we conducted a series of public scientific reviews of<br />
the project materials of the Hydro-nuclear electric plant existing prior to 1979, leather<br />
production, European furniture company project and 4 power unit designs for Balakovskaya<br />
Nuclear Power Plant (BNPP) created in 1992. The conclusions, made by specialists,<br />
allowed us to make correct decisions such as: the projects for the Hydro-nuclear<br />
electric plant, leather production based on <strong>It</strong>alian technology with 6 valence chrome disposal<br />
were declined; the preliminary projects for European furniture company project<br />
and 4 power unit designs for BNPP in 1992 were updated and improved. We were happy
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to have special law in place and were confident that it will support our public environmental<br />
reviews and study of the BNPP Power Units 5 and 6 without any problems. <strong>It</strong><br />
was clear that our rights were supported by the special legislature. <strong>It</strong> was necessary to<br />
conduct public environmental reviews, because the initial construction project of the<br />
power units was illegal. Because it did not comply with modern requirements for NPPs<br />
location, it was declined by the State Sanitary Inspection and the State Nuclear Inspection<br />
of the Soviet Union in 1988 and 1990. The Power Units 5 and 6 continued to be<br />
built according to the drawings of the unapproved project, and the public had to express<br />
its protest and continue demonstrations against the construction.<br />
On April, 25 1993, according to the Balakovo Council and based on the Federal<br />
Legislation „Environment Protection,” a city referendum took place to find out the public’s<br />
opinion regarding the construction of the power units. The media was also fairly<br />
involved in the process. 72.8% of the population voted against the construction of the<br />
new Power Unites 5 and 6. According to the Small Council of Balakovo City decision,<br />
dated July, 2 1993, the referendum results were delivered to the Russian President, the<br />
Russian Federal Congress, Government, Nuclear Ministry, Saratov Council and State<br />
Executive Committee.<br />
The referendum results were debated and taken into consideration by the Russian<br />
Government and the Congress:<br />
– The Parliamentary Hearings in the Federal Congress took place in June 1993.<br />
– Russian Government charged the Nuclear Ministry, Financial Ministry, Ministry of<br />
Nature, Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS), the Russian United Energy System to consider<br />
the referendum results in the planning of the State Energy Program for the period until 2010.<br />
In 1993, the Power Units 5 and 6 were excluded from the State Complex Energy<br />
Program up to 2010. In 1994, new attempts to rework the project and begin operation<br />
of the second line of power units took place, despite the statement of Paragraph 3,<br />
Article 48 of Federal Law on „Environment Protection” and public protest. Interestingly<br />
enough, the Russian Government was the key body to abuse the legislation on<br />
„Environmental Expertise” by approving „Russian nuclear energy strategy development<br />
up to 2020” and supporting the Federal Central Plan „Energy efficient economy<br />
for 2002–2005 and prospects for 2010.” This plan includes the Power Units 5 and 6 of<br />
BNPP. Both documents did not go through state environmental reviews.<br />
Since 2001, based on evaluations by a number of experts from the BNPP, the preliminary<br />
investment plans took place in the form of:<br />
––Investment Plan;<br />
––Intentions Declaration;<br />
––Investment Justification;<br />
––Construction Plan.<br />
Key supporting organizations – The Enterprise „Rosenergoatom” and Saratov oblast<br />
Governor, Ayatskov D.F. – the head of the territories with nuclear facilities – those who lobby<br />
for additional power unit construction. The only authority opposing this lobby group is the<br />
environmental public organizations that have the power to conduct the public environmental<br />
reviews at all the project stages. We used our legislative rights, and in 2001 declared to the<br />
local authorities and the heads of „Rosenergoatom” about our intention and preparedness to
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organize the public environmental reviews for preliminary and project design papers for additional<br />
capacity development of BNPP. Russian <strong>Green</strong>peace also declared to participate in<br />
the public environmental reviews, and we combined our efforts and resources.<br />
Our statements were put together according to the Russian legislation, and there<br />
were no reasons for rejection of our intention. But the lobby group in the nuclear industry<br />
did everything possible to prevent public environmental reviews. When such efforts<br />
failed, they tried to minimize the role of such public reviews. <strong>It</strong> is hard to name all the<br />
legislative abuses and artificial difficulties from the nuclear agencies and local authorities<br />
for conducting a public environmental review. For example, we received the environmental<br />
impact evaluation materials only 3 months after the state review was over, we<br />
could not timely get project materials and additional materials on emergency situations.<br />
In the end, Balakovo Federal Security Service decided to withdraw the project’s papers<br />
on the reason that classified information was present in these papers.<br />
The representative of the State expertise department, Russian technical inspection,<br />
L.N. Shilkina played a very special role She constantly misinformed us and took advantage<br />
of the limited timeframe for the public environmental review. We could hardly find out the<br />
due date for our review presentation, when the group meetings of the State Expert Council<br />
took place. That is why our experts often missed these meetings. Our experts, I.N. Ostretsov<br />
and V.M. Kuznetsov, were not included in the State Environmental Expert Group, despite our<br />
official nominations. Our protests on the matter of the nominations of Larin and Khrustalev in<br />
the Group were not taken into consideration. Some violations were reviewed by the Moscow<br />
Prosecutors on the compliance with legislation at special facilities, where <strong>Green</strong>peace sent its<br />
petition. Our expert commission was responsible for the key action, which conducted reviews<br />
in very challenging conditions and was able to present its conclusions to the State Expertise<br />
Department, Russian Technical Inspection on time.<br />
The Expert commission of the public environmental expertise was headed by the<br />
scientists, who are professionals in the nuclear industry, and have objective and independent<br />
attitude on the nuclear safety issues, pluralistic views on industrial ecology and<br />
are famous for their numerous publications on the matter.<br />
Below are listed the members of the Expert Group with a respective short bio:<br />
––Ostretsov Igor Nikolayevich – the Head of the Expert Group, PhD (Technical<br />
Science), Professor, Deputy Director on Science of Russian scientific research institute<br />
of atomic energy machine industry, the Russian Federation Ministry of Industrial Science,<br />
Member of Industrial Ecology Academy. He is the author of more than twenty<br />
scholarly articles and publications on the problems of nuclear energy safety.<br />
––Kuznetsov Vladimir Mikhaylovich – Deputy Chairman of the Expert Group,<br />
PhD (Technical Science), Member of Аcademy of industrial safety; Nuclear and Radiological<br />
Safety Program Director, <strong>Green</strong> Cross Russia; senior staff, expert-auditor of the<br />
„Certification system of equipment, products and technologies for nuclear installations,<br />
radiation sources and storage facilities.” Kuznetsov also worked at Chernobylskaya<br />
NPP, then in the Russian State Atomic Inspection as a head of inspection on nuclear<br />
and radiological safety of atomic energy in Russia. He is the author of 90 publications,<br />
including 5 monographs devoted to the issues of safe atomic energy operation.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
––Nazarov Anatoly Georgievich – PhD (Biological Science), Russian Academy<br />
of Natural Science member; Head of the Ecology center, Institute of natural history<br />
and technology of S.I. Vavilov, RAS; Chairman of the group on radiation ecology and<br />
safety, Radiobiology science council, RAS; chairman of the Ecology committee, Moscow<br />
group „The Chernobyl Union”. During 1989–1996, he was Co-Chairman of the<br />
Chernobyl committee and the Head of Permanent expert roup of the USSR Supreme<br />
Council, Head of under-committee on radiation safety, participated in liquidation of<br />
nuclear weapon testing and Chernobyl catastrophe outcomes (1959–1964, 1988–1996).<br />
Nazarov is the author of 250 publications, including 10 monographs on the Vernadsky<br />
studies of bio- and noo- spheres, biogeochemistry, ecology, radiation safety and Chernobyl<br />
accident.<br />
––Kuznetsova Elena Egmontovna – PhD (Technical Science), a leading expert<br />
of Nuclear and Radiation Safety Program of <strong>Green</strong> Cross Russia. She worked in the<br />
Department of NPPs, the Russian technology institute of F.E. Dzerzhinsky; she also<br />
was the Chief State Inspector of Design and Construction Inspection, Central District of<br />
Russian State Nuclear Inspection. Kuznetsova is the author of 30 scholarly articles and<br />
publications on the issue of nuclear energy safety operation.<br />
––Simonov Eugeny Yakovlevich – the Expert commission head secretary; the<br />
leading expert of <strong>Green</strong> Cross Russia’s Nuclear and Radiation Safety Program. He<br />
worked at Obninskaya NPP as an Engineer, then Head engineer of management facility,<br />
and Head of the shift at the plant. In the Russian scientific research institute of NPPs, he<br />
was the head of technical review lab, responsible for design of NPPs; he also served as<br />
a State Inspector of nuclear safety in the USSR State Atomic Inspection; additionally,<br />
he was the Chief engineer of the curator department, NPP operation, the lab of physics<br />
of active atomic zones in nuclear reactors in the power plants. Simonov is the author of<br />
100 scholarly articles and publications, devoted to nuclear energy safety operation.<br />
––Minikh Maxim Georgievich – professor at the State Saratov university of N.G.<br />
Chernyshevsky (SSU), Geology Department, GeoEcology Program; Member of the International<br />
Academy of Mineral Resources.<br />
––Chuprov Vladimir Alekseevich – B.A. in Ecology; Head of the Energy Department,<br />
Russian <strong>Green</strong>peace; the author of „How much nuclear electricity costs” (Moscow,<br />
2004), various publications and reports on nuclear energy.<br />
––Khudiakov Gleb Ivanovich – member of the RAS; Professor at the SSU, Geology<br />
Department, the USSR State Award laureate; Head of the public environmental<br />
review group for the power unit №4, BNPP.<br />
––Rusin Sergey Aleksandrovich – PhD (Technical Science); Adjunct, Balakovo<br />
Institute of technology, mechanics and management (BITMM); author of more than 40<br />
scholarly articles and publications in the area of human safety.<br />
––Sayenkov Alexander Sergeyevich – PhD (Technical Science); Adjunct BIT-<br />
MM; Expert-Engineer of the Russian Technical inspection system; the author of 70<br />
scholarly articles and publications on industrial risks studies.<br />
––Soldatkin Stepan Innokentievich –Adjunct, the State Saratov university.<br />
––Vinogradova Anna Michaylovna – Expert commission technical secretary;<br />
head of the Balakovo branch of All-Russian society for concervation of nature (regis-
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tered as an initiator of the public environmental review of the second line project for<br />
BNPP). Has an experience in public environmental review: the organizer for the review<br />
group at Hydro NPP in 1998, and the project for the power unit №4, BNPP in 1992.<br />
Conclusions and recommendations, proposed by experts of our Public environmental<br />
expert group:<br />
1. Originally the site for the BNPP construction was selected in the second half of the<br />
1970s. At that time, there were no norms and regulations in terms of NPP location relatively<br />
to cities with 300,000 population.<br />
During the evaluation of the facility utilization, the issues on the capacity limit<br />
were not settled, especially in terms of overall evaluation of the NPP impact on environment<br />
and radiation safety of population, as well as factors of human activity and<br />
environmental issues, which also affect safety:<br />
The materials do not contain enough justification for ground stability in terms of additional<br />
facility construction and technology equipment and system changes (quantity and<br />
overall operation mass) comparable to the first line of the power units at the NPP. Moreover,<br />
there is no evaluation of potential changes in the ground stability during the NPP operation.<br />
The project papers do not include the requirement of Emergency Ministry of Saratovskaya<br />
oblast, but they represent the basic requirements for the initial facility design. The<br />
requirements of seismic conditions in the region are 8 points, as specified for the BNNP.<br />
The NPP proximity to the city with 230,000 population and industrial plants, does not<br />
comply with modern safety rules and norms. This fact leads to the unfavorable technological<br />
situation, which has a negative impact on the atmosphere near the power plant.<br />
Additionally, the changes in Russian legislation were not taken in consideration<br />
during the plant design (for example, ruling out of the Federal Law „Natural Environment<br />
Protection” and introduction of the new articles on environmental abuses in the<br />
Russia Codex „Administrative Violations”, changes in some other acts, which define<br />
basis for land, forest and water law).<br />
2. The project materials, with regard to the content and data, do not meet the requirements<br />
of the ND list P-01-01 and the original task. There is almost no any technical information<br />
with regard to the initial requirements. The information given can be qualified as a short<br />
technical description with some elements for safety justification, but without any particular<br />
technical justification for construction and design solutions for the system and equipment.<br />
There is no evaluation of potential system failures and its impact on the power units’ safety.<br />
The documents, reviewed during the project improvement for the second line of<br />
BNNP cannot serve as justification materials for the unit’s safety in order for the beginning<br />
of new construction. These documents must be reviewed again and include the<br />
suggested advice. The quality conditions of design and project documentation should<br />
have special attention and exploitation instructions. The matters of system and equipment<br />
technical conditions should receive a special attention; some training and personnel<br />
action is needed to find out the system and equipment failure, as well as management<br />
during the pre-emergency, emergency and after-emergency situations.<br />
3. In terms of environment protection, the project needs a detailed review and<br />
redesign. Independent evolution on „extra-clean” radiation impact of the BNNP on the
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
environment and people should take place. <strong>It</strong> is important to analyze the specter of all<br />
potential impacts on the environment and health in case of radiation accident and emergency.<br />
In the future the project cannot take place without a well-established safety system<br />
for the BNNP and potential radiation incidents from minor accidents to critical radiation<br />
catastrophes. The potential impact of the NPP on the environment requires evaluation,<br />
especially for old equipment, unfavorable environment conditions of huge old blocks<br />
and new constructions (engineering and geology seismic instability and flood) and effect<br />
complex of technology factors in Balakovo region.<br />
4. The designers of radiation management, safety systems and engineers for the<br />
NPP units must carefully review their projects and reveal the least secure constructions<br />
for radiation management, spent nuclear fuel (SNF) storage and other materials storage,<br />
for design solutions, technology operation capabilities. On the basis of the nuclear and<br />
radiological safety review, the new design must include these corrections in order to completely<br />
exclude terrorist attack and illegal intentions on behalf of the personnel and other<br />
individuals. If it comes out that it is impossible to exclude terrorist attacks with terrific<br />
consequences, then the construction of such plants must be completely stopped. There are<br />
no „minor” cases in work at NPPs, because even a least important incident can cause a<br />
catastrophe.<br />
5. The safety measures for the Balakovo population are insufficient, in terms of<br />
civil defense and security during the accident, when an evacuation is needed in case of<br />
unplanned accident at the NPP.<br />
In order to raise safety and security level for the Balakovo population in case of an<br />
evacuation, the following is needed:<br />
––To ensure enough shelters in the city limit, utilizing basement facilities with<br />
necessary equipment for living conditions (ventilation, heating, water supply, utilities<br />
and medication);<br />
––The road quality should be improved in the city area, with allocation of special<br />
resources;<br />
––A second bridge is needed to ensure evacuation safety;<br />
––To increase the number of public transportation by 2,000 with evacuation purposes<br />
6. The chosen concept of the BNPP removal from operation (complete removal up to<br />
100 years) does not have technical and economic calculations, which can confirm the plant’s<br />
construction and supporting facility reliability and safe operation for this lengthy period.<br />
Given the worsening criminal situation inside the country and overall increased<br />
terrorism activities, it is not safe to postpone the plant’s removal from operation for<br />
a long period. Additionally, such a delay increases expenditures related to necessary<br />
physical protection of the NPP at the required level for the entire delayed period and<br />
may lead to serous economic problems.<br />
The concept adoption of the delayed removal from operation of the plant has<br />
moral consequences as well: the solution of this problem automatically becomes a responsibility<br />
of future generations.<br />
7. The project’s security is based on the new methodology of new management<br />
system operation of unplanned accidents. The methodology shows the importance to
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
indicate and justify reliability of the system’s functions even with existing limitations,<br />
which also include economic factors.<br />
In order to justify the reliability of the functions, it is important to review not<br />
only the work of such a system but its ability to operate in case of an unplanned accident.<br />
In traditional safety and security systems, the latter aspect is resolved, but in the<br />
new suggested management systems it is important to conduct a program – Scientific<br />
Research and Construction Development, which includes theoretical end experimental<br />
studies of the key problems. Such studies include:<br />
––Studies of boron concentration change at the exit from the system during the<br />
system’s set off;<br />
––Studies of temperature area and boron concentration at the entrance to the active<br />
zone during the system’s set off;<br />
––Studies to justify support for the system of fast boron injection at the standby<br />
mode and elimination of the system’s false alarm.<br />
Based on SPOT the studies include:<br />
––Evaluation of heating capacity of natural heat exchanging units, depending on<br />
internal and external environment parameters;<br />
––Evaluation of circulation stability in heat exchange pipes and heat exchanging<br />
unit capacity;<br />
––Evaluation of non-condensed gases impact on heat exchange and ways to remove<br />
these gases.<br />
The studies of additional system of active zone (GE-2) flooding are also relevant:<br />
––Studies of the processes during the system’s connection to the first layer;<br />
––Studies of expenditures during the system’s construction accidents.<br />
Additionally it is important to conduct a comprehensive study in RU and simultaneous<br />
work of SPOT and GE-2 processes.<br />
8. The implementation of the decisions, noted in paragraph 7.7, as those not tested<br />
by previous experiments, additionally provide to meet the project compliance with the Act<br />
1.2.5. OPB-88/97. The implementation of the indicated systems will significantly increase<br />
the accumulative weight of RU with container. This will lead to an even greater speed and<br />
amount of radioactive deposits. Therefore, in the project there is no justification for the inconstruction<br />
units, under RU and containment of which there will be established a permanent<br />
platform (the grounds under the platform will remain unchanged). Additionally, there<br />
are no indicators for radioactive deposits. There is no multipurpose safety justification in<br />
the project, including the construction quality of the second-line construction units at the<br />
BNPP; the radioactive deposits of the in-construction units are inevitable.<br />
9. The project fails from the economic standpoint. At the level of the current<br />
tariffs for electric power, the actual NPP expenditures on industrial capacity building<br />
are three times or 200% higher than declared. According to the project’s authors, the<br />
increase of capital investment into the industrial capacity construction of more than<br />
60% makes such a project unprofitable. Besides, the actual cost of industrial capacity<br />
building is higher than originally planned. For example, the start up of a power unit in<br />
2004 at the Kalininskaya plant appeared to be 50% or three times more expensive than<br />
planned (and this sum equals to the amount for a completely new unit construction).
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
A number of financial allocations are not mentioned or lowered in the project. There<br />
are no allocations for social infrastructure construction around the NPP, as it supposed to allocate<br />
10% from the entire capital investment. There are no guaranties that such infrastructure<br />
will be built, based on the first line construction at the NPP in Balakovo. There are no indications<br />
for three of four types of financial allocations on nuclear energy development, which<br />
are required by the Russian law (41% of the profit). The allocations to the decommissioning<br />
reserves for the new power units (1.3% of the profit or 14% from the construction cost) in the<br />
reality are reduced. For example, the budget deficit for the decommissioning of new power<br />
units in Rosenergoatom was 6 billion rubles in 2004. Additionally the payment for SNF storage<br />
service in the federal storage at Krasnoyarsk is also lowered comparable to the real price.<br />
Overall, the project looses its efficiency (and projected efficiency is only 48%).<br />
The declared budget efficiency of the project is degraded by direct and indirect<br />
subsidies from the federal budget into nuclear energy, which is up to billions of rubles<br />
annually. Tax allocations to the local budgets are not included into the project, and most<br />
likely represent low numbers, because these numbers are actually correct and are written<br />
under the „other” expenditures.<br />
From the socio-economic efficiency standpoint, the construction of a second-line facilities<br />
at the BNPP in the near future does not make any sense at least for the oblast’ due to<br />
the energy capacity overload. To increase competency factor of the energy based industries, it<br />
is first of all important to conduct activities with respect to energy utilization efficiency.<br />
Conclusion:<br />
––The project materials in their content and information have only a formal character,<br />
and do not comply with the requirements on P-01-01 list and the initial goal.<br />
––The site choice for new power units of the Balakovskaya plant is extremely unfavorable<br />
with respect to ground, seismic factor, dangerous proximity to a large industrial<br />
city of Balakovo and the Volga River, which has drinking and economical significance.<br />
––Based on the expert conclusions, the project is insufficient from the technical and economical<br />
standpoint (and is unattractive from commercial point of view). In the end, the project<br />
does not guarantee a sufficient level of radiation and environmental safety of population.<br />
Based on the information, presented above, the Expertise Commission believes<br />
that the project to construct a second-line of facilities at the BNPP must be declined and<br />
prohibited from implementation.<br />
An additional public environmental review was conducted at Saratov regional department<br />
of Russian Ecology Academy, based on the agreement with the BNPP management,<br />
and supposedly paid by the plant. The expert council of this review was headed by the scientists,<br />
Chebotarevsky U.V., Larin E.A., Khrustalev V.A., which has worked with the BNPP for<br />
a long time. The two of the experts has performed scientific-research projects for the secondline<br />
facility construction at the plant, in other words, created the project. Larin and Khrustalev<br />
continued their work as a part of the State environmental expertise of the project.<br />
<strong>It</strong> is important to indicate the positive conclusions of the Saratov public environmental<br />
review and the State environmental expertise; the papers contain serious recommendations<br />
and suggestions, which make the installation of additional power units questionable. The conclusions,<br />
to some extent, support the recommendations of our environmental review group.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
The conclusions of independent experts created a large interest of the Balakovo population,<br />
the local council representatives, state ecology services’ representatives, and leaders of<br />
social organizations. Press- for the media, covering the public environmental review results,<br />
was held in Balakovo, Saratov, and Moscow and had a wide coverage. The public opinion<br />
surveys, conducted by our group in 2006 in Balakovo, confirmed the public’s negative attitude<br />
towards construction of the power unites №5 and №6. The public believes that this<br />
construction is environmentally dangerous and economically insufficient.<br />
All emergency cases at potentially dangerous facilities in Russia, based on the<br />
official data, are due to violations of facility design and operation. We believe, that there<br />
is a need for emergency capacity building at the BNPP located on the Volga River bank,<br />
near the densely populated Volga area; these violations indicate the inappropriateness<br />
of such project design.<br />
The environmental review of the second-line construction at the BNPP, including<br />
the public review, is the ultimate review in 2005, which was based on the federal legislation<br />
„Environmental Review”. Now it is not late to talk about how the conclusions should<br />
have been reviewed and taken into the consideration. More importantly the question of<br />
local population rights should be discussed with regard to the public environmental interests.<br />
In the recent years in Russia there is a weakening of the state policy in the area of environmental<br />
legislation compliance; a clear tendency to weaken the laws and standards of<br />
ecology regulations becomes more vivid along with a limited access to the information.<br />
In my opinion, such changes have a tendency when the legislation is fixed with regard<br />
to the Russian industry development, and including industry development. There is no<br />
opportunity to push a decision behind the established legal system, but the legislation itself<br />
changes. Nuclear experts often talk about the „pendulum effect”: after the Chernobyl accident<br />
a very strict system of laws and norms was adopted to ensure nuclear safety; with the passage<br />
of time the system was loosened up. <strong>It</strong> seems that now we have come to a period when there<br />
are no restrictions to place a NPP, if there is a safe operation guaranty. Unfortunately, this<br />
parameter is not confirmed by the international accident statistics at NPPs. Many specialists<br />
believe that nuclear energy capacity building while loosening up the requirements is a direct<br />
path to new accidents. The general public does not have a sufficient knowledge in nuclear<br />
energy, but it has common sense and overall wisdom, which helps the public react to the<br />
new developments and actions by the authorities. If the nation will resist the striving for NPP<br />
development, the authorities must consider the public opinion.<br />
The potential environmental danger presumption of any industrial activity, extremely<br />
large number of environmental catastrophes and crimes in Russia must lead the<br />
country to the strengthening of legislation. During the past eleven years the experience<br />
of practice the legislation on environmental review has only grown. This experience<br />
must be processed and utilized by the government agencies in order to create additional<br />
public barriers for unjustified risks for human health and environment. The state support<br />
of real public organizations and their intention to make living conditions safer will help<br />
to form an atmosphere of mutual trust between the government and civil society. The<br />
economic growth in Russia will help develop a better action plan: „Environmentally<br />
friendly activities, in the end, are economically beneficial”.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Sea Atom and NGOs<br />
Sergei N. Zhavoronkin, Expert, „Nuclear and Radiation<br />
Safety’ Programme, <strong>Green</strong> Cross Russia,<br />
city of Murmansk<br />
Many environmental problems accumulated in the north of Russia during the<br />
years of atomic energy development. Resolution of these problems is a technically<br />
difficult and expensive task, which also involves environmental risks.<br />
What is „sea atom” The concept includes the entire infrastructure, vessels and<br />
ships with nuclear power installations, service ships and on-shore facilities.<br />
In order to understand the subject and atomic energy complex on the sea in the<br />
North of Russia, we should identify key problems in two areas:<br />
––Military fleet problems;<br />
––Civil nuclear ice-breakers’ fleet problems.<br />
Military fleet problems<br />
Dismantlement of decommissioned nuclear submarines (NS) is among the top<br />
priority issues. Solution of this problem in Russia has a favorable time-frame. The NS<br />
dismantlement will be accomplished shortly. During this program, a consistent problem<br />
of final stage was not resolved: no decision was made whether to place reactor<br />
modules on the shore or to build a storage place for these reactor modules. Note that<br />
in Saida Guba the first line of facilities was accomplished.<br />
From an environmental point of view, the rehabilitation of technical bases in<br />
Andreyeva and Gremikha remain a key concern. Spent nuclear fuel (SNF) management<br />
at these facilities is connected with large environmental risks.<br />
NGOs supported the idea and actively participated in discussion of the Strategic<br />
Master Plan, which provided a deep problem analysis of the region and defined<br />
high priority activities for Russian and foreign specialists.<br />
Civil nuclear ice-breakers’ fleet problems<br />
The civil ice-breaking fleet in Russia developed under military fleet is facing<br />
similar problems. Technical conditions of the vessels, however, are better than in the<br />
military fleet and the scale of environmental problems is smaller.<br />
Major concerns environmental problems:<br />
––of technical base „Lepse” and its dismantlement.<br />
––related to spent nuclear and radioactive fuel management.<br />
Environmental problems of the coastal technical base „Lepse” are related to<br />
SNF, which was unloaded from the first generation reactors. We, however, believe that
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
the environmental aspect of this case is in the complex dismantlement process of the<br />
ship. Project „Lepse” has a ten year history, but there was no significant progress until<br />
recently.<br />
Similar positions of the NGO „Bellona-Murmansk” and the ship’s owner, Rosatom,<br />
with regard to the project, allowed for significant changes in the management<br />
of the project. Today we believe that the project can be successfully accomplished with<br />
respect to environmental safety.<br />
The civilian nuclear fleet has also accumulated problems related to nuclear spent fuel<br />
and radioactive waste: non-recyclable fuel at the floating base „Lotta,” overflowing storages<br />
of solid radioactive waste, unsatisfactory condition of installations for combustible radioactive<br />
waste reprocessing, which has negative affect on solid radioactive waste management.<br />
The incomplete international project of upgrading storage facilities for liquid radioactive<br />
waste in the Murmanskaya oblastis another problem that needs to be solved.<br />
„Sea atom” has common environmental problems. Some of these problems will<br />
need attention only in the future, but we need to resolve them today.<br />
1. Dismantlement of ships with nuclear energy installations.<br />
2. Dismantlement of atomic technical service ships.<br />
3. SNF and radioactive waste management.<br />
Problems related to the dismantlement of ships with nuclear energy installations<br />
are caused by lack of the necessary infrastructure on large-size installations in the region<br />
(especially with respect to long-term storage of large installations). Such problems<br />
are also typical for dismantlement of atomic technical service ships.<br />
New infrastructure to manage large installations in the region will require modern<br />
technology for radioactive waste management, and, therefore, environmental monitoring<br />
at the facilities and surrounding area.<br />
SNF affects safety in the region.<br />
SNF downloading from facilities in Andreyeva Bay and Germikha represent<br />
nuclear and environmentally dangerous works. SNF transportation to Chelyabinskaya<br />
oblast is connected to the Federal State Enterprise „Atomflot” in Murmansk, where the<br />
loading from sea to railroad transport takes place.<br />
Factors affecting efficiency of NGOs<br />
I will bring only several conditions, which, in my opinion, are important in NGO<br />
activities. In the next paragraph I will give examples with practical examples of NGOs<br />
in the region. Factors affecting efficiency of NGOs are the following:<br />
––urgency of the problem researched,<br />
––NGO’s position on the issue,<br />
––independency,<br />
––experts’ professionalism,<br />
––financing level.<br />
NGOs have accumulated a significant experience in various work methods in<br />
the North:<br />
––situation analysis and report preparation,
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
––position statement,<br />
––organization of conferences and seminars,<br />
––organization of public hearings,<br />
––organization of public environmental expertise,<br />
––communication with media.<br />
For example, „Bellona-Murmansk” and other organizations prepared several<br />
reports based on the analysis they conducted in the region. They are classified by the<br />
type of cover: black, blue and yellow: „Radioactive sources in Murmansk, Arkhangelsk<br />
oblasts” (1994), „Northern Fleet. Potential Risks of Radioactive Contamination in the<br />
Region” (1996), and „Atomic Arctic: problems and solutions” (2001).<br />
Lately, position statements are being prepared on significant environmental<br />
problems, including a position on „Murmansk Initiative – Russian Federation,” „Dismantlement<br />
of the Floating Technical Base „Lepse,” „Atomic Technical Service Ships<br />
and their Dismantlement.” A seminar, involving leading institutes and Rosatom, took<br />
place in Murmansk in February 2007 on the problem discussed above.<br />
NGOs are organizing public hearings on discussion of environmental impact and<br />
its evaluation. In 2006, hearings on environmental impact and its evaluation during SNF<br />
and radioactive waste infrastructure construction in Andreyeva Bay took place. In 2007,<br />
similar hearings were conducted with regard to the floating technical base „Lepse.”<br />
<strong>It</strong> is important to note, that if one NGO organizes the event, all other NGOs involved<br />
in environmental studies, also participate in this event.<br />
I would like to especially mention a public environmental review as a public<br />
participation activity. NGOs participation in nuclear field is a matter of trust. <strong>It</strong> took us<br />
more than half a year to negotiate a public environmental review with our client, the<br />
British donor, on the technical merits of reconstruction project of facility №5 at „Atomflot”<br />
and its transformation to storage (up to 50 years) of SNF from nuclear ice-breakers,<br />
which cannot be reprocessed.<br />
As a result, a public environmental review led a shorter timeframe for the facility<br />
construction. This happened due to the reform in state environmental regulations,<br />
which took place in 2004 and did not even allow starting ground works (in the North<br />
such works may take up to six month). Public environmental review resulted in decision<br />
to finance the works, which will not have negative effects on the facility’s safety<br />
in the future.<br />
Dealing with the Cold War legacy in the North of Russia together with the people<br />
and NGOs is a positive case. When working on a Sea Atom problem, regional NGOs<br />
search for environmentally safe solutions to clean the North of the nuclear and radioactive<br />
legacy.<br />
We want to live in harmony with a fragile and vulnerable environment in the<br />
North of our country.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Underestimating Public Opinion in Nuclear Projects<br />
Implementation Report<br />
Lina S. Samko, Public Expert Council, Sosnovyi Bor,<br />
Leningradskaya Oblast<br />
Good evening, dear Forum organizers, participants, and guests!<br />
I am a journalist and a member of the Ecological Journalists Association of<br />
St. Petersburg. I reside in Sosnovy Bor. First of all, let me echo the words of Lidia<br />
Popova in thanking the Forum organizers for the opportunity to present the public<br />
viewpoint from this podium.<br />
One gets an impression that Rosatom is still working on achieving full understanding<br />
with the population and the public organizations. For example, according to all the media<br />
statements and all the press conferences (in which I participated, as well) atomic scientists<br />
claim that the population fully embraces the idea of constructing new atomic power stations.<br />
However, Russian public organizations publish rather different information.<br />
For example, according to one of the best-known of these organizations, „Ecodefense!”<br />
group, 89% of the Murmanskaya oblast population is against the Kola nuclear<br />
power station construction, and 93% are for the development of wind energy. The South<br />
Ural nuclear power plant (NPP) in Chelyabinskaya oblast was suspended following a<br />
referendum at which the vast majority voted against its construction. The 2006 public<br />
opinion poll conducted by the „Ecodefense!” indicated that over 60% of Chelyabinskaya<br />
oblast residents are still against the NPP construction. In Seversk (Tomskaya<br />
oblast), over 80% of the population view new NPP quite negatively, according to the<br />
public opinion polls. And the examples can go on and on.<br />
I will not try to draw conclusions as to who is right: that would require special<br />
research. I will just tell you of the „green” public opinion in Sosnovy Bor regarding<br />
their relationship with atomic scientists.<br />
Today, the „Rosenergoatom” group General Deputy Director V. G. Asmolov<br />
highly rated the public hearings that took place on February 7 of this year in our city.<br />
Indeed, the gathering was so large that not all the people were able to get into the auditorium.<br />
But why Because the Leningradskaya NPP (LNPP) and the TITAN group<br />
administration directed their whole departments’ workforce to the „Constructor” Culture<br />
House, having given them time off from work. However, having provided masses<br />
of people, the directorate was unable to guarantee that their workers were made fully<br />
aware. The Environmental Impact Assessment was read by only about 30 citizens.<br />
This is why people, supposedly keenly interested in the hearings, had only a<br />
vague understanding of the LNPP-2 project. Still, up to this time, the city’s popula-
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
tion is unaware of the fact that the new nits will be cooled not by the gulf, but with the<br />
help of four giant 150 meters-tall cooling towers. Such cooling towers have never been<br />
constructed in Russia before! The Sosnovy Bor residents do not realize that, for the first<br />
time in the world, sea water would be used for the cooling. They are equally unaware<br />
that the concrete cooling towers would eject 100,000 cubic meters of steam and smoke<br />
mixture into the atmosphere daily.<br />
If such humidification devices were installed in the Sahara desert, they would undoubtedly<br />
be beneficial. But for the Gulf of Finland with its high humidity, fog and rain,<br />
such cooling towers become an additional risk factor – especially as they would „increase<br />
the likelihood of radioactive fallout” (Environmental Impact Assessment, p. 74).<br />
The most unpleasant fact is that the plume from the cooling tower will spread<br />
not only onto the industrial zone, but also onto the city itself, its streets, its beaches, its<br />
gardens. I have talked about the spray problem at the public hearings, and not only on<br />
February 7 in Sosnovy Bor, but also two days later, at the St. Petersburg Legislative Assembly.<br />
Moreover, I wrote about it in the city paper, in the St. Petersburg media, and on<br />
the Internet. However, no reaction followed from the „Rosenergoatom” specialists – no<br />
official statements, answers, presentations to the media, or discussion panels.<br />
Or is it that silence is the sign of consent<br />
If so, then the cooling towers should be moved further away from the city, to<br />
protect Sosnovy Bor from the effects. Yet the site for the cooling towers is already identified<br />
at the Science and Research Technological Institute (NITI), with permission for<br />
the construction of the nuclear plants, because some ten years ago a pressurized water<br />
reactor 640 (HPR-640) was planned here. This approval, long-ago, presents a significant<br />
economy of time and resources, because there is no need to fill out new documents.<br />
And if we take into account the fact that the head of Rosatom gave his word to the President<br />
to begin construction as soon as 2008, starting construction is a good opportunity<br />
to raise Rosatom’s status in the eyes of the country’s government.<br />
So, how can one call this line of policy friendly towards the population<br />
Here are a few more of examples. The water for Sosnovy Bor is provided by the<br />
LNPP – that’s the way it was from the early days of the city. Over the past third of a century,<br />
the water-supplying structures and installations have become really worn out. The<br />
water pipe is now so rusty that 30% of the purified drinking water simply leaks out into<br />
the ground. And in order to prevent the population from contracting intestinal diseases,<br />
the water is excessively processed with chlorine.<br />
At the same time, the LNPP spends enormous amounts of money for remodeling<br />
its buildings, for interior decoration and contemporary furniture. Of course, these things<br />
are important. But if we weigh design and architectural aesthetics against the health of<br />
70,000 citizens, which one will weigh more For a socially responsible corporation, it<br />
should be the latter.<br />
I can give yet another example. There is a huge wage gap between the LNPP administrators<br />
and its workers. People who do construction work in dangerous zones and<br />
risk their health are getting lower wages (possibly, many times lower) than the managers.<br />
<strong>It</strong> is not a secret from anyone that wages and premiums of the station’s administration are<br />
measured in millions of rubles. This wage gap undoubtedly creates social tension.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Half a year ago, I heard one of the LNPP workers say: „So what, let it all explode,<br />
I’m fed up with it!” Witnessing such scenes made me nervous. A situation of<br />
drastic social inequality and tension is a dangerous one. This is yet another aspect of<br />
public opinion which must not be neglected.<br />
Public outreach is a sphere where concern should not be limited to how the<br />
agency appears to the public. The public hearings to which the „masses” were directed<br />
were, in a sense, manipulative. Aesthetically appealing buildings and well-decorated<br />
LNPP office interiors with low quality drinking water for the population are also manipulative.<br />
The intention to build new units without having resolved the radioactive<br />
waste problems of the existing units is yet another case of manipulation. And behind<br />
each of these cases lurk the personal interests of specific individuals.<br />
The population understands these problems both on the conscious and subconscious<br />
levels. That is why, no matter what the multitude of the glossy Rosatom publications<br />
say, full public understanding will only happen when real openness replaces public<br />
relations moves and manipulation. I would like to hope that this atomic forum will be a<br />
start for such a dialogue with the public.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Discussion at the End of the First Day<br />
––Y. A. Israel: Our Forum is called „Nuclear Energy, Society Safety.” Therefore,<br />
the role of the society should be somehow emphasized. What do you think about the role<br />
of the public in nuclear energy development, both in a positive and a negative sense<br />
Very many people are simply afraid of nuclear energy, especially since Chernobyl. Another<br />
thing is that everyone understands that today’s opposition to nuclear energy is<br />
similar to the opposition to electricity in the past. Does this mean that we should work<br />
out some kind of mechanism that would increase the participation of the public in the<br />
construction, creation, and other aspects of nuclear power<br />
––V. G. Asmolov: Thank you for such a good question. We think that whatever<br />
we do, we do it for the society, because we are members of this society, and we are trying<br />
to offer what we think it needs. The society always reacts in different ways. The society<br />
should have its own experience. This experience is based on the social perception,<br />
on what people think of what they are offered. <strong>It</strong> also depends on us, because in the past,<br />
we provided very little information to the public about our activities. All of our virtues<br />
as well as our shortcomings result from the fact that our nuclear energy programs were<br />
born out of the secret work on the atomic bomb.<br />
I personally entered the nuclear field after viewing the film Nine Days of One<br />
Year. <strong>It</strong> was such a wonderful time. The public is unable to believe that it is possible, I<br />
am sure. If you start mentioning numbers such as 10 -5 or 10 -7 , it does not mean anything<br />
to people. For example, no one believes in God with uncertainty – either you believe in<br />
God or you do not. The arguments we are trying to offer today will determine the course<br />
of the issues.<br />
Vladimir Mikhailovich (Kuznetsov) presented a wonderful piece of research. <strong>It</strong><br />
contains a vast amount of violations statistics, with all the violations being different.<br />
<strong>It</strong> contains an international scale with levels from zero to seven and others. There are<br />
incidents and accidents, which are events and violations. If we analyze all these violations<br />
and suggestions with the <strong>Green</strong> Cross together, they are all level one, – that is, they<br />
would not affect public safety. Such are the 40 or 45 violations that have occurred in the<br />
last four years in the field of Russian nuclear energy. This is where our picture turns.<br />
Secondly, we are not afraid to go out on the street, we are not afraid to be hit by a<br />
car, because we are sure of our ability to control such processes. For example, we can cross<br />
the street only in designated places, only on a green light; we can even avoid going outside.<br />
But when it comes to nuclear energy, people think it’s something uncontrollable. These are<br />
the arguments we should put out on the table: there is a very specific space within which we<br />
provide safety and security. This is the so-called system of deep echelon protection, in-depth<br />
protection with barriers of physical defense standing in the way of danger. For each physical<br />
defense barrier, there is a certain group of soldiers on guard. These soldiers can stay in silence<br />
for 60 years, but when the danger comes, they are ready to face it.<br />
Such are the measures to operate these barriers, figuratively speaking. We could<br />
have a double control system. First, we must do everything to prevent accidents and prove
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
that we can prevent them. Then, we must forget that we have proved it and construct barriers<br />
and measures of fighting this supposed accident which, as we already proved, cannot<br />
happen. All of these things would be perceived by the public in a certain way.<br />
We also need to have middle men between us, the technocrats, and the people<br />
whom we serve. If we do not know how to do something, we should learn how to do it.<br />
Our explanations do not always come out easily; that is why we need teachers and middle<br />
men or facilitators of some sort. Vladimir Mikhailovich talked about the importance<br />
of closing the F-1 reactor. What is an F-1 reactor <strong>It</strong> is 500 tons of graphite and 50 tons<br />
of uranium. We bring people there every week (I am still the deputy director of the Kurchatov<br />
Institute). Even schoolchildren can hold this metal uranium in their hands, the<br />
same uranium that is inside of the reactor. This reactor is functioning today with about<br />
20–30 Watt power. <strong>It</strong> does not release anything at all, and we use it as a neutral source<br />
so that we can calibrate the equipment. There is no better one. Our fathers constructed it<br />
from uranium and graphite and obtained the first chain reaction. There are zero releases,<br />
the limits are over 20 Watts of power. With its first load of fuel, it can work another<br />
300 years. <strong>It</strong> is in the Guinness book of records. I live 50 meters away from it, and I am<br />
definitely not afraid of it, because I know everything about it. We need to sit down and<br />
solve these problems together. I am absolutely certain that we can explain everything to<br />
each other in a simple way.<br />
––Y. A. Israel: Vladimir Grigorievich, you have talked very interestingly about<br />
the reactor. <strong>It</strong> is indeed safe. But when it comes to creating a new nuclear power plant<br />
(NPP), does the region’s population participate in this decision somehow<br />
––V. G. Asmolov: The latest example is quite famous. We are going to build the<br />
Leningradskaya NPP-2 (LNPP) as a replacement plant for those four LWGRs which<br />
function on the LNPP-1. That is where the first unit will be located. <strong>It</strong> will be the second<br />
one since the NPP-2006. We have organized public hearings. <strong>It</strong> was amazing for me,<br />
because in the auditorium for five hundred people, eight hundred people came.<br />
These hearings were completely open. We published an Environmental Impact<br />
Assessment – the evaluation of the unit’s impact upon the environment, and people<br />
had an opportunity to read it. We had visitors, such as Russian experts as well as our<br />
foreign colleagues from nearby Estonia and Finland. <strong>It</strong> was a very interesting four-hour<br />
dialogue with tons of questions and tons of answers. <strong>It</strong> was quite important for me to see<br />
that our community/society is growing.<br />
The questions that were asked mostly concerned the releases of heat, cooling<br />
towers, and so on. The risk of radiation as such was no longer present in the questions.<br />
<strong>It</strong> means that the public is beginning to understand that in order to fight the radiation<br />
risk, one has to make a monster out of it, and it should be giant. At the same time, after<br />
everything we have been through, all the statistics point to the fact that the radiation risk<br />
is really not such a monster. And fighting, let’s say a dog rather than a monster is not<br />
as fun for some people. This is why I consider the analysis of the LNPP events and the<br />
final document in which all the questions were answered (not a single one forgotten) as<br />
a form of public dialogue.<br />
––Y. A. Israel: But still, can the population legally refuse you the permission for<br />
the construction
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
––V. G. Asmolov: Of course.<br />
––Y. A. Israel: Has there been such a case<br />
––V. G. Asmolov: There were many more such cases in the previous decade.<br />
They would close our sites one after another. Whereas now we have regions standing on<br />
the waiting list, requesting to open sites for nuclear power stations. But the situation is<br />
such that we do not come into a region that does not have the demand from the public.<br />
––Y. A. Israel: I would still differentiate between the concept of region and that<br />
of population. Region can either mean a governor or the region’s population, and one<br />
can understand it differently.<br />
––V. G. Asmolov: Every individual and each individual opinion should integrate<br />
with the rest somehow, they should consolidate. There are regional powers, dumas,<br />
cities, villages, et cetera. I cannot say that the situation changed substantially. Well,<br />
actually, it did, because we understood these risks for life and how they are different.<br />
The risk to live without heat and electricity is a very high risk in comparison with the<br />
risk of radiation, even when taking into account all the past accidents. The public now<br />
begins to understand it. Today, the public attitude towards it is serious, respectful, and<br />
constructive in most regions. I can talk about it confidently, because the entire year of<br />
1986, I was inside the fourth unit of the Chernobyl NPP.<br />
––Paul Walker: First of all, thank you for the wonderful presentation. I would<br />
like to ask everyone, and especially Vladimir Kuznetsov, a question concerning the<br />
risk of terrorism. Mr. Lyulyashnik raised this question today. There is a huge discussion<br />
going on in the United States regarding the ways and means of fighting terrorism<br />
and how vulnerable we are to this threat. Another thing that is being discussed is the<br />
risk of transporting the materials. There is a wide discussion going on regarding the<br />
security measures and future spending on constructing new reactors. I would like<br />
to ask the following question: here, in Russia, is there a serious evaluation of risks<br />
connected to potential terrorist attacks Is the spending and insurance responsibility<br />
taken into account when it comes to nuclear facilities and materials that are under<br />
special risk<br />
––V. G. Asmolov: There is no specific Russian position; there is a consolidated<br />
international position on this issue. Following the events of 9/11, Russia specifically as<br />
well as the world community in general started looking at the vulnerability of nuclear<br />
energy facilities and materials with more concern. What is terrorism For us, it is one<br />
of the so-called external events, an attack from outside, which we regard in a similar<br />
way as tornadoes, earthquakes, and floods. In Russia, we conducted an evaluation of<br />
Boeing-767 plane attacks on our units with full tanks and concentrated masses such as<br />
propulsion reactors. The two latter ones are particularly vulnerable to attacks. Planes<br />
can attack New York’s Twin Towers in such a flight, but it cannot dive downwards on<br />
the plant, it can only land on it.<br />
We had a very serious team looking at this issue. We in Russia as well as our<br />
foreign colleagues possess very sensitive data which I cannot discuss in detail due to<br />
its sensitive nature. So my answer is the following: even small improvements in the<br />
construction of the reactor containment drastically reduce the likelihood of a disastrous<br />
outcome in case of an attack. As for the rest, it is viewed as an external threat.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
On the other hand, at the most recent INSAK meeting in India, a similar situation<br />
was considered. This is a philosophy of security and nuclear safety; this is the so-called<br />
physical protection or defense. Physical protection should be viewed as one of the barriers<br />
of safety. <strong>It</strong> should be like a physical barrier so it can counteract both external events,<br />
such as terrorist attacks, and internal events, such as attempts to steal nuclear materials<br />
from the inside of the facility. Therefore, although many people are now willing to<br />
invest as much money as possible into the external physical barrier defense, we need<br />
to limit it and have a balance. The balance should be the synergy of the nuclear safety<br />
system and physical security.<br />
What kind of suggestions can one offer here Take, for example, our NPP: should<br />
we protect it from 15–20 terrorists, 100 terrorists, or a whole army of terrorists We<br />
want to understand: when we are located in the middle of Russia, are we the last barrier<br />
that fights terrorism or is there anyone else protecting us on the way In our understanding,<br />
15–20 people are a substantial group; it would be difficult to imagine an army. If it<br />
is indeed an army, the suggestions that were presented earlier will terribly increase the<br />
insurance costs of the NPP. <strong>It</strong> was suggested to place rocket installations by the NPPs<br />
and use them. But then, we as the utilizing organization will have to cover the costs of<br />
these installations. Although people were saying even then: let us build stratostats as we<br />
did during the war, and it will be much cheaper.<br />
––V. A. Chuprov: The physical defense such as the internal army and the work<br />
of the research institutes involved in the nuclear energy field, – are they included in the<br />
cost of nuclear energy production And if they are not included but would be added to<br />
the cost, how much would that increase the total cost<br />
––V. G. Asmolov: The NPP project includes an estimated cost of the power-generating<br />
unit. The cost of the power-generating unit also includes the technical project.<br />
The technical project is tended to by the research director, the general constructor, and<br />
a bunch of science and research institutes. <strong>It</strong> all costs money and it is all included in the<br />
estimated cost, and they all receive the same salary that is included in the project cost.<br />
As for the physical protection of the NPP, a separate chapter of the same project<br />
is devoted to it. <strong>It</strong>s cost is indeed high and increases annually. We have to find a balance<br />
in this aspect, as well. Of course, it is also included in the cost of the overall spending<br />
that is allocated to the NPP. Payments to the employees who occupy themselves with<br />
the physical defense are included in the NPP estimated exploitation costs. The budget is<br />
paying for the internal army.<br />
––I. V. Konyshev: Take the Balakovskaya NPP, for example. Everyone still remembers<br />
how, in 2004, the residents of the Saratov, Samara, and Ulyanovsk regions<br />
bravely consumed iodine. <strong>It</strong> happened because of a few careless words. And who was<br />
better off as a result People who all poisoned themselves to hell Excuse my language.<br />
––A. M. Vinogradova: If you would allow me to correct you, please. This is not<br />
true. I would like to remind you of your promise to speak the truth. First of all, I must assure<br />
you that there was not a single person in Balakovo who was poisoned by iodine.<br />
––I. V. Konyshev: We are not talking about Balakovo, but about the Saratov region.<br />
––A. M. Vinogradova: I just want to say that you have again said something<br />
untrue. The public reaction to the events on the Balakovskaya NPP back then and in
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
February of this year was quite inadequate. But it was happening not because someone<br />
said something wrong. In 2004, the Rosatom representatives (the NPP information<br />
service) informed the public of what happened only on following day (on November 4).<br />
Moreover, a representative of the Civil Defense and Emergencies department came out<br />
to speak on the local television. He was all shaky. I do not know why he was shaking<br />
like that, it would have been better if he had not come out at all.<br />
Only after the Moscow specialists explained the situation on national television<br />
was there some clarity. As for this year’s February incident – again, the Moscow service<br />
disclosed the correct information, whereas our people lied again. The information<br />
regarding the accidental stopping of the power-generating unit that was provided by<br />
the NPP did not at all coincide with the official information provided by the Moscow<br />
experts. That is why I ask you to please pay attention to your experts and not to the<br />
public reaction.<br />
––I. V. Konyshev: I was not talking about the public reaction; I was talking<br />
about the comments of the Civil Defense and Emergencies Department. Besides, I can<br />
remember one more „accident”: the explosion of the power substation at the factory in<br />
Gorniy. If you remember, it happened in 2002 or 2003. The substation malfunctioned,<br />
and the Civil Defense and Emergencies Department commented on it as if it were a<br />
critical accident. As a result, half of the Saratovskaya oblast thought themselves to be<br />
poisoned with mustard and lewisite gas, neither of which is explosive by definition. You<br />
and I, we are both saying the same thing: one should treat information carefully. The<br />
news of some type of an extreme situation in itself must be carefully verified in order to<br />
avoid inflicting any kind of socio-psychological trauma upon the population.<br />
In connection with this, my dear colleagues, we are the new Rosatom team.<br />
What happened in 2004 was, of course, on Rosatom’s watch; but it was when different<br />
people worked there. What we are now trying to do, what we are trying to correct, and<br />
whatever is coming out of it or not is, basically, what we do. If we do it together, I think<br />
it will be productive. But if we are busy accusing each other of something, we will not<br />
be productive. Moreover, it will be harmful to the people who surround us. That is our<br />
position, and with this position, we are open for communication and dialogue. Honestly,<br />
I have really liked today’s discussion, because everyone was able to state their position.<br />
Everyone was able to express whatever information or views they have accumulated,<br />
to which they have devoted themselves and their time, so that this information could<br />
become interesting to others, as well.<br />
Thank you so very much.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Radiation Heritage of the Cold War<br />
Vladimir M. Kuznetsov, Director, „Nuclear and Radiation<br />
Safety” Programme, <strong>Green</strong> Cross Russia, PhD<br />
The Cold War left us with enormous radiation heritage, which is a serious radiation<br />
danger from the perspective of nuclear nonproliferation regime and environmental<br />
security as well as significant financial costs. Billions were spent on nuclear development<br />
and testing of nuclear weapons (since 1945, the United States has produced 550 tons of<br />
weapons-grade uranium and 112 tons of weapons-grade plutonium with total costs on nuclear<br />
weapons arsenal accounting for 3.6 trillions dollars). Today unaccountable expenses<br />
are added on radiological security, cutting down and dismantlement of these materials.<br />
Many countries accumulated enormous amounts of excess fissile materials, including<br />
industrial reactor-grade plutonium. In 2002 the Russian HEU inventory was<br />
1,500 tons, and weapons-grade plutonium was 140–160 tons (according to other sources<br />
– 150 tons of plutonium and 30 tons of plutonium fuel). These numbers do not include<br />
plutonium and uranium extracted from spent nuclear fuel (SNF), or produced by nuclear<br />
reactors, transport installations and industrial reactors. Most of these materials are not<br />
under international safeguards.<br />
<strong>It</strong> is also important to note that, before the start up of the first nuclear reactor by<br />
Fermi in 1942 in Chicago, there was less than 50 kg Pu in the entire Earth core and in<br />
the ocean waters. Due to nuclear weapons tests, accidents and imperfect recycling technologies,<br />
plutonium spread to the environment near the nuclear industries locations in<br />
the United States, the Soviet Union, Great Britain and other countries. According to the<br />
evaluations of the UN Commission on Environment, about 3.9 tons of 239 Pu and 240 Pu<br />
have fallen out on the earth’s surface.<br />
March 5, 1946 is considered to be the beginning of the Cold War, which was<br />
initiated by Churchill’s speech in Fulton against the former Soviet Union: „…A shadow<br />
has fallen upon the scenes so lately light by the Allied victory… the Communist parties<br />
or fifth columns constitute a growing challenge and peril to Christian civilization. For<br />
that reason the old doctrine of a balance of power is unsound. We cannot afford, if we<br />
can help it, to work on narrow margins, offering temptations to a trial of strength.”<br />
The speech was not his personal point of view. Churchill, who by that time had<br />
lived for many years in Florida (he was not needed in England after the end of the World<br />
War II), often had consultations with Truman, the U.S. President, and the President’s<br />
inner circles, with the goal of confirming his position. Truman himself arrived at the<br />
historical lecture by Churchill and personally introduced the speaker to the audience. The<br />
essence of Sir Winston’s speech was the call for all the English-speaking countries and<br />
peoples to unite against the major threat to the world – the Soviet Union. Churchill cyni-
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
cally mentioned that the West has superiority in weapons, including in the nuclear arsenal<br />
and there was an opportunity to dictate its own conditions. In case the Soviet Union<br />
refused to take these conditions, a preventive war could take place against the country.<br />
Churchill used the phrase „Iron Curtain” for the first time. Churchill’s metaphor<br />
became the basis for the creation of NATO. In the middle of the 20 th century a superweapon<br />
was created – a nuclear bomb. In August 1945, the first two atomic bombs,<br />
based on nuclear chain reaction, were dropped by American aviation on the two Japanese<br />
cities, Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In the Soviet Union, the first nuclear weapon test<br />
was conducted four years later, in 1949. Almost immediately after the end of World<br />
War II, in which the Soviet Union and the United States were allies, a Cold War begins<br />
against the Soviet Union. In order to find out the relation between the growing international<br />
tensions and intensification of works on atomic project, it is necessary to indicate<br />
historical stages of the cold war.<br />
The first period (end of the 1940s–1960s): extreme confrontation period<br />
– Stalin’s demand to review the borders in Europe and Asia, the Black Sea channels;<br />
Winston Churchill’s speech in Fulton in March, 1946 with the call to protect the Western<br />
world from the USSR influence by all possible means; Truman Doctrine (February, 1947).<br />
The measures to „save Europe from the Soviet expansion” (including the creation<br />
of the military bases near the Soviet borders). The major doctrines:<br />
– the Containment doctrine;<br />
– the Soviet Union block of Eastern-European countries (with the support of local<br />
Communist parties and the Soviet Union bases), and reproduction in these countries<br />
of the soviet model of development;<br />
– the „Iron Curtain,”<br />
– the Stalinist interference in the domestic and international politics of the Soviet<br />
block countries;<br />
– the purges, repressions and executions.<br />
Atomic project: creation and launching of the first nuclear research reactor „A” in<br />
Eurasia (12/26/1948), first radio-chemical plant „B” (12/22/1948), launch of the chemical-medical<br />
factory „B” (February, 1949), nuclear weapons testing (08/29/1949).<br />
The Cold War climax – 1949–1960s: NATO establishment, the Economic cooperation<br />
council and Warsaw pact organization:<br />
– confrontation of the two military and political blocks, weapons build up, including<br />
nuclear missiles;<br />
– the Berlin crisis and establishment of the two German republics;<br />
– conflicts and wars in South-East Asia (Korea, Vietnam) and Middle East with<br />
direct participation of the Soviet Union and the United States;<br />
– Cuban missile crisis of 1962 (the world at the stage of a new world war);<br />
– Soviet military invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968.<br />
Atomic project: the launch of 16 industrial reactors at facilities №№ 817, 816,<br />
815; the beginning of HEU production at the facility №813 (the Urals Electrochemical<br />
Plant, Novouralsk city, Sverdlovskaya oblast), launch of facility №814 on HEU production<br />
(„Electrokhimprovod” plant, Lesnoy); launch of the factory №250 – Novosibirsk<br />
plant of the chemical concentrates – nuclear fuel production for industrial and power
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
reactors; launch of the plant №544 in Glasov (the Udmurt Republic) – nuclear fuel<br />
production for industrial reactors and zirconium rolling; launch of the factory №12,<br />
Electrostal (Moscow obalst) – nuclear fuel production for the transport and transportable<br />
nuclear power installations; nuclear installation creation for the first generation of<br />
under-water nuclear ice breakers; nuclear and thermo-nuclear weapons testing; launch<br />
of the first power units at the Belojarsk and Novovoronezh atomic power plants, widerange<br />
research nuclear installations.<br />
The second period of the Cold War (the 1970s): the international policy of détente<br />
––The treaties between the German Federal Republic and the Soviet Union, Poland,<br />
German Democratic Republic, Czechoslovakia;<br />
––Western Berlin agreement, the Soviet-American negotiations on arms control;<br />
––the 1975 Helsinki Agreement on security and cooperation in Europe (attempts<br />
of the two systems’ coexistence, and their challenges and antagonisms);<br />
––military and political parity between the Soviet Union and the United States.<br />
The Atomic project: nuclear parity with the United States based on the amount<br />
of nuclear warheads (1978) and nuclear submarines (NS); large-scale fissile materials<br />
production; nuclear power stations entry to operation.<br />
The third period (end of the 1970s – mid 1980s)<br />
––The end of the „detente” policy, international confrontation intensification of<br />
the two blocs;<br />
––Soviet-American relations change for the worse;<br />
––new weapons race, the U.S. SDI program;<br />
––increased interference in the policy of the Middle East and Latin American<br />
countries;<br />
––the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan; continuing Cold War policy during the<br />
Socialist system crisis.<br />
The Atomic project: Start up of operations of the two industrial reactors at the<br />
Mayak facility; the third generation NS invention; start up of power reactors based on<br />
the fast neutrons (Shevchenkovskaya and Beloyarskaya nuclear power plants); largescale<br />
fissile material extraction at the radio-chemical plant RT-1, Mayak facility; further<br />
introduction of the second generation nuclear power units.<br />
The fourth period (end of the 1980s – early 1990s): international policy of détente<br />
––The Soviet President, M.S. Gorbachev; the August 1991 putsch and „perestroika”<br />
crisis as an attempt of socialist reforms;<br />
––the Soviet Union collapse, Russia’s independence declaration, B.Yeltsin became<br />
the first President of Russia and starts implementation of liberal reforms;<br />
––the Communist party stopped to exist;<br />
––Russia transitioned to market economy and liberal political system;<br />
––the economic crisis and „shock therapy.”<br />
Atomic project: NS accident in Chazhma bay (1985); end of enriched fissile material<br />
production (1988–1994); Chernobyl catastrophe (1986); declassification of information<br />
about radioactive accidents at Mayak in 1957, 1966, 1967; NS Komsomolets<br />
accident (1986); radiation accident in Tomsk-7 (1993); sharp decrease in nuclear power<br />
plants (NPP) construction.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
The fifth period (mid 1990s – present): international policy of détente<br />
––Controversies and social consequences of privatization;<br />
––price liberalization effects on the people;<br />
––savings devaluation, price increase, unemployment rate growth;<br />
––the kolkhoz system crisis; inflation; workers protests; brain drain; growth of<br />
entrepreneurship; bank system establishment; stock companies, private banks and business<br />
growth; capitalism system development;<br />
––establishment of new economic management system;<br />
––development of international trade and Russia’s integration into global economy.<br />
Other changes:<br />
––consumer market grows;<br />
––the Russian Federation political system development and attempts to preserve<br />
the territorial unity of Russia;<br />
––combat with terrorism and crime, anti-terrorism campaign in Chechnya;<br />
––Putin elected as a new president of Russia;<br />
––9/11 in the United States, war on domestic and international terrorism.<br />
Atomic project: „Megatons to Megawatts” program; conversion of industrial nuclear<br />
reactors to peaceful use facilities; decommission of the first and second generation<br />
NPPs; 13 nuclear power units operation termination; decommissioning of nuclear research<br />
reactors; nuclear warheads production less than 10% of the Cold War production<br />
rate; large scale destruction work takes place (1,500 warheads are destroyed annually);<br />
military research decreases; the number of employees at the nuclear laboratories decreased<br />
by 2/3 of the Cold War estimates.<br />
Despite the changes, Russia still has two times more nuclear facilities and four<br />
times more defense personnel, than the United States. The program adopted by the<br />
Russian government in 1998 envisioned the termination of nuclear explosive devices<br />
production at two of the four facilities in the industry by 2000, the ending of nuclear<br />
explosive device research by 2003 and integration of HEU and plutonium production<br />
in one facility. By 2005 the number of the personnel at the defense program will by<br />
reduced by 40,000 and at the manufacturing production from 40,000 to 15,000 people.<br />
Even if this plan was accomplished, the military industry will be able to produce 2,000<br />
warheads per year. Actual production is 200–300 units per year.<br />
Each of the Cold War periods is closely connected to the atomic project. For example,<br />
during the first period (1940s–1960s), the nuclear weapons system in the Soviet<br />
Union included twenty enterprises, and the most important of them were located in ten<br />
closed territories and had an ability to produce up to three-four warheads per year. At<br />
these enterprises there have been sixteen nuclear industrial reactors, which produced<br />
nuclear fissile materials for the weapons and special isotopes for thermonuclear weapons.<br />
Some examples of work load, planned for 1950–1954 by the Soviet Union Council<br />
of Ministers Resolution №5060–1943, dated October 29, 1949 (Book 4, Volume 2 „The<br />
USSR Nuclear Project”, 342–354): for 1949–1954 – plutonium units – 154 (plus one<br />
testing unit), 1949 – 2 units, 1950 – 7, 1951 – 18, 1952 – 30, 1953 – 42, 1954 – 54.<br />
The plan for 1949–1954: 992 kg of plutonium, in particular 890 kg at uranium-graphite
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
reactors and 102 kg at heavy-water reactors, with daily plutonium production of 114 g<br />
on January 1, 1950 and 1,255 grams on January 1, 1955. The approximate production<br />
investment in 1950–1954 was established for 16 billion rubles (based on prices in 1949)<br />
and 3.96 billion rubles for uranium ore extraction in foreign mines. The Resolution’s<br />
content is an example of the extraordinary development of atomic production, starting<br />
in 1945 and developing during the first five years, at the time when an atomic industry<br />
was starting from scratch.<br />
At the nuclear installations, during the 1940s and later, major attention was given<br />
not to the personnel and population protection from radiation dangers, but rather to<br />
higher results in economic and production indicators. These indicators, in turn, were the<br />
result of the arms race. Unique and expensive materials as well as equipment for nuclear<br />
technology, which could be disturbed or destroyed in an accident, were valued more<br />
than health and lives of soldiers, scientists, prisoners and other people at the facilities.<br />
This same anti-human and administrative approach was used in the construction<br />
of NPPs. Up until 1992, the radiation safety norms of allowed radiation effects on<br />
a human were the fourteenth priority in 1973 and the sixth priority in 1990 in the legal<br />
papers of atomic industry, far away from the top priorities: the nuclear security production<br />
papers and legislation (“The Statute on Security Support” and „Nuclear Security<br />
Rules”), and included the maintenance rules for reactor equipment. Such an approach<br />
led to a large-scale contamination of the environment. The most intensive fluid radioactive<br />
waste discharges at Mayak (facilityies №817) into the Techa River took place from<br />
1949–1956 and were presented as radio-chemical waste [1]. Almost entire beta-activity<br />
of the fluid radioactive waste consisted of uranium fission elements with various halflives.<br />
As a result of irradiation of the units before their chemical dissemination, the<br />
outcome was mostly a medium and long-term products. Alpha-activity of the waste<br />
(uranium isotopes, plutonium and other trans-uranium elements) was much lower.<br />
The difficulties, existed at the first stage of Mayak activity on liquid fuel waste<br />
control, including analysis and instrumental difficulties in defining radionuclide amounts,<br />
and absence of technical accountability documentation until 1958, allow us establish only<br />
approximate evaluation of Techa contamination [2]. For the period of 1949–1956, discharges<br />
of 90 Sr and 137 Cs, which caused long-term contamination of the river system are<br />
estimated as 0.35 mKu. Other radionuclide make up for 0.2 mKu. The date is available<br />
only from the Mayak facility, the similar data from other facilities is classified [1].<br />
Nuclear weapons tests, large radiation accidents, emissions and discharges of<br />
NPPs and industry led to human-generated radionuclides in the biosphere in general and<br />
high radioactivity of some territories. From the environmental security perspective, the<br />
most significant consequences grew out of military activities. These activities include:<br />
––environment contamination near Mayak (Chelyabinsk-65), Siberian Chemical<br />
Plant (Tomsk-7), the State Chemical Plant (Krasnoyarsk-26) during the first years of<br />
nuclear weapons production;<br />
––nuclear and radiological waste accumulation, particularly near the NS bases;<br />
––radioactive materials accumulation at the nuclear fuel cycle facilities, particularly<br />
large amounts of radioactive waste, which was not recycled to a safe environmental<br />
condition;
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––large number of nuclear and radiation dangerous facilities, which also include<br />
reactor installation and weapons-grade nuclear materials production, removed from the<br />
Federal Navy Fleet, and fissile materials resulting from weapons destruction and dismantlement.<br />
Radionuclide-contaminations took place at 22 facilities of atomic power<br />
industry, which are located in 16 Russian districts.<br />
The total contamination accounts for 480 km 2 , including lands – 376 km 2 , and waters<br />
– 104 km 2 . Industrial grounds include – 63 km 2 , including – 220 km 2 in inhabited areas, and<br />
observation territories – 197 km 2 . Territories with contamination level with more than 2 micro<br />
Zv/hour expand to 6 km 2 . The largest amount of contaminated territories has five plants: the<br />
Siberian chemical plant – 10.4 km 2 , Priargunskoye production chemical union – 8.5 km 2 ,<br />
mountain-chemical plant – 4.7 km 2 , Chepetsky mechanical plant – 1.35 km 2 .<br />
Historically, radioactivity in the air above earth surface and waters equals<br />
0.12x10 -9 and 0.01x10 -9 Ku per m 3 . The data is taken from P.N. Teverskoy „Atmospheric<br />
Electricity,” published in 1949 and has a special value, because it was calculated before<br />
nuclear tests effects on the atmosphere [3]. According to the recent data the atmospheric<br />
fallout is a result of air-based nuclear tests in the 1960s and to industrial waste. For<br />
example, NPPs add to the surface activity approximately 0.1 Ku per km 2 . The data comparison<br />
with Tverskoy’s book data shows that in the nuclear era, the radioactive fallout<br />
magnitude from the atmosphere has increased by 10x10 6 times.<br />
From 1955 to 1996, the Soviet Union built five ships with nuclear power units,<br />
nine nuclear ice-breakers (one has not been completed), an atomic barge and 249 NSs.<br />
By 1996, the Russian Navy included 241 NSs: 55 – first generation, 142 – second<br />
generation and 34 – third generation vessels, as well as 8 NSs with fluid metal power<br />
supply and 2 research submarines (Papa and Mike as in NATO classification), and 5<br />
super-small NSs. The submarines had 441 nuclear power installations, the ships had 8,<br />
and 15 installations were placed on nuclear ice-breakers.<br />
In general the Russian atomic fleet (including civilian vessels) consisted of 30<br />
vessel and ship types. For example, 240 nuclear powered military ships have been built.<br />
In Russia, according to January 1, 2004 data, the entire first generation of NSs was<br />
decommissioned, including most of NSs with OK-560 B-3 reactors, and all NSs with<br />
a power unit.<br />
The maximum service period of decommissioned nuclear war-head missiles is<br />
forty years (K-3), the life-time of the first generation NSs is 35.8 years on average, and<br />
35% of the submarines served more than thirty years. Up to 40% of decommissioned<br />
NSs have been without any service up to twenty years. Long-term stationing in the<br />
waters led to corrosion and defects. The first-generation NSs are in the worst condition,<br />
whose corrosion has achieved a critical level. The largest part of NSs with SNF<br />
lost the integrity of tanks main ballast and can sink. In order to avoid sinking, 15 NSs<br />
were moved closer to the shore. Submarines with nuclear spent fuel represent a serious<br />
radiation danger for the population and the environment. The risk of accidents increases<br />
each year and can happen due to various causes, but the most likely ones are personnel<br />
mistakes, fires and flooding.<br />
The real scale of potential nuclear and radiation danger in Russia is based on<br />
the following data: large-scale decommissioning of the NSs fleet, resulted in 300 active
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areas (or more than 70,000 heat-emitting bodies); more than 14,000 m 3 of fluid radioactive<br />
waste and 26,000 m 3 of solid radioactive waste stored at the overloaded Russian<br />
fleet bases. This waste causes increasing pressure on the environment and the population,<br />
in particular the Scandinavian population. A separate concern is an imbalance<br />
between increasing nuclear reactors active zones at the vessel-repair plants and SNF<br />
shipment for further recycling. The SNF from NSs makes up 500 million Ku, and half<br />
of this activity is accounted for nuclear fuel, which remains in nuclear installations of<br />
decommissioned submarines. The total activity of radioactive waste resulted from the<br />
entire Russian nuclear industry activity makes up billions of Ku; during the Northern<br />
fleet exploitation with nuclear power installation (nearly 200 reactors) 5,000–7,000 m 3<br />
of fluid radioactive waste is annually produced with activity of 3.7 ТBq (100 Ku): 30%<br />
– in White sea region and 70% – in Barents sea.<br />
At present in the storages of the shore-based technical bases and technical tankers<br />
there are approximately 14,000 tons of liquid radioactive waste, and there are no available<br />
tanks to accept this waste. In the storages of the bases there is 20,000 tons of solid<br />
radioactive waste with the total activity – 37 TBq. High-activity radioactive waste accounts<br />
for 5–7%. The total activity of the accumulated radioactive waste from NSs’ activity<br />
exceeded 270,000 Ku; shore-based storage for solid radioactive waste does not provide<br />
necessary storage space. The total magnitude of radioactive construction materials of NSs<br />
under utilization is 600,000 tons; the number of NSs material is 1.5 million tons.<br />
The USSR navy sank 8 reactors of the first generation NPPs at the Northern fleet<br />
and 2 reactor installations in the Pacific. During the 1950–1970s at the seabed of Northern<br />
and Pacific oceans more than 25,000 containers with nuclear waste were discharged:<br />
in the North more than 17,000 containers, and the rest – in the Pacific. According to the<br />
official data, in Russia the total radioactive materials waste into water was 325 kKu,<br />
unofficial data states – 2,500 kKu.<br />
Since the first Soviet NS launch in 1957, the Soviet NSs had 26 declassified accidents<br />
(and 19 remain classified). 5 NSs were lost, and 405 people died. On diesel submarines,<br />
10 accidents took place and 369 people died. 20 accidents on NSs (273 dead)<br />
took place in the Soviet era and 6 (132 dead) – after 1991. 5 accidents on NSs (27 dead)<br />
are due to atomic reactors and mismanagement. Fires and explosions at NSs took place<br />
12 times (316 dead). 4 submarines sank. Nine more accidents were related to technical<br />
fault, mismanagement or navigation mistakes. These accidents resulted in 62 deaths.<br />
The space navigation history has 48 spacecrafts with nuclear power installations<br />
on board (36 Russian and 12 American units) [4]. Six of the installations had experienced<br />
accidents. As a result of spacecraft destruction, the most danger stems from radioactive<br />
plutonium: 450 g 238 Pu, if it equally spreads, is enough to cause cancer of the entire<br />
population on Earth. In addition, 238 Pu emits 280 times more energy, than 239 Pu, and,<br />
therefore, is 280 times more radioactive. In space, the danger from 32.75 kg of 238 Pu<br />
equals 770 kg of 239 Pu. As a result of accidents, related to destruction of a spacecraft,<br />
equipped with nuclear power unit, the Earth atmosphere receives a significant amount<br />
of radionuclide with long half-life (for example, cesium or strontium).<br />
Similar to a forest after human activity, the near-earth cosmic space accumulated<br />
a significant amount of waste, brought there by man – more than 3,000 tons. At present
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in the near-earth space there are 8,000 fragments larger than 10 cm in size and 300,000<br />
smaller elements, but which are still very dangerous. Space debris, if not removed, will<br />
spin at high near-earth orbits for many years. Man-caused contamination may lead to<br />
catastrophic satellite collision and rockets with hard waste. At a 800–1,000 km altitude,<br />
currently, there are approximately 50 objects with radioactive fragments.<br />
The danger stems not only from radioactive contamination of the environment<br />
and related consequences. The danger can be for the personnel at nuclear facilities, as<br />
well as for neighboring populations (in the 30 km distance from NPPs or atomic industry<br />
facilities there are 1,300 settlements with 4 million people). On January 1, 2003 the<br />
total personnel of Minatom composed 1.634 million people. In the Russian Federation<br />
Government Resolution (dated February 23, 1997, №191) the health indicators show<br />
their decline for both facility personnel and inhabitants of human settlements near nuclear<br />
facilities. 58% of the cases are malignant growth and makes up for 28% of the total<br />
magnitude of the patients served by the Federal Department of medico-biology and other<br />
extreme problems in the Russian Ministry of Health. The number of cases of late diagnosis<br />
of malignant growth has risen sharply, and most of these cases are not caught during<br />
routine medical check-ups. At the nuclear fuel cycle facilities, 2,000 people are registered<br />
as carriers of high level plutonium in their bodies. A direct connection between plutonium<br />
levels and lung cancer rate has already been proven.<br />
The number of mental disease cases of the nuclear facilities’ employees for the<br />
past three years grew by 50%. There is a serious danger for potential accidents at a nuclear<br />
facility due to an employee’s mistake. The number of highly qualified personnel<br />
at especially dangerous production facilities decreases. Among the employees there are<br />
individuals, who received exceeding standards doses of ionized radiation and dangerous<br />
chemical elements, and who also suffer from other work-related diseases. At especially<br />
dangerous production facilities, 80% of employees have second-grade immune deficiencies.<br />
General health indicators of the population near nuclear facilities are not positive.<br />
The death rate of the population in „closed cities’ and around Minatom production<br />
facilities has grown by 1.5 times. In addition, there is a decrease in birth rates and the<br />
rate of children born with deformities is two time the Russian rate.<br />
Conclusion<br />
The development of life on Earth took place against a background of natural<br />
radioactivity. The sources of such radioactivity are cosmic radiation and various radionuclides.<br />
As a result of nuclear industry activities, artificial radionuclides are injected<br />
into the biosphere, and mining increases the magnitude of natural radionuclides.<br />
The problem became a characteristic of the 20 th century and will have consequences<br />
for the next thousand of years. At present all ecosystems in one way or another<br />
are contaminated with radioactive elements, caused by nuclear explosions on land, in<br />
the atmosphere and water. The major contaminated regions, which require large-scale<br />
financing, at present are the places of construction, location, repair and utilization of<br />
NSs: Murmanskaya oblast – $1.67 billion; Primorsky kray – $735 million; Arkhangelskaya<br />
oblast – $580 million; Kamchatkaya oblast – $285 million.
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Further there are regions which had nuclear weapons elements production at<br />
their site (first of all – plutonium, uranium and tritium). These regions need financial<br />
support in the following amounts: Chelyabinskaya oblast – $845 million; Krasnoyarsky<br />
kray – $504 million; Tomskaya oblast – $353 million. Furthermore, there are the cities<br />
with key research and experimental nuclear industry bases: Moscow and Moscow oblast<br />
– $246 million; Obninsk (Kaluzhskaya oblast) – $131 million; Dmitrovgrad (Ulyanovskaya<br />
oblast) – $112 million; Saint-Petersburg and Leningradskaya oblast – $92<br />
million; Sarov (Nizhegorodskaya oblast) – $17 million.<br />
At the end of the list are the regions, which require finances to eliminate peaceful<br />
nuclear explosion consequences; modernization of the Rodon facilities, which<br />
allocate and temporary store radioactive waste; rehabilitation of uranium mines territories;<br />
nuclear tests grounds and NPPs: Permskaya – $110 million, Orenburgskaya<br />
– $12 million and Arkhangelskaya oblast’s – $11 million; Sakha-Yakutia – $10 million;<br />
Sverdlovskaya – $9 million, Penzenskaya – $9 million and Chitinskay oblast’s – $8<br />
million; Bashkortostan – $6 million; Khanty-Mancijsk Autonomy oblast – $5 million;<br />
Novosibirskaya oblast – $6 million; Tatarstan – $5 million; Stavropol Kray – $4 million;<br />
Kirovskaya – $3 million, Volgogradskaya – $2 million and Saratovskaya oblast’s<br />
– $2 million; Krasnodarsky kray – $1 million; Ivanovskaya – $1 million, Rostovskaya<br />
– $1 million and Samarskaya oblast’s – $1 million.<br />
Bryanskaya oblast needs $12 million to eliminate the consequences of Chernobyl.<br />
The total cost of activities is $5.81 billion. This is the price of the Cold War for Russia.<br />
References<br />
1. Kuznetsov, V.M. The Major Problems and Modern Safety Condition of Nuclear Fuel<br />
Cycle Plants in the Russian Federation, 2nd edition, reviewed. Moscow: Epicenter, 2003. 461 p.<br />
2. Kuznetsov, V.M. Russian Atomic Power Industry. Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow.<br />
Moscow: Golos-press, 2000. 287 p.<br />
3. Tverskoy, P.N. The Atmospheric Electricity. Leningrad, Hidrometeoisdat, 1949. 252 p.<br />
4. Vlasov, M.N.; Krichevsky, S.V. Environmental Security of Space Activity, Moscow:<br />
Nauka, 1999. 268 p.<br />
Kuznetsov – Questions and Answers<br />
– A. V. Yablokov: I admire the work of this book’s authors. <strong>It</strong> will serve as an excellent<br />
resource for data in this field. My question is the following: When speaking about<br />
the Chernobyl accident, you only mention the three former Soviet republics: Ukraine,<br />
Belarus, and the European part of Russia. However, a large amount of the fallout ended<br />
up beyond these territories. Why do you not mention that<br />
V. M. Kuznetsov: The question of environmental pollution resulting from the<br />
accident should be considered separately. Last year, for the 20th anniversary of the<br />
Chernobyl accident, <strong>Green</strong> Cross Russia held what I consider a powerful international<br />
conference regarding the independent International Environmental Politics University.<br />
This conference served as a discussion forum on the issue of pollution not only on the<br />
territory of the Russian Federation, but also on those of other former Soviet republics.<br />
An impressive amount of literature and information was presented there, including
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research on European and Asian countries. Copies in English were distributed in the<br />
hallway, and, at the end, only two or three copies were left. They represent a summary<br />
of the work that was conducted, and contain a lot of useful information. And I already<br />
found plenty of information in the present research paper, as well.<br />
– A. G. Nazarov: Alexey Vladimirovich presented the question very well. One<br />
thing that we can say is that we also had the question of how to consider such accidents<br />
as Chernobyl. Should we consider civil nuclear energy as a direct „radiation legacy”<br />
of the Cold War We do understand that Chernobyl was a direct consequence of the<br />
Cold War, and this was a reactor that came out directly from the depths of the military<br />
nuclear complex. If we succeed one day to restart the reactor (although it is unlikely<br />
we will be able to do so in our lifetime, but perhaps some later generations will), then<br />
I think we can say that. But there is no substantial analysis or research done on all the<br />
countries, unfortunately. When we were writing our research and collecting data, there<br />
had not been any analysis or evaluation of the effects of the Chernobyl accident on all<br />
the European and non-European countries. I was involved in it and monitored it and<br />
now the situation has improved. We are preparing a separate piece of research devoted<br />
specifically to radiation accidents. We do not know whether said research will be successful,<br />
nor do we know if we will be able to publish it. However, we intend to publish<br />
our findings.
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Russia’s Priorities under the <strong>Global</strong> Partnership Framework<br />
Valery I. Biryukov, Head of Unit, Department for Security<br />
and Disarmament, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the<br />
Russian Federation<br />
The <strong>Global</strong> Partnership (GP) against the Proliferation of Weapons and Materials<br />
of Mass Destruction began at the Kananaskis Summit in Canada in 2002. The GP priorities<br />
included chemical weapons destruction, nuclear submarine (NS) dismantlement,<br />
plutonium disposition, and employment of former weapons scientists. The consensus<br />
was that, in the beginning, the GP would focus on projects in Russia. From the GP<br />
priorities mentioned above, two were identified as primary ones, destroying chemical<br />
weapons and dismantling NSs.<br />
The unique feature of the GP was that leaders coupled political agreements with<br />
financial obligations. The G-8 countries accepted the obligation to contribute up to $20<br />
billion. Among them, Russia agreed to allocate $2 billion.<br />
At the Kananaskis Summit, Russian Federation President Vladimir Putin noted<br />
that Russia had inherited a number of complicated problems from the Soviet Union.<br />
One of these problems was the large amount of weapons that had been stockpiled and<br />
were aging and awaiting destruction. These weapons posed no threat of proliferation<br />
because they were under tight control. However, first and foremost, they presented a<br />
danger from an environmental perspective. In this context, the Russian President pointed<br />
out that the Russian GP priorities should be the destruction of chemical weapons,<br />
which was a disarmament project for us, and the integrated dismantling of NSs which<br />
had been decommissioned from the Russia’s Northern and Far Eastern Fleets. In other<br />
words, these priorities encompassed environmental tasks.<br />
Since 2002, we have obtained a substantial level of success in fulfilling these two<br />
priorities. During this period, we have succeeded in establishing a multilateral framework<br />
for cooperation between the G-8 countries. Without this legal base, it would have been<br />
impossible to begin our work. Believe me, it was not easy. The turning point for Russia<br />
was the Framework Agreement on Multilateral Nuclear Environmental Program in the<br />
Russia, which entered into force in 2003 and has become a model agreement. On the basis<br />
of this agreement, intergovernmental agreements for priority areas have been signed with<br />
the United Kingdom, <strong>It</strong>aly, Canada, Norway, France, and Switzerland.<br />
Chemical weapons destruction facilities have been built at Gorny (Saratovskaya<br />
oblast) and Kambarka (Udmurt Republic). Another facility is being built in Shchuch’ye<br />
(Kurganskaya oblast). With our partners’ help, we have dismantled 21 NSs (out of a<br />
total of 69). In addition, we are conducting work on the physical protection of nuclear<br />
materials, radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) disposition, and the employment<br />
of former nuclear scientists.
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I cannot ignore the substantial increase in funding from Russia for GP programs. We<br />
have already allocated $1.896 billion for chemical weapons destruction and $348 million for<br />
NS dismantlement. That is, the two priority programs are mainly funded by Russia. Moreover,<br />
in the next five years we intend to allocate about 117 billion rubles to chemical weapons<br />
destruction and about 1.2 billion rubles to NS dismantlement. In this case, the total funds<br />
contributed by Russia to the GP will exceed 156 billion rubles by 2012. That is, we will have<br />
allocated 104 billion rubles more than we pledged at Kananaskis.<br />
In comparison, from 2002 to 2006, Russia received approximately $740 million<br />
from GP members for the priority projects. Of that amount, $297.4 million was spent on<br />
chemical weapons destruction and $443 million on dismantling NSs. However, these<br />
figures represent the resources that have actually been used for projects in Russia.<br />
Without a doubt, we expected more. If we add up the funds promised for chemical<br />
weapons destruction from 2002 to 2006, we should have received $1.6 billion. As I have<br />
already mentioned, according to Rosatom’s calculations, only $297 million were contributed<br />
to projects in Russia during this period. That means that there is a gap between the<br />
declared resources and those actually spent on the projects.<br />
There is another substantial problem. Taking into account that the construction of<br />
the last chemical weapons destruction facility should be completed in 2009, the bulk of<br />
the foreign aid will be needed in 2007–2009. Literally, that is now. The aid constitutes<br />
over 30 billion rubles. Unfortunately, so far we have not seen any efforts from our partners<br />
to allocate these funds to us.<br />
There are partners who still have to turn their political obligations into projects.<br />
Some limit themselves to the old programs that were started prior to the GP initiative. We<br />
know that some political obligations undertaken in Kananaskis have not been substantiated<br />
by financial means. This applies first and foremost to the European Union and <strong>It</strong>aly.<br />
Additionally, all donor countries choose their own companies as contractors.<br />
These contractors are basically in charge of the allocations, and in some cases, their services<br />
cost up to 70% of the appropriated money. <strong>It</strong> is often suggested that we should purchase<br />
the equipment from the collaborating countries. The use and service of the foreign<br />
equipment require additional employee training, and parts and accessories can only be<br />
purchased from the supplying companies. All of this contributes to a substantial increase<br />
in cost, which leads to an increase in compensation spending for Russia.<br />
There are also difficulties in the sphere of NS dismantlement. Overall, the international<br />
collaboration on integrated NS dismantlement is developing quite well in Northwest<br />
Russia. Unfortunately, the same cannot be said about the Russian Far East (RFE).<br />
In RFE, only the United States, Japan, Australia, and South Korea are providing us assistance.<br />
And yet, as soon as 2010, we will need to have dismantled 20 NSs in the North<br />
and 25 in RFE (not taking into account the additional NSs that will have been decommissioned<br />
by 2010). <strong>It</strong> is extremely important that the partners participate in programs<br />
concerning nuclear spent fuel and radioactive waste. If we cannot deal with nuclear spent<br />
fuel and radioactive waste properly, then there is not much point in dismantling NSs, as it<br />
is not the remaining metals but the radioactive materials that are dangerous.<br />
According to Russian assessments, there is no need to discuss changes in the GP<br />
priorities until at least 2010, as we are still facing the massive tasks of destroying chemical
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
weapons and dismantling NSs. If we create another priority program without finishing the<br />
ones we have already begun, thus stopping half-way, we will only scatter our resources.<br />
I would also like to inform you that, in accordance with the decision stated in the<br />
GP report at St. Petersburg, a study on the accomplishment of GP goals will be conducted<br />
at the Heiligendamm Summit in 2007. We assume that the study’s main purpose is to objectively<br />
evaluate the GP members’ participation. We will need to determine what steps<br />
should be taken to accomplish our priorities based on this evaluation.<br />
In conclusion, I would to note that in spite of the difficulties we have, which seem<br />
inevitable in a collaborative process within the framework of this unique program, the<br />
Russian Federation highly values the GP’s contribution to chemical weapons destruction<br />
and NS dismantlement.<br />
From our viewpoint, this program is gradually acquiring truly global characteristics.<br />
The addition of thirteen donor countries and one recipient country since 2002 to the<br />
GP is testimony to that fact.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Integrated Dismantlement of Nuclear Submarines and<br />
International Cooperation<br />
Аlexander V. Grigoriev, Head Department of Dismantlement<br />
Nuclear and Radiation-Dangerous Facilities, Rosatom<br />
Since the end of the 1950s, in the former Soviet Union, large-scale projects of<br />
the naval nuclear complex took place, which included development of nuclear-powered<br />
submarines and surface ships. In order to maintain these ships, the Navy built support<br />
infrastructure of coastal technical bases and technical service vessels.<br />
To date 250 nuclear submarines (NS) of different types have been built; five<br />
ships with nuclear powered installations, several dozen technical service vessels and<br />
four coastal technical bases for docking and repairs and temporary storage of solid and<br />
fluid radioactive waste, which are formed during ship’s operation and service.<br />
During the nuclear Navy development, the total number of nuclear-powered vessels<br />
were as follows; NS – 250, ships with nuclear powered installations – 5, ice-breakers<br />
– 8, light cargo ships – 1.<br />
As a result of the service life termination and Russia’s accomplishment of its<br />
international obligations, an intensive process of multi-purpose NS and ship dismantlement<br />
was initiated in the second half of the 1980s.<br />
Up until 1998, only three to five NS per year were dismantled, and 13–14 NS per<br />
year were disarmed. This slow pace led to the fast accumulation of NSs in depots. The<br />
majority of these submarines had nuclear fuel waste on board. Today the dismantlement<br />
pace has increased and complete dismantlement of NS is planned for 2010. You can see<br />
the dynamics of the process in Picture 1.<br />
Scale of the problems with NSs dismantlement<br />
The total activity of the accumulated materials from NSs and radioactive waste<br />
is eight million Ku. The total weight of radioactive construction materials is one million<br />
tons. <strong>It</strong> will take 300 special trains to transport this spent nuclear waste. Based on<br />
technical and economic evaluations, only four billion US dollars are needed to solve<br />
the top-priority dismantlement of nuclear ships and vessels, as well as rehabilitation of<br />
other related facilitates.<br />
In order to resolve problems related to NS disassembly and the rehabilitation of<br />
unsafe facilities due to radiation, the Russian Federation Government in its Act, dated<br />
28 May 1998, established Minatom as a contractor to accomplish the task. Five plants<br />
in the northern region (Sevmorput, Nerpa, Poliarinky, Zvezdochka, and Sevmashpredpiatie)<br />
and three in the Far East (Zvezda, Chazhminki, Viluchinsky) were named for the<br />
project’s execution.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Picture 1. NSs removal from Navy operation and rurther disassembly<br />
Technical service bases in the Northern Region are located in Gremikha and Andreeva<br />
Bay, and in the Pacific Ocean Region; Sisoyev Bay and Krasheninnikov Bay.<br />
International inter-governmental agreements were in the framework of Kananaskis<br />
talks, which include:<br />
––<strong>Global</strong> Partnership agreement against proliferation of nuclear materials and weapons<br />
of mass destruction Heads of State Initiative formulated at the Kananaskis in 2002;<br />
––An agreement on multilateral nuclear-environmental program in the Russian<br />
Federation, dated 21 May 2003;<br />
––Communications Expert Group Establishment to work with the IAEA;<br />
––Additional Protocol to the Russia–UK Agreement on cooperation in the peaceful<br />
nuclear energy cooperation, dated 26 June 2003;<br />
––Russia–<strong>It</strong>aly Agreement on cooperation in Russian NSs dismantlement and<br />
radioactive waste and spent nuclear fuel (SNF) safe management, dated 5 November<br />
2005;<br />
––Russia–Canada Agreement on cooperation in the area of chemical weapons destruction,<br />
NSs dismantlement, accounting, control and physical protection of nuclear and<br />
radioactive materials, dated 9 June 2004;<br />
––Russia – North Environmental Finance Corporation Agreement.<br />
Table 1 represents the means to accomplish signed agreements.<br />
International agreements and arrangements list as indicated in international<br />
documents<br />
––Agreement between Minatom of the Russia and the Federal Economy Ministry<br />
of Germany on support in Russian nuclear weapons disarmament by way of NSs disassembly<br />
(10/09/2003).<br />
––Agreement between Rosatom and Norway Foreign Affairs Ministry on partnership<br />
in nuclear and radiation safety (12/06/2006).
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
––Executive Agreement on multilateral nuclear-environmental program application<br />
between the Russian Federation and the French Atomic Energy Commission to pursue<br />
nuclear energy cooperation in the framework of the <strong>Global</strong> Partnership (02/16/2006).<br />
Picture 2. NSs B-431 and B-314 in the emergency condition in Pavlovky Bay<br />
Table 1<br />
International assistance in NS dismantlement (January 1, 2007 data), USD, millions<br />
Country<br />
Declared funds to<br />
be contributed,<br />
<strong>Global</strong> Partnership<br />
agreement<br />
Declared<br />
funds on NS<br />
disassembly<br />
Funds under<br />
signed contracts<br />
since<br />
July, 2002<br />
Received for<br />
NS dismantlement<br />
<strong>USA</strong> 10000 *) 106,70 93,82<br />
Canada 800 150 77,70 70,39<br />
UK 750 200 102,00 96,00<br />
Germany 1800 360 225,70 225,30<br />
France 900 20 5,39 5,24<br />
<strong>It</strong>aly 1200 430 7,37 1,60<br />
Japan 200 100 14,20 6,70<br />
Norway 100 100 41,90 41,90<br />
Sweden 1,34 1,34<br />
EU 1200 48 3,95 1,59<br />
Australia 7 7<br />
Northern dimension 160 17,79 11,80<br />
Total from donors 16957 1415 591,55 558,77<br />
Russia 2000 669 348,00 347,99
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
––Executive Agreement between Rosatom and Russia–Japan Committee on cooperation<br />
in nuclear weapons destruction based on NSs dismantlement in the Far East<br />
(11/21/2003).<br />
––Agreement between Rosaviacosmos and US Department of Defense on SORT<br />
with amendments on 04/12/1995, 06/19/1995, 05/27/1996, 04/11/1997, 02/11/1998,<br />
06/09/1998, 08/16/1999, 08/08/2000, 06/09/2003, with an extension amendment on<br />
08/30/2002 (According to the amendment signed 05/29/2003, Rosaviacosmos transferred<br />
its responsibilities on dismantlement of launching vehicles for ballistic missiles,<br />
SNF and radioactive waste management to Russian Minatom under CTR).<br />
Results achieved based on Canada’s assistance: 6 NSs were dismantled; additional<br />
infrastructure was built at the Zvezdochka plant. After a NS drowned in the<br />
northern region and, a unique experiment with the submarine transportation by lightcargo<br />
ships took place. See Picture 3.<br />
Picture 3. NS transportation for dismantlement on the transshelf vessel, 2006<br />
Results achieved due to Japan’s assistance: 2 NSs were dismantled; additional<br />
infrastructure is built at the Zvezda plant.<br />
Results achieved due to Norway’s assistance: 4 NSs were dismantled; physical<br />
protection facilities were built in Andreeva Bay for temporary storage of SNF and<br />
radioactive nuclear waste; a comprehensive study of the territory took place and additional<br />
infrastructure was built such as an administrative complex, roads, water pipe reconstruction,<br />
and lockers for the employees. Additional utilization of RTGs takes place<br />
in Murmanskaya oblast.<br />
Results achieved due to Sweden’s assistance: Technical-economic justification for<br />
radioactive nuclear waste management has been developed for Andreeva Bay facilities<br />
and investment justification for the infrastructure construction. Partial physical protection
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
construction in Andreeva Bay was accomplished. A film on the happenings in Andreeva<br />
Bay, Center for public relations and information in Murmanskaya oblast was made.<br />
Results achieved due to the UK’s assistance: 3 NSs were dismantled. Facilities for<br />
radiation safety support in Andreeva Bay, including a temporary shelter at the one SNF<br />
storages; two mobile sanitary filters; two deactivation grounds; and medical office and<br />
radio-biology lab were set up. Investment justification was developed for infrastructure<br />
to manage SNF and radioactive nuclear waste in Andreeva Bay, and a study of emergency<br />
condition of SNF storage in Andreeva Bay was constructed. Faulty SNF storage<br />
was restored at Atomflot.<br />
Results achieved due to Germany’s assistance: Long-term storage for disassembled<br />
NSs parts were planned in the North-West region, Sayda Bay, and is now under construction.<br />
Infrastructure was upgraded at „Nerpa” for NSs disassembly and conversion<br />
of three-department reactor blocks to reactor modules. Sayda Bay water treatment from<br />
submerged vessels now exists. Equipment was delivered for NS storage in the Far East.<br />
Results achieved due to France’s assistance: Installation to burn solid radioactive<br />
waste is being upgraded at the Zvezdochka plant. A comprehensive engineering and<br />
radiation study of SNF and radioactive waste storage facilities in Gremikha took place.<br />
Equipment for the safe storage of SNF and radioactive waste in Gremikha; infrastructure<br />
facilities are being reconstructed.<br />
Results achieved due to <strong>It</strong>aly’s assistance: 1 NS was dismantled. A project for<br />
physical protection of dangerous facilities modernization has been implemented. A<br />
number of solid radioactive waste facilities are being planned in Andreeva Bay. Finally,<br />
plans are being made to construct a multi-purpose vessel for SNF and radioactive waste<br />
transportation.<br />
Results achieved based on cooperation with the Fund „Environment Partnership<br />
Northern Dimension” and its assistance: Strategic master-plan developments have been<br />
made that benefit the north-western region including a radiation environment monitoring<br />
system in Murmanskaya oblast. „Alfa” type storage facilities for SNF from NSs are under<br />
renovation in Gremikha. Physical protection facilities and conceptual projects to improve<br />
SNF storage conditions are also in the development stage.<br />
Results achieved due to the European Union assistance: A study of storage<br />
grounds for SNF and installation of a sanitary facility to support safety for radiationdangerous<br />
works in Gremikha was conducted.<br />
The major goal of the program is the dismantlement of all decommissioned NSs<br />
by 2010 (see Picture 4).<br />
The number of decommissioned NSs due to the international assistance in Table 2.<br />
Russian priorities in NSs dismantlement field:<br />
1. The continuation of NS dismantlement.<br />
2. Above-water vessels with nuclear energy installations dismantlement.<br />
3. The continued construction on a long-term storage of radioactive waste in<br />
Sayda Bay.<br />
4. SNF removal from temporary storage sites in Andreeva Bay and Gremikha.<br />
5. The establishment of a center to manage solid radioactive waste in Russian North.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
6. The construction of a storage facility for NSs that pacify the present emergency<br />
conditions in the Far East.<br />
Picture 4. NS dismantlement schedule<br />
Table 2<br />
Data on decommissioned NSs as of April 1, 2007<br />
Nuclear Submarines Total Northern Region Pacific Region<br />
Decommissioned 198 120 78<br />
Dismantled 148 97 51<br />
Under dismantlement 23 10 13<br />
Expecting dismantlement 24 12 12<br />
A special decision (NS in the emergency conditions) 3 1 2<br />
Data on the decommissioned NSs since 2002<br />
Table 3<br />
Donor Decommissioned NSs Under Dismantlement Agreements<br />
<strong>USA</strong> 10 - 1<br />
Canada 6 5 1<br />
UK 3 - 1<br />
Japan 2 1 3<br />
<strong>It</strong>aly - 1 2<br />
Norway 4 - -<br />
Total 25 7 8<br />
Projects planned in the field of SNF and radioactive waste management:<br />
1. Dismantlement of „Papa” type NSs;<br />
2. SNF unloading and dismantlement of above-water vessels with nuclear energy<br />
installation;<br />
3. Design and construction of a regional center for air conditioning and storage<br />
of solid radioactive waste in Sayda Bay;<br />
4. Storage construction for medium and high level radioactive waste;
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
5. Design and construction of a multi-purpose vessel;<br />
6. Design and construction of radioactive waste storage in Andreeva Bay;<br />
7. Treatment of at-risk facilities for radiation in Andreeva Bay (buildings 5–6);<br />
8. Reconstruction of building 162 at Zvezdochka plant;<br />
9. Reconstruction of the bridge across the Severnaya Dvina River.<br />
List of new projects at the temporary storage facility in Andreeva Bay, funded by<br />
the UK and Sweden in 2006–2007:<br />
––general shield plan at the dry storage facility (building 153);<br />
––facility development to manage SNF (buildings 151–153);<br />
––building 154–155 (priority: buildings themselves, additional systems without<br />
equipment), including water management in tankers of the dry storage facilities;<br />
––building 167 (cafeteria);<br />
––builders settlement;<br />
––open storage grounds;<br />
––electric network investigation at the storage grounds;<br />
––creating a shelter over the grounds near building 35 for production and storage<br />
of type 3 containers;<br />
––storage for treated radioactive waste;<br />
––building 162 (garage for „clean” machines);<br />
––temporary improvements at the dry waste storage 2a and 2b such as the installation<br />
of plugs;<br />
––projects on the dry waste storage shelter with horizontal protection and container<br />
removal (type 6);<br />
––construction of a temporary treatment system for fluid radioactive waste at the<br />
temporary storage facilities;<br />
––general contractor tender for infrastructure construction;<br />
––equipment for ejecting of changers from dry waste storage;<br />
––additional examination of dry waste storage 3а and radiation environment at<br />
the dry waste storage 3a modeling;<br />
––detailed chemical analysis of fluid radioactive waste samples from the building<br />
N6 and dry waste storage (2а, 2b, 3а);<br />
––design and disassembly of building 1.<br />
List of new projects at the temporary storage facility in Andreeva Bay, funded by<br />
<strong>It</strong>aly in 2006–2007:<br />
––Project design of shelters for solid radioactive waste storage grounds – buildings<br />
201–202;<br />
––Preliminary design (correction of decisions by OBIN and TEI) of complexes<br />
for solid and fluid radioactive waste management (permanent and mobile);<br />
––Working project development to manage solid and fluid radioactive waste;<br />
––Mobile installation delivery to recycle low-activity fluid radioactive waste.<br />
New projects at the submarine storage in Andreeva Bay, funded by Norway in<br />
2006–2007 include project development, pier reconstruction, and construction network<br />
project development at the NS storage.<br />
Thank you for your attention.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Weapons-Grade Plutonium Disposal: Existing Conditions<br />
and Perspectives<br />
Anatoly S. D’yakov, Director, Centre on Investigation of<br />
Problems of Demilitarisation, Energetics and Environment,<br />
Moscow Physical-Technical Institute<br />
The reduction of nuclear weapons in Russia and the United States has resulted<br />
in large amounts of spare nuclear materials, particularly, high enriched uranium (HEU)<br />
and plutonium.<br />
In September 1997, the former Russian president, B.Yeltsin, in his message to<br />
the General Session, declared that the Russian Federation is ready to eliminate 500<br />
tons of weapons grade uranium and 50 tons of weapons grade plutonium. The United<br />
States stated that they are ready to eliminate 175 weapons grade uranium and 45 tons of<br />
weapons grade plutonium. In 2005, the <strong>USA</strong> raised the amount of the excess weapons<br />
grade uranium to 200 tons.<br />
Spent nuclear materials management and policy are determined by two factors.<br />
The first factor is nuclear terrorism – a national and international security threat that is<br />
a recognized problem today. The second factor is the creation of conditions to stimulate<br />
nuclear weapons disarmament. Therefore, spent nuclear materials management should<br />
first of all be concerned about safe and reliable storage of these materials, which exclude<br />
theft and smuggling. Storage, however, even with the most reliable system, does<br />
not guarantee absolute security. Therefore, these materials require disposal and their<br />
transformation in such a condition that they cannot be used in weapons.<br />
Disposal of weapons grade uranium can be achieved by blending down weapons<br />
grade uranium with natural or low-enriched uranium, which decreases overall concentration<br />
of the 235 U isotope. Weapons grade uranium disposal is also attractive from an<br />
economic standpoint, because the resulting product can be used as nuclear reactor fuel.<br />
Today Russia has utilized more than 300 tons of weapons grade uranium (50 tons in the<br />
United States) through this blending process.<br />
Plutonium disposal is a more difficult technical task. Many research projects addressed<br />
the topic of an optimized solution to the problem in the 1990s at the national and international<br />
levels. In the fall of 1996, at a meeting of international experts in Paris, the following methods<br />
were adopted as the most acceptable ways to dispose of weapons grade plutonium:<br />
––Plutonium use for MOX-fuel and its future irradiation in power reactors;<br />
––Mixing plutonium and highly radioactive waste for storage in glass containers<br />
and further burial.<br />
During discussions on all the aspects of plutonium excess management, the Russian<br />
position was determined by two factors:
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
––Plutonium is a valuable energy source, and, therefore, MOX-fuel production<br />
should be among the priorities on the disposal list;<br />
––Large financial expenditures will be needed to build the infrastructure for disposal,<br />
and, therefore, the international community should allocate necessary financial<br />
support for Russia to speed up the plutonium disposal process.<br />
These statements were reflected in the agreement between Russia and the United<br />
States in September 2000 on the utilization of 34 tons of weapons grade plutonium. MOXfuel<br />
was chosen as the major disposal method. Despite the fact that both Russia and the United<br />
States had some limited experience in MOX-fuel production, they do not have the necessary<br />
infrastructure to accomplish the program. Practical realization of the agreement was planned<br />
to launch in 2007 and be accomplished by 2025. Both sides due to various reasons have not<br />
yet started plutonium disposal, and today it seems that they lost an interest in the project.<br />
The delay may have at least two reasons: responsibility agreements of both parties<br />
and lack of adequate financing.<br />
The discussion on responsibility continued during almost six years and the parties<br />
reached an agreement only last fall, when the agreement was finally signed.<br />
Adequate financing was another reason for the delay. Studies conducted in 2001<br />
concluded that all expenditures on the Russian program were estimated to be 1.8 billion<br />
dollars. The U.S. Administration decided to invite other countries to finance the<br />
program, instead of providing necessary funding from its own sources. In 2002, Russian<br />
plutonium disposal received priority in the <strong>Global</strong> Partnership „10+10 over 10” and was<br />
adopted at the G-8 summit in 2002. Today western countries have allocated 850 million<br />
dollars, including 400 million dollars provided by the <strong>USA</strong>.<br />
Some negative effects on the program come from a discussion in Russian nuclear<br />
circles about light-water and fast neutron reactors’ role in plutonium disposal. The<br />
absence of an agreement on responsibility and the above mentioned discussion were not<br />
helpful in attracting additional funding.<br />
According to the latest evaluation, conducted in 2006, the cost of the Russian<br />
plutonium has already reached 3.5 billion dollars. Estimated costs of the American program<br />
have increased as well. In 2001, the American program cost was estimated to be<br />
3.1 billion dollars, while today the price is 10 billion dollars.<br />
Table<br />
Cost of the plutonium utilization program in Russia (estimation 2001), million USD<br />
Upgrade of reactors 289<br />
Fuel production 1178,8<br />
Operation cost 1645,8<br />
Operation with the SNF 75,3<br />
Licensing 286,6<br />
Total: 3475,5<br />
Input of Russia 257,7<br />
Lack of financing 3220,8
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Delays of the program accomplishment and cost increase cause negative attitudes<br />
in the U.S. Congress. There are already attempts to review the program and reject plutonium<br />
disposal by way of MOX-fuel production. The final decision was not adopted yet,<br />
but if the United States rejects the MOX-fuel model in favor of vitrification, the rejection<br />
can lead to a revision of the 2000 agreement. Russia, in this case, may not agree with such<br />
a disposal process. According to Russian nuclear experts, vitrification is a way to conserve<br />
rather than dispose of plutonium.<br />
The existing situation of Russian-American agreement on plutonium disposal<br />
causes many doubts about the agreement’s fulfillment. <strong>It</strong> is obvious that the agreement<br />
will remain in force if the parties follow their intentions and its practical accomplishment<br />
will require more than ten years. Taking into account the duration of the disposal program<br />
(several decades), we, unfortunately, come to a conclusion that declared excesses of<br />
weapons grade plutonium will remain in existence for several decades.<br />
<strong>It</strong> seems reasonable to get back to an idea of storage of the excess nuclear weapons<br />
materials under international control. <strong>It</strong> could give some guarantees to the international<br />
community that nuclear materials are secured, risks of theft and smuggling are minimized,<br />
and their use in nuclear weapons is diminished.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
UK International Nuclear Security and<br />
Nonproliferation Programme<br />
Evans Simon, Deputy Director, International Nuclear<br />
Policy and Programmes, UK Department of Trade and<br />
Industry<br />
I represent the department responsible for the <strong>Global</strong> Partnership (GP) and for nuclear<br />
cooperation in general. I would like to present key provisions of the program. There is a philosophic<br />
discussion with regard to the challenges of what we have already achieved. For those<br />
who want to learn detailed information on what we are doing in the United Kingdom, there is<br />
a website with publications of the work outcomes in the GP.<br />
The United Kingdom program started before Kananaskis. We conducted some work<br />
in the area of nuclear safety and after the Kananaskis summit we agreed to provide 750 million<br />
dollars before 2012 to Russia, while other countries promised only 25 million dollars.<br />
I know that this program will continue, because the threat exists not only to<br />
Russia, but to other countries as well. The program will be related to the materials and<br />
nuclear technologies. Today many companies and international funds are involved in<br />
contributing to this program.<br />
The United Kingdom works towards its key issues introduced in the GP. Russia’s<br />
North-West is under our close watch and we have started work in Andreyeva Bay, that<br />
is the construction of special storage for spent nuclear fuel (SNF) from ice-breakers.<br />
Today we focus our attention on Andreyeva Bay. <strong>It</strong> is a big program, but I do not participate<br />
in it. My colleagues from <strong>Green</strong> Cross know the problem very well; they also<br />
know about the installation we are working on in the Urals. Additionally we work on<br />
the Zheleznogorsk reactor shut down.<br />
We work closely with the United States and direct finances to the United States<br />
within this program. We have promised 80 million dollars based on the agreements in<br />
Okinawa, Japan and we do our best to work within this budget. Everybody knows that<br />
there is a shadow over our program. We are fulfilling our Kananaskis obligations, but if<br />
we direct all the funds only to the nuclear weapons storage, other programs will have to<br />
be stopped, and this is impossible to do tomorrow or the day after tomorrow.<br />
There are a number of institutions in the Russian Federation that work as a part of<br />
the IAEA International Security Fund, as well as other Former Soviet Union countries. An<br />
old program on nuclear power plant security exists in Russia and the countries of former<br />
Soviet Union. Additionally, there are programs related to Chernobyl, and I will touch on<br />
them later. I listened very attentively to what the Minister of Foreign Affairs said. I do<br />
not agree with him that Western governments spend significant amounts on the western<br />
contractors. We conduct only control over the program, but we watch very closely how the
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
program is being accomplished at the site and we try to utilize equipment of the accepting<br />
country, hire personnel from this country, but we also have to consider our interests.<br />
Some concerns exist, however. First of all, it is a long-term strategy for work in<br />
Russia’s North-Eastern regions. We direct some funds in the framework of the European<br />
Bank of Reconstruction and Development (EBRD). Regardless how much money we allocate<br />
and how much equipment we send, our efforts will amount to nothing if we do not<br />
manage to accomplish our goal. We need infrastructure related to transportation and storage<br />
in the North-Eastern regions, and that is why we invited donors, including EBRD.<br />
We also know that some part of the SNF in Andreyeva Bay was damaged and, therefore,<br />
requires careful handling. We will work in a close collaboration with our Russian partners,<br />
because without a defined direction of our activities, we will only waste money.<br />
Everybody knows that coordination is a great achievement, but it is hard to establish<br />
this coordination. There are groups which we contract under EBRD. <strong>It</strong> is very<br />
important to have such combinations of partnership between various groups, rather than<br />
duplicating our attempts. We accept that we often work in regions that are very sensitive<br />
and contain classified information. Therefore, it is essential to find a balance to protect<br />
information, but also effectively share some of the information. We move away from<br />
traditional methods and think how the future partnership in the non-proliferation field<br />
will develop in the United Kingdom. We have already made our contribution to the IAEA<br />
Nuclear Security Fund, and we are working to develop partnership with a number of the<br />
Former Soviet Union countries in the Central Asia; we have started to work in Ukraine.<br />
We focus on certain geographic regions, because we understand that UK cannot<br />
solve all the world’s problems, and that is why we would like to focus on certain regions<br />
and apply our skills and knowledge.<br />
Sustainability is a key element for appropriate investment and equipment operation.<br />
Equipment being used today can be repaired and used in the future. We know that<br />
it is essential to use local equipment, and that will help us in the learning process.<br />
I would like to say several words about Chernobyl. Unfortunately, two years<br />
ago we thought we had the required amount to EBRD for the existing programs development<br />
in the Chernobyl region aimed at storage construction and resolution of other<br />
problems. We learned that that money is not enough and additional funding is needed.<br />
<strong>It</strong> is a challenge. I would like to mention the lessons we have learnt.<br />
There is always a need to improve planning and coordination. The problem we<br />
often encounter is coordination in the field of physical protection, coordination with<br />
various donors with respect to safety and security. <strong>It</strong> is critical to use the first-line experience<br />
and exchange it. We find it hard, however, to talk with each other. <strong>It</strong> is easy<br />
to talk, but hard to accomplish projects in practice. We did not want to conduct many<br />
programs just with the purpose of completion to what we are already doing. We are tired<br />
of new initiatives. We work here at the political level and our key concern is fulfilling<br />
our Kananaskis obligations. We must demonstrate our intentions to provide additional<br />
funding, but this funding should be allocated for reasonable goals. We have to think<br />
about our programs in very complicated regions. <strong>It</strong> is hard to accomplish the program<br />
worth 40 million pounds in two days.<br />
Thank you.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Norwegian Nuclear Assistance to Russia in the Framework<br />
of the <strong>Global</strong> Partnership<br />
Hakan Mattsson, Advisor, Department for Radiation<br />
Protection and Nuclear Safety, Norwegian Radiation<br />
Protection Authority<br />
I would like to talk about Norway’s assistance to Russia in the framework of the<br />
<strong>Global</strong> Partnership as it relates to nuclear issues. The two countries signed a bilateral<br />
agreement, and then, in 1993, we initiated a nuclear safety program at the Kol’skaya<br />
Nuclear Power Plant (NPP). In 1995, Norway adopted an action plan for nuclear industry<br />
cooperation with Russia. I will talk about it further. The Russian-Norway partnership<br />
started in 1993. The action plan in the nuclear industry includes six issues:<br />
destruction of nuclear submarines (NS), radioisotopes, RTG generators, Andreeva Bay<br />
rehabilitation, NPPs safety, and nuclear security cooperation with Russian authorities. I<br />
will elaborate on each of these issues.<br />
With regard to NSs, Norway is currently providing funds for NSs destruction. In<br />
cooperation with the Great Britain, we are going to destroy a 5 NS, which will be the<br />
last one funded by Norway.<br />
Regarding generators, the work to remove generators from operation started in<br />
2002. Norway will dismantle these generators in the Russian North-West. This project<br />
will be accomplished by 2009 and will include 60 generators.<br />
An outstanding international work is taking place at Andreeva Bay. <strong>It</strong> is a longterm<br />
project, and Norway is particularly involved in the infrastructure projects, local<br />
studies and physical protection. Norway has worked on this project from the very beginning<br />
of the reconstruction of the Andreeva Bay facilities.<br />
Norway works on the Kol’skaya and Leningradskaya NPPs to ensure their safety.<br />
There are a number of technical projects, including personnel training.<br />
Norway has partnered with Russian regulatory institutions especially with Rostechnadzor<br />
on generators’ dismantlement and related issues. We also work with Rosatom<br />
on Andreeva Bay projects.<br />
Future challenges and developments. The Andreeva Bay and Gremikha rehabilitations<br />
will continue, as well as work with generators. Additionally, we will strengthen<br />
cooperation with Russian regulatory institutions and continue coordination between<br />
Russia and donor countries. Norway involves NGOs and civil society by way of information<br />
exchange and the decision-making process. Norway has developed a strategy<br />
for 2008, which includes coordination with other Scandinavian countries.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
German–Russian Project on Decommissioning Nuclear<br />
Submarines in the Saida Guba<br />
Joerg Kirsch, Counsellor, Economical Division, Embassy<br />
of Germany in Russia<br />
The main goals of the project are as follows:<br />
––Construction of a long-term storage facility for 150 nuclear submarine (NS)<br />
reactor blocks and other nuclear objects in the Saida Guba;<br />
––Modernization of the ship-repairing plant „Nerpa” in order to conduct dismantling<br />
of NSs and to transport reactor blocks on a floating dock;<br />
––Establishment of a computerized system for accounting and control of radioactive<br />
materials.<br />
The main task of the project is the modernization of the ship-repairing plant<br />
„Nerpa” and construction of long-term reactor block storage.<br />
On July 10, 2004, within the framework of the project implementation, the foundation<br />
was laid, and the construction of the decommissioning center began. A small<br />
construction town was ready by September.<br />
On July 18, 2006, the first complex of the long-term storage facility was brought<br />
into operation.<br />
The main process in the NS dismantling is cutting out the reactor blocks from<br />
the body of the submarine.<br />
There are plans for expansion of the project and construction of the Saida Guba<br />
Center for Dismantling (SCD) for the period of 2008–2013. This would follow the example<br />
of the German long-term radioactive waste storage „Zwischenlager Nord.”<br />
The 2008 – 2013 implementation of the project is planned to follow three stages:<br />
1 st stage: Creation of long-term storage facility for 150 reactor blocks.<br />
2 nd stage: Expansion of the concrete plate for the blocks storage.<br />
3 rd stage: Creation of the Saida Guba Center for Dismantling (SCD).
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
French-Russian Cooperation in the Framework of the<br />
<strong>Global</strong> Partnership<br />
Alain Mathiot, Director of the G8 <strong>Global</strong> Partnership<br />
Programme for France<br />
Web site: www-pmg8.cea.fr/.<br />
Objectives:<br />
––contribute to an effective threat reduction,<br />
––implement a real partnership between the French and Russian organisations<br />
and companies,<br />
––promote in the long run industrial cooperation between France and the Russian<br />
Federation in the corresponding areas.<br />
Priorities (according to Kananaskis):<br />
––the disposal of weapon grade Plutonium,<br />
––securization and safe disposal of highly radioactive materials,<br />
––the destruction of chemical weapons,<br />
––nuclear safety and security,<br />
––bio-terrorism threat.<br />
Future trends:<br />
––employment of former weapons scientists.<br />
Bilateral:<br />
––Nuclear – Multilateral Nuclear-Environmntal Partnership Program (ratified<br />
01/2005), implementation agreement (ROSATOM-CEA) 02/2006;<br />
––CWD: intergovernmental agreement (02/2006), enter into force 03/2007; implementation<br />
agreement for the Shchuchye project to be signed soon;<br />
––Bio threat response: projects through International Scientific &Technical<br />
Center;<br />
––CEA in charge of the implementation (special budget with 3 Ministries funding).<br />
Multilateral:<br />
––Contribution to the Northern Dimension Environmental Partnership – 40 M€<br />
committed,<br />
––Chernobyl Sarcophagus – 22 M€ committed,<br />
––Contribution to Multilateral Plutonium Disposition Group – 70 M€ proposed.<br />
Gremikha<br />
Remediation of the ex naval base at Gremikha:
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
––Packing and transportation of irradiated fuel elements, solid and liquid waste<br />
elimination;<br />
––Site decontamination and clean-up before closure.<br />
Constraints: site access, polar climate, status of the „closed city”.<br />
France, EBRD and European Commission are funding the feasibility study: coordination<br />
group for donors, steered by Rosatom, connected to Andreeva bay project.<br />
Roadmap:<br />
––delivery of radioprotection equipment and preparatory work the remediation,<br />
––feasibility study started end 2006, choice of options: mid 2007,<br />
––securization and remediation 2008–2015.<br />
Total up to now: up to 10 M€ for feasibility, up to 10 M€ for preparatory work and<br />
safety enhancement.<br />
Severodvinsk: solid waste incinerator<br />
Zvezdochka plant: facility not working since more than 10 years.<br />
Objective: refurbishing to operate with a process flow of 20–40 kg/h:<br />
––Feasibility and detailed design (2004–2006),<br />
––Realisation (2,5 years; started 01/2007).<br />
Radioisotope thermal generators (RTG)<br />
––France ready to contribute to the elimination of a significant number of RTG,<br />
with other countries involved : Norway, <strong>USA</strong>, Canada, Germany…;<br />
––2005–2006 cooperation with Norway (piggy backing: 0,7 M€);<br />
––2007: development of bilateral cooperation with Russia, (conditioning, shipment,<br />
final storage).<br />
Kalinin nuclear power plant<br />
––EdF & REA proposed in 2003 a common program to enhance safety of reactor 2;<br />
––Total cost: over 20 M€ over 5 years.<br />
Plutonium disposition<br />
––France is part of the Multilateral Plutonium Disposition Group and pledged 70<br />
M€ for the funding of a dedicated MOX fuel facility in Russia, on the same model as<br />
the US one at Savannah River;<br />
––Recent evolution of the Russian position: the context as changed (and certainly<br />
the time schedule).<br />
Lessons learned<br />
1. The global partnership allows development of a real partnership:<br />
––With Russia as well as with other donors;<br />
––A strong potential of long term partnership exists.<br />
2. Real challenge to define, set up and implement projects with Russian agencies:<br />
expense of energy and time objective.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
3. Importance of using internal evaluations: audit by independent organization,<br />
with use of defined criteria.<br />
Nuclear<br />
1. According to Kananaskis need to focus on most accessible and vulnerable<br />
nuclear materials;<br />
2. Plutonium disposition: future has to be reconsidered;<br />
3. Large nuclear projects necessitate a permanent risk analysis;<br />
4. Good coordination needed and is now efficient, with involvement of Rosatom<br />
in each project.<br />
<strong>Global</strong> partnership is now half way (2002–2012):<br />
––Progress to date suggests we are all pulling in the right direction;<br />
––However a lot remains to be done to achieve Kananaskis’ objectives;<br />
––Communication and share of information is a key;<br />
––France is willing to maintain effort.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Canadian <strong>Global</strong> Partnership Program: Protection of Nuclear<br />
and Radiological Materials<br />
Colleen Pigeon, Second Secretary, <strong>Global</strong> Partnership<br />
Program, Embassy of Canada in Russia<br />
Good Morning!<br />
I am pleased to be here this morning to present to you the contribution that<br />
Canada is making to help secure nuclear materials and facilities in Russia and the CIS.<br />
As you may be aware, Canada and Russia have a very active bilateral cooperation<br />
program under the framework of the GP (GP). This Program of course started in<br />
Kananaskis at the G8 summit in 2002. The main goal of the program is the non-proliferation<br />
of weapons and materials of mass destruction. Since the time of the Kananaskis<br />
Summit Canada has developed and implemented projects in all five of the priority areas<br />
defined at the Summit, namely, dismantlement of nuclear-powered submarines; nuclear<br />
and radiological security; destruction of chemical weapons; redirection of former weapons<br />
scientists; and biological non-proliferation..<br />
Today, I would like to focus on two areas of our cooperation which relate to today’s<br />
topic, that is, the dismantlement of nuclear-powered submarines and nuclear and<br />
radiological security. Non-proliferation can be broken down into a number of discreet<br />
activities which should be taken into consideration to ensure the security of weapons<br />
and materials of mass destruction. You can consider both activities which provide for<br />
security of material while it is in transit and you can also consider ways to secure material<br />
or reduce the amount of material at a given site. Canada has focused its activities on<br />
the latter – that is, ways to secure and reduce material at sites and facilities.<br />
<strong>It</strong> is known that close to 600 tonnes of weapons-grade nuclear material, enough for<br />
tens of thousands of nuclear weapons, is located at facilities across Russia which do not<br />
have adequate security. From the beginning of the GP, Canada has focussed on improving<br />
the physical protection of facilities. We now have contracts with 5 nuclear facilities in<br />
Russia and we are spending 20 million Canadian dollars per year to upgrade the physical<br />
protection of these sites. We have also contributed 8 million dollars to the IAEA’s Nuclear<br />
Security Fund to secure sites outside of Russia in other CIS countries.<br />
Canada is also working to reduce the amount of weapons-grade material that is<br />
available – the thought being the less material that exists, the less chance of terrorists<br />
gaining access to such material. In this area, Canada has contributed to the project to<br />
shut down one of the last 3 remaining Russian reactors which produces weapons-grade<br />
plutonium. And in addition we are contributing to the Multilateral Plutonium Disposition<br />
program.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
The third major activity we are participating in is the removal of material from<br />
sites. The Canadian program to dismantle nuclear-powered submarines in the Russian<br />
North-West focuses on the removal and safe storage of highly enriched uranium which<br />
was used to fuel these submarines and which could potentially be used in a nuclear<br />
warhead or dirty bomb. Canada is contributing 120 million Canadian dollars to defuel<br />
and dismantle 12 nuclear powered submarines. We have also contributed to the EBRD<br />
program to secure and store SNF in the Russian North. We are currently examining the<br />
possibility of expanding this program to include the dismantlement of submarines in the<br />
Russian Far East.<br />
In addition to all these activities Canada is also working on projects to improve<br />
border controls and to remove radioactive sources (RTGs) from lighthouses in the Russian<br />
North which could be used for dirty bombs.<br />
I would like to thank <strong>Green</strong> Cross for the invitation to speak today and for their<br />
continuing efforts to provide opportunities for the public to discuss issues related to<br />
both the nuclear field and chemical weapons destruction.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
<strong>It</strong>alian–Russian Cooperation Agreement in <strong>Global</strong><br />
Partnership Program (Nuclear Issues)<br />
Massimiliano Nobile, Director, Project Management<br />
Unit, <strong>It</strong>alian–Russian Cooperation Agreement<br />
Bilateral Agreement on the dismantlement of decommissioned nuclear submarines<br />
(NS) and the management of radioactive waste and spent nuclear fuel (SNF).<br />
1. The Agreement<br />
The Agreement between <strong>It</strong>aly and the Russian Federation in the field of NS dismantlement<br />
and radioactive waste management was ratified with the Law №160 of 31<br />
July 2005 and entered into force on the 17 November 2005. The financial envelope of<br />
the Agreement is 360 million Euro over a period of 10 years.<br />
As for issues regarding nuclear liability, tax exemption and access to sites, the<br />
Agreement draws directly from the relevant clauses of the Multilateral Nuclear-Environmntal<br />
Partnership Program.<br />
The Agreement covers the main topics, namely:<br />
1. Decommissioning of NSs, nuclear ships and service vessels;<br />
2. Reprocessing, treatment, transport and storage of radioactive waste and SNF;<br />
3. Physical protection systems for nuclear sites;<br />
4. Rehabilitation of contaminated soils and facilities;<br />
5. Provision of equipment for facilitating shipyard work.<br />
The management structure of the Agreement provides for a Steering Committee, cochaired<br />
by representatives of MSE (the <strong>It</strong>alian Ministry for Economic Development) and<br />
ROSATOM. The Steering Committee will approve all the projects under the Agreement.<br />
Project management and administration has been entrusted to a dedicated unit<br />
(PMU) based in Moscow, composed of Russian and <strong>It</strong>alian experts. Contracts for project<br />
execution will be awarded by the relevant Russian organisations.<br />
The <strong>It</strong>alian state-owned company SOGIN has been entrusted by MSE to carry<br />
out general co-ordination, administrative, technical and operational tasks for project<br />
implementation. SOGIN is the <strong>It</strong>alian company in charge for the decommissioning of<br />
<strong>It</strong>alian nuclear power plants and fuel-cycle facilities.<br />
2. The co-operation Programme<br />
During 2005, a number of projects have been identified within the main programme<br />
areas covered by the Agreement. The selection process has been based on the<br />
urgent needs of the Russian counterpart and the specific experience and capabilities
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
of the <strong>It</strong>alian side. Selected projects have been reviewed and approved by the Steering<br />
Committee and at the same time funds for the preliminary design of the selected<br />
projects have been allocated.<br />
2.1. The dismantlement of NSs<br />
Decommissioning of NSs, nuclear ships and service vessels represents the core<br />
area of the whole programme.<br />
Russia has requested funds and equipment for dismantling three submarines and<br />
for the fuel unloading and dismantlement of the „Admiral Ushakov” nuclear cruiser. A<br />
contract for a Yankee class submarine has been entrusted to „Nerpa” shipyard in July<br />
2006. The dismantling work has been almost completed without any significant delay<br />
or inconvenience. A contract for the dismantling of another submarine (Victor class) is<br />
ready to be signed.<br />
The scope of work includes also the supply of special tools and equipment such<br />
as cutting machinery, welding and sealing technologies, mobile cranes and other handling<br />
and transferring systems. A tender is presently under way to assign two supply<br />
contracts in this field, one for „Nerpa” and one for „Zviozdochka”.<br />
2.2. The management of low and medium level radioactive waste<br />
Contracts have been signed for the preliminary design of:<br />
––Creation, in the Andreeva Bay site, of a Centre for the treatment and conditioning<br />
of radioactive waste, at the site where most of the solid radioactive waste of the Kola<br />
peninsula are located.<br />
––Supply of transportable modular systems to condition liquid radioactive waste,<br />
in their current locations, limiting in this way the number of transports of liquid material<br />
and optimizing the choice of treatment.<br />
––Due to an urgent request by Rosatom a contract has been signed for the design<br />
of buildings 201 and 202 for the safe management and retrieval of solid radioactive<br />
waste at the Andreeva Bay site, presently in the open area.<br />
2.3. The management of low and medium level radioactive waste and of SNF<br />
Design and construction of an interim facility (25.000 m 3 ) for the storage of conditioned<br />
low and medium level radioactive waste at the Andreeva Bay site.<br />
2.4. Sea transportation of radioactive waste and SNF<br />
Preliminary design of a ship for transportation to treatment and storage sites of<br />
radioactive waste containers and SNF transfer casks.<br />
A contract has been signed for the ship preliminary design, also addressing the<br />
adequacy of the existing ground infrastructure, in particular for the loading and unloading<br />
of transported items.<br />
2.5. Physical protection system<br />
Five sites, in the northern Kola Peninsula and the Arkhangelsk area, have been<br />
selected by ROSATOM for intervention under the <strong>It</strong>alian assistance programme.<br />
For the „Nerpa” shipyard a preliminary study has been started to establish the<br />
improvement needs of physical barriers, both peripheral and internal, and related serv-
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
ices (intrusion detection, access control, radiation monitoring, etc.), as well as of accounting<br />
and computerised tracking systems for radioactive and fissile materials.<br />
2.6 The working schedule<br />
Works are divided into three phases:<br />
The first phase is dedicated to strategic studies and preliminary design activities<br />
(in progress);<br />
The second phase is related to the preparation of technical specifications, tendering<br />
and awarding of contracts to selected main contractors;<br />
The third phase is related to the project implementation by main contractors and<br />
sub-contractors. This will typically include: detailed design, equipment procurement,<br />
component fabrication, civil works and mechanical assembling, start-up tests and preliminary<br />
operation of supplied facilities and equipment;<br />
The duration of each phase will vary from project to project; it can be estimated,<br />
however, that the first two phases will be completed in six months time frame, while for<br />
the third phase duration may range from a minimum of two years, to six years (including<br />
preliminary plant operation) for the more complex projects.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Japan’s Cooperation for the Dismantlement of<br />
Decommissioned Nuclear Submarines in the Russian Far East<br />
Takashi Kurai, Minister, Political Affairs Division,<br />
Embassy of Japan in Russia<br />
Japan has been actively cooperating with Russia in the field of dismantling of<br />
decommissioned nuclear submarines (NS). <strong>It</strong> was in 1993 when Japan concluded a bilateral<br />
agreement with Russia, almost 10 years before the launch of G8 <strong>Global</strong> Partnership.<br />
According to this agreement, Japan and Russia established a special bilateral Committee,<br />
to which Japan made contribution of approximately 200 million dollars up until<br />
now. The dismantlement programme of decommissioned NSs in the Russian Far East is<br />
called „Star of Hope”, and has been implemented as part of the G8 <strong>Global</strong> Partnership.<br />
To date, under the Committee, Japan provided Russia with a facility of processing<br />
low-level radioactive liquid waste, and assisted the implementation of a project of<br />
dismantling one decommissioned NS. At present, the Committee is going to implement<br />
the dismantlement of 5 decommissioned NSs in the Russian Far East. The dismantlement<br />
work of one of them is already in process.<br />
The reason why the Government of Japan has been implementing the cooperation<br />
programme for Russia is threefold: non-proliferation, counter-terrorism and the<br />
preservation of the environment.<br />
In 1993, the fact was revealed that the Russian Navy had dumped low-level radioactive<br />
waste into the Sea of Japan. This really shocked Japanese citizens. And Japan, on<br />
the one hand, required Russia to take necessary measures as soon as possible to stop the<br />
dumping, and on the other hand, decided to construct a facility capable of processing the<br />
low-level radioactive liquid waste as cooperation for Russia. This facility was named „Suzuran”<br />
and is now moored at the Zvezda Shipyard in Bol’shoy Kamen’ city near Vladivostok.<br />
<strong>It</strong>s capacity is enough to process not only liquid radioactive waste already stored in<br />
the Russian Far East but also additional waste which will be generated by the dismantlement<br />
of decommissioned NSs in the region. <strong>It</strong> plays a key role in solving the problem of<br />
the dumping of liquid radioactive waste into the Sea of Japan.<br />
According to the ROSATOM, 11 decommissioned NSs are still moored in the<br />
neighbourhood of Vladivostok and in Kamchatka in the Russian Far East. Many of these<br />
still have nuclear fuel on board. Most of them have been moored for 10 years or more and<br />
their hulls have been corroded. If those submarines floating on the sea remain neglected,<br />
there will be both a danger of serious radioactive contamination and a risk of burglary of<br />
nuclear materials from the submarines. Thereby, Japan, through the Japan–Russia Committee,<br />
assisted the project of dismantling a Victor III class decommissioned NS. The
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Committee is going to implement the dismantlement of 5 more decommissioned NSs in<br />
the Far East in accordance with the Implementing Arrangement signed in November 2005<br />
during the visit of President Putin to Japan. At present, one of the five, a Victor I class<br />
submarine, is being dismantled and the rest will be dismantled one after another.<br />
In addition, the Committee decided, in January 2007, to cooperate for the construction<br />
of an on-shore storage facility for reactor compartment units at the Razboinik<br />
Bay, the Far East.<br />
Taking this opportunity, I would like to make some brief references to 3 points<br />
which we regard as prioritized through our experiences of cooperation with Russia.<br />
First, a sense of asymmetry in the speed of implementation between that of the<br />
Northwest and of the Far East. According to the ROSATOM’s latest data, there are<br />
120 decommissioned NSs in the North-West and 77 in the Far East. Also according to<br />
ROSATOM, 12 of them are waiting to be dismantled in the North-West whereas 11 in the<br />
Far East. These figures imply that the speed of dismantlement in the Far East is behind<br />
that in the North-West. We do hope that the dismantlement in the Far East be more<br />
accelerated. In this connection, we highly appreciate the participation of Australia, Republic<br />
of Korea and Canada in the projects of this area. Australia, contributing 10 million<br />
Australian dollars to the Japan–Russia Committee in 2004 and the ROK, providing<br />
250 thousand US dollars to the Committee in 2006, participate in our programme<br />
and form a new framework in the Far East. Their funds are used for the dismantlement<br />
of the Victor I class NS mentioned earlier. And Canada announced that it would implement<br />
dismantlement projects in the Far East. We will carry out the dismantlement<br />
programme in the Far East in cooperation and coordination with these participants and<br />
the programme will be promoted under the new framework.<br />
Second, it is needed that Russia fully cooperate for the acceleration of the implementation.<br />
Although I understand the sensitivity in the Russian side with regard to the<br />
military confidentiality, it took quite a long time, more than a year, until the Implementing<br />
Arrangement on the dismantling of 5 NSs was signed. As I said earlier it is important to<br />
swiftly dismantle decommissioned NS in the Russian Far East, and in light of this, we need<br />
cooperation from the Russian side to accelerate the implementation of this programme.<br />
Third, this has something to do with the modernization process of Russian naval<br />
forces. What is the most important is the transparency and providing relevant information<br />
with taxpayers so that the project is well supported by them. The Japanese government<br />
should always let the Japanese people fully understand not only that the proposed<br />
projects are necessary but also why the projects should be financed by Japanese taxpayers.<br />
I would like to ask Russia to pay due attention to the need to keep full accountability<br />
to the people about the relationship between the modernization process of naval forces<br />
in Russia, including launching of the new types of NSs to the fleets, and the support<br />
from international community of the dismantlement of submarines.<br />
Thank you very much.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Working Within the Framework of the G8 GP: Australia–<br />
South Korean–Japanese Cooperation to Dismantle Nuclear<br />
Submarines in the Russian Far East<br />
Alexandra Siddall, Second Secretary,<br />
Embassy of Australia in Russia<br />
Working within the framework of the G8 <strong>Global</strong> Partnership (GP):<br />
Australia–South Korean–Japanese cooperation to dismantle nuclear submarines<br />
(NS) in the Russian Far East 5 June 2004 – Prime Minister Howard announced that Australia<br />
would donate A$10 million dollars to the GP as a non-G8 country.<br />
Donation to be given under the framework of the Russia–Japan bilateral agreement.<br />
A$10 million was directed to the dismantling of one Victor I class NS decommissioned<br />
from the Russian Pacific Fleet.<br />
Australia regarded this donation as an important practical contribution to threat<br />
reduction and non proliferation in our region.<br />
– Importantly, the GP program also reduces the environmental threat in the Far<br />
East.<br />
Australia was attracted to this particular project because it is located within our<br />
own region and adds to Asia-Pacific security and safety in the key North Asia region.<br />
South Korean contributed money via Japanese bilateral agreement for similar<br />
reasons.<br />
Project implementation, or disbursement of the money, has been long and at<br />
times difficult.<br />
– On 24 June 2004 Australia and Russia–Japan Committee exchanged letters<br />
providing in principle agreement that the donation of Australian money to GP via the<br />
Japanese bilateral agreement.<br />
– Project initially delayed by Japan–Russia negotiations on an Implementing arrangement.<br />
This was finally signed by both parties in November 2005.<br />
– Japan and Australia identified a ship – Victor I (Hull 614) to which our money<br />
was directed.<br />
– Project was then delayed while Japan and Zvezda shipyard to negotiated individual<br />
contracts for dismantlement.<br />
– The main delay was because of a lack of agreement between Australia/Japan<br />
and Russia on the issue of access to and protection of information acquired by Australian<br />
project inspector during site visits, as well as liability for Australian inspectors, and<br />
financial reporting.<br />
From donation to project implementation process taken two years eight months.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
On 23 March 2007, letters were exchanged between Australia and the Governing<br />
Council of Russia–Japan Committee which set out access and liability arrangements,<br />
and cleared the way for disbursement of Australian funds to Zvezda.<br />
Dismantlement now begun at Zvezda ship yard in Russian Far East under Japanese<br />
project management.<br />
As result of exchange of letters, an Australian expert will be included in the<br />
Japanese inspection team under the provisions of the Russian–Japanese Implementing<br />
Arrangement.<br />
Australia will receive a statement at conclusion of project from Committee that Australia’s<br />
grant fully exhausted, as well as regular financial reporting (information on how much<br />
of project has been completed and how much of Australian grant has been spent).<br />
No further Australian contributions are planned at this time but we remain open<br />
to considering further activities within our capabilities and priorities.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Finnish Assistance for the Nuclear Safety of Russia in Frame<br />
of <strong>Global</strong> Partnership<br />
Jyrki Terv, Second Secretary, Economic Section,<br />
Embassy of Finland in Russia<br />
Uvazamie dami i gozpoda!<br />
On behalf of the Embassy of Finland I want to thank the organizers for the opportunity<br />
to speak in this important conference. Let me also convey warm greetings to the<br />
conference from my ambassador Harry Helenius. In my brief presentation my intention<br />
is to say a few words on the Finnish–Russian cooperation in the area of nuclear safety.<br />
The cooperation lies in within the framework of the <strong>Global</strong> Partnership Programmes.<br />
Dorogie druzja!<br />
The Finnish support programme for the nuclear safety in Russia started in 1992.<br />
The aim of the programme is to contribute to the prevention of nuclear accidents at nuclear<br />
facilities located near Finnish territory. The Finnish coordinator of the programme<br />
is the radiation and nuclear safety authority of Finland. During the years from 1992 to<br />
2006 a total of 31 million Euros have been used in the Program. From this amount 10<br />
million Euros have been spent on the Leningradskaya Nuclear Power Plant (NPP) and 8<br />
million Euros in the Kol’skaya NPP. Current annual use of funds is 2 million Euros.<br />
So what have been the results during the past 15 years Let me speak you through<br />
of few examples of the ongoing work.<br />
In 1992 manual push-button panels were installed in Kola and Sosnovy Bori in<br />
order to send pre-programmed incident messages via satellite to Moscow as well as to<br />
Finland in case of any unusual events. Rostechnadzor is operating the system at the site.<br />
By 2003 the system was upgraded to send incident messages to Nordic countries using<br />
modern automated digital technologies and satellites.<br />
In 1995 an automated radiation monitoring network was installed within 30 km<br />
zone surrounding Leningradskaya NPP (LNPP). The system provides plat operator real<br />
time information and enables transmission of data to Finnish and Russian authorities.<br />
By 2004 real-time electronic dosimeters system was delivered and the system was extended<br />
to 26 measuring stations around the plant. Similar system is operating also in the<br />
Kol’skaya NPP.<br />
Finland has also participated in developing the capabilities of the Rosatom Emergency<br />
response center in St.-Petersburg. These include upgrading telephone central system,<br />
providing equipment for radiation surveillance, enhansing information exchange<br />
between Finnish and Russian authorites and regular testing of emergency notification<br />
system between our countries.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
In addition to this the programme has been supplying the two NPPs training in<br />
operational safety procedures development, non-destructive ultrasonic and radiographic<br />
inspection technologies, corrosion protection, fire safety equipment and upgrades to<br />
plants electrical systems. Spent fuel storage of LNPP, which has been a public concern,<br />
has been inspected in the programme and leaks of the pools have been repaired by the<br />
plant operator.<br />
LNPP is underway to increase the storage capacity for spend nuclear fuel. We<br />
think this is an important opportunity to reduce loading in the old storage and to inspect<br />
further its structures. Conducting an in-depth safety assestment together with an<br />
international partnership of Russia, <strong>USA</strong>, UK, Sweden and Finland has been important<br />
baseline study for future work in LNPP. Another important process underway in the<br />
LNPPs that should be strenghtened in the coming years is the improving of the physical<br />
protection of the plant.<br />
The program for the rapid development of the civilian nuclear power sector is<br />
now starting in Russia. This year February Finnish authorities participated to the public<br />
hearing in the LNPP concerning the new construction projects at the site. Based on<br />
this meeting Finland wants to further encourage Russia to cooperate with neighbouring<br />
countries in new contruction projects that have potential transboundary environmental<br />
impacts even though Russia has not yet ratified the Espoo convention.<br />
Bilateral support programmes, Cooperation of European Development Banks,<br />
the Northern Dimension Environmental Partnership, Chernobyl Shelter Fund and other<br />
instruments of <strong>Global</strong> Partnership Programmes show that there is a continuing international<br />
interest to ensure safety in the nuclear sector for years to come. <strong>It</strong> is continuously<br />
important to keep in our minds the lessons learned from the terrible accident in Chernobyl,<br />
that happened soon 21 years ago.<br />
Thank you for your attention.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Swedish Nuclear Assistance to Russia in the Frame of the<br />
<strong>Global</strong> Partnership<br />
Asa Gustafsson, Desk Officer, Department for Disarmament<br />
and Non-Proliferation, NIS, Swedish Ministry for<br />
Foreign Affairs<br />
Sweden has been active with respect to implementing nuclear non-proliferation<br />
activities in the former Soviet Union since 1992. The first efforts were directed towards<br />
Kazakhstan and Ukraine and aimed at ensuring an early entry of these countries into the<br />
safeguards control system of the IAEA and make these states join the Non-Proliferation<br />
Treaty as Non-Nuclear Weapon States.<br />
Later, Sweden also gave assistance to Lithuania and Latvia in this field of „safeguards”<br />
and integration into the IAEA’s verification system for nuclear materials. So<br />
when the <strong>Global</strong> Partnership was launched in 2002, Sweden already had a tradition<br />
for cooperation with the countries in this region that was ten years old. We had already<br />
quite a lot of experience and knowledge on procedures for how to implement projects,<br />
carry out tender procedures, transfer knowledge and technology.<br />
The <strong>Global</strong> Partnership, which Sweden joined in June 2003, meant that there<br />
was suddenly a new framework and a common shared goal and agenda by the G-8 states<br />
and this has in itself been of paramount importance for Sweden’s efforts.<br />
<strong>It</strong> merits attention that there are also other frameworks of importance for Sweden’s<br />
assistance to this region. For instance the Multilateral Nuclear Environmental<br />
Projects in Russia that Sweden and other states have adhered to. That is a practical<br />
instrument for making sure that taxation and liability issues are cleared in an efficient<br />
manner between Swedish and Russian parties in the concrete context of project implementation.<br />
Currently Sweden supports a number of projects in Russia that are implemented<br />
by Swedish authorities with reference to the priorities, the spirit and the cooperation<br />
between Russia and other donors that has developed since 2002.<br />
A few words about the cooperation and projects in question:<br />
For this year, 2007, Sweden will contribute approximately 39 million SEK<br />
(Swedish crowns) (approx. 5.7 million USD) to nuclear safety in the framework of<br />
the <strong>Global</strong> Partnership for projects in Russia. The contribution to nuclear security will<br />
amount to around 12 million SEK (approx. 1.8 million USD) for projects in Russia.<br />
As to nuclear safety, cooperation include reactor safety, safe disposal of nuclear<br />
waste and spent fuel, nuclear emergency preparedness and radiation protection, primarily<br />
in Northwest Russia. As to nuclear security there are currently six cooperation<br />
projects being implemented, namely the following:
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
1. The biggest project moneywise concerns the physical protection of nuclear<br />
materials from dismantled submarines.<br />
A number of international donors are engaged in dismantling old Russian nuclearpowered<br />
submarines. This work releases large amounts of nuclear fuel. Sweden works to<br />
create protection systems for the released fuel at the Shipyard „Nerpa” near Murmansk. In<br />
February this year Swedish experts from the Swedish Nuclear Power Inspectorate, SKI,<br />
were in Murmansk to finalise the tender documents for the security works.<br />
2. Combating illicit trafficking on the Kola Peninsula<br />
The Kola Peninsula (Murmanskaya oblast) has the highest concentration of radioactive<br />
and nuclear waste in the world. In February this year, the Swedish and Russian<br />
parties have completed a study of the situation as it is today. Under a new project to be<br />
implemented in 2007 a plan will be worked out for how to solve the identified problems<br />
and with this plan, the parties will try to identify international donors that are ready to<br />
contribute to the material investments in training and equipment.<br />
3. Training in the field of nuclear non-proliferation<br />
In Russia there are thousands of nuclear experts that have too bracketed knowledge<br />
of the non-proliferation issues and objectives that surround any nuclear activity.<br />
SKI has since 2004 offered training to two universities in Tomsk and will this year initiate<br />
similar activities with universities in the southern Urals region.<br />
4. Nuclear material control at the Chepetsk Mechanical Plant, Udmyrtia<br />
SKI has initiated a project with Federal Agency for the Atomic Energy, „Rosatom”<br />
and the Chepetsk Mechanical Plant. The project aims at strengthening the accounting<br />
and control over nuclear materials at the facility and thus avoid situations<br />
where materials can deviate from the facility.<br />
5. Physical protection at the Center for Applied Chemistry, St-Petersburg<br />
Near St.-Petersburg there is a chemical combine where a part of the buildings<br />
and activities concern the manufacture of radioactive substances for industrial purposes.<br />
The physical protection of these buildings is in an appalling state and in 2006 several<br />
attempts of intrusion by outsiders have been detected. SKI will in 2007 upgrade the<br />
physical protection at the facility and building.<br />
6. Legal cooperation<br />
Russia is currently modernising and improving the legal framework for the control<br />
and security of nuclear materials. SKI offers Swedish expertise for the review of<br />
new Russian legislation in the nuclear non-proliferation field.<br />
Finally, in concluding, I would again like to emphazise that from a Swedish point<br />
of view the <strong>Global</strong> Partnership is a very valuable tool at the level of project implementation<br />
simply because it is an excellent point of reference. <strong>It</strong> is a very useful umbrella for<br />
the activities that we strive to carry out.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Questions and Answers after “Foreign” Plenary Session<br />
Question from participant: My question is to Simon Evans, Mr. Grigoriev and other<br />
participants of the group. I am interested in Simon Evans’ presentation on the master-plan. <strong>It</strong><br />
is a change of various tasks for us. I have two questions on the master-plan. I wonder if the<br />
master-plan involves only Russia’s North-Western regions or does it include work on similar<br />
problems in Chelyabinsk, Tomsk, Krasnoyarsk and the Far East. Does the plan cover entire<br />
Russia or only Russia’s northwest<br />
The second question is on public opinion. Public opinion has a large impact, especially<br />
with regard to the transportation issue. The citizens are concerned about nuclear energy.<br />
Do you involve only expert groups or do you also discuss such questions with the public<br />
Simon Evans: Today, the program is being conducted only in the North, and that is<br />
why we concentrated our work on Russia’s North-West as it includes nuclear and non-nuclear<br />
issues. The Northern region is a program for the country’s north-west and includes problems<br />
of transportation and recycling. The program does not expand on the Far East, Tomsk and etc.<br />
I do not know the answer to the second question.<br />
Grigoriev: I think that the strategic master-plan will be discussed with the public.<br />
V.P. Vasiliev: I can answer this question. Together with the British–Canadian organization<br />
NSS, we have conducted consultations with the public in Moscow, Murmansk and<br />
Severodvinsk (two meetings in each city with the master-plan distribution) on such issues as<br />
environmental security and master-plan management. We have collected many questions and<br />
prepared the answers, and sent new information again. The citizens expressed their interest in<br />
these problems and its concerns, but supported treatment works in the region.<br />
We have formulated problems, which require donor support. One of them is fuel<br />
transportation through Severodvinsk. The bridge there is in very bad condition. The citizens<br />
asked for help to renovate the bridge, because it is the key route for the spent fuel export. Additionally,<br />
a bulk-oil terminal is planned in the region for the management of heavy tankers<br />
with fuel. Murmansk citizens asked to direct spent fuel transportation not through Andreyeva<br />
Bay or Gremikha, but through Severodvinsk. Severodvinsk supports this idea. In general,<br />
public attitude is very good. A. Nikitin from Belluna even said that for the first time Rosatom<br />
asked the public to participate in resolving existing problems.<br />
A.M. Vinogradova: There is information that poisonous materials were converted,<br />
and that some highly-toxic masses continue to exist. <strong>It</strong> is a reason of concern among the Saratovskaya<br />
oblast population. I would like that the problem of radioactive materials were given<br />
the international community’s attention. My second question is to all our guests: I wonder<br />
whether your countries, which possess nuclear materials, are more responsible for the management<br />
of such materials or do you have similar assistance programs, like those we have<br />
just heard about<br />
Simon Evans: The British people recognize the problem. We have very strict control<br />
over all fissile materials. We seldom receive complaints with regard to radiological and nuclear<br />
material safety conditions. I am not an appropriate person to talk about nuclear submarines,<br />
but I believe that we have many questions with respect to this issue. We have a program in the
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Ministry of Defense on how to resolve problems related to nuclear submarines, but this issue<br />
is still being discussed inside the Ministry.<br />
In addition, we are working on the establishment of a non-governmental organization<br />
in the United Kingdom, which would deal with decommissioning nuclear facilities and<br />
would be responsible for control over related issues, project competition and other activities,<br />
which used to be under operators’ control. This would allow the control system to strengthen<br />
and transfer responsibility from the operators for operation (to be conducted in two-three<br />
years). This type of work takes place in the North-West of England and in Scotland.<br />
Paul Walker: I would like to note, as I am the only American here, that long-term issues<br />
of security, nuclear waste storage, especially high radioactive, and fissile waste represent<br />
a huge problem for all countries. We all know that it is a very expensive process. When we<br />
refer to uranium and plutonium from nuclear warheads and reactors, we are talking about<br />
long-term expensive processes.<br />
Chemical weapons destruction in the United States has been incorporated in a large<br />
program, which has existed for twenty years. <strong>It</strong>s first estimate was two billion dollars, and<br />
now it up to forty billion. Nuclear waste and its long-term storage significantly exceed these<br />
expenses. Therefore, the chemical problem is not as significant as nuclear waste. That is why<br />
we are so concerned about nuclear proliferation, nuclear processing and nuclear power plants.<br />
<strong>It</strong> is not only the matter of nuclear power plants, but the long-term waste storage. In our group<br />
today, we all talked about nuclear and radioactive waste, radioactive waste clean up in shortterm,<br />
intermediate and long-term perspectives. In the United States we have been working on<br />
his subject for 30–40 years, invested tens of billions dollars into the research of such facilitates,<br />
but the problem has not been resolved yet.<br />
The terrorism threat is a very serious problem we need to work on. <strong>It</strong> is not possible to<br />
solve this problem on our own; we need to strengthen partnerships in resolving these issues.<br />
Alain Mattiot: In France, we follow the principle that the organization which produced<br />
waste, must reprocess and clean it. In 1991, we adopted a law to resolve issues with<br />
high and low radioactivity levels. Last year, after a 15 year long study with a number of<br />
national organizations, we decided to look at various possibilities that we need to consider.<br />
In northern France, we established a special storage for the waste. The waste will be buried<br />
deep in the ground. The national organization „Andra” is responsible to bury the waste. The<br />
problem of long-term waste has not been solved yet, but we are going to work on it in the next<br />
ten years till we find an appropriate solution to these problems.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Chelyabinskaya Oblast: Experience Gained with the<br />
Remediation of the Legacies of Nuclear Accidents<br />
Svetlana Y. Kostina, Deputy Minister, Head of Department<br />
of Radiation Safety, Ministry for Radiation and<br />
Environmental Safety, Chelyabinskaya Oblast<br />
Dear Conference Participants!<br />
The Chelyabinskaya oblast has experienced the consequences of the establishment<br />
and development of the Russian atomic complex, possibly to a larger extent than<br />
any other Russian region. In the 1940s, a production enterprise known as „Mayak” was<br />
established on the territory of the oblast. „Mayak” was the „first born child” of Russia’s<br />
atomic industry; it is an enterprise that played a major role in creating the country’s<br />
„nuclear shield.” Currently, there are also other nuclear and radiation-related dangerous<br />
objects on the territory of the Chelyabinskaya oblast: the Russian Federal Nuclear<br />
Center and an appliance-manufacturing factory. The production at these facilities includes<br />
the full nuclear cycle – from creation to removal of nuclear devices, including<br />
nuclear waste disposition.<br />
<strong>It</strong> was specifically the shortcomings in the nuclear waste disposition field during<br />
the initial years of the „Mayak” operation that became the cause of unprecedented environmental<br />
pollution in the region. In the initial years of the atomic project, the question of<br />
environmental pollution was not considered a priority. The consequences of dumping the<br />
nuclear waste into the open biospheres were not taken into account, and were not even all<br />
known. That is why, from 1949 to 1956, about 76 million m 3 of radioactive waste (of about<br />
3.0 million Ku) were dumped into the shallow-water Techa River. About 22 million Ku of<br />
radioactive substances was also dumped into the environment as a result of the 1957 explosion<br />
of the high-radioactivity spent fuel storage. This is how the famous Eastern Ural radioactive<br />
trace was formed. In 1967, the sediment deposits of the Karachay water reservoir<br />
(medium-radioactivity industry waste storage) were spread onto an adjacent territory.<br />
More than 18,000 people had to be evacuated. The Techa River was no longer used<br />
for economic activity, and the inundation plots were alienated. In addition, 16.6 ha of land, on<br />
which the East Ural radioactive reservation area is located, are still out of use.<br />
The consequences of technological decisions that were taken at that time and<br />
of the accidents that happened have still not been overcome. The regional government<br />
is still obligated to devote a considerable amount of time to solving social problems of<br />
the population that stayed and continues to reside in the area, and who were affected<br />
by „Mayak” as well as in residential areas by the Techa River. The government also<br />
devotes its time to solving environmental problems in connection with the radioactive<br />
pollution of the „Mayak” area.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
The „Mayak” radioactive waste is deposited in many open natural environments:<br />
bodies of water, underground water sources, and the upper soil levels. The first appeals<br />
of the necessity to make decisions regarding safe ways to treat and store this waste on<br />
the governmental level were made in 1990, with the initiative of the regional head, P.<br />
I. Sumin. In 1992, the government undertook its first program directed at finding solutions<br />
for technical and technological problems of the „Mayak” radioactive waste. This<br />
program also included a large complex of initiatives for medical and social rehabilitation<br />
and protection of the population that was affected by the radioactivity. In 1993, the<br />
Russian Federation (RF) Law on social support initiatives, as well as on benefits and<br />
compensation payments for such population groups was enacted.<br />
The government’s support in overcoming the problems regarding the consequences<br />
of the radiation accidents in the Ural region is still ongoing. Along with the Emergency<br />
Situations RF, Minatom developed and uses a third federal target programming which will<br />
be active until 2010. The regional government invests the budget sources into the solutions<br />
of these problems throughout the entire duration of the federal program’s implementation.<br />
Since 2003, the region has adopted and implemented a corresponding regional target program,<br />
which is also directed at solving problems of the „Mayak” area residents.<br />
Throughout the years of the program implementation, the region delivered (through<br />
building or acquiring) over 100,000 m 2 of housing. This means that 1,350 people acquired<br />
free housing which they legally deserved. Over seven healthcare buildings (for 387 beds),<br />
three large regional-scale buildings (a data acquisition building, a development design office,<br />
and an office building), three pre-schools for 2,500 children, water supply units, gas<br />
pipes, and other infrastructure objects – all of this was constructed on the region’s affected<br />
territories (five municipal districts and one city precinct).<br />
There were also organized initiatives such as health assessments (of 100,000 people)<br />
and in-depth clinical examination treatments for citizens who were affected by the<br />
radiation. This was conducted at the UNPTs RM clinic or at a specially created rehabilitation<br />
section of a regional clinical hospital. In all the central district hospitals, ultra-sound<br />
and functional diagnostics offices were created. The precinct hospitals and OB-GYN centers<br />
acquired ambulance cars and dental offices. Over 500 physicians received training<br />
through the „Radiation-sanitation and Medical Aspects of Radiation Accidents” program.<br />
Since 1996, the region has conducted outgoing consultative examinations of children residing<br />
on the affected territories with follow-up treatments at the clinic. Examinations are<br />
conducted every four years. Currently, this initiative is in its third cycle for children on the<br />
„Mayak”-affected territory (about 7,000 children in two programs).<br />
Since the first target program implementation in 1992, the regional government<br />
has devoted the most serious attention to the organization of the radiation monitoring<br />
system in the „Mayak” zone and other radiation-prone objects. In 1998, the TSRM<br />
system was created. <strong>It</strong> includes monitoring of radioactive pollution sources and of the<br />
surrounding natural environments, as well as health-radiation monitoring. The system<br />
framework also provides for the monitoring data exchange, conducted by the „Mayak”<br />
and the government monitoring services (Rosgidromet, Rospotrebnadzor). Currently,<br />
this system is fully funded by the regional budget resources. <strong>It</strong> presents opportunities<br />
to obtain operational information on the radiation background fluctuations and current
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
information on the region’s environment radioactive pollution levels, as well as information<br />
on scope and structure of the ongoing technology-induced radiation levels that<br />
affect the population.<br />
Only the presence of this independent system allows the regional government<br />
to state with confidence that over the last 15 years, the ongoing activities of „Mayak”<br />
did not lead to above-average environmental pollution. The scope and structure of the<br />
ongoing radiation doses of the overall region as well as the population residing in the<br />
affected zones, on average corresponds to the RF dosage structure.<br />
At the same time, the presence of this system allowed the regional government<br />
to evaluate the real radiation situation in the polluted territories of the region. This occurred<br />
for the first time since dumping of the radioactive waste into the Techa River and<br />
the 1957 accident. <strong>It</strong> has been determined that for the population residing mostly on the<br />
radiation-polluted areas in the first years following the accidents, the accumulated doses<br />
exceeded not only 70, but also 350 mZv – the threshold values at which it becomes<br />
necessary to take actions for the citizen’s social protection. In 1998, the regional government<br />
along with the Sverdlovsk and Kurgansk regional power bodies developed the<br />
relevant corrections in the federal legislation and directed them to the State Duma. As<br />
a result of the changes that were made since 1999, the citizens who accumulated doses<br />
exceeding 70 mZv and who reside along the Techa River, are receiving compensation<br />
payments. Citizens who accumulated over 70 mZv dosages and reside in the danger<br />
zone are also in need of social protection. The relevant suggestions have been prepared<br />
and are in the RF Government.<br />
The TSRM data confirmed that Muslyumovo village (which is the nearest to the<br />
river on which the „Mayak” dams are located) currently possesses technology-induced<br />
radiation exceeding 1 mZv. All the population in that area is receiving the relevant<br />
compensation payments. At the same time, the impossibility of completely shielding<br />
the population from the contact with the Techa River demanded more radical measures<br />
to be taken. In November 2006, an agreement between Rosatom and the Chelyabinsk<br />
regional government was signed, directed at solving these problems. Within the frameworks<br />
of this agreement, Muslyumovo residents are offered a free-will decision to move<br />
to any settlement or residential area according to their choice. The resources for this<br />
project are invested by the Rosatom, as well as by the Chelyabink regional government.<br />
Currently, this unique project, unlike any other, is already in the stage of implementation,<br />
and some of the Muslyumovo residents have already left the village. I would like<br />
to note the active partner role of Rosatom in implementing this complex project.<br />
Currently, a search for ways to use the Muslyumovo village territories following the<br />
evacuation completion for agricultural purposes is being conducted together with Rosatom.<br />
The regional government also devotes its attention to general questions of providing<br />
radiation safety on the territories of the region. In 1999, a regional law „On radiation<br />
safety for the Chelyabinskaya oblast population” was passed and is currently in<br />
action. This law divides up the legislative and the implementation competencies of the<br />
region in the sphere of radiation safety and defines the specific competency for the regional<br />
body with the delegated powers. The regional budgetary spending commitments<br />
have also been specified in the given sphere.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
An annual radiation and health check-ups of the region’s territory was organized<br />
and is conducted according to the regional legislation. Reports for 11 municipal formations<br />
were written. This monitoring allowed the identification of unique natural anomalies<br />
on the region’s territory with the elevated radioactivity levels. Some problems were<br />
also identified: there are settlements on the region’s territories the residents of which<br />
receive from 10 to 100 mZv per year from natural radiation sources (the equivalent<br />
equilibrium volume activity of the radon products reaches 16,000 Bk/m 2 and exceeds<br />
the standard norm by 80 times). At the same time, in these very settlements, the radionuclide<br />
content in drinking water sources also exceeds the health criteria in terms of the<br />
sum of the alpha- and beta-activity, on the content of 222 Rn (specific activity/volume<br />
activity reaches 1,000 Bk per liter). Currently, in accordance with the Governor’s provision,<br />
there are initiatives being developed to lower the influence of the natural radiation<br />
factor upon the population.<br />
An information and analytical center for accounting and control of radioactive<br />
substances and radioactive waste has been created and is active under the Ministry for<br />
Radiation and Ecological Safety.<br />
Much attention is also devoted to the tasks of informing professional groups,<br />
media, and the population about radioactive sources and their treatment. Educational<br />
seminars and qualification-boosting courses for enterprise specialists are conducted<br />
every year. They are funded from the regional budget resources. For media, education in<br />
the form of seminars was chosen – journalists visited the „Mayak” enterprise four times.<br />
They also visited other radiation-danger prone objects, familiarized themselves with the<br />
radioactive waste treatment technologies and with the problems concerning this field.<br />
There were a total of 11 of such seminars. Various public organizations’ representatives,<br />
teachers, and physicians working on the affected territories also joined these seminars.<br />
As for the population, the format of public hearings – an open participatory dialogue<br />
– was chosen and implemented. From 1996 to 2005, seven public hearings were<br />
conducted, five of which took place on the territory of a specific municipal district and<br />
addressed the interests and needs of this specific region’s population as much as possible.<br />
During this period of time, over 2,000 people took part in the hearings. The regional<br />
government along with Rosatom began preparing for the conference devoted to the 50th<br />
anniversary of the 1957 „Mayak” accident. This conference will take place in the city of<br />
Chelyabinsk 24–25 of September.<br />
In conclusion, I would like to note that Rosatom has made solving these problems<br />
a top priority, has taken many positive steps towards the solution, and has searched<br />
for a collaborative mechanism of social protection and rehabilitation of the affected<br />
population.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Radiation Monitoring and Accident Alert System Upgrade in<br />
the Arkhangelskaya Oblast<br />
Anatoly N. Gurov; PhD (in Economics), Director,<br />
Department of Industry, Arkhangelskaya Oblast<br />
Vladimir S. Nikitin, Director, Research Bureau „Оnega”,<br />
M.A Kozhin, FGUP NIPTB „Onega”<br />
Nuclear and radiological safety is a very important component of the Russian<br />
national security program and represents the key priority in our government’s agenda.<br />
The Russia’s national interests in nuclear and radiological safety are defined by<br />
the goal of risk minimization with respect to life and health of the population, the environment,<br />
as well as the flora and fauna, individual and jurisdictional property, state and<br />
municipal possessions in case of a nuclear or radiological accident, environmental contamination<br />
treatment resulted from nuclear or radiological accidents, and technological<br />
and defense activities in the previous years.<br />
Overall the level of nuclear and radiological safety in Russia and, particularly in<br />
the Arkhangelsk oblast, complies with the legal requirements and recommendations of<br />
the expert international organizations.<br />
At the same time, the system crisis in Russia at the beginning of the 1990s<br />
caused a number of complicated problems, including a sharp economic reduction in the<br />
much needed government funding of the nuclear weapons and nuclear submarine (NS)<br />
dismantlement programs, which became obsolete after the ending of previous defense<br />
activities in the area. A large part of the facilities are in poor condition and pose a high<br />
rate of nuclear risks, particularly the ones in the North-West. The international community<br />
has constantly expressed its concerns with the situation in this region.<br />
In December 2001, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development<br />
(EBRD) established a new fund called „Northern Dimension Environmental Partnership”<br />
The Fund’s goal is to resolve problems connected with radioactive contamination risks in<br />
the North-West. Due to a complicated situation, the donor-countries and EBRD came to<br />
an agreement with the Federal Agency for the Atomic Energy (Rosatom) about a comprehensive<br />
strategy on the nuclear problems resolution in the North-West during NS dismantlement,<br />
environmentally safe rehabilitation of radiology dangerous facilities, and nuclear<br />
materials physical security upgrade.<br />
In this context, in 2003, a decision to develop a two-stage Strategic Master-Plan was<br />
adopted. The first stage was developed by Russian experts. The final report included basic<br />
information necessary for the second stage. This final report includes a detailed analysis of the
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
existing situation and establishes long term goals for the comprehensive dismantlement and<br />
rehabilitation process. The report also indicates and provides justification for the most urgent<br />
actions in the Russian North-West. In addition to the existing recommendations the report defines<br />
strategic policies for the Russia in order to complete the strategy. The strategic policies<br />
are the basis of large-scale works on the comprehensive rehabilitation in the North-West.<br />
The donor countries and the Russia certified that the results of the first stage of the<br />
Strategic Master Plan represent the conceptual strategy, which needs additional strategic<br />
decisions to become a pragmatic and comprehensive program for large scale events. As a<br />
result of the Plan analysis, high priority events were named, including the establishment of<br />
objective and regional monitoring and an accident alert system in Arkhangelskaya oblast.<br />
<strong>It</strong> is necessary to develop a radiation monitoring and accident alert system in<br />
Arkhangelskaya oblast for the current and automated control of radiological and radio<br />
ecological environment at the key radiation dangerous facilities and zones of radio ecological<br />
research and evaluation in routine and accident situations.<br />
This radiation monitoring and accident alert system is being developed for the<br />
following issues: the early alert of the personnel and population in case of radiation accident<br />
at the facilities; decision-making process support and prevention of the radiation<br />
contamination of the environment; timely information and analytical support during the<br />
nuclear and radiological accident consequences liquidation; operative support of the local,<br />
regional and central Rosatom constituencies, as well as local and federal authorities<br />
with necessary information updates; and open information release upon decision of the<br />
Client about the accident to Russian and international public and media.<br />
The key radiation monitoring and accident alert system tasks:<br />
––automated non-stop support for receiving, analysis and information release on<br />
radiological at radio ecological situation at the facilities and zones of study, including<br />
territories, waters, stationed and moving subjects;<br />
––radiation accident modeling with local and trans-border consequences of radiological<br />
elements dispersion;<br />
––radiation and radio ecological situation evaluation during the routine facilities’<br />
regime and accidents, danger levels evaluation, management information support for<br />
decision making on accident minimization and liquidation;<br />
––personnel training and group division by action and department in case of an<br />
accident;<br />
––information and communication systems in the everyday and accident situation<br />
with local, regional and central authorities, and media at the professional level,<br />
which is easy for the general public.<br />
The project on establishment of the radiation monitoring and accident alert system<br />
with facilities including navy, spent nuclear fuel and radar systems envisions an<br />
opportunity for further development and can be viewed as a part of the second stage of<br />
the north-western region environment monitoring. The volume of works in the project<br />
includes various activities which help achieve the common goal – monitoring, early<br />
warning and management of an accident in order to protect the Arkhangelskaya oblast<br />
population. The project takes place in the systems and facilities, is being coordinated<br />
and is a part of other projects, which are financed by the Russia and other donors.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
The potential of the system:<br />
1. Timely access to the information on radiation dangerous facilities, existing<br />
condition of radiation and environment contamination on the basis of geo-information<br />
technologies.<br />
2. Radiation monitoring data;<br />
3. Database of reference accidents and functions of the sources of the radiationdangerous<br />
facilities;<br />
4. Modeling and projection of radiation contamination and waste dispersion of<br />
radiation-dangerous facilities into air and water; and radiation impact on personnel,<br />
population and environment;<br />
5. Decision-making support to personnel and population protection in case of<br />
an accident;<br />
6. Program support of training and practice of personnel and emergency response<br />
groups in case of an accident;<br />
7. Systematic information support for the regional authorities and population on<br />
radiation and environmental risks caused by utilization and rehabilitation of the contaminated<br />
territories.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Color Insert
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Informing the Population of Severodvinsk on the Safety of<br />
Nuclear Submarine Recycling Based on Comparative<br />
Analysis of Nuclear, Radiological and Social Risks<br />
Vladimir S. Nikitin, Director, Research Bureau „Оnega”<br />
Nikolai G. Scherbinin, Director, <strong>Green</strong> Cross Russia<br />
Public Outreach Office, Severodvinsk<br />
Presently, dismantlement of nuclear submarines (NS) after their withdrawal from<br />
operational status in Russia consists of the following stages:<br />
––Removal of pent nuclear fuel;<br />
––Removal and subsequent transportation of the reactor block to the place of<br />
storage that is distanced from inhabited places;<br />
––Full recycling of the submarine body and equipment, except for the reactor block;<br />
––Collection of toxic and radioactive waste and its preparation for burial.<br />
On the basis of these steps, the requirements for the enterprises fulfilling the<br />
whole cycle have been set forth. They are to provide safety of the staff, local population,<br />
and the environment.<br />
Severodvinsk has become the main center for the disposing of NSs in the North-<br />
West of Russia.<br />
Severodvinsk is located along the shoreline of the White Sea, where it flows into<br />
the Nikolsk arm of the Northern Dvina, 35 km off Arkhangelsk [1]. <strong>It</strong>s population as of<br />
1 January, 2007 amounted to 195,000 inhabitants. The majority of the population are<br />
employed by the ship-building plant as it has around 40,000 employees.<br />
Production enterprise Sevmash and federal state unitary machine-building enterprise<br />
Zvezdochka, constituting State Russian Center for Nuclear Ship-Building, are two<br />
of the most important enterprises in NS building, refurbishment and recycling.<br />
Over the past 50 years, Sevmash has built 35 diesel-driven and 128 NSs. According<br />
to the START agreement between the United States and Russia, and through<br />
financial help received through the Cooperative Threat Reduction (CTR) Program, the<br />
shipyard agreed to dismantle two 941-type NSs. As part of G8 initiative in cooperation<br />
with Zvezdochka, the Sevmash shipyard has finished recycling the two 949-type NSs,<br />
OSCAR-1 [2].<br />
Zvezdochka is located on the Yagry Island and has a population of around 40,000<br />
people.<br />
Since its foundation, the enterprise has refurbished 114 submarines, 81 of which<br />
carried nuclear power installations [3].
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Since 1977, Zvezdochka has been dismantling and recycling missile components<br />
of NSs as part of the agreement between Russia and the <strong>USA</strong> on the reduction of<br />
strategic nuclear weapons. As of today, 31 NSs have been recycled in compliance with<br />
Russian and international ecological standards.<br />
Onega is the main organization in research and technology maintenance of recycling<br />
of vessels with nuclear power installations in Russia. As potentially health threatening<br />
work (e.g. NS recycling) is conducted in Severodvinsk, the population is growing<br />
increasingly concerned; therefore, local authorities and the public support complete<br />
openness related to environmental, shipyard staff and local population protection.<br />
Since the start of the project, both Onega and Zvezdochka have taken additional<br />
efforts to inform the public about the work done in NS recycling. Pursuant to the recommendations<br />
of the International Committee on Radiation Resistance [4], the acceptability<br />
of activity involving radiological substances is evaluated based on risk analysis for<br />
the staff, local population and the environment. Onega, in cooperation with Rosatom,<br />
conducts complex research on radiological and non-radiological factors and their contribution<br />
to environmental risks during NS recycling at Russian ship-building plants.<br />
The main objective of risk assessment during the processes of construction, refurbishment<br />
and dismantlement of NSs is a complex assessment of data, information,<br />
and technological processes in order to provide the managers of the enterprises with the<br />
necessary information based on which they would be able to make reasonable decisions<br />
for reduction of radiological and non-radiological risks at the Russian ship-building<br />
enterprises.<br />
One of the requirements for NS and nuclear installation carrier recycling is assessment<br />
of impact on the environment. Throughout the course of the assessment, such<br />
aspects as impact on air, water, soil, staff of the enterprise and local population are<br />
tested. The conclusion is made based on the assessment results.<br />
Projects and processes of ship-building facilities requiring safety control include<br />
toxic waste, NSs that are being refurbished and recycled, vessels carrying nuclear installations,<br />
onshore facilities, vessels of nuclear technological maintenance, toxic waste<br />
recycling installations, towage of NSs and reactor blocks, technical processes of recycling,<br />
dismantling of NSs.<br />
Research has shown that radiation-related mortality among the population as<br />
well as staff not involved in radiation-related works does not exceed the rate of 1х10 -6<br />
people/year, which corresponds to the level of insignificant hazardousness as set forth in<br />
the recommendations of the International Committee on Radiation Resistance [5].<br />
Over the past seven years, Severodvinsk has hosted a number of conferences<br />
and seminars related to the issues of NS recycling attended by both Russian and foreign<br />
experts. For example, on July 4–9, 2001, the international conference Environmental<br />
Issues of NS Recycling was held. On March 26–27, 2003, Zvezdochka hosted an IAEA<br />
expert panel seminar on the issues of complex recycling of NSs in the North-Western<br />
region. <strong>It</strong> was attended by experts from Great Britain, Belgium, Germany, France,<br />
Norway, Sweden, Finland, Canada, the United States and <strong>It</strong>aly. As part of the seminar,<br />
Rosatom backed by executive authorities, made an agreement with Canada that the<br />
latter would finance recycling of 12 NSs at Zvezdochka. On November 19–21, 2003,
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
meetings of the Russian Nuclear Society Safe Nuclear Power for the Society were held.<br />
Participants during the meetings stressed the importance of complex work on clarification<br />
and popularization of modern nuclear technology safety and the importance of the<br />
Russian Nuclear Society in the process.<br />
Considering the importance of nuclear industry for the Arkhangelskaya oblast<br />
(nuclear facility at the Novaya Zemlya, building and recycling of NSs at the Severodvinsk<br />
enterprises, building of offshore nuclear heat and power plant in Severodvinsk<br />
and other nuclear projects), we deem it appropriate to hold a number of seminars on nuclear<br />
energy safety. We understand the significance of high-tech works conducted in the<br />
Arkhangelskaya oblast of the nation and thus it should be supported and continued.<br />
Onega in cooperation with the International Center for Environmental Safety<br />
have held two meetings with the people of Severodvinsk, where the topical issues related<br />
to recycling of decommissioned nuclear fleet and environmental rehabilitation of<br />
facilities of infrastructure of the North-West were discussed. These issues have been set<br />
forth in the strategic master-plan prepared by a group of Russian experts and engineers<br />
led by the member of the RAS A.A. Sarkisov.<br />
The first meeting was held on November 24, 2004 in Severodvinsk; more than<br />
100 experts took part in the discussion of the master-plan, 15 experts made speeches<br />
and suggestions. The second meeting was held on June 8, 2005 and its main objective<br />
was to get to know the attitude of Severodvinsk public towards the project Report on<br />
the Strategic Environmental Valuation of the master-plan. Link to the report had been<br />
previously forwarded to all the participants of the first meeting. The event was attended<br />
by 82 people, 14 of whom took part in the discussion of the report. Information regarding<br />
the international conferences, seminars, meetings, and public hearings was provided<br />
to the public via mass media.<br />
The bulletin, Issues of NS Recycling, was first published in 2002 and since then,<br />
11 issues have been published. The head of the editorial board is V.S. Nikitin, PhD.<br />
All of the mentioned improvements have provided a good foundation for the<br />
Research and Information Center working with the population on NS recycling issues.<br />
The center was opened in 2002 and is a subdivision <strong>Green</strong> Cross Russia. The center’s<br />
objectives are the following:<br />
––To increase public awareness of the nuclear recycling issues, including environmental,<br />
political, medical and other issues;<br />
––To learn the attitude of the public to the issues of NS recycling;<br />
––To create links among the governmental bodies, experts, and the public.<br />
The center has already held a number of interesting events.<br />
On February 8, 2007, Severodvinsk hosted public hearings on Improvement of<br />
Radiation Control and Emergency Response in the Arkhangelskaya oblast that were<br />
jointly organized by Onega and the Research and Information Center.<br />
On March 30, 2007, the Research and Information Center held a meeting with<br />
journalists of Severodvinsk on NS recycling issues.<br />
Different events are regularly organized for the students of the city; these include<br />
seminars and trips to the facilities involved in the recycling process. On April 9, 2007,
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
the Research and Information Center organized a one-day seminar for the teachers of<br />
local schools on Environmental Safety of NS Recycling.<br />
The Research and Information Center’s personnel are active members of the<br />
Steering Committee on environmental events, affiliated by the City Council of Severodvinsk<br />
as well as the Community Environmental Council. On April 2, 2007, the Research<br />
and Information Center participated in the city’s round table discussion on the building<br />
of an offshore nuclear power plant commissioned to Sevmash.<br />
The first stage of building of the offshore generating unit Academician Lomonosov<br />
for the low-capacity nuclear heat power plant started on April 15, 2007 and in accordance<br />
with the agreement with Rosenergoatom, Sevmash will build and exploit the<br />
first plant as well as the onshore facilities. This will mean informing the public regularly<br />
of the safety risk of the offshore nuclear power plant compared to other technology.<br />
In conclusion, it is worth noting that the majority of the population of the city understands<br />
and approves of NS recycling-related activity. However, informing the public<br />
regularly is necessary.<br />
References<br />
1. Russian Cities: Encyclopedia, M.: Science Publishing Bolshaya Rossiyskaya Entsyklopediya;<br />
TERRA – Kinizhnyj Klub, 1998. – 559p.<br />
2. Vessel Sevmash. Photo album 2006, printed by Partner NP.<br />
3. Shipwrights of Zvezdochka: historic and regional compilation. Issue №2. – Severodvinsk<br />
Zvezdochka, 2004 – 384p.<br />
4. Radiological Safety. Recommendations of Radiological Commission on Radiological<br />
Protection 1990. Release 40, part 1.2. Translated from English. M., Energoatomizdat, 1994.<br />
5. A.M.Agapov, G.A.Novikov, V.S.Nikitin, Risk Assessment and Management in the<br />
process of nuclear submarine recycling at the ship-building facilities of Russia, Volume 1, 1,<br />
2003 – 79–96 p.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Radiological Problems of the Yenisey River Near<br />
the Rosatom Chemical Plant<br />
Alexander Y. Bolsunovsky, Deputy Director, Institute of<br />
Biophysics of SB RAS, Krasnoyarsk<br />
The Yenisey River is one of the largest rivers in the world. On its bank, near<br />
Krasnoyarsk city, there is a Rosatom Chemical Plant. Nuclear reactors and radiological<br />
chemical factories are located at the facility, which produces weapons-grade plutonium.<br />
Two reactors used water from the Yenisey River for cooling purposes, but now are out<br />
of operation. At present, a third reactor continues its work and it partially uses Yenisey<br />
water for reactor cooling.<br />
During the long operation of the radiological chemical factory, a large amount<br />
of liquid radioactive waste with various activity levels accumulated on site. A part of<br />
the waste is stored in open pools and another part is filled in underground water layers<br />
in „Severny” grounds. Scientific expeditions by the Biophysics Institute and other<br />
institutes revealed a number of facts, which indicate an unfavorable radio-ecological<br />
situation in the Yenisey waters:<br />
1. A High level of radioactive contamination of some underground parts of the<br />
river’s basin takes place at 330 km distance from the facility. As a rule, these are local<br />
areas, but a long anomaly was determined with up to 47 kBq/kg level of 137 Cs in the<br />
basin near the city of Yeniseysk.<br />
Some shore lands of the river near the Chemical Plant contain up to 850 kBq/kg<br />
of 137 Cs. Such 137 Cs levels are comparable to the radioactive contamination of the Techa<br />
River. A probable source of high radioactive cesium contamination of the Yenisey basin<br />
is an onshore pool (radioactive substances storage), which might have been affected by<br />
abnormal flooding in 1966.<br />
2. Hot particles with 137 Cs activity up to 30 MBq/particle were found in soil layers<br />
of the river’s shore area. Lab research proved that a reactor was the source of these particles<br />
and determined the approximate age of this formation. A comparative magnitude analysis of<br />
137<br />
Cs/ 134 Cs ratio for newly found particles indicated that all the particles can be divided into<br />
two groups based on this correlation:<br />
a). Particles with isotope rationale 137 Cs/ 134 Cs more than 3000 and the age higher than<br />
30 years.<br />
b). Particles with isotope rationale 137 Cs/ 134 Cs less or equal to 1000. <strong>It</strong> is obvious, that<br />
cesium isotope ratio the age of the newly found particles is less than in group a). Statistical<br />
analysis indicated that for the first group an average rationale of isotopes 137 Cs/ 134 Cs comprises<br />
3600±700; and for the second group – 900±500.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Hot particle flow into the Yenisey took place thirty years ago at least twice.<br />
Lately, however, some particles with 137 Cs/ 134 Cs rationale less than 200 (50¸200) were<br />
found (by the Geology and Mineralogy Institute, RAN, Novosibirsk). These particles<br />
are quite young. Some micro particles, a tenth of micron in size, were found in the soil<br />
layers and river bed sediments. In these hot second generation particles, 137 Cs activity<br />
reaches tens of hundreds of Bq and is registering high levels of 241 Am.<br />
One can suggest that hot second generation particles are micro-particles of large<br />
hot particles, but it is hard to explain the high presence of 241 Am in them, and therefore<br />
trans-uranium elements as well. The new director of the Chemical Plant in an interview<br />
with the regional paper noted that hot particles are buried in the river basin and are not<br />
dangerous for the population. In the fall of 2006, however, after a large flood, hot particles<br />
were found near B. Balchug neighborhood.<br />
We can imagine that the incident happened at a large scale, because the particles<br />
were found near the Chemical Plant and at a 330 km away down the river. <strong>It</strong> is possible<br />
to expect highly active micro-particles along with reactor fuel particles, whose source<br />
may be caused by metal pipe corrosion and deformation in the reactor system.<br />
Metal micro-particles become radioactive when they go through a reactor’s active<br />
zone. Radionuclides of an active nature have a shorter lifetime than radionuclides from a splinter<br />
source. Large amounts of highly active particles in the river basin near the industrial Chemical<br />
Plant up to Eniseysk city represent a source of potential health threats to the population.<br />
Thus, gamma-irradiation power at a one-meter distance from some particles<br />
reached 0.1 mZv/hour, and that is why the particle study took place in a lab (in a protected<br />
box). The particles were found in the area with dense local populations. Several<br />
hours exposure near such particles is equal to a year dose of 1 mZv.<br />
Further studies of active particles will allow for an evaluation of real radiation<br />
exposure in the Yenisey River basin.<br />
3. The data on maximum Plutonium isotope accumulation is 16 Bq/kg and is<br />
registered in the river bed near the Chemical Plant was in an earlier publication of<br />
specialists from Radii Institute and the Chemical Plant. At a distance more than 20 km<br />
from the plant’s waste, the amount of plutonium in the Yenisey basin is at the level of<br />
global fall-out. The studies of the Biophysics Institute Siberian Branch of RAS (SB<br />
RAS) together with Geochemistry Vernadsky Institute and MosNPO RADON indicated<br />
abnormal amounts of trans-uranium elements in the Yenisey River basin – 239, 240, 241 Pu,<br />
241<br />
Am, 237 Np and Cm isotopes. In some soil layers, the maximal amount of trans-uranium<br />
elements is the same in the Yenisey and Techa river basins.<br />
4. Annual monitoring shows man-made radionuclide accumulation, including<br />
trans-uranium elements by hydro biotical organisms, at the 250 km distance from the<br />
Chemical Plant. Therefore, radioactive element dumping takes place into the Yenisey.<br />
Cytogenesis studies of water plants indicated that plants have large numbers of chromosome<br />
abnormalities comparable to the region up the river flow.<br />
5. Trans-uranium elements, including Curie and Americium isotopes, were found<br />
in berry bushes, such as black currant and its berries. Actinolite levels are low, but considering<br />
spot radioactive contamination of the soils, one can expect much higher levels<br />
of biota contamination.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
6. Critical levels of 137 Cs, up to 10,000 Bq/kg (exceeding standards by a factor of<br />
10), were found in mushrooms in some areas of the Yenisey River.<br />
7. New sources of tritium flow into the Yenisey were revealed. Besides tritium,<br />
which is present in reactor water waste, tritium from the underground radioactive waste<br />
storage at Severny facility may also flow into the Yenisey.<br />
Biophysics Institute, SB RAS together with Radioecology Department in the<br />
Institute of Plants and Animals Ecology, Urals Branch of the RAS, work together in the<br />
Integration projects framework in the Siberian Branch and the Urals Branch to evaluate<br />
radionuclide migration patterns in Yenisey and Ob’–Irtysh river system. The projects<br />
are funded by the Russian Fundamental Studies Fund.<br />
The Krasnoyarsk Administration constantly refuses to help finance radio ecological<br />
studies of the Yenisey and supports a map company and the Chemical Plant (7<br />
million rubles per year), which does not have any radiometric equipment or experience<br />
in the field. In the Krasnoyarsky Kray radioactive level evaluation is conducted by<br />
GKH-PARADOKS and supported by the Administration. Whose interests are those<br />
During Kirienko’s visit in Krasnoyarsk, he honestly noted that everyone looks<br />
in the Yenisey for something he/she wants to find in terms of the river’s radioactive<br />
contamination. The RAS is looking for objective data.<br />
Conclusions and Suggestions<br />
1. Radioecology studies of the Yenisey River, conducted by the Biophysics Institute<br />
and other organizations in Moscow, Novosibirsk, and Krasnoyarsk, indicated<br />
that some areas of the Yenisey River contain abnormal amounts of man-made radionuclides,<br />
including trans-uranium elements. Similar levels of radionuclides are present in<br />
the Yenisey and Techa rivers. The significant numbers of hot particles (only in the Yenisey)<br />
cannot be explained from a standpoint that there were no accidents at the Chemical<br />
Plant. Rosatom should open existing files on the accidents at the plant, including those<br />
on the matter of the Chemical Plant pools and storages condition.<br />
2. Man-made radionuclide presence, including trans-uranium elements, in berry<br />
bushes, high radioactive phosphorus in fish, and exceeding 137 Cs presence in mushrooms,<br />
requires constant monitoring of biota in the Yenisey eco-system.<br />
3. Increasing background amount of tritium in the Big Tel’ River (Horizon Enterprise<br />
flows its waters with radionuclide from the Severny Grounds) requires longterm<br />
studies of radionuclide presence in the Severny Ground wells and other water<br />
drainage.<br />
4. Rosatom should invite Institute of Biophysics SB RAS to join the radioecological<br />
studies of the Yenisey River basin, because it is the only institute of the RAS<br />
beyond the Urals and has a long experience in radioecological studies, international<br />
recognition and is well equipped.<br />
References<br />
1. Bolsunovsky, A.Y., Yermakov, A.I., Sobolev A.I., Degermendgy, A.G., „First Data on<br />
Trans-Uranium Presence of Curie in the Ecosystem of the Yenisey River Basin.” Academy of<br />
Science Reports. 2006. Vol. 409,№2: 227–230.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
2. Bolsunovsky, A.Y., Dementiev, D.V., Bondareva, L.G. „An Evaluation of the Man-<br />
Caused Radionuclide Accumulation in Mushrooms in Krasnoyarsk Chemical Plant.” Radiation<br />
Biology. Radio Ecology. 2006. Vol. 46, №1: 64–70.<br />
3. Sukhorukov, F.V., Degermendgy, A.G., Bolsunovsky, A.Y., Belolypetsky, V.M., Kosolapova,<br />
L.G. et al. Spread and Migration Pattern of Radionuclide in the area of the Yenisey<br />
River. Novosibirsk. SO RAN, „Geo”. 2004. 286 pages.<br />
4. Bolsunovsky A. „Artificial Radionuclides in Aquatic Plants of the Yenisey River in<br />
the Area Affected by Effluents of a Russian Plutonium Complex.” Aquatic Ecology. 2004. V.38<br />
(1): 57–62.<br />
5. Bolsunovsky, A.Y., Sukovaty, A.G. „Radioactive Contamination of the Yenisey River<br />
Fauna in the Area of Chemical Plant Influence.” Radiobiology. Radio Ecology. 2004. Vol. 44,<br />
№3: 393–398.<br />
6. Bolsunovsky A.Y., Bondareva L.G. „Tritium in Surface Waters of the Yenisey River<br />
Basin.” J. Environmental Radioactivity. 2003. V.66, №3: 285–294.<br />
7. Bolsunovsky A.Y., Yermakov, A.I., Miasoyedov, B.F., Novikov, A.P., Sobolev, A.I.<br />
„New Data on Trans-Uranium Elements Presence in the Yenisey River bed.” Academy of Science<br />
Reports. 2002. Vol. 387, №2: 233–236.<br />
8. Bolsunovsky A.Y., Yermakov, A.I., Burger, M., Degermendgy, A.G., Sobolev, A.I.<br />
„Man-Caused Radiation Nuclide Accumulation by the Yenisey River plants in the area of the<br />
Chemical Plant.” Radiation Biology. Radio Ecology. 2002. Vol. 42, №2: 194–199.<br />
9. Bolsunovsky A.Y., Tcherkezian, V.O. „Hot Particles of the Yenisey River Flood Plain,<br />
Russia.” Journal of Environmental Radioactivity. 2001. V. 57, №3: 167–174.<br />
10. Bolsunovsky A.Y., Cherkezyan, V.O., Barsukova, K.V., Miasoyedov, B.F. A „Study of<br />
High-Active Soil Samples and Hot Particles of the Yenisey River basin.” Radiochemistry. 2000.<br />
Vol. 42, №6: 560–564.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
The Problems of Radioactive Waste on the Territory of the<br />
Kirovskaya Oblast<br />
Tamara Y. Ashikhmina, Ph.D., Bio-monitoring Laboratory<br />
Komi Institute of Biology Russian Academy of Sciences &<br />
President <strong>Green</strong> Cross Russia Public Outreach<br />
and Information Office in Kirov<br />
The problem of radiation safety today is just as present in the Kirovskaya oblast<br />
as it is in other regions of Russia. The extent of ecological problems in different regional<br />
territories varies, depending on the territory’s natural characteristics, its economic development<br />
level, the resistance of its natural complexes to the human-induced stresses,<br />
and the intensity of human-induced activities.<br />
For over 60 years, one potential ecological danger source for the Kirovskaya<br />
oblast is the Kirovo-Chepetskiy Chemical Industrial Complex (KChKhK). In the past,<br />
this complex was a uranium-processing facility. The industrial work of the KChKhK,<br />
beginning in 1944, was directed towards obtaining concentrated enriched uranium as a<br />
first step of the nuclear fuel cycle.<br />
Today KChKhK is a large chemical industrial complex. With the help of unique<br />
technology, it produces complex fertilizers, ammonia, nitric acid, chloride, and sodium<br />
hydrate. The largest polymeric factory in Russia also functions under the KChKhK<br />
structure. <strong>It</strong> produces 96% of all fluorine in Russia. This fluorine is also used at the<br />
factory to produce unique materials such as fluorocarbon polymer, a blood replacement<br />
ingredient, as well as fluorine heart valves, threads for sewing blood vessels together,<br />
pipelines for pumping corrosive chemical components, et cetera.<br />
KChKhK is located approximately one to two kilometers west from the Kirovo-<br />
Chepetsk area, which has about 88,000 residents.<br />
Today’s KChKhK enterprise inherited a large amount of radioactive waste from<br />
past production activities. The industrial complex’s disposal site contains eight radioactive<br />
waste (RAW) storages amounting to 784500 tons. In the process of filling up these<br />
facilities, this RAW is being preserved with the help of a variety of substances including<br />
concrete, asphaltic bitumen, and common clay. The first storage site went into use in 1953,<br />
and by 1980 it was fully preserved and isolated by concrete, asphalt and clay. The second<br />
site was filled up about 20% of the way and preserved due to cessation of the production<br />
process. The total mass of radioactive waste reaches 1176.7 Ku. The waste contains the<br />
following: 238-235 U, 232 Th, 239-240 Pu, 60 Co, 90 Sr, 137 Cs, and some short-lived isotopes of 134 Cs<br />
and its daughter particles. The sites containing radioactive and other toxic waste are located<br />
at Kirovo-Chepetsk’s border, about 2 km from the residential zone.<br />
The land on which the waste is located is in a tall bottomland and on the first terrace<br />
above the bottomland on the coast of the Vyatka River, the Kirovskaya oblast main
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
drinking-water source. The distance between the chemical industrial complex (and its<br />
radioactive waste sites) to the Vyatka River is 1.5 to 3 km.<br />
Also, the chemical industrial complex and the waste sites are located in Kirov<br />
city’s irrigation intake and close to point where water is pumped from the river for household<br />
use, 19 km upstream of the Vyatka River. The total amount of production waste<br />
buried close to this location amounts to 18 million tons. In Kirov city’s regional center, the<br />
population mostly uses water from the Vyatka River. This is why local residents are seriously<br />
concerned with the Vyatka River water quality – their main drinking water source.<br />
The ground water, soil and water stream sediment deposits are polluted with<br />
radioactive and toxic materials and are located near the radioactive waste storage. This<br />
presents a serious ecological danger. About 17.5 ha are polluted with alfa-active nuclides<br />
(plutonium, uranium) with an average density of 0.7 Ku/km 2 ; and about 53 ha<br />
are polluted with 137 Cs with an average density of 50 Ku/km 2 . There is a possibility of<br />
radio-nuclide ground water pollution in connection to the long-term exploitation of the<br />
objects that have been placed there.<br />
According to the data on ground water control, radioactive pollution was noted<br />
on the lower lots in the preceding years in soil and sediment deposits along the Elkhovka<br />
River streambed. This was a consequence of earlier radioactive materials dumping<br />
in the area. For a more in-depth and independent evaluation of Kirovo-Chepetsk city’s<br />
radioactive situation in the Kirovskaya oblast, sediment deposit probing was conducted<br />
in the rivers and lakes near the KChKhK (Elkhovka, Prosnitsa rivers) and in the area of<br />
Kirovo-Chepetsk and Kirov city.<br />
The gross uranium content is mostly low; in most cases it is less than 2.5 g/ton (of<br />
dry mass). The maximum concentrations of up to 4.5–6 g/ton are noted in the Elkhovka<br />
River’s lower and middle courses, downstream from the solid radioactive waste storage<br />
locations. Aside from the gross uranium, mobile uranium and simultaneous general mineralization<br />
of aqueous extracts were noted. The liquid uranium content in the vast majority<br />
of cases comes to (1.9–4.6)x10 –6 g/l (grams per liter); in four points of Elkhovka River’s<br />
lower lots, gross uranium content comes to its maximum 4.5–6.0 g/t (grams per ton),while<br />
thinly fluid uranium increases up to (24.0–30.6)x10 – 6 g/l. In the same points the highest<br />
level of general mineralization is noted, reaching 210–230 mg/l. The thorium content in<br />
all the probes is low and does not exceed 5–7 g/t. Thus, one can ascertain a low level of<br />
sediment pollution with uranium which might possibly be coming from the radioactive<br />
waste storages. One could identify the pollution source more precisely by conducting<br />
isotope research of the sediment deposits for the radioactive isotope content ( 90 Sr, 137 Cs,<br />
60<br />
Co or 239 Pu and 235 U).<br />
Highly toxic industrial complex effluents are pumped into the underground disposal<br />
range’s deep bedrock. Toxic matter migration into the upper soil and bedrock used for<br />
the water supply is possible due to the fact that the disposal range is located in a complex<br />
geological situation with many lots being quite fractured and porous in nature.<br />
Hydro-technical constructions (such as slurry repositories and tailings storages)<br />
are some particularly dangerous. Their destruction in the case of an accident can lead to<br />
major threats to human health.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
In a case of an accident or emergency of either natural or technological causes, a<br />
significant amount of the dangerous chemicals that are kept in storage present a serious<br />
threat to the Kirov and Kirovo-Chepetsk populations.<br />
In our region, the Kirovskaya oblast administration enacted three present-day<br />
stage regulations, directed at the provision for and the legislative regulation of radioactive<br />
safety. The three regulations are titled „On Introduction of Organizations’ and Regional<br />
Territories’ Radiologically Hygienic Passports”, „On the Provision of Radiological Safety<br />
of the Population”, and „On Further Development of Socio-Hygienic Monitoring”.<br />
The radiological monitoring of the region started in 1961, when the Hygienic-<br />
Epidemiological Service began analyzing indicators of x-ray procedure frequency and<br />
the effective doses the population received during these procedures. In the sixties, a<br />
systematic research program on air and atmospheric precipitation was organized. Monitoring<br />
the power of equivalent dose gamma-rays in an open space (gamma background)<br />
has been conducted in the entire territory since 1990. The amount of radiation in foodstocks,<br />
drinking water and in enclosed living spaces) were determined. At this point,<br />
the monitoring system of radiation factor as a component of social and public health<br />
monitoring is fully developed.<br />
The obtained results are generalized and analyzed in the Gossanepidnadzor State<br />
Hygiene and Epidemiological Control Regional Center. This work allowed gamma background<br />
control level determinations for each regional district and for Kirov city, which is<br />
very important for a timely evaluation of a radiological situation in the event it changes.<br />
The gamma background level in the city of Kirov ranges from 5 to 10 mkR/hour<br />
(0.05–0.1 mkZv/hour) and underwent practically no changes in the past five years. The<br />
data is presented in Table 1.<br />
Month/<br />
Year<br />
Table 1<br />
Gamma background dynamics in the city of Kirov in 2001–2005 (mkR/hour)<br />
I II Ш IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII min max average<br />
Average values<br />
2001 6,5 6,0 6,0 6,0 7,5 7,5 7,5 7,5 7,5 7,5 8,0 7,0 5,0 8,0 7,0<br />
2002 6,0 5,5 6,0 6,0 8,0 7,0 6,5 7,5 8,0 7,0 6,5 5,0 5,0 8,0 7,0<br />
2003 5,0 5,0 5,5 5,0 5,5 5.0 5,0 5,0 5,5 5,5 5,0 5.0 5,0 5,5 5,0<br />
2004 7,0 7,0 7,0 6,0 8,0 8,0 7,5 8,0 8,5 8,0 8,0 8,0 5,0 10,0 8,0<br />
2005 8,0 8,0 6,5 7,0 8,0 7,0 6,0 6,5 6,5 7,0 6,5 6,5 5,0 10,0 7,0<br />
A selection of air and atmospheric precipitation probes was conducted in order to<br />
determine radioactivity levels. The data is presented in Tables 2 and 3.<br />
The strontium and cesium radionuclide concentration in the atmospheric air are<br />
basically on the same (background) level.<br />
In 2004–2005, the researched soil probe quantity increased. Specific activity of<br />
90<br />
Sr in the soil comes to an average of 1.4 Bk/kg, and specific activity of 137 Cs comes to<br />
about 2.1 Bk/kg. This corresponds with the background values.<br />
The quantity of analyzed water probes from open water sources remained the<br />
same. Element-by-element radioactive water content ( 90 Sr and 137 Cs) is determined at
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
two main points: the water draw-offs/irrigation intakes of the Kirov and Kirovo-Chepetsk<br />
cities. Both irrigation intakes are located in the zone of possible influence of the<br />
KChKhK production waste. The analysis of these probes is conducted by radiochemical<br />
means. The strontium concentration amounts to 0.02 Bk/l, and the cesium concentration<br />
comes to 0.01 Bk/l. This corresponds to the background values.<br />
Atmospheric precipitation radio-activity (Bk/m 2 per year)<br />
Year Total Beta-activity 90 Sr-Content I37 Cs-Content<br />
2001 45 8,3 3,2<br />
2002 44 9,0 2,5<br />
2003 60 16,9 3,3<br />
2004 84 21,0 4,6<br />
2005 78 26,4 5,8<br />
Table 2<br />
Average Atmospheric Air Radioactivity (10–5 Bk/m 3 )<br />
Table 3<br />
Year Total Beta-activity 90 Sr-activity I37 Cs-activity<br />
2001 7,4 0,3 0,1<br />
2002 7,4 0,3 0,1<br />
2003 7,4 0,3 0,1<br />
2004 11,1 0,3 0,1<br />
2005 10,8 0,4 0,1<br />
Taking into account the fact that the main rivers – Vyatka and Cheptsa – provide<br />
drinking water to the cities of Kirov and Kirovo-Chepetsk, it is necessary to conduct<br />
comprehensive evaluations of possible pollution matters contents in the natural complex<br />
and to study its influence upon ecosystems and human health. In order to achieve<br />
a representative monitoring of the Vyatka and Cheptsa hydro-systems, it is necessary<br />
to conduct additional water basin inspections. <strong>It</strong> is also necessary to conduct informative<br />
indications selections for controlling and monitoring the natural environment and<br />
objects.<br />
There were research projects conducted in the uranium deposit locations (Karinskoye<br />
uranium deposits in lowland moors/turfaries). These research projects included<br />
measuring the power of gamma-rays equivalent dose in open space and determining<br />
natural radionuclide concentration in the soil and surface waters.<br />
Therefore, the gamma background control is conducted over the Kirov region’s<br />
entire territory. An effective external exposure dose amounts to 0.73 mZv per person per<br />
year. The study of the obtained data allowed the finding of the gamma-background level<br />
ranging/rating of the Kirovskaya oblast (see Picture 1).<br />
According to the evaluation results, inputs from various sources of ionizing radiation,<br />
radon and its daughter-fractionation products are responsible for the largest share
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
of radiation brought into the population (41%). Medical radiation takes the second place<br />
with 31%; and outer space and Earth radiation (aside from radon) amount to 28%.<br />
Overall, the radio-ecological situation of the Kirovskaya oblast is normal. <strong>It</strong> does<br />
not exceed the limits of acceptable indicators in any environment type. This is true of<br />
both natural and artificial radio-nuclides.<br />
Picture 1. Ranging of gamma-background levels in the Kirovskaya oblast
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Environmental Safety of AECC as a Project Component for<br />
the Creation of an International Center for Uranium<br />
Enrichment in Angarsk<br />
Alexandr G. Teterin, Head, Technical Planning<br />
Department, Angarsk Electrolytic Chemical Combine<br />
The first time that the Angarsk Electrolysis Chemical Complex (AECC) became<br />
interesting to the public and mass-media was after the Presidents of Russia and the<br />
United States announced at the G8 summit in St.-Petersburg the plan for further development<br />
of nuclear energy production. At the same summit, Sergey Kirienko, Head<br />
of the Federal Agency for the Atomic Energy (Rosatom), stated that Angarsk would<br />
become the location of the first international center for uranium enrichment.<br />
Business Card of AECC<br />
AECC is located in Eastern Siberia, 30 km off Irkutsk and 100 km away from<br />
Baykal Lake. <strong>It</strong> is one of the main enterprises in Angarsk and has 6,300 employees. The<br />
cumulative taxes paid to the budget totaled 1.3 billion rubles. AECC is part of the nuclear<br />
fuel cycle and supplies the world market with uranium hexafluoride of natural and enriched<br />
isotopic composition, fluorine-containing chemical substances and products of nuclear instrument<br />
engineering. The plant has a certified quality management system meeting the<br />
ISO 9001 standards. The share of export in the plant’s activity is about 50%. The issue<br />
of environmental protection is no less important in the course of project implementation<br />
than political and social issues. The population of the area is especially concerned about<br />
the issue. Until recently the complex was considered a secure facility and thus information<br />
on its activity was unavailable to the public. Geographical proximity to Baykal Lake adds<br />
more importance to the environmental safety of the international project.<br />
Environmental Policy<br />
The Director General of the plant introduced the Environmental Policy of the<br />
Plant that defines the main objective of the plant’s activity to minimize the impact on the<br />
environment. The policy also sets the means to achieve the primary objective, liabilities<br />
and responsibilities of the management in accordance with ISO 14000 standards. For<br />
the first time, the environmental report of the plant’s activity was released and made<br />
public in 2006. <strong>It</strong> sets forth the norms and criteria of the AECC impact on the environment.<br />
The main means to secure environmental safety are also discussed.<br />
Current Cost<br />
Another proof of AECC’s concern with environmental protection is the<br />
environmental measures taken in 2005–2006 that cost the plant 225 million ru-
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
bles. The most important objective of environmental protection on the premises is<br />
the centralized gas conditioning system of the chemical plant; special ventilation<br />
equipment forces the production gases into the system. The main components of<br />
the system are the granular-bed filters filled with sawdust and foam scrubbers that<br />
neutralize and purify aerial emissions. Due to this highly reliable system, the plant<br />
is ahead of many other plants in the nuclear and chemical industry in terms of environmental<br />
protection.<br />
Cumulative emissions of AECC account for 0.1% of overall emissions of the<br />
city’s industrial facilities. Taking into account the fact that the emissions of the plant<br />
that are supposed to host the International Center for Uranium Enrichment account for<br />
6% of the complex’s emissions, therefore, construction of the ICUE would not significantly<br />
affect the amount of cumulative emissions of the city.<br />
The Plant<br />
Good environmental conditions of the surrounding forestry can also be taken<br />
into effect when considering the efficiency of the complex’s environmental policy.<br />
Radiological conditions of AECC are characterized by stability and absence of radiological<br />
situations. The standards of radiological impact are set by the Department of<br />
radiological safety of the Ministry of natural resources of the Russia. The actual indices<br />
have not yet approached the safety limit. The norm for annual radioactive emissions is<br />
165,039х10 12 Bq and the actual figure for 2006 is 501,27х10 6 Bq.<br />
The annual effective radiation dosage is set by the norms at 1 MZv; the 2006<br />
figure for Angarsk population was 0.03 MZv. The set norm for volumetric activity of<br />
radioactive aerosols in the bottom layer of atmosphere air is 36х10 -3 Bq/m 3 . In 2006, the<br />
figure on the premises of the complex was 0.78х10 -3 and in residential areas of the city<br />
– 0.32х10 -3 Bq/m 3 , which is considerably lower than the norm. As for the emissions to<br />
the hydrosphere, the set annual norm is 500.62 ton and over the last year the complex’s<br />
emissions totaled 74.12 tons.<br />
An important issue among those related to environmental safety is handling depleted<br />
uranium hexafluoride that is produced at AECC in the process of 235 U gas centrifuge<br />
uranium enrichment.<br />
Work of the Centrifuge<br />
In compliance with the Federal Law of the Russia „On the use of nuclear energy”<br />
and IAEA expert conclusion (ISBN 92-64-195254, 2001), depleted uranium hexafluoride<br />
is considered a valuable energy resource and a potential source of fluoride for the<br />
sublimating-separating cycle and is not considered radioactive waste. On December 27,<br />
2006, The Head of the Rosatom S.V. Kirienko approved the Concept of safe handling<br />
of depleted uranium hexafluoride developed to secure implementation of the federal<br />
program of Development of the nuclear energy production in Russia in 2007–2010 and<br />
planning for 2015.<br />
Pursuant to the concept mentioned above, depleted uranium hexafluoride as a<br />
raw material resource, one of the additional uranium sources, or substances containing<br />
or able to produce fissile nuclear substances are subject to federal control and accounting<br />
as part of the state nuclear substance control and accounting.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
According to the technical rules, depleted uranium hexafuoride is stored in steel<br />
tanks at open-air sites, which is an internationally recognized storage method for such<br />
substances. Term of use for such tanks is 40 years; after required measures and checks<br />
it can be extended to 80 to 100 years.<br />
The staff of the complex in cooperation with specialists from leading research<br />
centers of the country is working on an industrial installation to recycle depleted uranium<br />
hecsafluoride that would first, transform the substance into uranium tetrafluoride, a<br />
safer storage state, and second, bring hydrogen fluoride back into production of primary<br />
uranium hexafluoride. Hydrogen fluoride made of calcium fluoride is to be replaced<br />
with hydrogen fluoride produced of depleted uranium hexafluoride.<br />
Automated System of Control over Radiation and Chemical Conditions<br />
<strong>It</strong> is one of the few systems of its kind that operates in the region of the country.<br />
Both on the premises and in neighboring parts of the city sensors are put to control radiological<br />
and chemical pollution.<br />
The system includes the following:<br />
––2 information and control centers<br />
––7 control centers for effective dosage monitoring<br />
––4 centers for hydrogen fluoride monitoring<br />
––2 gamma-spectrometric centers<br />
––weather center<br />
––information boards on the premises and in the neighboring districts<br />
The system measures the level of radioactive nuclides, gamma-ray radiation dosage,<br />
hydrogen fluoride concentration, air temperature and humidity. Data processing<br />
and control over radiological condition is done in two information and control centers.<br />
Three times a day the data is transmitted to the unified Rosatom Crisis Center.<br />
The complex fully complies with environmental legislation; it monitors the environmental<br />
condition both on the premises and in the neighboring residential areas as<br />
well as pollution of both open and ground (via 43 observation wells) waters, snow, soil,<br />
plants. Laboratory control of these is done by the certified laboratory of the complex<br />
that is recognized as an independent organization.<br />
The complex also has plans of action for emergency situations that contain the<br />
possible scenarios of dangerous situations, conditions, measures and ways to liquidate<br />
their consequences. The instructions also contain the order and frequency of emergency<br />
situation training held at the complex.<br />
<strong>It</strong> is also worth mentioning that despite the high level of environmental safety,<br />
we still have to prove to the public that creation of the international uranium enrichment<br />
center would not change the nature of the plant’s core activity, and more importantly,<br />
would not have any negative impact on the environment of the region.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Remediation of Technical, Coastal Navy Bases in Northern<br />
Russia: The Case of Andreeva Bay. Position of the Regional<br />
NGOs<br />
Sergei N. Zhavoronkin, Expert, „Nuclear and Radiation<br />
Safety” Programme, <strong>Green</strong> Cross Russia,<br />
city of Murmansk<br />
Introduction<br />
In the northern region in the 1960s, two coastal technical bases were established<br />
that supported the operation of the Northern Fleet of nuclear submarines (NS). These<br />
bases also had the following functions: accepted, temporarily stored and prepared nuclear<br />
waste for recycling and collected, partially processed and temporarily stored solid<br />
and liquid radioactive waste.<br />
The coastal technical base in Andreeva Bay was constructed in 1961–1963 and<br />
is located on the western shore of Western Litsa Bay in the Andreeva Bay. While the<br />
base was in operation, some buildings and structures were constructed and rebuilt. In<br />
1989, the plant focused on nuclear spent fuel and radioactive waste, as well as technical<br />
maintenance of NSs was stopped at the base.<br />
Currently at the Andreeva Bay base there are 21,640 exhaust heat-emitting units<br />
(93 active zones), which contain approximately 35 tons of fuel material with the average<br />
activity of 1017 Bq (99% of the total activity), 17,600 m 3 of solid radioactive waste<br />
(SRW), 2,280 m 3 of liquid radioactive waste (LRW), which are 1% active.<br />
The physical and technical condition of the buildings and structures are not satisfactory,<br />
and some of them are in emergency conditions. The isolation barriers for the<br />
spent nuclear fuel (SNF) and radioactive waste are damaged and continue to decay, and<br />
as a result, the radiation situation is not satisfactory. In some cases, the radionuclide<br />
leak has spread far outside the buildings and structures, and the leak has also reached<br />
the subterranean and surface waters, including the Andreeva Bay accident. There are<br />
problems safely storing SNF and radioactive waste, and there is not full compliance<br />
with preventative regulations for nuclear or radiological accident.<br />
The Russian Federation Government Act №518, dated 28 May 1998, acknowledged<br />
the environmental remediation of the former coastal technical base as important.<br />
The Russian Federation Government Act №220-r, dated 9 February 2000, „On transferring<br />
dangerous facilities of the Russian Federation defense Ministry and their financing to<br />
the nuclear energy Ministry” set up the Andreeva Bay base under Rosatom authority for<br />
remediation. A Federal Unitary Enterprise „The Northern enterprise on radioactive waste<br />
management” (FGUP „SevRAO” in Murmansk) and an Office of FGUP „SevRAO” in<br />
Zaozersk were set up to accomplish the works at the Andreeva Bay base.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
In 2004, a new concept of environmental remediation for the coastal technical<br />
bases in the Russian North was adopted, and the Andreeva Bay technical base was expected<br />
to be completely taken off from the operation.<br />
1. Problem Description<br />
Among the key problems is the significant amount of nuclear spent fuel and<br />
radioactive waste at the base, which set up the amount of work, financial support and<br />
environmental risks, particularly important for the region.<br />
The major criteria for the completed and planned works at the factory, which defines<br />
all the conditions and risks, is the storage condition of SNF and radioactive waste.<br />
For a complete technical base remediation such technical conditions of the facilities as<br />
the presence of the essential infrastructure to manage SNF and radioactive waste on<br />
the base and in the region, are critical. Another essential condition is the availability of<br />
facilities for acceptance, storage, and recycling of a significant amount of radioactive<br />
waste (first of all, SRW).<br />
1.1. Existing Storage Facilities for SNF<br />
Description. At present, the spent fuel storage consists of dry storage units. For<br />
spent fuel storage, three tanks (2А, 2B, 3А) are used. These tanks were constructed for<br />
the LRW collection and storage and were part of the special water purifier unit.<br />
The tanks are monolithic, ferroconcrete units with a volume of 1000 m 3 . Tank 2А<br />
is covered with carbon steel. The rest have metal coating.<br />
The SNF storage tank was constructed in 1983–1985. For the exhaust heat-emitting<br />
units’ cases’ storage in a tank, the metal pipes were installed and this allowed putting<br />
cells for the cases of various types (each case in a separate cell). Concrete plugs in steel<br />
jacket were installed over the cases. The cells were covered over the top with steel plugs.<br />
In the early 1990s the tanks 2А and 2B were equipped with a ventilation system<br />
and purification system to trap polluted air. The main equipment was placed in a special<br />
building (unit with special ventilation). Currently the system does not work and is<br />
partially dismantled.<br />
1.2. SNF Quantity and Characteristic<br />
The SNF is stored in casings, which are located in dry storage unit cells, and in<br />
containers (containers of type 11 and 12).<br />
Tank 3А – 1,200 cells for cases, 900 cases loaded;<br />
Tank 2А – 1,220 cells for cases, 1,021 cases loaded;<br />
Tank 2B – 1,191 cells for cases, 1,138 cases loaded.<br />
Overall activity of SNF, according to 2004 data is 1,3х10 17 Bq.<br />
A permanent storage pool for the SNF (construction N5) was designed and built.<br />
In 1985 a radiological accident took place, when as a result of the pools’ depressurizing,<br />
a cooling water leak spread to the areas around the facility.<br />
Major shortcomings, which have environmental significance<br />
Dry storage units for SNF have significant structural weaknesses:<br />
1. The structures are not hermetic: tank 3А and 2B are not coated with metal,<br />
which could provide SNF isolation from subterranean waters.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
2. The units’ cover is not hermetic and does not protect against atmospheric<br />
precipitation on tank 3А – due to the poor design and quality – and on tanks 2А and 2B<br />
– due to poor construction by utilizing removable metal sections.<br />
3. The water removal system from the storage cells and cases by the exhaust<br />
heat-emitting units.<br />
4. There is no ventilation system to remove and purify polluted air.<br />
5. There is a poor system of material deactivation in the SNF storage (concrete<br />
and carbon steel).<br />
6. During the 15 years of use, 3А tank has never been inspected. Additionally,<br />
several concrete covers were displaced, which also affected hermetic condition of the<br />
structures. As a result, there is high radioactive water present in the cases.<br />
7. Precipitation and subterranean water leaks into the dry storage units leads to<br />
increased contamination levels of equipment and instruments. This creates an unfavorable<br />
radioactive environment and increases the LRW amount during the process of the<br />
SNF management.<br />
8. A separate project is needed to design a remediation of SNF storage (construction<br />
5). Currently there are a number of environmental risks: a potential leak of<br />
radioactive materials into the environment, accumulation of radioactive waste during<br />
construction, and increasing radioactive levels that affects personnel.<br />
1.3. Existing Storage Constructions for SRW<br />
Description. At the coastal technical base, the following SRW storage facilities exist:<br />
––deepened concrete units, for high and medium activity SRW storage;<br />
––open ground for the temporary SRW storage (the territory of 280 m 2<br />
);<br />
––ground-based concrete unit, for the high and medium activity SRW storage;<br />
––half-depend concrete unit, for the temporary storage of high and medium activity<br />
SRW (filter-traps, large-size equipment, management and security system rods)<br />
and for the temporary storage of high and medium activity SRW.<br />
1.4. Total Amount and Characteristic of SRW<br />
There are 12 types of SRW. The total amount of all SRW is 17,600 m 3 , including<br />
14,082 m 3 of low activity waste, 2,982 m 3 of medium activity, and 563 m 3 of high activity.<br />
The total activity of SRW according to the 2004 data is 6,6х10 14 Bq.<br />
There are 10,473 m 3 of waste in the open ground storage, and 7,127 m 3 in the<br />
deepened storages and in the buildings.<br />
Major shortcomings, which have environmental significance.<br />
1. None of the SRW storage containers have the necessary design to protect<br />
against the precipitation, as well as to collect, control and purify the drained water.<br />
2. The large-sized equipment is stored without package and highly active equipment<br />
is in the open, which resulted in nuclides leaking out the container and into the<br />
surface and subterranean waters at a significant distance.<br />
3. While the coastal technical bases are under remediation, it may lead to an<br />
increase of SRW.<br />
4. In some cases, the handling of highly active SRW without protective gear<br />
might lead to increased radioactive doses for personnel.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
1.5. Existing Storage Constructions for LRW<br />
Description. In the territory around the coastal technical base the following storage<br />
facilities exist:<br />
––a deepened concrete tank, coated with carbon steel for LRW (and used for collecting<br />
precipitation waters).<br />
––LRW tanks, which were not used as recommended. There is a crane platform<br />
designed to support transporting and technical operations in at the dry storage facilities<br />
over tank 3B.<br />
––the LRW treatment facility (special water treatment), which was not used as<br />
recommended as special technical equipment was not installed.<br />
––highly active concentrates of processed LRW, designed for a long-term storage<br />
of concentrates.<br />
The storage includes six underground tanks, coated with stainless steel, each<br />
with a volume of 400 m 3 and a ground-based construction with a basement for technical<br />
equipment.<br />
Currently, 4 tanks are used for LRW storage (LRW amount in them is 730 m 3 ),<br />
and 2 tanks are used for the SRW storage.<br />
Due to the lack of heating in the Construction 6, 3 tanks have defrosted (the top part)<br />
and partially depressurized, which led to an LRW leak outside the construction barriers. As a<br />
result, the pipe corridor of the construction is now filled with 360 m 3 of LRW.<br />
1.6. Total amount and characteristic of LRW<br />
LRW is stored in special containers (Tanks 2–4) of Construction 6, and in facilities,<br />
where LRW leaked from an accident (pipe corridor and basement), because of<br />
failures or lack of construction barriers due to improper technical solutions.<br />
The total LRW amount is 2,280 m 3 , including 1,581 m 3 of low activity waste and<br />
699 m 3 of medium activity waste. The total LRW activity according to the 2004 data is<br />
4,5х10 12 Bq.<br />
Note: the amount of LRW at several facilities is approximated.<br />
Major shortcomings, which have environmental significance<br />
1. All tanks used for the LRW storage in Construction 6 have passed their 25 year<br />
limit, and secure containment is no longer guaranteed.<br />
2. The non-containment of the Tanks 2–4 may lead to further destruction of the<br />
construction barriers and additional radionuclide leaks outside of the facility in surface<br />
and subterranean waters.<br />
3. The technical condition of construction №6, and especially of the wall in the<br />
pipe corridor, adds an additional risk of radioactive spread in the coastal technical base<br />
territory. This factor may lead to an increase in SRW during base remediation.<br />
4. In some cases, the handling of highly active SRW without protective gear<br />
might lead to increased radioactive doses for personnel.<br />
1.7. Environmental conditions at the coastal technical base in the Andreeva Bay<br />
1. The existing data on radioactive and environmental conditions is not complete.<br />
2. The majority of construction barriers have damages, and, as a result, there<br />
have been radioactive leaks to the environment.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
3. The facilities and constructions, along with other services, continue to deteriorate.<br />
In the territory around the coastal technical base, there are areas with high levels<br />
of gamma-radiation (from 16 microZv/hour to 0.4 mZv/hour). There are some local zones<br />
with increased level of gamma-radiation: a half-destroyed pier – 460–1000 microZv/hour,<br />
the coast near the new mooring – 50–150 microZv/hour. A section of the stream near<br />
Construction 5 has a very high radiation level: gamma-radiation 5 m from the stream is<br />
0.03–0.04 mZv/hour and where the stream flows to the Andreeva Bay is 2,3x10 -3 mZv/<br />
hour. The gamma-radiation near the SRW storage facility is 5 to 100 microZv/hour.<br />
The territory around the SRW storage is characterized by high levels of surface<br />
contamination (up to 166 kBq/m 2 ), and the territory around Constructions 5 and 6 has<br />
surface contamination of up to 1700 kBq/m 2 . The coastal technical base construction and,<br />
above all, Construction 5 (where water leaks from storage pools for exhaust heat-emitting<br />
units) are the source of the contamination of surface waters in the Andreeva Bay. In some<br />
stream and sea water samples, the amount of 137 Cs was in the range of 45–600 Bq/l, and<br />
90<br />
Sr was 80–200 Bq/l. Some sea water contamination was noticed near the moorings at the<br />
level of 1.1–2.2 Bq/l while the average background level is 0.22–0.26 Bq/l.<br />
There are also an increased number of anomaly zones with soil contamination at<br />
the base territory, particularly near facilities. The most contaminated soils are the soils<br />
near the SRW storage grounds (near Construction 5), and is radionuclide 137 Cs (gammaactivity)<br />
and 90 Sr (beta-activity).<br />
Near the SRW grounds, the contamination reaches 9x10 6 Bq/kg of 137 Cs and 10 6 Bq/<br />
kg of 90 Sr. Near the moorings, the contamination reaches 4,000 Bq/kg and in the lowland near<br />
SNF and SRW storage and NSs settlings, it reaches 2x10 4 Bq/kg of 137 Cs.<br />
According to studies of subterranean waters by drilling, water contamination<br />
was indicated near construction №5. The specific activity was 2.4х10 3 Bq/kg of 137 Cs<br />
and 9х10 2 Bq/kg for 90 Sr.<br />
In the dry storage area, water contamination is as high as 90 Bq/kg for 90 Sr. In<br />
several drilling holes near the dry storage, the soil contamination reaches 7х10 5 Bq/kg for<br />
137<br />
Cs. The soil was taken from the same depth as the dry storage tanks. Near Construction 6,<br />
contamination was found in the waters from a second subterranean water source as well.<br />
Study results on radiation, which have a significant environmental impact<br />
1. Subterranean waters and soil are contaminated with low activity LRW and SRW<br />
levels, which leads to an increase in LRW and SRW during the territory’s remediation.<br />
2. Around the moorings, there are traces of contamination, which indicate a sea<br />
water contamination tendency.<br />
3. The gamma-radiation level increase will require an organized and planned<br />
response at the facilities.<br />
4. The radiation study of the territory must be continued.<br />
2. State of facilities’ remediation<br />
After the coastal technical base in the Andreeva Bay was placed under the Rosatom<br />
in 2000 and based on preliminary studies, one suggested the following actions:<br />
1. Creation of necessary infrastructure for safe working conditions for the FGUP<br />
„SevRAO” personnel;
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
2. Creation of necessary conditions to remove SNF;<br />
3. Creation of a radioactive nuclear waste management system; and<br />
4. Preparation for remediation of former SNF storage facilities and territories.<br />
The study results and key recommendations were presented at the Communication<br />
Expert Group seminar in Vienna in 2001. An additional Communication Expert<br />
Group for technical support solutions was established. This meeting determined key<br />
functions of the donor-countries:<br />
––Norway – building infrastructure to provide security,<br />
––Great Britain – nuclear spent fuel management,<br />
––Sweden – radiological waste management.<br />
The technical assistance from donor-countries has been maintained up until now.<br />
The first projects at the coastal technical base in the Andreeva Bay by Rosatom with<br />
technical assistance from donor-countries were for the construction of essential infrastructure.<br />
The latter was supposed to provide safe working conditions for the FGUP<br />
„SevRAO” personnel and the facilities’ security.<br />
The regional NGOs believe that such works are justified and necessary first stages<br />
of the project.<br />
Outcomes of the studies, design solutions and accomplished projects, which<br />
have environmental significance:<br />
––results from studies of the facilities at the coastal technical base (financed by<br />
the donor countries):<br />
––radiological waste problems are identified;<br />
––more complete date on radiation conditions of the base and surrounding territories<br />
is collected;<br />
––4,500 tons of radiological waste were processed and packaged; 2,800 tons of<br />
metal SRW were processed and packaged; and<br />
––the grounds for the first-line projects are prepared (dry storage facility 3A)<br />
Radiation studies results are key for SNF and radiological waste management and for<br />
environmental monitoring decisions. According to the study results, the decision to create the<br />
necessary infrastructure for SNF and radioactive waste was made.<br />
A more detailed problem study and additional donor countries made it necessary to<br />
create a Coordination group composed of the countries’ representatives and specialists.<br />
As a result of all of the activities, the problem with and need for the SNF and<br />
radioactive materials management was acknowledged. The rehabilitation of Constructions<br />
5–6 and the base territory, including subterranean waters, requires a separate solution.<br />
<strong>It</strong> is necessary to consult with the population and develop detailed plan for its<br />
success in northern Russia.<br />
3. Possible Solutions<br />
Currently, works are being conducted in project design to justify investments in the infrastructure<br />
for the SNF and radioactive waste management at the Naval base in the Andreeva<br />
Bay. The State Contractor is Rosatom, and the major planner is FGUP „The Head Institute<br />
„Russian design and research institute of the complex energy technology.”
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
The planned infrastructure should consist of the three main facilities for the<br />
SNF, SRW and LRW management. During the upcoming 10–15 years, the following is<br />
planned to be accomplished:<br />
1. The entire SNF, which is stored in dry storage, will be put in new cases and<br />
removed from the facilities.<br />
2. All management and control rods will be removed, fragmented, loaded into<br />
secure containers, and placed in the SRW.<br />
3. SRW materials will be processed, loaded into secure containers, placed in<br />
SRW storage or sent to another facility.<br />
4. LRW materials will be processed into solid material and placed in secure<br />
containers.<br />
5. Secondary radioactive waste from facilities’ use with SNF, SRW, LRW, and from<br />
the SRW storage treatment will be recycled and put into protected containers.<br />
According to the environmental concept of the Northern region’s coastal technical<br />
base rehabilitation, its constructions, facilities, and territories must be treated up<br />
to the level that eliminates any potential radioactivity contamination for the water and<br />
environment (level of the „brown ground”).<br />
In order to solve stated problems, reconstruction and new construction is required.<br />
Reconstruction of old additional supportive facilities and constructions is also<br />
included in the plans.<br />
Key technical designs of the planned infrastructure, which have environmental<br />
significance:<br />
1. All newly planned constructions and buildings should be evaluated from a<br />
lifecycle view (from a construction to an operation point);<br />
2. <strong>It</strong> is important to include in the project „Removal from operation and utilization<br />
newly constructed and reconstructed facilities” with secondary radioactive waste evaluation,<br />
which are formed during new facilities’ use (as a part of the „brown ground” concept).<br />
3. Utilized construction materials should be properly deactivated.<br />
4. Small additional facilities and constructions should be made with an assembly<br />
mode, which will help to the construction and de-construction of such facilities in shortterm<br />
and will help to decrease costs.<br />
4. Conclusion. Regional non-governmental organizations’ position<br />
1. The remediation problem in the former shore-based technical base in the Andreeva<br />
Bay is a complex engineering and environmentally-sensitive problem.<br />
2. The Andreeva Bay facilities’ design does not consider the climatic conditions<br />
in the Far North and is of low quality construction. This design failure resulted in their<br />
untimely failure.<br />
3. The management infrastructure of SNF and radioactive waste is practically<br />
destroyed.<br />
4. SNF and radioactive waste storages are not sufficiently isolated from the environment<br />
and a radionuclide leak has taken place into the soil, subterranean and surface<br />
waters at the coastal technical base in the Andreeva Bay.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
5. During some construction, and especially SNF management, an accident with<br />
sever consequences on the environment has a high probability.<br />
6. The suggested recommendations, based on the studies due to the infrastructure<br />
construction from SNF and radioactive waste management, can be resolved only<br />
in the next 10–15 years.<br />
7. Currently, there is no solution to complete remediation of the entire coastal<br />
technical base in the Andreeva Bay.<br />
8. The „brown ground” concept for the remediation of coastal technical base in<br />
Northern Russia requires consultations with the general public and NGOs in order to<br />
develop a plan and its implementation based on existing experiences.<br />
The idea of the remediation of a huge facility with heavy „environmental luggage”<br />
in the coastal base in the Andreeva Bay and in Gremikha is a major interest for environmental<br />
regional organizations. Among the first is Bellona, which in its first report („Potential<br />
Sources of Radioactive Contamination of Murmansk and Archangelsk regions”) in<br />
1994 indicated the need for coastal technical base remediation as essential.<br />
Other non-governmental organizations were looking to cooperate with the regional<br />
authorities, Rosatom, and the Russian Navy in order to find solutions to the<br />
problem. At that time, we understood that a constructive dialogue is critical to resolve<br />
such problems. We think we achieved some positive results.<br />
Currently some dialogue has already been created between NGOs and Rosatom.<br />
The first public hearings focused on the evaluation of environmental impact and first<br />
investment projects: „Infrastructure investment for SNF and radioactive waste management<br />
at the Andreeva Naval Base” on October 10 2006. In November 2006, NGOs<br />
conducted a seminar: „Spent nuclear fuel and radioactive waste at the North-West of<br />
Russia. Problems and solutions.”<br />
There are many unsolved cooperation problems between the NGOs, Rosatom<br />
departments and other authorities. The information and facility access are among the<br />
key obstacles. Some officials behave according to old traditions and routines.<br />
<strong>It</strong> is especially important to pay attention to one conclusion at this Forum, which<br />
is equally relevant to the bureaucracy in Russia and in donor-countries: environmental<br />
problems do not have national borders, and bureaucracy does not accept the international<br />
status of such problems.<br />
In our opinion, it is essential to review the old view on the issue. In turn, during<br />
the design and concept development stage for the works in the North of Russia, the<br />
government should consult more with non-governmental organizations, which will help<br />
them to objectively evaluate decisions.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Inextricable Connections between Atomic Energy and<br />
Nuclear Weapons Proliferation<br />
Alexey V. Yablokov, Professor, Corresponding Member of<br />
the RAS, Programme for Nuclear and Radiation Safety<br />
of the Centre for Environmental Policy of Russia and<br />
Socio-Ecological Union International<br />
The question of why the nonproliferation regime is ineffective has two overlapping<br />
answers: political and technological. The political answer is uninterrupted proliferation<br />
occurs as a result of the fact that five „great nuclear powers” do not want to<br />
commit to the obligations that they took upon themselves, in terms of destroying their<br />
nuclear arsenals. In this situation, more and more countries decide that nuclear weapons<br />
will enhance their national security. The technological answer without which the political<br />
answer would not have been possible is as a result of the inextricable link between<br />
nuclear weapons and atomic energy, the IAEA legalizes nuclear weapons.<br />
1.Countries that had (and possibly still have) nuclear weapons programs<br />
Australia. In 1966, it was suggested placing two „research” reactors under<br />
IAEA control. These reactors were HIFAR (High Flux Australian Reactor), a heavywater<br />
enriched-uranium 10 MW reactor, and a less powerful MOATA. The Australian<br />
government refused to place them under the IAEA control „out of concern that it would<br />
encumber the future nuclear weapons creation program” (Timerbayev, 2004, p.149).<br />
Secretly in 1978, such a program was created by the Australian government. The secret<br />
laboratory Silex (Separation of Isotopes by Laser Excitation) exists in Lucas Heights<br />
and conducts uranium enrichment using laser technology.<br />
Algeria. The secret nuclear program Spector, 1995, has existed at least since<br />
1986. There are two reactors. One of them is Nur („The one that gives light”), 1989, a<br />
1 MW, Argentinean-constructed, pool-reactor, light-water, water-graphite, using up to<br />
19.75% enriched uranium, located in Draria. The second is El Salam („Peace”), 1993, a<br />
Chinese-constructed, 15 MW, heavy-water, located in the Atlas Mountains near Birine<br />
at Ain Oussera. In 1998, The Nuclear Engineering Research Unit was created. Both<br />
reactors are capable of producing up to 5 kg of plutonium per year. In the early 1990s,<br />
the spent nuclear fuel (SNF) reprocessing plant was established in Ain Oussera with<br />
Chinese funding. From 2000, Algerian nuclear fuel production, based on uranium and<br />
uranium-bearing phosphate deposits was established with Argentinean help.<br />
Argentina. The country’s secret nuclear program began in 1951. There are four<br />
nuclear research centers with six reactors. They became operational, respectively, in 1958,<br />
1965, 1966, 1968 (5 MW), 1973, and 1982. In 1974, a German reactor Siemens/KWU<br />
PHWR, 335 MW came into operation at Atucha, using natural uranium as fuel. In the six-
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
ties, SNF reprocessing factories started working in Eseis, and factories in Pilkania started<br />
enriching uranium with a capacity of about 500 kg of 20% U235 per year. In 1966, about<br />
2,000 specialists were working in the Bariloch atomic center and its branch in Buenos-<br />
Aires. Following the launch of a more powerful Canadian heavy-water reactor CANDU<br />
(600 MV) in the Embalse settlement (Cordoba province) in 1984, the program was expanded.<br />
Heavy water was then obtained from China. <strong>It</strong> is believed that the country can<br />
create nuclear weapons within several months after making such a political decision.<br />
Brazil. Aside from an open program that existed for about 20 years, there was also<br />
a „parallel” secret military-arms program, the Solimões Project. <strong>It</strong> began in 1957 with the<br />
purchase of a powerful US research reactor. The key role in the program’s realization was<br />
played by the Civilian Institute for Energy and Atomic Research (IPEN), as well as the<br />
Air Force Center for Aero-Spatial Technology, the Center for Technical Development of<br />
the Brazilian Army, and the Institute for Atomic Research. The nuclear explosive device<br />
was created and prepared for underground testing (Byvshiy, 2005). The country possesses<br />
a full nuclear fuel cycle, from uranium mining and enrichment (in Belo-Horizonte and<br />
Rezenda, using the „swirl nozzle/sprayer” method, in a factory constructed with German<br />
help), to SNF reprocessing. There are four research reactors: IEA-R1 (pool-reactor, 5<br />
MW; 1957), and three others (TRIGA MARK I, 1960; Argonaut, 1965; and IPEN/MB-01,<br />
1988). In 1990, it was officially stated that the arms program was discontinued.<br />
Germany. High-profile German officials in the fifties emphasized the necessity of<br />
creating their own atomic weapons. In the sixties, there was a „just-under-the-threshold” secret<br />
atomic program based on developing dual-purpose (peaceful and military) technologies.<br />
In 1955, six powerful atomic centers were created in Karlsruhe, Geschtacht, Julich, Berlin,<br />
Hamburg, and Darmstadt. All in all, in the period from 1957 to 1979, there were 46 functioning<br />
research reactors. In 1957–1958, the first five reactors became operational. In 1959–1962,<br />
seven more were operationalized (including FR-2, 44 MW; heavy-water FRJ-2, 23 MW).<br />
In 1963–1965, an additional eleven more became active, including a heavy-water MZFR,<br />
58 MW. In 1966–1969, ten more reactors were operational, including the breeder reactor<br />
KNK-2, 58 MW and OTTO HAHN, 38 MW. In 1970–1973, there were eight more reactors.<br />
The country also possesses a „paramilitary plutonium power without producing the bomb”<br />
program (Kollert, 1996). <strong>It</strong> is believed that a nuclear weapon can be created by the Germans<br />
in the course of several weeks after making the political decision to do so.<br />
Egypt. In the sixties, there were attempts to obtain nuclear weapons creation<br />
technologies from both the USSR and China. There are two research reactors in Egypt:<br />
ETRR-1 (light-water WWR, 2 MW, 1961, USSR-constructed and (with the help of India),<br />
and Argentina-constructed ETRR-2 (fuel – 19.75% enriched uranium). Since 1998,<br />
an Argentinean-built uranium fuel production factory has been operating in the Atomic<br />
Research Center in Inshass. With the help of France, „The Waste Treatment Center Hot<br />
Laboratory” was created. According to evaluations, a secret nuclear-weapon program<br />
may possibly exist in the country now. In February 2005, the question of Egypt’s nuclear<br />
programs was discussed in the IAEA administrative council, because it had been<br />
discovered that Egypt concealed from the IAEA some of its nuclear activities.<br />
Israel. Nuclear programs began in 1949. In 1959, France gratuitously gave to Israel a<br />
heavy-water nuclear reactor (IRR-2, 24–26 MW in Dimon) along with technical documenta-
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
tion for its assembly and skilled personnel. The heavy water for this reactor was secretly purchased<br />
in the UK and shipped through Norway. In 1960, a SNF re-processing and plutoniumobtaining<br />
factory became operational. The US company, NUMEK, illegally supplied Israel<br />
with uranium. A large uranium shipment (200 tons) was captured by Israel in 1965 from<br />
the cargo ship „Scheersberg” that was sailing under the Nigerian flag. A drastic increase in<br />
Dimon’s reactor power (up to 75 – 150 MW) gave an opportunity to produce 20–40 kg of Pu<br />
per annum. The first nuclear explosion device was apparently created in 1966. On the 22nd of<br />
September 1979, with the collaboration of the South African Republic, plutonium bomb testing<br />
was conducted in the South Atlantic. In 1984, a second heavy-water reactor (250 MW),<br />
capable of producing up to 50 kg of Pu yearly was operationalized. The nuclear infrastructure<br />
includes: the Center for Nuclear Weapons Development; a six-floor underground factory for<br />
producing weapons-grade plutonium in Dimon; a factory for nuclear ammunition assembly<br />
and disassembly in Jodefate; a nuclear rocket base and an atomic bomb storage in Kfar<br />
Zikharia and tactical nuclear warheads storage in Aylabune.<br />
India. The 1974 atomic bomb explosion under the name of „Buddha has smiled”<br />
on the Pokhran, Rajastan proving ground became the first obvious global proof that a<br />
civil nuclear program can be effectively used to cover nuclear weapons development.<br />
Plutonium for this bomb was obtained from the „research” reactor „CIRUS”. India received<br />
it from Canada under the framework of assistance as per the „Colombo plan” with<br />
the US supplying 10 tons of heavy water. The condition was that the reactor would only<br />
be used for peaceful research purposes. In 1965, a SNF re-processing factory in Trombay<br />
came into operation, with the capacity of 1,200 tons of SNF per annum. There were (or<br />
still are) also eight research reactors, including the most research reactor powerful in the<br />
world – „Dhruva” (heavy-water, 100 MW, 1985) and FBTR (breeder-reactor of 40 MW,<br />
1985). 70 tons of heavy water for „Dhruva” was obtained from China; 15 tons – from the<br />
Norwegian „Norsk Hydro”, and 18.7 tons – from the Soviet Technabexport.<br />
Iraq. The secret nuclear weapon program started in 1957, with the creation of the<br />
Atomic Center in Towait. In 1967, the „research” reactor IRT-5000 was introduced (5 MW,<br />
Soviet-built). In 1976, a treaty with France for construction of two „research” reactors (Tammuz-1,<br />
„Osirak”, 70 MW, and Tammuz-2, pool-reactor, 0.8 MW) was concluded. In 1981,<br />
„Osirak” was destroyed by Israeli planes. Under the aegis of the IAEA and with <strong>It</strong>aly’s help,<br />
the SNF-reprocessing facilities were created (1978), and several tons of depleted uranium<br />
were obtained from Germany. About seven thousand specialists were employed in the Iraqi<br />
nuclear-weapons program. In 1991, Iraq had only several months left before creating an<br />
atomic bomb, when this program was interrupted by Operation „Desert Storm.” After 1991,<br />
Iraq succeeded in hiding 96 fuel-assemblies from the IRT-2000 reactor (80% enriched uranium)<br />
and planned to use this uranium for nuclear charge manufacturing.<br />
Iran. In the sixties, a nuclear weapon creation program was decided upon. There are<br />
five research reactors, including a powerful TRR (pool-reactor, on enriched uranium, 5 MW,<br />
1967, US-built); and MNSR reactor (25 MW, Chinese-built, 1997). In the nineties, Russia<br />
presented to Iran its documentation for hydrometallurgical factory construction. With Pakistan’s<br />
help, uranium enrichment facilities were created. There are also US-made laboratory<br />
facilities for SNF re-processing. The Iranian nuclear infrastructure includes the following:<br />
the Nuclear Research Center in Teheran with a subdivision for laser uranium enrichment;
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Nuclear Technologies Center in Isfahan; Department of Nuclear Research at Yazd University;<br />
and at least two uranium enrichment facilities (in Mo’alem Kalayeh – under the guise of Kalae<br />
Electric Company, and an underground enterprise in the city of Natanz).<br />
In 2003–2004, IAEA inspections detected traces of uranium, enriched up to 20 – 36%,<br />
which constitutes highly-enriched uranium. In 2002, an experienced installation for laser<br />
uranium enrichment started working in Lashkar-Abadeh (such enrichment does not require<br />
cumbersome centrifuges). There is also a radio-chemical factory and a factory for producing<br />
zirconium pipes for the Isfahan fuel and heat-production elements. In 2004, heavy-water „research”<br />
reactor IR-40 construction began in the city of Arak. The 1992 agreement on nuclear<br />
collaboration with Russia suddenly expanded Iranian specialists’ access to dual-use technologies.<br />
Just as in nuclear collaboration with North Korea, Pakistan, and China, this development<br />
could allow Iran to create its own atomic bomb by no later than 2008.<br />
Spain. The secret nuclear weapons program began in 1958, during the Franco<br />
regime. <strong>It</strong> was based on plutonium obtained from the research reactor JEN-1 (pool-type,<br />
2 MW, US-made). Under the guise of civil atomic energy development, the program<br />
of creating Spain’s own nuclear weapons even included nuclear test preparations in<br />
the Spanish Sahara. In 1964, France and Spain concluded an agreement that resulted<br />
in construction of the French-Spanish atomic power station Vandellós-1 by the city of<br />
Tarragona. <strong>It</strong> contained a uranium-graphite reactor, 500 MW, and its chief purpose was<br />
obtaining plutonium for the French nuclear weapons program.<br />
Canada. Canada began its nuclear weapons program along with the UK, as a<br />
partner of the US Manhattan project. The first Canadian „research” reactor NRX (National<br />
Research X-perimental) is heavy-water, with a power of 40 MW. <strong>It</strong> became operational<br />
in 1947 with the purpose of producing plutonium for American (and later<br />
British) nuclear bombs (Martin, 1996).<br />
Libya. This country attempted to obtain nuclear weapons back in the 1970s. At that time,<br />
the Atomic Research Center was created in Tajoura. Here, in 1981, a powerful USSR-made<br />
research reactor became operational (light-water, pool-type, IRT-1, 10 MW, 20 kg of 80%-enriched<br />
uranium). In the seventies, Libya purchased 1200 tons of the uranium concentrate (by<br />
2004, there was already 2263 tons). In the eighties, Libya began developing both uranium and<br />
plutonium bombs. In 1984, Libya purchased a uranium ore processing factory (apparently, from<br />
Belgium). In 1985, Libya obtained (apparently, from either China or the USSR) 39 kg of uranium<br />
hexafluoride. In Tajoura, German experts were working on uranium enrichment. Several<br />
attempts have been made to obtain or build a more powerful reactor. Economic sanctions, introduced<br />
in 1988, slowed down this project’s development. In 1995, Libya decided to speed up<br />
the nuclear weapon creation process. In 1997, the first 200 centrifuges for uranium enrichment<br />
were purchased. At the same time, in a factory in Janzour, the preparations for producing their<br />
own centrifuges started. In 2000, in an enterprise in Al Hasan, Libya started centrifuge installation<br />
preparations. In 2002, 10,000 centrifuges were purchased from Pakistan. Their production<br />
was started in Malaysia by two Sri Lankan firms with the participation of Swiss, British, and<br />
German specialists. In 2001, two tons of uranium hexafluoride were received from North Korea<br />
via Pakistan. This amount is sufficient for producing one nuclear explosive device. By 2004,<br />
nuclear program activities were conducted in at least 10 places. In 2001, Chinese technological<br />
nuclear bomb production designs were received from Pakistan. In October 2003, a vessel trans-
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
porting centrifuge parts from Malaysia to Libya was intercepted in the Mediterranean Sea. In<br />
2004, Libya admitted having violated the Nonproliferation Regime and declared its cessation of<br />
secret programs (in which also participated companies from the South African Republic, Switzerland,<br />
Singapore, South Korea, Dubai, and Turkey). However, three months later, it became<br />
known that Libya secretly received a new shipment of centrifuges.<br />
Nigeria. The first official statement of the country’s desire to pursue its own nuclear<br />
weapons development came in the 1980s. Between 1999 and 2004, over 250 Nigerians took<br />
nuclear-radiation courses in the IAEA system. There are significant U ore deposits in the<br />
country. In 2004, a new nuclear research reactor NIRR-01 became operational (light-water,<br />
30 KVt, Chinese construction) in the Center for Energy Experiments and Research in the<br />
University of Ahmadu Bello in Zaira city. In early 2005, the Nigerian Ministry of Defense<br />
stated that the question of obtaining nuclear weapons from Pakistan is being discussed. (Later,<br />
this message was claimed to be a „typographical error”; „Nigeria…,” 2005).<br />
Norway. Nuclear weapons creation activities began in 1946 in the Norwegian Institute<br />
of defense research. In 1951, a small heavy-water reactor for plutonium was introduced<br />
near Oslo. In 1959, with the assistance of the European Atomic Energy Agency, one more<br />
research heavy-water reactor („Halgen”) was introduced. Following the scandal caused by<br />
the exposure of Israeli nuclear weapons programs, Norway returned 10.5 tons of heavy water<br />
(Israel claimed that 9.5 tons were spent in the process of experiments). Obtaining plutonium<br />
and enriched U from SNF was started up even in the sixties. Swiss attempts to sell 3 kg of<br />
239<br />
Pu is an evidence of that effort (in 1977, this plutonium was sold to Belgium, but turned<br />
up in Germany).<br />
Pakistan. The Pakistani nuclear program began in 1965 on the basis of research reactor<br />
PARR-1 (pool-type, 10 MW, in Ravalpindi). <strong>It</strong> expanded significantly following the CANDUtype<br />
heavy-water reactor in 1971 near Karachi with Canadian help. In 1983, based on U enrichment<br />
technology (stolen from the Netherlands in 1976), a „research” atomic center with a U<br />
enrichment factory was opened in the Kahuta settlement. In 1998, a powerful heavy-water „research”<br />
reactor („Khusab”, 40 MW, Chinese-built, Joharabad settlement) came into operation. <strong>It</strong><br />
is capable of producing up to 10 kg of Pu per annum. An SNF re-processing factory that was built<br />
with French assistance has been operational since the mid-nineties next to the Pakistani Institute<br />
for atomic research and technologies (PINSTECH) and the atomic power station „Chasma”<br />
(built with the help from China). The first nuclear explosive device was created in 1984.<br />
Romania. Several months following an official statement in 1989 that Romania<br />
was close to producing nuclear weapons, this secret program was discontinued due to the<br />
regime’s overthrow. This nuclear weapons program began in the 1990s and was based on<br />
three „research” reactors (light-water reactor VVR-S, 2 MW, USSR-made, in the Magurele<br />
suburbs of Bucharest, 1957; and two reactors „TRIGA”, 14 and 0.5 MW, US-made, 1979,<br />
in the Institute for the Atomic Energy in Pitesti). Starting in 1985, in Pitesti’s chemical<br />
industrial complex, there were secret experiments conducted on producing weapons-grade<br />
plutonium (up to 1 kg per year) and enriched U. With technical assistance from Canada,<br />
Romania established heavy water production and its own uranium fuel.<br />
North Korea. The secret nuclear weapons creation program was started in the late sixties,<br />
based on the powerful „research” gas-graphite Soviet-made reactor (25 MW, HEU) and<br />
a reactor of their own production (5 MW, gas-graphite). These two reactors (placed in under-
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
ground tunnel-type shelters in the Yongbyon region, 60 km north of Pyongyang) are capable<br />
of producing up to 8 kg of plutonium annually. In 1993, North Korea officially left the NPT.<br />
The country’s nuclear infrastructure includes the following: a) the Atomic Center in Yongbyon<br />
with the institutes of nuclear physics, nuclear electronics, isotopes, radiation chemistry, critical<br />
assembly facility (0.1 MW), 3 reactors (5, 8, 50 MW), radio-chemical laboratory, SNF reprocessing<br />
facility, and nuclear fuel factory; b) the Institute of Atomic Energy, radiology, and<br />
nuclear physics at the Pyongyang University; c) Department of atomic research and research<br />
of nuclear technologies at the Polytechnic Institute of Kim-Ch’aek. Starting from 2004, several<br />
official statements on nuclear weapons possession have been made.<br />
Taiwan. The nuclear weapons program began in 1961 with the first research reactor<br />
„TRIGA” (2 MW, US-made, 1961). <strong>It</strong> was substantially expanded as per President<br />
Chiang Kai-shek’s directions following nuclear bomb testing by continental China<br />
in 1964. Soon, six „research” reactors operated in the country, including one powerful<br />
heavy-water reactor (NRX, 1969, Canada-made; ZRPL, pool-type, 0.03 MW, 1971,<br />
TRR, 40 MW, 1973; „Argonaut”, 0.01 MW, 1974). During the sale of the NRX reactor,<br />
Canada specified that this reactor must not be used „for military purposes of any kind”.<br />
This means that both sides then understood that Taiwan needed this reactor specifically<br />
for the nuclear weapons program. There are four atomic power stations (six BWR-type<br />
energy blocks, total power – 5144 MW). Since the early seventies, SNF re-processing as<br />
well as uranium and plutonium production is functional (equipment came from France,<br />
Germany, and the US). Since 1965, the Atomic Energy Institute has been active and presently<br />
has over 1100 employees. So is the National Institute of science and technology<br />
of Ministry of defense with the purpose of developing „independent nuclear capacities”<br />
(Temirbaev, 1999, p. 150). The US, worried about the possibility of Taiwanese nuclear<br />
weapons creation, demanded the dismantlement of the plutonium production facilities.<br />
The TRR reactor was stopped in 1988. The country has the capacity to produce a nuclear<br />
bomb within several weeks after making such a political decision.<br />
France. The first commercial atomic power station „Chinon-1” (70 MW, 1962) was<br />
created based on a dual-purpose reactor – it was used for producing electricity and Pu. <strong>It</strong> has<br />
been admitted that France possesses the largest atomic power station network in the world<br />
that simultaneously produces plutonium for military purposes. These are reactors Chinon-1,<br />
Chinon-2, Chinon-3, St. Laurent-1, St.Laurent-2, and Bugey-1 (French…, 2001).<br />
Switzerland. Of the six „research” reactors, the first became operational in 1956<br />
(pool-type, „SAPHIR”, 10 MW); the fourth and the most powerful one became operational<br />
in 1960 (heavy-water „DIORIT”, 30 MW). In the early sixties, the Federal Government demanded<br />
the use of dual technology during the construction of the commercial atomic power<br />
station „Lucens” (fuel – metal U, possibility of SNF removal at any time). In 1958, the Swiss<br />
Federal Council released an official statement on its decision to create nuclear weapons (the<br />
production plans already existed for 15 years for up to 400 atomic warheads). In 1965, there<br />
was a dual-use technology research program called „Verbundforschungsprogram”, connected<br />
with obtaining enriched U. All military programs were discontinued in 1977. There are 5 NPP<br />
with an overall power of 53,220 MW, and an atomic research center in Wurenlingen.<br />
Sweden. The Swedish secret nuclear weapons program „Laddningsprogrammet” began<br />
in 1945 and quickly developed following the introduction of four reactors: a heavy-water
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
R-1, a light-water R-2 (0.6 MW, US-made), a heavy-water underground „Agesta” (R-e, in<br />
Stockholm suburb, 65 MW, 1950s), and „Marviken” (R-4, 10 MW, 1964). These reactors<br />
were used for plutonium production. The latter two were commercial and produced electricity.<br />
In 1960, one of the most powerful research reactors in the world, Studsvik Nuclear AB<br />
(50 MW) became operational. A decision was taken to construct a nuclear explosive device<br />
of the implosive style. In 1957, the director of the National Administration of the Defense<br />
Research officially declared that Sweden can produce its own nuclear weapons in six years. <strong>It</strong><br />
was intended to produce up to 20 atomic munitions per year. The military program was closed<br />
down in 1965, and the plutonium laboratory was dismantled in 1972. According to expert<br />
evaluations, the task of nuclear bomb construction development was successfully achieved.<br />
South Africa. The secret nuclear weapons program was started in 1965 based on the<br />
„research” reactor „SAFARI-1” (light-water, pool-type, 20 MW, US-made, in Pelindabe). In<br />
the 1980s, France shipped two PWR-type 900 MW energy reactors to the SAR. The political<br />
decision on nuclear weapons creation was made in 1974. The first atomic bomb (80% enriched<br />
U, gun type, with the power of about 3 kt) was tested the ocean in 1979 after 400 kg of<br />
weapon-grade U was obtained from the Valindabe enterprise. Israel also took part in creating<br />
the nuclear bomb by supplying about 30 g of tritium in exchange for 600 t uranium oxide. In<br />
the course of the following ten years, six more nuclear warheads were secretly produced. The<br />
program was stopped after the apartheid regime’s fall in 1991. At that point, all seven nuclear<br />
warheads were dismantled, and the documentation was destroyed. The IAEA conducted 150<br />
regular inspections during the course of many years, but none of these inspections detected<br />
any traces of nuclear weapons creation.<br />
Yugoslavia. Starting from early fifties, there has been a secret nuclear weapons<br />
program. In the late forties, the country collaborated with Norway and the USSR in the<br />
field of atomic technologies. There are 2 research reactors: one in the Institute of atomic<br />
research „VINCA” (heavy-water, 6.5 MW, 1959, USSR-made) and one light-water reactor<br />
(„TRIGA Mark II”, 0.25 MW, 1960). In Slovenia, there is a small atomic power<br />
station „Krisko” (PWR-type reactor, 664 MW, built by „Westinhause,” <strong>USA</strong>). In 1966,<br />
small laboratory-type facilities were created for SNF re-processing. Under the guise of<br />
atomic energy research (the so-called „Programme A”), military developments were<br />
conducted with the purpose of creating nuclear weapons („Programme B”). In 1987, a<br />
decision was made to discontinue the „Programme B” developments.<br />
South Korea. The secret nuclear weapons creation program started in 1951 with<br />
the participation of Japanese specialists. The contract to purchase a SNF re-processing<br />
factory from France was signed in early 1975. In June 1975, the South Korean administration<br />
stated that if US support decreases, then South Korea will have to defend itself<br />
using its own nuclear weapons. In order to create an atomic bomb, significant amounts of<br />
resources were invested in atomic energy development. In 1962, in a Seoul suburb, the<br />
first research reactor started working („TRIGA MARK-II”-type, 0.25 MW). In 1972, a<br />
more powerful „TRIGA MARK III” came along (2 MW). In 1995, the third and the most<br />
powerful research reactor started working in the Korean Institute for the Atomic Energy<br />
Studies in Hanaro (pool-type, 30 MW). The country possesses the full nuclear fuel cycle<br />
(based on U imported from Australia, Canada, France, USSR, the US, and South Africa).<br />
In 1980, the country officially decided to discontinue pursuing nuclear weapons creation.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
However, in 2004, U enrichment equipment (AVLIS) was found, which presents evidence<br />
of continued nuclear weapons program pursuits. The nuclear weapons creation contemporary<br />
policy of – „waiting and seeing” – is based on the technical possibility to create an<br />
atomic bomb within several months following such a political decision.<br />
Japan. Nuclear bomb creation activities were conducted in Japan even during<br />
WWII. Allegedly, six days following the Hiroshima bombing on August 12, 1945, nuclear<br />
weapons testing was conducted on an island 20 miles from the coast of Korea (Japan…,<br />
2005). The magnitude of the Japanese SNF re-processing and Pu-obtaining program (there<br />
is over 50t of the latter) were for a long time causing doubts in regards to the direction of<br />
the country’s peaceful atomic energy development. From time to time, high-profile government<br />
officials declare the necessity of having nuclear weapons. The level of nuclear<br />
technologies development in the country is comparable only with Germany (considering<br />
non-nuclear countries only). Both Japan and Germany have the capacity of creating nuclear<br />
weapons within weeks after making the necessary political decision.<br />
Indonesia. In spite of the fact that Indonesia did not intend to build an atomic power<br />
station, the National Agency on Atomic Energy (BATAN) was created in 1965. The Center<br />
for Development of the Atomic Technologies of Dual Use is functioning as part of its structure.<br />
In 1987, a powerful (30 MW) multi-purpose pool-type reactor came into operation in the<br />
research complex PPTN – Serpong (West Java). There are two research centers: one for nuclear<br />
fuel and the SNF re-processing, and one for radioactive waste treatment. There are two<br />
research reactors, located in the atomic institutes in Bandunga (2 MW TRIGA Mark II, 1964)<br />
and Yogyakarta. Many of the research and development projects conducted there are dual<br />
purpose, and may become the foundation for nuclear weapons creation. In 2005, the government<br />
publicly declared the construction plan for 2010–2016 of four energy blocks with total<br />
power of up to 4000 MW, with the official purpose of „satisfying the growing energy needs”<br />
(Indonesia…, 2005). This purpose causes some doubt, because all these atomic power stations<br />
will be able to yield no more than 1.9 % of the country’s electricity needs.<br />
Myanmar (Burma). In 2002, news of Rosatom preparing to sell a research nuclear<br />
reactor to Myanmar appeared in the international press. This was followed by an<br />
official statement that the country „has right to create nuclear facilities for peaceful purposes.”<br />
A 10 MW reactor was constructed in Central Myanmar, by the city of Magway.<br />
In recent years, over 300 Myanmar citizens interned within the nuclear field in Russia.<br />
In 2003, the Ministry of Atomic Energy was created.<br />
Syria. Suspicions of the existence of a secret nuclear weapons program in Syria<br />
have existed since 1979. An open CIA (US) 2003 report states: „We look at Syrian nuclear<br />
intentions with an increasing alarm.” In 1996, a research reactor SSR-1 (Chinese<br />
construction, light-water, MNSR-type, 0.3 MW) became operational.<br />
2.Links between atomic energy and nuclear weapons<br />
After an energy reactor operates for some time, nuclear fuel contains more 239 Pu<br />
than 235 U. By changing the time that the fuel rods stay in the nuclear reactor, one can also<br />
change the plutonium isotope content in the irradiated fuel. With the neutron absorption,<br />
239<br />
Pu becomes 240 Pu. The latter can also support the chain reaction and therefore can be<br />
used to make a nuclear explosion device.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
One energy reactor with the power of 1,000 MW produces enough plutonium in<br />
one year to make 40–50 nuclear warheads. Even in research reactors with only a few MW<br />
power, one can quickly produce sufficient plutonium amounts for a small bomb (Table 1).<br />
Table 1<br />
Plutonium production in reactors with various power levels over one year of activity<br />
Reactor Power, MW Кg City, Country<br />
Heavy-water graphite 20–30 (t) 5,5–8 Yongbyon, North Korea<br />
Heavy-water, CIRUS 40 (t) 9 India<br />
Heavy-water Kushab 50 (t) 12 Pakistan<br />
Heavy-water, DHRUVA 100 (t) 25 India<br />
Heavy-water 100 (t) 40 Dimona, Israel<br />
Light-water 1000 (e) 230 Bushehr, Iran (project<br />
t – fuel power; е – electric power<br />
For many years atomic scientists carefully cultivated a myth that in order to<br />
make nuclear bomb, one needs special „weapons-grade” plutonium that consists of<br />
239<br />
Pu isotope over 90%. In reality, a mixture of plutonium isotopes that can be obtained<br />
in any nuclear reactor type is perfectly suitable for making a nuclear bomb.<br />
If one compares all aspects of nuclear weapons creation (cost, covertness, accessibility,<br />
effectiveness), it turns out that creating a nuclear warhead based on crude<br />
low-enriched U is a thousand times more accessible and hundreds of times more covert<br />
than doing it based on HEU or Pu.<br />
3. How to stop proliferation of nuclear weapons<br />
The Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT) is based on three pillars. Under these<br />
pillars, the non-nuclear weapon states (NNWS) that officially signed the Treaty agreed<br />
not to develop their own nuclear weapons, and the nuclear weapon states (NWS) agreed<br />
to „peaceful nuclear” proliferation. The three pillars are: prohibition of nuclear weapons,<br />
and components and technology transfer from the five Nuclear Weapons States to<br />
the Non-Nuclear Weapons States; dismantlement of nuclear arsenals by these States;<br />
and exclusively peaceful use of atomic energy, widespread proliferation of the „peaceful<br />
nuclear” energy (atomic energy, medical and industrial isotope use) solely for the<br />
peaceful purposes. Each of these three pillars has been violated.<br />
Violation of the First Pillar. Since the Pakistani bomb was apparently made with<br />
the use of the Chinese blueprints (and these blueprints proliferated from Pakistan further<br />
on), at least one of the NWS is guilty of breaching the first pillar.<br />
Violation of the Second Pillar. Only two NWSs (the <strong>USA</strong> and Russia) drastically<br />
decreased their nuclear arsenals in the 1990s. However, it was done not so much in<br />
connection with the NPT conditions as due to the need to reduce the excessive nuclear<br />
stockpiles that were produced during the arms race. Currently, none of the NWS intends<br />
to liquidate its nuclear weapons arsenals. This is an open and demonstrative violation of<br />
the second NPT pillar by all the „nuclear club” members that have signed it.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Violation of the Third Pillar. As is shown above (see part 2 of this survey), at<br />
least 18 countries after 1968 (the year the NPT was signed) have violated the pillar regarding<br />
the peaceful use of obtaining nuclear technologies. All five NWS have breached<br />
the pillar not to use civil provisions for nuclear weapons production.<br />
The IAEA proliferation control system stands upon two „whales”: upon the socalled<br />
„guarantees,” and upon the obligations voluntarily undertaken by the five official<br />
NWS. Most of the NWS in their pursuit of momentary political purposes and pushed by<br />
commercial interests of large companies, actively facilitated proliferation of nuclear weapons.<br />
The key factor that helped and facilitated this process was and remains the IAEA.<br />
The IAEA was created with two purposes in mind. The first and foremost task has been<br />
nuclear technologies proliferation. The secondary task has been limiting the proliferation of<br />
the same technologies that can be used for production of nuclear weapons and fissile materials<br />
(creation and support of the nonproliferation regime). The moving forces behind these contradictory<br />
tasks turned out to be uneven. The atomic industry’s commercial interests of the most<br />
developed countries were and remain the most powerful proliferation incentive. The political<br />
will of the majority of other countries to prevent proliferation is a much weaker force.<br />
<strong>It</strong> is not the IAEA efforts, but the overall political situation in these countries, that<br />
resulted in discontinuation of nuclear weapons programs for IAEA member states such<br />
as Sweden, Switzerland, Yugoslavia, Romania, Spain, and Argentina. The same is true<br />
for halting nuclear weapons creation near completion for Germany, Japan, Taiwan, and<br />
Argentina. Again, the same is true regarding nuclear disarmament of the South African<br />
Republic and other countries. The number of countries that obtained, with help from the<br />
IAEA, access to nuclear technologies, and on this basis created their own nuclear weapons<br />
against the NPT regulations, exceeds the number of those officially possessing nuclear<br />
weapons. The IAEA turns out to be a cover screen for nuclear weapons proliferation.<br />
The nuclear weapons history shows that in the beginning, nuclear energy was<br />
just a „tail” of nuclear arms. Later, the situation became the opposite: if a country wanted<br />
to obtain nuclear weapons, it had to start with legal peaceful atomic energy development.<br />
Both the first and the second scenarios demonstrate the inextricable link between<br />
the nuclear weapons and atomic electricity.<br />
Conclusion<br />
Fifty-two years ago, physicists N. Arley and H. Skov wrote: „Peaceful and military<br />
applications of the atomic energy are inextricably connected – by the same common nuclear<br />
physics principles, the same scientific and technological research, the same chemical<br />
industry, the same financing, the same organizations.” (Kollert et. al, 1996, pp. 59 - 60).<br />
The myopia of political leaders and the nuclear industry interests for a long time muffled<br />
the voices of the concerned specialists and separate organizations that, for many years,<br />
directed their activities against proliferating nuclear weapons under the excuse of peaceful<br />
atomic technologies proliferation. Today, it has become clear that all existing nonproliferation<br />
agreements, the IAEA „guarantees,” and the whole idea of the „atoms for peace” (1956)<br />
have been no more than a disguise hiding the nuclear weapons proliferation process.<br />
In order to slow down nuclear proliferation, it is necessary to transform the IAEA and create<br />
on its foundation an International agency for weapons of mass destruction nonproliferation.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Civilian Highly Enriched Uranium and Nuclear Terrorism:<br />
Russia’s Role in Reducing the Threat<br />
Elena Sokova, Director, NIS Nonproliferation Program<br />
Center for Nonproliferation Studies, Monterey Institute<br />
of International Studies<br />
I would like to talk about nuclear terrorism, highly enriched uranium (HEU), and the<br />
use of HEU in the public sector. Let me explain why I chose these issues. All the prior presentations<br />
have clearly defined the dual nature of nuclear technology: peaceful and military. And<br />
unfortunately, the same materials can be used in both. The main problem is that these materials<br />
could end up in the hands of terrorist organizations. Nuclear terrorism can have many forms:<br />
attacks made with stolen nuclear weapons, creation of a terrorist-made nuclear device, etc. Of<br />
course, making a nuclear device is not easy, but the hardest part is access to HEU. More importantly,<br />
the U does not necessarily need to be 95% enriched; research proves that even 20%<br />
enriched 235 U would suffice, but in this case it would take higher levels of U. For instance, the<br />
bomb dropped on Hiroshima contained U enriched up to 80% and weighed 60 kg.<br />
To make a nuclear device one can use both fresh and spent nuclear fuel. As fissile<br />
material, one can use spent fuel that has been stored for longer periods of time, and thus<br />
is no longer active or recently spent fuel. The easiest nuclear weapon design is to make<br />
the gun-type nuclear charge, which doesn’t need to be tested first by terrorists. Of course,<br />
even a gun-type weapon is a complicated device, but a terrorist organization that includes<br />
engineers, metal-makers, and technicians could easily produce one.<br />
Unfortunately, highly enriched uranium is available not only to the military and government,<br />
but also to a number of civilian organizations. There are around 2 million kg of HEU<br />
in the world and it takes only 50 kg to produce one gun-type nuclear weapon, so there is the<br />
potential for tens of thousands of bombs. More importantly, around 50 to 100 tons of HEU<br />
belongs to civilians, and it is distributed in many countries, including countries that do not<br />
officially possess nuclear weapons. More than 40 countries have HEU and it is distributed<br />
across more than 100 facilities. The amount at each of these facilities is more than enough to<br />
make one nuclear weapon. HEU is also difficult to detect by radiation sensors at the border. If<br />
the material is transported abroad, even minimal radiation encasing makes it hard to detect it.<br />
This factor also makes it one of the most dangerous substances in terms of terrorism threat.<br />
How can enriched U be used in civilian production First of all, it can be found<br />
in research installations, critical installations, or production facilities of medical isotopes.<br />
Moreover, medical isotopes are, as a rule, produced at reactors using HEU. HEU<br />
is also used in fast reactors, although it is planned that in the future these reactors will<br />
use fuel of mixed U and Pu without HEU. However, these plants are still experimental<br />
and they are using highly enriched fuel at this stage.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
The next category is ice breaker ships where enrichment is done at a rate 36–80%.<br />
In the past, HEU was also used at space installations both in the USSR and the <strong>USA</strong>.<br />
The threats of highly enriched uranium being used in nuclear weapon production<br />
are not new. Fissile materials have a double nature. This fact was further acknowledged<br />
after India had its first nuclear explosion, although in that particular case plutonium was<br />
used. The U.S. started a conversion program for research reactors into those working on<br />
low-enriched uranium. These could be supplied to other countries as part of the Atoms for<br />
Peace program. This work is still in progress as the change of fuel is difficult. Sometimes<br />
it is necessary to change configuration of the whole reactor.<br />
The USSR also had some projects of fuel replacement for those reactors sent to socialist<br />
countries, so by late 1980s these reactors were converted to lower-enriched (36%) fuel.<br />
The 1970–1980s also saw some programs of bringing HEU back into the countries of its<br />
production. Those were primarily projects of the <strong>USA</strong>, but after the collapse of the USSR, in<br />
2000s, some fuel was brought back from Romania, former Yugoslavia, and Czechoslovakia.<br />
In 2004, all these initiatives were included in the <strong>Global</strong> Threat Reduction Initiative.<br />
Despite all the potential threats related to highly enriched uranium, there is no<br />
universal policy. Some countries forbid export of HEU, others undertake measures not to<br />
develop technologies related thereto but there is no global initiative. The first attempt to<br />
launch such an initiative was made in 2005. <strong>It</strong> was based on the risks related to HEU and<br />
restriction of its use in civilian production. Another point is that in many cases it can be<br />
replaced with lower-enriched Uranium that does not pose such a threat in terms of nuclear<br />
terrorism. The first step in this should be to make sure HEU is not used in civilian production<br />
as, first, it is not as well protected as military production and, secondly, more people<br />
have access to it so that terrorist organizations might also get hold of it. This initiative was<br />
launched by a group of countries including Norway, Iceland, Lithuania and Sweden.<br />
The following actions were proposed: improve security, accounting and control<br />
over HEU used in the civilian sector; minimize its use and stop its sale and when possible,<br />
convert the installations to lower-enriched U. Another step was not to develop the technologies<br />
involving its use. Unfortunately, this initiative has not been ratified yet. The issue<br />
of imposing international obligations is still unresolved: it has been suggested that rules of<br />
HEU use should be adopted similarly to IAEA adopting the rules for the use of Pu. One of<br />
the ways could be to develop and voluntarily ratify the rules, create centers for the reactors<br />
most valuable in terms of technology and raise their level of safety.<br />
As far as Russia in particular is concerned, for now it has approximately 15–30 ton<br />
of HEU in the civilian sector. The figures are approximate as there is still no official data<br />
regarding this issue. One third of all research reactors of the world are in Russia. Some of<br />
these reactors are only used seven to ten days per year, thus the state could probably do<br />
without these reactors. Russia is the only country using nuclear fuel for ice breaker ships.<br />
HEU is also used in fast reactors. Unfortunately, we still have reactors working on Pu<br />
but soon they are to be closed down. Plus, Russia still uses the material in question in the<br />
production of isotopes. HEU is extensively used in the Russian civilian sector.<br />
Russia still has no clear unified policy on enriched U, and sometimes there are contradictory<br />
steps and policies. Russia takes an active part in the research reactor conversion<br />
to lower-enriched fuel but has not started converting its own reactors. Despite being part
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
of the initiative to remove nuclear materials from other countries, Russia is still supplying<br />
nuclear materials abroad. Even though it is legal, what matters is that it makes other countries<br />
to do the same. For example, when Germany had doubts about what type of reactor<br />
to build, highly- or low-enriched U, Russia’s consent to supply HEU became the decisive<br />
factor for the construction.<br />
One of the reasons for the absence of such policies might be that the use of lowenriched<br />
uranium means considerable expenditures on new fuel and reactor development.<br />
However, the political aspect is still more important. We still do not pay proper attention to<br />
the possibility of terrorist organizations creating a nuclear weapon, whereas the prospect of a<br />
dirty bomb creation seems more feasible. Moreover, nuclear industry representatives are reluctant<br />
to stop development of the technologies that might be useful for future development.<br />
Russia has several strong points that would help take the necessary decision and<br />
even assume leadership in the initiative. Firstly, Russia has some reactors that are not<br />
fully used, so they could be shut down without any harm to the industry output or development.<br />
Secondly, shutting the reactors would also be economically reasonable as<br />
their maintenance and safety are expensive. The cost of modernization or conversion to<br />
lower-enriched Uranium should pay off. Thirdly, Russia with its extensive experience in<br />
nuclear research could assume leadership of the initiative. Some of its reactors could be<br />
modernized and later used as international centers. In light of the latest global tendency to<br />
use low-enriched U, development of low-enriched fuel and reactor reconfiguration could<br />
become an important source of income for the country. All it would take at this stage is a<br />
political decision and devotion to the task.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Threat Reduction Cooperation in 2015<br />
Rose Gottemoeller, Director, Carnegie Endowment for<br />
International Peace Moscow Center<br />
I would like to say several words about a number of reports, which were prepared together<br />
with the Russian Academy of Science, and about current projects on cooperative threat reduction<br />
in 2015. I would like to explain what the „cooperative threat reduction in 2015” means. Will the<br />
<strong>Global</strong> Partnership (GP) end by 2015 Will Russia or its partners in the GP finish their work in<br />
Russia and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) Why should we talk about GP and<br />
threat reduction<br />
I believe there are three ways we can approach this problem. The first is a narrow question<br />
of stability and progress in the last ten-fifteen years in partnership for the threat reduction in<br />
the GP framework, or on bilateral relations between the U.S. and Russia, as well as other countries.<br />
How can one support these achievements after the official end date of the GP in 2012 The<br />
second is what can be achieved after 2012, through an extension of the GP. E. Sokova, in her<br />
presentation, discussed the GP’s possible ways and spheres of communication after 2012, and<br />
what obligations can be taken by each side. There are also financial and political support issues,<br />
and G-8 policies, which need revision in the next few years. The third sphere, which interests<br />
me, is the use of the GP experience in resolving new and existing nonproliferation problems<br />
beyond Russia and CIS, together with Russia and CIS countries, in particular in Kazakhstan.<br />
From a US perspective, I would like to focus on three issues, in which Russia and<br />
the U.S. can cooperate in the near future. First, I am familiar with the studies conducted by<br />
the Academies of Science in the United States and Russia. Three years ago a research report,<br />
conducted in parallel by Russia and the United States, was published on the progress made<br />
through cooperation and the obstacles that remained. This fact sets the basis for future work.<br />
Second, strengthening cooperation between Russia and the <strong>USA</strong> in the non-proliferation field<br />
is described in the papers of the Academies of Science, which also include recommendations.<br />
The major conclusion was that Russia was able to transform the relationship from receiving<br />
assistance to an equal partnership within the GP, and later even play a strong partnership role<br />
in the relations with the <strong>USA</strong> and other countries. One of the areas, discussed in the report,<br />
is that the United States, Russia and other partners can cross the GP’s current limits and look<br />
at non-proliferation in other countries and regions. Similar studies between Russia and the<br />
U.S. may be a good avenue to research ways of what can be done beyond Russia’s borders<br />
cooperatively. I understand it is a very unpopular idea today, and I cannot recall a time when<br />
the US-Russia relations were as bad as they are today. I believe, however, that it is very important<br />
to consider our long-term interests from the national security perspective and what<br />
can be done from the non-proliferation standpoint. These issues are in your and our national<br />
interests.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
I would like to talk about plans for 2015 and look at four spheres where we could<br />
successfully cooperate in the future with regard to non-proliferation threats and problems. In<br />
new research we will concentrate on the threats emerging by 2015. In the framework of this<br />
research we can develop a larger set of questions for the GP. The first sphere to be seriously<br />
considered is cooperation based on threat reduction in Iran, and particularly N.Korea. We have<br />
already achieved an agreement with N.Korea on the plutonium production reactor closure in<br />
Pyongyang. <strong>It</strong> is important that Russia and the U.S., perhaps together with other partners in the<br />
GP, can think about ways to support closing down this reactor. We hope for the reactor’s complete<br />
deactivation and a complete elimination of its existing capacities. In previous research,<br />
it was mentioned that negotiations were not successful and we could not even think about<br />
cooperation with N.Korea. <strong>It</strong> may be a first step in the right direction, but I believe that today<br />
negotiations are much more successful and we can plan for cooperation in this sphere.<br />
The second sphere is Iran. This area is where negotiations are not moving forward as<br />
successfully as in N.Korea’s case. We, however, can think of what we can offer in negotiations<br />
with Iran. Another area is cooperation under the GP in the sphere of nuclear energy, following up<br />
President Putin’s initiative about the international nuclear fuel cycle center and policy actions in<br />
this direction. There are a number of areas that we could continue works under the GP. For example,<br />
we can look at the new security technology and Russia can offer a lot in this area.<br />
The third sphere is integrating other countries in the non-proliferation regime, and here<br />
I, first of all, mean India and Pakistan. Perhaps you all already know about the US-India deal.<br />
I have my own doubts about the deal and its consequences for the non-proliferation regime,<br />
which can be rather significant. There are some possibilities to involve Indians in the dialogue in<br />
the non-proliferation regime framework and approach the deal with stricter requirements.<br />
We can think about three lessons and talk to the Indians about the latest innovations, protection<br />
of the materials, accountability and related issues. We can cooperate on the energy industry<br />
basis. Russia is actively approaching India with nuclear reactor sales, but it has not successful yet.<br />
We could look at threat reduction, such as physical protection, based on commercial interests.<br />
Finally, a complicated issue comes from the current U.S. Administration’s arms<br />
control disarmament and non-proliferation measures. We must look at the issue beyond<br />
2015 and in the context of next cooperation phase on nuclear disarmament between<br />
Russia and the <strong>USA</strong>. The GP has a very important transparency component, which is<br />
also related to commercial contracts and methodology used in the physical protection<br />
of materials. For many years there were many complaints about the absence of transparency<br />
in such Russian programs. I think we should have thought about cooperative<br />
programs with the U.S. We must start the planning. I suggest that both the Democratic<br />
and Republican parties in the <strong>USA</strong>, and first of all, the experts, conduct active discussions<br />
about the next phase of nuclear weapons control. <strong>It</strong> is essential, that P-5, including<br />
China, take part in discussions about what should be done for arms reduction and control.<br />
These are all different categories, where a partnership can take place in the future. I<br />
think that such spheres where we could use lessons and experiences from the GP should<br />
be developed beyond 2015. The GP produced outstanding results in the past five years,<br />
but we have entered the cooperation phase and both Russia and the U.S., must take on<br />
additional obligations. Today we cannot reject this conception, especially if we are concerned<br />
about the national security of Russia and the United States.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Opportunities to Minimize Stocks of Nuclear-explosive<br />
Materials<br />
Frank N. von Hippel, Professor, Co-chairman of the<br />
International Panel on Fissile Materials, Woodrow<br />
Wilson School of Public and International Affairs,<br />
Princeton University, professor<br />
One legacy of the Cold War is 1350–1950 tonnes of highly enriched uranium (HEU)<br />
and 250 tonnes of separated Pu, virtually all produced by the Soviet Union and the U.S. An<br />
additional 250 tonnes of separated plutonium is a legacy of the nuclear-energy establishment’s<br />
premature vision of a future powered by plutonium breeder reactors (see Pictures 1, 2).<br />
Picture 1. HEU Stocks: almost all Russian and US Cold War legacy<br />
(500 t Russian, 234 t US) declared excess & being blended down<br />
These stocks are vastly in excess of the world’s needs today and should be reduced to<br />
make nuclear disarmament irreversible and minimize the danger of theft and sale to would-be<br />
nuclear countries or terrorists. In this talk, I discuss four policies to facilitate these reductions:<br />
1. Russia & U.S. should reduce their weapons stocks of HEU and Pu to reflect<br />
their warhead reductions;<br />
2. Russia, U.K. & U.S. should fuel their next-generation nuclear-propelled ships<br />
and submarines with low-enriched uranium (LEU) fuel, as France is beginning to do;<br />
3. Reprocessing should be discontinued where there is no near-term use for<br />
separated Pu;
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
4. Needed HEU-fueled research reactors should be converted to LEU and unneeded<br />
ones decommissioned.<br />
Picture 2. Separated plutonium: Half is civilian (Mostly in Russia, U.K, France and US)<br />
Reduce weapon stocks. Because of the downsizing of their Cold War nuclear<br />
arsenals, Russia and the U.S. have stockpiles of fissile materials far in excess of what<br />
they need for weapons. Russia has declared 500 tonnes of HEU and 34–50 tonnes of<br />
Pu to be excess of its military needs. The U.S. has similarly declared 234 tonnes of<br />
HEU and 45 tons of Pu excess. The two countries are eliminating most of their excess<br />
HEU by blending it down to low-enriched uranium for use in power-reactor fuel. Their<br />
plutonium-disposition programs are stalled, however.<br />
More weapons HEU and Pu could be declared excess. If we assume that an average<br />
modern nuclear warhead contains 4 kg of Pu and 25 kg of HEU and add an extra<br />
20% for working stocks and research and development, it would require only about 30<br />
tons of Pu and 180 tons of HEU to support the stockpile of approximately 6,000 warheads<br />
that the U.S. expects to have in its active and reserve stockpiles in 2012. If Russia<br />
and the U.S. reduced to 1000 warheads each, they would only require 30 tons of Pu and<br />
5 tons of HEU each (see Pictures 3 and 4.)<br />
Convert naval propulsion reactors to LEU. The U.S. and U.K. fuel their naval propulsion<br />
reactors with weapon-grade HEU. Russia fuels its naval and icebreaker reactors with<br />
medium-enriched but still weapon-usable HEU. The U.S. has declared128 tonnes of weapongrade<br />
HEU excess for weapons purposes but has placed it into a reserve for future use in<br />
naval-reactor fuel (see Picture 1). Russia presumably has a similar stockpile (I have assumed<br />
100 tons in Picture 1.) As the stockpiles of weapons materials are reduced, the naval stockpiles<br />
will become an increasingly large part of the HEU problem (see Picture 3). A simple<br />
way to eliminate this problem is to fuel future naval reactors with low-enriched uranium (U<br />
enriched to less than 20% 235 U). France is already making this shift. Russia similarly has<br />
developed LEU fuel for the floating nuclear power plant that it has under construction. Since<br />
the reactor for this floating power plant is adapted from an icebreaker reactor, the icebreaker<br />
reactors could be converted – and perhaps Russia’s nuclear submarines as well.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Picture 3. <strong>Global</strong> HEU stocks: What it Russian and U.S. military stocks reflected<br />
warhead reductions (non-Russian/<strong>USA</strong> stocks total about 90 tonnes)<br />
Picture 4. <strong>Global</strong> plutonium stocks: Potential for reductions<br />
(non Russian/<strong>USA</strong> weapon stocks about 13 tonnes)<br />
The situation is a little more difficult for the U.S. and U.K. Unlike France and<br />
Russia, which refuel their reactors every 5–10 years, the U.S. and U.K. have developed<br />
reactors that have „lifetime” cores. The U.S. Navy insists that, to convert to LEU cores,<br />
it would have to return to a refueling cycle of every 15 years or so. Future submarines<br />
and ships, however, could be designed around reactors that have lifetime LEU cores.<br />
Discontinue civilian reprocessing. Reprocessing of power reactor fuel in most of<br />
the industrialized states was originally launched in the 1960s and 1970s in the expecta-
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
tion that plutonium breeder reactors would soon be built by the hundreds. plutonium in<br />
the spent fuel of power reactors was therefore separated out to provide startup fuel for<br />
these breeder reactors.<br />
In 1974, the proliferation dangers associated with this vision of plutonium fuel became<br />
obvious when India used the first plutonium that it separated out with U.S. assistance<br />
under the „Atoms for Peace” program to make a nuclear explosive. The U.S. cancelled its<br />
civilian plutonium program.<br />
Other countries continued for some time, however. In some cases, as with Germany<br />
and Japan, exporting spent fuel to Britain and France to be reprocessed became a<br />
way to bypass their domestic anti-nuclear movements, which were making it impossible<br />
to establish central storage sites for spent fuel. This worked only for a decade or so,<br />
however, because Britain and France began to ship back to the countries of origin the<br />
solidified high-level waste that resulted from the reprocessing and central storage sites<br />
had to be found for this returning waste. The result is that Britain and France have lost<br />
virtually all of their reprocessing customers.<br />
The U.K. has decided to abandon reprocessing but is faced with a costly legacy<br />
from its program, including about 80 tonnes of separated civilian plutonium for which it<br />
has no disposition plan. Russia has a dispositon plan for its 90 tonnes of separated civilian<br />
and excess weapons plutonium but that plan depends primarily on future plutonium<br />
breeder reactors. The U.S. has a disposition plan for much of its 45 tonnes of excess<br />
separated plutonium but the estimated cost of that plan has already climbed above $10<br />
billion. France is recycling its separated plutonium into mixed-oxide fuel for irradiation<br />
in light-water reactors. The irradiated „mixed-oxide” fuel is being stored at France’s<br />
reprocessing plant.<br />
<strong>It</strong> makes little sense to separate more civilian plutonium until the huge stocks of<br />
already separated plutonium can be dealt with. For interim storage, plutonium is much<br />
more secure in spent fuel than in separated form (see Picture 5).<br />
Picture 5. Separated plutonium is much less secure than plutonium in spent fuel
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Convert or decommission HEU-fueled research reactors. There are currently<br />
more than 140 HEU-fueled research reactors in the world. The HEU at these reactor<br />
sites amounts to only a few percent of the total global stock of HEU but many of the<br />
sites are civilian and much less well protected than sites in the weapon complexes.<br />
Some critical assemblies and pulsed reactors contain hundreds of kilograms of barely<br />
irradiated HEU. This is a concern because converting HEU into a gun-type (Hiroshimatype)<br />
of nuclear explosive is well within the potential reach of terrorist groups. The material<br />
also could be diverted to weapons use by the host countries. Indeed, on the eve of<br />
the 1991 Gulf War, Saddam Hussein launched a crash program to convert into a weapon<br />
HEU in French and Russian supplied research-reactor fuel.<br />
In 1978, out of concern about these dangers, an international Reduced Enrichment<br />
Research and Test Reactor program was launched with the objective of converting HEUfueled<br />
reactors to LEU. There are plans to convert an additional 48 using existing LEU<br />
fuels and another 21 are to be converted with LEU fuels that are under development.<br />
This leaves about 75 research reactors for which there are no current conversion<br />
plans. 90% of these are in Russia. While Russia is cooperating in efforts to convert to<br />
LEU fuel Soviet exported research reactors in Eastern Europe and Central Asia, it has<br />
not yet decided to convert its own research reactors. Institutes that are interested in exploring<br />
the feasibility of converting their reactors are not being allowed to do so.<br />
In any case, most of the world’s HEU-fueled research reactors are no longer<br />
needed. In some cases, such as most critical assemblies and pulsed reactors, the experiments<br />
can be adequately simulated with computer codes. More generally, the era<br />
in which each nuclear research institute did experiments on its own research reactors is<br />
coming to an end. Increasingly, experiments are being done in a few well-equipped international<br />
centers and institute groups are becoming „user groups” that travel to those<br />
centers to do experiments. Most of the world’s HEU-fueled reactors are therefore falling<br />
into disuse. They should be shut down and their HEU fuel removed to centralized<br />
secure storage.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
<strong>Green</strong> Cross Russia Public Outreach and Information Office<br />
in Chelyabinsk: Discussing <strong>It</strong>s Experience in Overcoming<br />
the Legacy of the Cold War By Presenting <strong>It</strong>s Work in the Settlement<br />
of Muslyumovo, Chelyabinskaya Oblast<br />
Maria Y. Sobol, President, <strong>Green</strong> Cross Russia<br />
Chelyabinsk affiliate<br />
The most challenging aspect of overcoming the Cold War legacy that we have<br />
encountered on the territory of the Muslyumovo settlement is the conscience of the local<br />
public. This has been not only fear and lack of faith in the future, but also unpreparedness<br />
and complete disorientation when given a CHOICE. Performing the program of<br />
free-will evacuation that was suggested by the Federal Agency for the Atomic Energy<br />
(Rosatom) and the Chelyabinsk regional governor, from its inception stipulates the right<br />
to a CHOICE that must be made by the Muslyumovo residents themselves. This choice<br />
concerns: where to live, what kind of housing to obtain, and on which territory.<br />
The Muslyumovo residents’ perplexity was so great that the initiative group that<br />
was formed demanded to build a multi-story house and move everyone there. There was<br />
also a share of the population who did not support this idea. The media interpreted this<br />
situation in various ways.<br />
I consider it my duty to bring some clarification to this story. The Muslyumovo initiative<br />
group independently chose the territory of the sanitary zone of the Chelyabinsk city<br />
purifying facility (Miassky farm) for the construction of this common housing. Of course,<br />
no one from the Chelyabinsk city administration, and no one from the territorial federal<br />
control services, was able to grant their permission for such a construction project.<br />
I won’t mince words: the implementation of the Muslyumovo residents’ evacuation<br />
plan is quite a complicated process. <strong>It</strong> is mostly connected with organizational activities. Lack<br />
of preparation on the side of the municipal government, as well as the extreme negligence of<br />
the Muslyumovo housing record-keeping system, manifest themselves as major problems.<br />
The situation is further complicated by the lack of the residents’ legal knowledge, including<br />
legislative deputies and the settlement’s and municipal region’s Administrators.<br />
In order to calm the social tension and to normalize the work of the Rosatom, an<br />
Information Center was opened to help the Muslyumovo population. <strong>It</strong> was headed by<br />
the Muslyumovo rural public organization, NABAT, in partnership with <strong>Green</strong> Cross<br />
Russia and the Public Chamber of the Chelyabinskaya oblast. We realized our lack of<br />
experience in organizing voluntary evacuation (as is the case in Russia), where, as I mentioned,<br />
the issue of CHOICE is the chief and the most difficult one for the population.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
We often hear that the Center employees are allegedly agitating the population for<br />
a new microregion – Novomuslyumovo. I take full responsibility upon myself to declare<br />
that such is not the case. One of the principal conditions under which the Center employees<br />
work is that their work consists strictly of providing advice in regards to filling out<br />
paperwork, technical assistance with the paperwork, and its transfer on to the Evacuation<br />
Support Fund for further work. In this process, the Center consultants did not have<br />
the right to influence or agitate the population for forming Novomuslyumovo. One’s<br />
move would mean not only a new place of residence, but also a new place of work, new<br />
kindergarten for one’s children, a medical registration in a new district, and so on. No<br />
Center employee could possibly undertake such a responsibility, making such a choice<br />
for someone. To be more convincing, I can say that today, out of 406 applications, there<br />
were only 100 for Novomuslyumovo. These numbers speak for themselves.<br />
In the beginning of implementing this plan, we found out that only a small part<br />
of the population had formally established personal property documents. One had to not<br />
only explain to the population how to fill out the paperwork and how to obtain property<br />
Certificates, but also to reduce the amount of time for the paperwork processing as<br />
much as possible. With this purpose in mind, and as per the agreement with the Federal<br />
Registration Service, a representative of the latter works in the Center every Tuesday,<br />
accepting the paperwork and providing advice to the population. The paperwork processing<br />
time was also reduced from one month down to two weeks. I do not doubt that in<br />
this very hall, there are people who had to deal with the registration service more than<br />
once and who understand how important this decision was and how much effort it cost<br />
to ensure that this type of help would be as close to the population as possible with the<br />
minimal protractions and conflicts.<br />
With all their due desire to deliver timely assistance to the population, the Center<br />
employees must follow the Russian legislation, without breaking the lawful practice.<br />
Many legal questions that spring up require immediate solutions; even more often, they<br />
require coordination with other current laws. Legal advice was necessary, and only qualified<br />
lawyers could provide them. So, then we addressed the lawyers of the State Duma<br />
Deputy and the Chair of the Legal Committee of P.V. Krashennikov with a request for<br />
assistance. With these lawyers, the Center obtained not only knowledgeable specialists,<br />
but also an opportunity to address legal questions and receive advice (including those<br />
conducted via telecommunications) at the highest levels and on an immediate basis.<br />
The Center was able to prevent situations where the law is violated. Unfortunately, the<br />
knowledge and experience of our lawyers, as well as their recommendations are often ignored<br />
by the local government bodies’ representatives. Most errors and violations come<br />
from their side.<br />
One of the problems that we have encountered is the incapability of the local<br />
government bodies to take responsibility and make decisions. In terms of the village<br />
evacuation, 741 households are participating, according to the municipal data. However,<br />
after the relevant information appeared in the media, 30 more citizens residing outside<br />
of the village declared their rights to personal property. Currently, they are in the process<br />
of establishing these rights. Instead of administering this process by denoting certain<br />
criteria that would allow regulating the requests within the legal frameworks, the mu-
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
nicipal power bodies are deciding the order of priorities in terms of providing the legal<br />
consultation services that the Center gives. Moreover, the 741 declared households were<br />
not confirmed by the registry, which also placed the legal base of the evacuation under<br />
doubt. Today, our lawyers and employees find themselves in quite a difficult situation.<br />
On a daily basis, they encounter private-type problems, each of which creates conflicts<br />
which, in turn, adversely affect their work. Currently, there are residents who prepared<br />
their paperwork, and yet, due to being close to the bottom on the waiting list, are unable<br />
to complete their dossier.<br />
The signed registry was published in our Center in early April, as a result of the<br />
pressure applied by our outreach office and the Chelyabinskaya oblast Public Chamber.<br />
However, certain points of this registry do cause some doubt to the population. In our<br />
opinion, the delay of this registry and the public participation in checking how well it<br />
matches the reality, brings artificial tension to the situation. The new registry, prepared<br />
by the commission under the leadership of the regional head, contains 856 households<br />
rather than the 741 that were originally reported. You can judge for yourselves as to what<br />
else the Center employees and the population can expect.<br />
Lack of any information whatsoever relating to the planning and deadlines of the<br />
Novomuslyumovo settlement construction presents yet another problem. In our opinion,<br />
this constitutes a breach of responsibility on the part of the municipal power that must<br />
provide information to the population which wishes to stay on a given territory. The lack<br />
of information prevents the population from being able to make a choice. <strong>It</strong> also forces<br />
people to turn down plans for the new settlement out of fear of losing their money or<br />
missing out on a better investment opportunity with that money. Operational efficiency<br />
plays a big role in this program due to the rapid growth of housing prices. <strong>It</strong> causes much<br />
frustration, because at times, the cost of a chosen dwelling increases during the time that<br />
it takes to conclude the transaction.<br />
We do understand that the majority of problems that cause tension in the implementation<br />
of the Muslyumovo residents’ evacuation have an internal, regional character.<br />
As you see, many organizations joined us in attempts to solve these problems. Gradually,<br />
the Center is acquiring experience in its public outreach activities; a team of colleagues<br />
and associates is forming. And yet, as often happens, there are mistakes that must not<br />
only be admitted, but also corrected. Different people use these mistakes in different<br />
ways. For some, it is an opportunity to find solutions; for others, to create social tension<br />
and to use them for their political games. We have prepared and sent out appeals to all<br />
political parties. Using this opportunity, I also appeal to you, the participants in this Dialogue,<br />
asking you not to turn the Muslyumovo population into a political commodity.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Mining Tails as a Legacy of the Cold War<br />
Larisa I. Korneva, Fund for the Development of the<br />
Mineralni’e Vody Region, Stavropolsky Kray<br />
The most unfavorable, if not catastrophic, situation is developing today in the<br />
smallest town of the region – Lermontov. In the Russian Radiological Security Law, the<br />
maximum dose of radiation for the general population is 1 millizievert (mZv) per year.<br />
In Lermontov, however, the average dose of radiation is about 10 mZv, ten times above<br />
the allowed regulations. The average dose of radiation is calculated like the average<br />
wage – one person has a salary of one thousand rubles, another – two hundred rubles,<br />
and the average is six hundred. In fact, in Lermontov there are apartment buildings<br />
where the radiation level reaches 15–20 or even 70 mZv. Yet, such a high level of radiation<br />
is not found in the offices or the production departments of the former Industrial<br />
Complex „Almaz,” which worked on the enrichment of uranium ore before the early<br />
1990s and extracted it from mines in Beshtau and Byk. This radiation level is found on<br />
the ground floors of apartment buildings, in schools, and even in kindergartens.<br />
Office areas with concentration levels of radon, a radioactive gas, of 1,000 Bq<br />
per m 3 , which, according to professional regulations, is equal to maximum exposure<br />
limits for a mine-worker in an uranium mine, can be found in the schools of Lermontov:<br />
school 1 (gym), 2, 4, 5 (1st floor), and kindergartens located on Patrice Lumumba,<br />
Gagarin and Khimiki Streets.<br />
According to the results of several thousand measurements, it has been found<br />
that the average level of radon emission in the Lermontov City limits is more than 250<br />
mBq/m 2 /s, and at the maximum level, it is more than 4,500 mBq/m 2 /s, while average<br />
global level is 18 mBq/m 2 /s. In other words, in some parts of Lermontov the level of<br />
emission of the radioactive gas exceeds international standards by 250 times. The effective<br />
average equivalent background dosage of radiation for the city’s population makes<br />
up around 15,018 mZv per year, and its maximum exceeds 70 mZv, while the established,<br />
acceptable limit from all sources of radiation is 1 mZv per year, according to the<br />
Russian Statute „On Radiological Security of the Populations.” In order to give you a<br />
better comparison, the majority of those working on waste elimination at the site of the<br />
Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant accident were exposed to a smaller dose of radiation<br />
than the citizens of Lermontov receive annually.<br />
If you look at the map of radiation-affected areas produced by the employees<br />
of the Lermontov Center of Sanitary-and-Epidemiologic Inspection, you can see that<br />
over half of the houses in Lermontov have levels of radioactive radon concentration<br />
that noticeably exceed acceptable norms. According to preliminary estimates, around
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
2,000 apartments in the city have unfavorable radon conditions, while 1,000 apartments<br />
have a radon concentration of more than 400 Bq/m 3 . (According to the requirements for<br />
radiation security, inhabitants of such apartments are to be resettled.) And in 500 apartments,<br />
the radon concentration exceeds the professional maximum dosage for mineworkers<br />
in uranium mines. Fifteen hundred individuals, including 300 children, live in<br />
these apartments.<br />
The reason for such disastrous living conditions for the citizens of Lermontov<br />
is well-known: the town was built as a village for mine-workers of uranium mines<br />
in Beshtau Mountain and employees of „Almaz.” The houses were constructed at the<br />
western root of Beshtau Mountain, where this naturally high concentration of uranium<br />
is being recorded, which causes a high gamma-background (20–70 mR per hour) and an<br />
increasing level of radon emission from the soil. Additionally, another negative factor<br />
that is worsening the radioactive situation is the use of local building materials during<br />
construction in the 1950s and 1960s. In simple Russian language, forty years ago during<br />
the construction of living quarters they used the rocks, extracted from uranium mines<br />
and containing radioactive radium.<br />
What are the outcomes for residents in the area with high radiation levels In<br />
the past several years, Lermontov Center of the State Sanitary-and-Epidemiologic Inspection<br />
№101 in partnership with the State Scientific Center of Russia’s „Biophysics<br />
Institute” received preliminary data on the health condition changes in the town population.<br />
<strong>It</strong> has been identified that in town, the frequency of illnesses in pregnant women<br />
has increased, including anemia and pyelonephritis; stillbirths and premature births have<br />
also increased; and the number of all types of diseases in newborns has grown in the<br />
recorded period. The highest rise has typically been in such diseases as newborn infections,<br />
asphyxia and hypoxia conditions, and breathing disorders in infants born with<br />
normal weight. During delivery, local women have more frequent labor stimulation and<br />
induction, as well as abnormal labor. The mortality data for 10,000 persons indicates<br />
the constant growth of mortality rates from all oncological diseases, particularly from<br />
pulmonary system pathology. Since 1958, mortality rates from all oncological diseases<br />
have tripled. <strong>It</strong> is determined that in Lermontov the mortality rate of lung cancer is 1.5<br />
times higher than the region’s average. For sure, the death-rate from breast cancer has<br />
increased 2.5 times. <strong>It</strong> is also known that the mortality rate from the sum of tumors and<br />
prostate cancer is higher in Lermontov. <strong>It</strong> is officially admitted that one of the potential<br />
reasons for the origin of the identified pathology can be a complex influence of radiological<br />
factors on the citizens of Lermontov in both working conditions and private life.<br />
Do the representatives know these facts <strong>It</strong> is, as always, that they (including<br />
Governor Chernorogov, Mr. Katrenko, the Kavminovodsk area State Duma Representative,<br />
as well as the Minister of Nuclear Industry) do know, but they do nothing. <strong>It</strong>’s been<br />
two years since the Program for the „Decrease of the Level of Exposure to Radiation<br />
in the Population from Natural Radioactive Sources” was supported by the Council for<br />
Security of the region and by Governor Chernogorov, and then it was sent to the federal<br />
level, where it was buried. At the end of the day, in order to completely resolve the problem<br />
of Lermontov, it is necessary to build several apartment buildings, 2–3 schools, and<br />
kindergartens. But it seems that the Russian government does not have the necessary
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
money for construction, or it does not want to allocate the money. Yet, the story of money<br />
will take us away from the focus of environmental and healthcare protection and shift the<br />
discussion into the realm of big politics. The analysis of that is not a part of our task today.<br />
Having noted the failure of the local and federal authorities to resolve this problem,<br />
let’s look at the radioactive situation in the towns of the Caucasus Mineral Waters.<br />
In Zheleznovodsk, there have been no detailed studies, but some selective measurements<br />
in several areas indicate a high gamma radiation background. In several houses<br />
of old construction, concentration of radon was 400 Bq and higher. In Essentuky, no<br />
detailed studies have been conducted, but some protection measurements (there are 50<br />
radiation sensors installed in various houses) indicate that, in 10% of the buildings, the<br />
level of radon concentration exceeds allowed regulations. In Kislovodsk, there have<br />
been no detailed studies. However, during the investigation of the Dzhinal resort out of<br />
50 sensors given to employees, 2 cases revealed radon concentrations exceeding 1000<br />
Bq (<strong>It</strong> should be noted, that Kislovodsk is the safest place in the region of Caucasus<br />
Mineral Waters – 95% of the measurements indicate concentration less than 20 Bq,<br />
which is equal to the international level). In Pyatigorsk, there are locations with high<br />
radon concentrations (in particular on the Teplosernaya Street, where the radon concentration<br />
is 5,000 Bq).<br />
To put it simply, locations with high radiation levels are present in every town of<br />
the Caucasus Mineral Waters. Because there have not been any massive inspections nor<br />
studies, the problem is not as critical as in Lermontov. <strong>It</strong> is questionable if in the future<br />
there will be such studies and whether the situation will change.<br />
For this publication, the information was provided by Mr. S.P. Verejko, Head<br />
of the Industrial Medical Lab of the Center of State Sanitary-and-Epidemiologic Inspection<br />
№101 (which is part of the Federal Management of Medico-Biological and<br />
Extreme Problems Agency), and Master of Medical Science.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Environmental and Radiological Monitoring in the Far East<br />
V.A. Abramov, Ph.D., Head Researcher, Russian Academy<br />
of Sciences & <strong>Green</strong> Cross Russia Vladivostok Public<br />
Outreach and Information Office<br />
Multi-purpose environmental-radiological monitoring (ERM) is a comprehensive database<br />
of natural and man-made effects on the environment. This database is used to develop<br />
tactics and strategies to protect the environment physically and ethically from various effects<br />
in the fields of radiation, chemistry, bacteriology, seismology, volcanism, tectonophysics<br />
– the physics of tectonics—meteorology (tsunami, tornadoes, solar wind) and other.<br />
Strategic and tactical challenges of the ERM are solved on a step-by-step basis<br />
(preventatively and permanently) both regionally and globally. International politics,<br />
specifically economic, technological, and social issues, will be based on the ERM.<br />
In the past century, natural and man-made disaster processes using radio-isotopes<br />
have disturbed the Earth’s natural balance by causing processes with irreversible<br />
and unmanageable consequences.<br />
Seismic and tectonic factors (volcanic, geophysical or other phenomena) have<br />
not even been taken into account by the many countries that conducted nuclear tests for<br />
both military and peaceful purposes. Radiation leaks, accidents, and disasters on many<br />
nuclear objects in a number of countries contaminated the planet’s living space and<br />
caused incurable diseases in humans and animals. As per the international norms of global<br />
environmental safety, the ERM established a number of socio-political requirements<br />
based on public opinion in order to be able to foresee future environmental conditions.<br />
The global environmental-monitoring system provides a comprehensive study of<br />
human-caused factors, such as technological impact on radiological and isotopic components<br />
of the environment, migratory flows, pollution accumulation, and food chains.<br />
The society and the environment are interconnected and subjected to the law of<br />
biospheric degradation, where integral accumulation of „negative quantity” unavoidably<br />
leads to the „negative quality” of the human-nature coexistence.<br />
The approach of the ERM to these problems will allow us to direct our efforts to<br />
maxi-cycles and mini-cycles of seismic-tectonic activity. These cycles have detrimental<br />
effects on the environmental and radiological balance and provoke technology-induced<br />
disasters. The change in regional and local geological structures is evidence of that.<br />
These structures are experiencing technology-induced constraints due to construction<br />
of potentially hazardous products and industries. Exploration and urbanization of new<br />
territories in Siberia, RFE (Russian Far East), and South-East Asia are connected to<br />
mineral deposits exploration and development including radioactive ores and ore-bearing<br />
mixtures with a wide spectrum of dangerous radioactive isotopic elements.<br />
A brief analysis of FER (Far-East Region) and APR (Asia-Pacific Region) seismic<br />
conditions indicate that there is a stable tendency of tectonomagmatic – tectonic<br />
and magmatic—and seismic activity on the planet (also known as the NAP phenomenon
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
in Russian, 1985–2002). The incidence of earthquakes, volcanic activities, and tsunami<br />
is on the rise. Just the Primorye territory and surrounding regions, from 1850 on, have<br />
experienced over 250 earthquakes. On the MSK-64 (Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik)<br />
scale, three of these earthquakes scored a 10, seven scored a 9, eleven scored an 8, and<br />
twenty-seven scored a 7 with the hypocenter depth ranging from 5 to 500 km.<br />
The level of seismic danger for FER and APR (especially for cities and urbanized<br />
areas) is officially declared 1–3 scores lower on the existing maps of seismic regions in<br />
Russia (map set SP-78, SP-84, OSP-97, A, B, and C). This happened because the specialists<br />
who compiled the maps did not take into account regional and depth particularities<br />
of ruptures/seismic faults. They also ignored contemporary data on lithospheric magnetic<br />
flows, tectonospheric funnels, and tectonic movements. They also did not take into account<br />
the latent active tectonic fissures that came out due to space and aerial observations<br />
decryptions and due to the analysis of new tectonospheric geologic-geophysical data on<br />
Siberia, RFE and South-East Asia. The new facts and data on earthquake hypocenters and<br />
epicenters reveal that the fracture patterns are old, deep, and present seismic danger.<br />
The comprehensive analysis of seismic nature of the Primorsky Kray territory<br />
in the RFE in combination with the detailed study of tectonics and neotectonics, unambiguously<br />
determined and located the following: nodes and areas of seismic hazard; the<br />
earthquakes’ maximum magnitudes; the frequency of impact; the dynamic criteria of<br />
uniformity and non-homogeneity of geophysical milieu; the possible seismic processes<br />
that are developing in the planet’s depths; the stable megablocks sizes; the firmness and<br />
intensity of geoblocks’ interaction; the basis of two-stage or three-stage principle during<br />
seismic activity; the necessity of creating 2–3 interconnected models for seismic hazard<br />
prognosis; the primacy of the model of sudden appearance of epicenters and zones of<br />
migrating earthquakes; the sudden and unpredictable appearance of epicenters is of<br />
greater importance than the destructiveness of a particular earthquake.<br />
The conducted developments and calculations drew well-grounded conclusions<br />
on the critical, seismically hazardous areas and the locations of nodes that are currently<br />
active. („South Primorye Ecological-Radiometric Ecomonitoring”, 2005).<br />
Currently, the Russian government workers of all levels are taking measures to develop and<br />
construct nuclear energy and nuclear repository objects in the areas of seismic danger in Siberia and<br />
the RFE – without considering the many negative and technology-driven factors. This approach of<br />
„pushing” and lobbying NPP (Nuclear Power Plant) into regions with potential seismic activity in<br />
a time of growing seism-tectonic activity in our planet is evidence of today’s deep degradation of<br />
relations between humans and the environment. <strong>It</strong> also comes out in the forms of dangerous 3-phase<br />
social crises (phobi-crises, zombie-crises, lemmi-crises, and so on).<br />
In their third phase, the government officials make important decisions on security<br />
questions of the country in terms of energy, military, space or other issues. They often forget<br />
historic, destructive events that were caused by thoughtless actions while pursuing political<br />
and economic objectives and neglecting global and regional environmental security.<br />
The process of organizing and conducting of the ERM in Siberia and the RFE<br />
considers the economic practicability of developing wasteless nuclear energy in this<br />
region of seismic-tectonic activity. The ERM will be the science-based foundation used<br />
to make responsible decisions about NPP and the Nuclear Heat-and-Power Plant.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
The Overall Discussion of the Forum Results<br />
––Question from participant: This is a question to everyone regarding nuclear<br />
weapons nonproliferation. The system of international control of nuclear weapons nonproliferation<br />
should indeed be reformed. The IAEA is, apparently, outdated: it should<br />
either be modernized or replaced with a different body. But organizationally, what specifically<br />
should the IAEA member-states do And what should the UN do in general in<br />
order to improve the situation, to place it under control and to secure the world from the<br />
threat of nuclear weapons proliferation and nuclear terrorism<br />
––Rose Gottemoeller This is a very important question for anyone who is concerned<br />
about the future of the nonproliferation regime and the Nuclear Nonproliferation<br />
Treaty (NPT). Currently, there are discussions on the NPT shortcomings. Yet I do not<br />
agree with such evaluations. The NPT was based on special conditions. <strong>It</strong> is a contract<br />
between the nuclear and the non-nuclear states. In my opinion, the problem consists of<br />
the fact that, in the recent years, the NPT has not been enforced as it should be. In other<br />
words, the nuclear states are not paying as much attention as they should to their obligations<br />
under the Article 6 of the NPT on reducing their nuclear arsenals. This is the main<br />
problem, and, in my opinion, it must be solved in the coming few years.<br />
There is also the question of non-nuclear states and their obligations to continue<br />
peaceful use of nuclear energy without using the NPT as a cover-up for weapons and military<br />
purposes. Such is the case of Iran and of North Korea. We have a number of problems that we<br />
need to solve within the NPT framework.<br />
However, by no means should we regard the NPT regime as a failure. We need to<br />
work in the direction of strengthening the work of the IAEA. I must say that the IAEA really<br />
does work on civil aspects of the issue. <strong>It</strong> does not touch and should not be responsible for<br />
the military nuclear programs. This is why I think that we should place more emphasis on<br />
Article 6 and on the countries’ obligations to reduce and destroy their nuclear arsenals as per<br />
this article. We must think of ways to strengthen and enforce the NPT regime from the side<br />
of non-nuclear states. As for the right to acquire nuclear energy, we should think that peaceful<br />
atomic energy can proliferate, but it should be isolated from any possibility of providing<br />
access to nuclear weapons. We must prevent development of secret nuclear programs that are<br />
outside of international control. <strong>It</strong> can be difficult to prevent a country from obtaining nuclear<br />
materials for peaceful purposes. I have already mentioned the necessity to strengthen the<br />
IAEA safeguards and possibilities. This is necessary so that the IAEA can guarantee the enforcement<br />
of nuclear programs within the provided frameworks only. Perhaps, my colleagues<br />
can add something to what I said.<br />
––A. V. Yablokov: We need political will in order to prevent certain things from<br />
happening. Those are such things as when China helped Pakistan to create nuclear<br />
weapons. The United States covered it up, and the whole affair was hidden. The United<br />
States, instead of taking strong measures to prevent it, covers it up. When we ship a<br />
nuclear reactor for an unknown purpose (or, rather, for a known purpose) to Burma, it<br />
is clear what is to follow. And so on… Behind the short-term economic goals, we need
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
to see global problems. Perhaps, it is only the society – not the government, not the<br />
corporations, not the agencies – but only the public, the civil society that must say: „we<br />
do not want this ineffective system of global security to continue, we need to change it.”<br />
But we do need political will to accomplish it. As for how to change it – we will find a<br />
way, lawyers will tell us. First, we need to make the decision, a political decision. The<br />
system that has formed, showed its inefficiency, and it must be changed. This is first and<br />
foremost of what I wanted to say. Thank you.<br />
Frank N. von Hippel I would also like to add something about the IAEA. The more I<br />
get to know them, the more I understand the great work they do. With more power delegated<br />
to them, they are better able to discover various secret programs.<br />
––Y. Y. Simonov (former State Inspector on Nuclear Safety/Security of the USSR,<br />
later the Russian Federation): First of all, I would like to acknowledge the quality of the<br />
information presented by Dr. Paul Walker. Basically, the information that he presented<br />
here constitutes a death sentence to nuclear energy. One of the issues is the lack of solutions<br />
for the radioactive waste problem. Considering the fact that such nuclear energy<br />
develops plutonium, it must be simply crossed out of peaceful nuclear energy category.<br />
This is first. Second: we were informed here that a floating Nuclear Power Plant (FNPP)<br />
is being constructed in Severodvinsk. The former Minister of Defense, Sergey Ivanov,<br />
announced with a special joy that a FNPP will be constructed some 500 meters from<br />
kindergartens and sandboxes where children play. <strong>It</strong> was announced on almost all the<br />
channels of the Russian public television.<br />
In the case of Chernobyl, the location was about 8 km away. The distance we have<br />
here amounts to some 500 m. I have a question to the people who were just talking about this<br />
FNPP and telling that it will provide this and that. I would like to ask them: are they aware of<br />
the results of public organizations’ evaluations on the same project that was supposed to be<br />
constructed near Pevek, in Chukotka, not far from the sites of the largest white bears population<br />
Well, if this information and the evaluations’ conclusions did not reach the Severodvinsk<br />
public, then I consider it a crime.<br />
And I would really like to hear an answer to the following question: is it true that the<br />
Severodvinsk public is unaware of these evaluations’ conclusions Is the public unaware of<br />
the fact that this nuclear power station has significant shortcomings That the accident that occurred<br />
due to the first contour decompression has not been fully investigated <strong>It</strong> can certainly<br />
lead to the explosion of the reactor containment or even the reactor itself. And there are other<br />
shortcomings, also.<br />
––N. G. Shcherbinin: I would like to answer this question as a Severodvinsk resident.<br />
The question of coming to an agreement regarding the FNPP in Severodvinsk has<br />
been under consideration since 2001. There was a special decision on the part of the city<br />
mayor. Hearings were conducted within the framework of the FNPP project with the lowpower<br />
nuclear plant with the KLТ-40 reactor installations in the city of Severodvinsk.<br />
Within the framework of this project, public hearings were conducted. There have also<br />
been hearings in the municipal city council, that is, all the deputies gathered together to<br />
consider this issue. As a result, on March 21, 2002, the Severodvinsk municipal city council<br />
took decision number 28, „to support the construction and placement of a low-power<br />
floating NPP in Severodvinsk.” On April 15 of the same year, construction of the first unit
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
officially took place. On the eve of that day, an ecological organization „Etos,” composed<br />
mainly of young students from Arkhangelsk, appealed to the Severodvinsk Environmental<br />
Council with the proposal to meet with the enterprise experts.<br />
Our city is quite interesting when it comes to public involvement I environmental issues.<br />
We actually have two environmental councils. One of them is a public Environmental<br />
Council. <strong>It</strong> is mostly attended by various representatives who themselves do not work at the<br />
shipyards. (Even though there are several people who work at „Sevmash”). The second is the<br />
Environmental Council organized by the Severodvinsk city mayor. The difference between<br />
the two councils is that the latter one also includes the leaders of the environmental agencies<br />
from all the city enterprises and shipyards. For example, it includes the chief environmentalist<br />
of the „Sevmash” shipyard, the chief ecologist of the „Zvezdochka” shipyard, or the leader<br />
of the Environmental Protection Department. These agencies are responsible for these issues<br />
over the entire enterprise just as the factory director is responsible for them at his factory.<br />
So, the meeting took place on April 2. The Public Council asked me to invite the enterprise<br />
experts, since I do have some useful connections through my work. All experts were<br />
present at this meeting, including the head of the „Sevmash” nuclear safety department and<br />
„Zvezdochka” chief deputy engineer, Mr. Shepurev, who is responsible for a similar nuclear<br />
safety department at „Zvezdochka.”<br />
For three hours, they explained everything about this situation to the absolutely unprepared<br />
third-year students. They even included the Pevek book which, as we can say, is the<br />
young environmentalist’s Bible; they all have it. What I am trying to say here is that everyone<br />
already has this information, and this book has been read by everyone. But at the time of the<br />
FNPP construction, all the official decisions had been made.<br />
Nevertheless, after the talks, this small group of students expressed a lot of enthusiasm.<br />
Those young people are great! They even posted announcements around the city appealing<br />
to the people to come for a demonstration on the central city square. Unfortunately, I was<br />
not there, because I was at a Lomonosov Fund session in Arkhangelsk that day. But one of<br />
my friends was there. Twelve people came there altogether. <strong>It</strong> means that they know about it<br />
and have read the book I mentioned.<br />
But now we entered a different era and we have a new Rosatom leadership. Speaking<br />
of which, there is an interesting moment: on June 15, 2006, exactly a year ago, Mr. Kirienko<br />
came to Severodvinsk with an official delegation. <strong>It</strong> was publicly announced everywhere and<br />
in all the media sources, including the national ones. But all of the excitement actually started<br />
a week before the official beginning of the FNPP construction. That is why there was plenty<br />
of time for discussion.<br />
V. S. Nikitin, the General Director of the RMTB (Research Manufacturing Technological<br />
Bureau), is present here today. With the support of the Rosatom International<br />
Center of Ecological Safety and Albert Petrovich Vassiliev, we could probably conduct<br />
a serious conference or a seminar. <strong>It</strong> could even be an international seminar, if necessary.<br />
My proposal is to conduct some kind of an initiative with the support of <strong>Green</strong><br />
Cross Russia to invite Alexey Vladimirovich Yablokov. I already asked him to come to<br />
Severodvinsk, and he said: „I will come either way.” We should talk about these issues,<br />
we should discuss them. Such is the situation. I make my statements as a city resident<br />
and not in an official capacity.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
––V. S. Nikitin: Today we do have the documents evaluating the impact of the<br />
PNPP construction and use upon the environment. These documents may not have been<br />
around yet when the Pevek book was written. The plant’s construction and functioning<br />
is placed upon the same production program that is responsible for the submarine<br />
construction and repair. „Rosenergoatom”, „Energoproekt” – today, these organizations<br />
are responsible for the oversight of this construction. According to an agreement that<br />
was signed, there will be six more floating nuclear plants in addition to the „Akademik<br />
Lomonosov” platform. They include „Akademik Aleksandrov” and others. There is also<br />
n emergency planning zone project and other documents for which „Rosenergoatom”<br />
and „Energoproekt” obtained the necessary agreements.<br />
––A. M. Vinogradova: We still did not get an answer to the following question<br />
concerning the results of the public environmental expertise that were studied and<br />
evaluated: have you approved them or rejected them<br />
––V. S. Nikitin: No, we do have people who participated in these issues. But as of<br />
today, they are history. Now we have new calculations and new methodology. But there<br />
are documents proving that the ecological impact does not exceed the allowable limits,<br />
even when taking into account the production norms.<br />
––S. I. Baranovsky: There are two things here that we are talking about. We<br />
discussed the environmental review that <strong>Green</strong> Cross conducted for Pevek, whereas this<br />
is Severodvinsk. Another question is that while the Pevek expertise results have been<br />
disclosed to Severodvinsk, the public has not exhibited any particular desire to discuss<br />
them. There was such an opportunity, yet no one addressed the public organizations or<br />
our authors with any requests for discussion (Kuznetsov, <strong>Green</strong> Cross Russia, and many<br />
others participated in this expertise). Had the public requested anything, our people<br />
would have come and given a talk about it. But there was no such interest.<br />
––Y. Y. Simonov: There was a discussion of these points exactly for the Pevek<br />
case inside of the Ministry. Rosatom discussed them in the presence of the national<br />
project manager Khlopkin. This is not such a simple question. There have been very<br />
specific questions posed to Mr. Khlopkin. They included certain unresolved issues and<br />
the accident that was not properly investigated (the latter concerned the seal failure, that<br />
first contour decompression that I mentioned earlier). Mr. Khlopkin just banged the door<br />
and left, and that was the end of it. And from then on, it was like an ice-skating rink.<br />
Just think about it, I have examined and studied all the conclusions, evaluations<br />
and official documents that were mentioned here, including the Severodvinsk public<br />
organization created by the city mayor’s decree. No state agencies’ conclusions on this<br />
Severodvinsk „floating” construction are able to withstand any criticism whatsoever.<br />
They have significant shortcomings on purely technical aspects. Even the four concluding<br />
reports of the Gosatomnadzor were unacademic, almost illiterate. This whole<br />
affair was directed to GAN, while their scientific-technological center as such was no<br />
longer qualified for these matters. So, the allegations were quite serious, and they are<br />
still there.<br />
––<br />
V. F. Men’shchikov: Our discussion pattern goes in two directions. There is<br />
the public, which, in my opinion, is mostly (although not always) non-professional. The<br />
public has its concerns, and that is important. <strong>It</strong> is good that our public can still be con-
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
cerned about some issues. And searching for answers to their questions, which is what<br />
we did today and yesterday, is a very normal start for a discussion.<br />
But now I would like to concentrate a little more on the problem that was just being<br />
discussed here. This is the problem of professionals asking questions on the topics that worry<br />
them in terms of safety violations. This is where we are getting quite a mix of responses such<br />
as „hey, you, from this environmental or some such organization, why do I have to answer<br />
you” If a specific question is asked, no one answers it. There are many such examples. For<br />
example, if someone asks about the BNPP: „Considering the seismic conditions of the region,<br />
are there norm violations” They would just reply: „Well, we have the environmental evaluation.”<br />
When it comes to very specific professional and educated questions, no one would<br />
answer them properly. They would say: „Well, we had some 50 students come, and we gave<br />
them a talk about the situation.” The interactive logic is broken somewhere: there is a gap<br />
between the overall concerned public and our answers to their specific questions.<br />
There is one more remark I would like to make. Towards the end, we discussed a very<br />
serious topic of the links between nuclear energy and nuclear weapons. I think that we, as a<br />
technologically advanced civilization, are in a deadlock. If, say, Iran will continue to work<br />
on their centrifuges, and if there are clear indications that they are about to acquire a nuclear<br />
bomb in a month, the only likely response would simply be military measures. This would be<br />
similar to what already took place in Iraq. This means a deadlock for the containment policy,<br />
the system of counter-balance, and the nonproliferation regime.<br />
Lastly, the 21 st century will be a harsh struggle for resources. The first struggle, as<br />
was already mentioned, will be for water. The next struggle will be for energy. <strong>It</strong> will be a<br />
tough struggle. In this sense, I cannot imagine not considering the issue of possible terrorist<br />
attacks. I had a short dialogue with Rosatom scientists who told me: stop it, why do you think<br />
that some terrorist will choose an NPP as a target; he has plenty of other targets such as water<br />
reserves and chemical enterprises. I do not see a serious assessment of the risks of possible<br />
terrorist actions behind such a response. Thank you.<br />
––A. P. Vasiliev: With all my dislike of the IAEA and its bureaucracy, I would<br />
like to say a few words in their defense. We should distinguish between some very<br />
different things. The Bushehr reactor is the kind into which the fuel is loaded and not<br />
taken out for a year or a year and a half; even the lid remains unopened during that time.<br />
Unloading some fuel rods part by part is impossible in this type of reactor. The opening<br />
of the lid would mean a visit from the IAEA and their presence throughout the whole<br />
process. If the fuel is unloaded, it must be transported to Russia as per the agreement<br />
that was signed and insisted upon by both the United States and Russia. That is why<br />
these types of reactors do not threaten the nonproliferation regime.<br />
On the other hand, heavy-water reactors or pressure-tube reactors that easily produce<br />
plutonium and where each tube can be taken out one by one, – these type of reactors must not<br />
be exported anywhere. The pressure-tube reactors in general must not be exported anywhere.<br />
Heavy-water research reactors are also very dangerous, because they present means for plutonium<br />
production. As for low-enriched uranium, it is not very good for a cannon-type bomb,<br />
because the neutron background that is created by the 238 U does not allow the production of a<br />
normal explosion. Instead, a pop or a bang is produced. I can tell you this as a specialist who<br />
developed nuclear warheads himself, and Mr. Hippel knows it, too. This neutron background
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
problem for initiating a detonation is present even when using highly enriched uranium. Trust<br />
me, all nuclear physicists know this.<br />
As for using reactor plutonium for a bomb creation – yes, it is possible. I held our<br />
weapon-grade plutonium in my own hands. This type of Pu, by the way, is purer than the<br />
American one: it has a higher level of 239 Pu. That is why, when you hold it as a little ball, it<br />
feels warm even through the glove. As for the plutonium that is used in the reactor due to<br />
the high contents of the 238 Pu, it is hot. <strong>It</strong> heats up so much that it needs to be cooled down<br />
all the time. This is why, when they take the fuel out of the reactor, they keep in water for a<br />
long time. Moreover, it is impossible to produce it without special robots. One needs a very<br />
complex system for all of this. And the warhead itself – how would you cool it inside of the<br />
warhead This is all so problematic. There are many more simple and efficient ways to harm<br />
the humanity. <strong>It</strong> is all politics rather than technology.<br />
Belgrade was bombed, and Iraq was invaded, even though it was known that<br />
there were no WMDs. Then, we were getting the news of the Saddam Hussein’s prosecution,<br />
of 160 people killed in the village where the assassination attempt on him<br />
occurred. And now, 100 to 200 people are getting killed every day there, do you understand<br />
After this, all the countries understood: if you do not possess nuclear weapons,<br />
you are defenseless in front of the United States of America. That is why the political<br />
will must first come from the United States. Now already nation-states are being threatened<br />
one after another. Naturally, people are scared for themselves; they do not want<br />
to be „democratized.” Do you know what we call the policeman stick A democratizer.<br />
People do not need such democratizers.<br />
We have discussed some unresolved nuclear energy problems here. These problems<br />
block the way to nuclear energy. <strong>It</strong> is indeed a fact that peaceful nuclear energy is<br />
a legacy of nuclear weapons programs. Both in Russia and in the US, we still reprocess<br />
our fuel. <strong>It</strong> is specifically this process that generates radioactive waste. At first, the<br />
waste is compactly concentrated in the fuel element. But as soon as reprocessing starts,<br />
it generates several thousand tons of waste. This waste is mostly liquid and is the most<br />
dangerous kind of waste. We really need to stop using this technology. In the United<br />
States, the Argon National Laboratory and the Idaho National Laboratory developed<br />
a good electrochemical way of fuel reprocessing. What we now call a non-reprocessable<br />
fuel can be easily reprocessed using their technology. We have the same kind of<br />
technology but even more perfected, including its practical usage. <strong>It</strong> is implemented in<br />
Dimitrovgrad and presents in itself a practical semi-production installation that already<br />
processed several active zones of a fast-breeding reactor. And it works wonderfully,<br />
reducing waste almost in half.<br />
There is also a third kind of technology that was developed in Russia. But, as I<br />
told Kirienko during my speech at the latest Public Council meeting, without intervention<br />
into these events by someone in the upper echelons of government, this technology<br />
will not go on. People got so used to the old technology that the lobbyist groups will<br />
simply not allow the new one to blossom. The same old experts are in charge, whereas<br />
the technology needs to evolve.<br />
By the way, this technology is based upon the gaseous-fluoride technologies<br />
that have been used for decades at the Angar facility. They obtain a one-to-one ratio of
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
product to waste, with neither liquid nor gaseous waste. There is only one shortcoming,<br />
and quite a significant one: it is very easy to separate out Pu and U. So, using these electrochemical<br />
technologies (both what we have in Russia and the one in the United States)<br />
would allow us to separate out U, Pu, Np, all of these things. All of it is then combusted<br />
in the reactor so as to eliminate transactinides. So, this problem must be solved. This<br />
technology is very inexpensive.<br />
However, we do need political will to solve this issue. I feel that together, we are<br />
capable of making this kind of political decision. We need to build this facility. Currently,<br />
it is operating on imitation materials. We could build it somewhere on „Mayak” or at<br />
the Research Institute of Atomic Reactors [full name: Federal State Unitary Enterprise<br />
(FSUE) Scientific Center of Russian Federation Research Institute of Atomic Reactors],<br />
so that it could prove its advantages in practice.<br />
In regards to radioactive waste, I published an article on this topic, and I travelled<br />
extensively in Europe. As the Director of Center for Environmental Safety, I have collected<br />
information on where and how one treats this waste and how much it costs. Some<br />
discoveries have really amazed me. In the West, a substantial quantity of waste is low radioactivity.<br />
They categorize it as „very low-level waste.” In Russia, we do not have such<br />
a category. Recently, we negotiated with our controlling bodies and have formulated<br />
demands to introduce such a category within the frameworks of our strategic master-plan<br />
development. This would allow us to bury the waste in the surface storages, under small<br />
hills. This waste needs to be stored for some 300 years maximum, anyway.<br />
What especially shocked me in Holland was the presence of thick, huge layers of salt,<br />
which makes it the best place for burying any kind of waste. They, however, prefer to bury<br />
any kind of waste – low-level, high-level, fuel waste – on the surface, so that people could<br />
see it and witness that everything is in place and everything is fine. There are, of course, 1.5<br />
meter-high iron and brick walls surrounding the high-level and fuel waste. But people see<br />
that it is there and that everything is fine. People prefer to trust what they see rather than to<br />
speculate of how the waste is spreading under ground.<br />
As for the cost, it is about 200 euros/m 3 . That is such a good cost! With wise and<br />
efficient use of nuclear energy, it does not generate much waste in the first place. The<br />
amount of high-level waste is extremely small: for one ton of fuel, it amounts to only 0.1<br />
tons. The English demonstrated it very well. The technology of decommissioning NPPs<br />
was also conducted and verified in England. I witnessed it myself many times. Moreover,<br />
they need to bring one plant, one unit to the „green pasture” condition, as per public<br />
demand. Economically, this is less viable than their usual decommissioning technique.<br />
Such technique involves taking away all that is unnecessary, demolishing old buildings,<br />
and concentrating high-level waste in the reactor chamber, taking out only the fuel. They<br />
demonstrated that it is possible and not at all as expensive as people say. But England is<br />
going through some tough times now. During the miners’ strike, Margaret Thatcher gave<br />
them all the reserves that were saved up for the plants’ decommission.<br />
We do not have any reserves either, but for a different reason, as you know. Both<br />
Sweden and Finland created reserves by raising the cost of electricity by a percentage<br />
point. They will use this money to remove and store the waste. Sweden, unlike Holland,<br />
chose a different path: they constructed a waste storage site beneath the ocean floor,
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
and that is where they will bury the waste. I have seen it. The waste will be covered<br />
with water, and in 500 years it will all be below the background, so to speak. They have<br />
calculated all the safety measures for the next 500 years. That means that they do not<br />
currently have any unresolved technical problems.<br />
Politically, our problem is not allowing the experts to implement such ideas in<br />
practice. Right now we are trying to do that at Andreeva Bay. We are developing several<br />
disactivation technologies that would be cheaper and ecologically-friendlier, without<br />
liquid radioactive waste. In the United States, they have developed a wonderful deactivation<br />
technology at the „Pentek” firm. Overall, we do have solutions, and our common<br />
task – especially for those of us who consider themselves „green” – is to help implement<br />
these solutions. But it is difficult to do that alone from the inside. Together, we can do it<br />
much faster. Thank you for your attention. Excuse me for having talked so extensively.<br />
––A. M. Vinogradova: I would like to discuss yet another aspect of our „Nuclear<br />
Energy, Society, Safety” topic: the quality of state control in the field of nuclear energy<br />
use. I live in a city with a powerful four-unit nuclear energy plant only 8 km away. The<br />
state control quality, as we analyzed it, could be much better. The largest amount of the<br />
state control agencies data is just taken out of the BNPP nuclear services data.<br />
So, I would like to ask everyone here to write down the following suggestion:<br />
out of all possible control measures, the government should make it mandatory to periodically<br />
inspect all the territories that have nuclear facilities on them. The only such<br />
inspection took place in 1993 by the President’s mandate. <strong>It</strong> was specifically that inspection<br />
that gave us this idea.<br />
<strong>It</strong> revealed interesting things. For example, the BNPP, which up to 1993 was<br />
boasting and proclaiming to be the best and most reliable NPP, was found to have local<br />
radioactive pollution in the emergency planning zone, with 60 to 3.5 thousand mkR per<br />
hour. Such inspections and research at least in some way demonstrate to the government<br />
and to the public the conditions of the nuclear facilities.<br />
I would like to request everyone to write down that the government quality control<br />
level in Russia could really be much better, and that it is necessary to organize such territorial<br />
inspections, perhaps, every five years or so. This is very important. Thank you.<br />
––S. I. Baranovsky: We would like to ask you to relay what you have just said in<br />
written form right here. That way it can all be published in the proceedings of our Dialogue<br />
Forum in both Russian and English. <strong>It</strong> will go to Rosatom, to the US Department<br />
of Energy, to the IPA, to all our ministries and agencies, and to the Russian Academy<br />
of Sciences.<br />
––A. Toropov: First of all, I would like to thank all the organizers whose efforts<br />
made this meeting possible. There should be many more of such forums – perhaps,<br />
more general ones as well as more focused ones. In this sense, we have more potential<br />
participants from our regions. During the second day of the Forum, I realized that I<br />
could have probably invited more participants. But then again, we hardly had any time<br />
for questions and answers anyway. I think that everyone here would support my suggestion.<br />
I would like to have more such forums, but to have them with the development<br />
of specific decisions, solutions, and recommendations. I would like us to be able to<br />
develop concrete recommendations for governments, agencies, the UN and the IAEA. I
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
would like these forums to be real roundtables rather than consist solely of listening to<br />
each other’s opinions. Although, I repeat myself, it is wonderful that we all got together<br />
here. Thank you.<br />
––Question regarding the low-enriched and high-enriched U. I think that it is<br />
a very important decision. Technically, it is only possible with low-enriched U. Yet the<br />
government did not disclose: which fuel will be used<br />
––Stephan Robinson: I hope to be able to give you a good answer. The decision<br />
has indeed been made, and it will be low-enriched fuel. The FNPP that is being<br />
constructed is based on the information provided by Rosatom. Rosatom sent a fax to the<br />
scientist who is dealing with it, letting him know to use U enriched to less then 20%.<br />
This means that we can assume that low-enriched fuel will be used. This is not an official<br />
piece of information, but it was published by an official Rosatom body.<br />
––Paul Walker: In conclusion, I would like to make some general remarks. I<br />
would like to thank all the organizers for facilitating this event in such a professional<br />
way. I know that <strong>Green</strong> Cross Russia also put forth a lot of effort in order for all of us<br />
to be present here today. In the chemical weapons field, we have been conducting such<br />
dialogues for ten years already. As you know, we always thought that it would be getting<br />
easier and easier to meet as time goes by. But there are always some kind of difficulties<br />
there. I would really like to thank Sergey Baranovsky, Vladimir Leonov, and the entire<br />
<strong>Green</strong> Cross Russia personnel for this Forum’s organization.<br />
There are several important questions. I think we have conducted a good discussion<br />
on energy production. There were many questions regarding nuclear energy,<br />
conventional energy, and renewable energy resources. We will continue this discussion,<br />
because there will not be easy answers available to these questions in the future. There<br />
is an active discussion on this topic in the United States, and many people there see a<br />
nuclear energy renaissance there. We have not requested any NPP construction for decades<br />
now. <strong>It</strong> was a while ago – I do not even recall – since 9/11, after the advent of the<br />
threat of terrorist attacks. <strong>It</strong> concerned the NPP security which relates to the questions<br />
of nonproliferation.<br />
We also had a good discussion on the topic of nuclear weapons nonproliferation,<br />
and the control of fissile materials. All the discussion points regarding energy production<br />
and the use of fissile materials for military purposes point to the fact that one should<br />
break down the prices according to the life cycle. As a result of the Cold War, we see<br />
that disarmament costs 10 or 50 times more than weapons creation. Such is the Cold<br />
War legacy. Yet this is relevant not only in terms of the weapons; we need to break down<br />
the prices according to the life cycle also for NPPs, wind energy, etc. We need to calculate<br />
the costs starting at the beginning of the cycle and ending with its end. If you will<br />
look, for example, at the costs of cleaning an ordinary warf in Russia, you will never<br />
want to build another ship. This is the same in other countries, too.<br />
I would like to note the following: we discussed nonproliferation, our concerns<br />
regarding Iran, North Korea, Pakistan, India and other countries. In the course of these<br />
discussions, it is absolutely evident that we should concentrate more on creation of a<br />
common space and to avoid double standards. There have been situations where some<br />
countries were allowed to create nuclear fuel cycles, others were not; some countries
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
fell under detailed inspection procedures while others avoided them. I think that such<br />
games are unsafe right now. We should not play them. There are five members of the<br />
UN Security Council. There are nine nuclear states which might soon become ten, or<br />
eleven, or twelve. If we continue to apply double standards, these numbers and groups<br />
will continue to grow and expand. <strong>It</strong> will lead to vertical proliferation. If we do not want<br />
Iran and North Korea to obtain nuclear bombs, then we ourselves – first of all, Russians<br />
and Americans – must learn to get rid of bombs. We still have a few years, perhaps this<br />
generation, to solve this issue.<br />
In conclusion, I would like to say that we are becoming increasingly interdependent<br />
in attempting to solve these complex questions. We are even more interdependent<br />
than we can imagine. Nuclear materials produced in Russia or in the United States will<br />
affect the entire world. Nuclear weapons that we produce in one country will have effects<br />
on far-away regions, well beyond our countries. <strong>It</strong> also has effects on resources,<br />
on health, on environment. Dialogue is very important in these issues. <strong>It</strong> is a good thing<br />
that we have discussions, that they are taking on a more transparent and open character.<br />
I strongly encourage the continuation of such discussions not only in Russia, but also in<br />
the United States. That way we can gradually conceptualize these issues in a more overarching<br />
way. That way we can be better prepared for the future of our vulnerable planet.<br />
Thank you.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Conclusion and Summary of the Session<br />
Stephan Robinson, International Coordinator Legacy<br />
Programme, <strong>Green</strong> Cross Switzerland<br />
First and foremost, I would like to thank everyone who stayed with us until<br />
the end. This dialogue has been very interesting to me, because for many years I have<br />
worked with <strong>Green</strong> Cross Russia. I have worked in Russia quite intensively from the<br />
very beginning and participated in the chemical weapons dialogue.<br />
When we started our first dialogue on nuclear issues, I knew that it would be very<br />
different from the one on the chemical weapons issues. <strong>It</strong> reminded me of the chemical<br />
weapons dialogues that we conducted seven years ago. For me, it is like a small tree that<br />
we planted. We do not know yet whether it will grow or which shape it will take; therefore,<br />
I would rather not draw any conclusions or comparisons with the chemical field.<br />
In the chemical field, there are seven groups of stakeholders, and everyone wants to get<br />
rid of the weapons. They also have a substantial level of foreign aid. In 2012, chemical<br />
weapons should become history.<br />
As for the nuclear weapons, the situation is more complex. Here we have military<br />
aspects, civilian aspects, and a wider range of stakeholders. The civil nuclear issues<br />
are also more polarized. I am a scientist myself. I would like to say that a nuclear physicist<br />
must know everything about nature. But when he talks about his nuclear physics,<br />
he becomes more religious.<br />
How to make this dialogue an effective process that will help us bridge the<br />
gaps that currently separate us We will be grateful if you share your thoughts with us,<br />
whether you do it today or in two weeks or in two months. How can we find pragmatic<br />
solutions that would be acceptable to all of us What would you like to share with us<br />
We will be grateful for everything you have to say.
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Closing Remarks<br />
Sergey I. Baranovsky, President, <strong>Green</strong> Cross Russia<br />
<strong>It</strong> is time for me to conclude our first Nuclear National Dialogue with the following<br />
final remarks. Let me note that we are no longer at point zero. For me personally, the<br />
most important conclusion is that the Forum took place, and it was a dialogue.<br />
In the field of chemical weapons, our first three so called chemical forums were<br />
not dialogues. Many people who are here today were at those forums as well. The Ministry<br />
of Defense used to be responsible for chemical weapons destruction, and right<br />
now it is Rosatom. For several years we tried to talk the Ministry into the Forum-dialogue,<br />
and we were finally allowed to organize the first one, but with some conditions.<br />
These conditions were: no foreign representatives, no questions or discussions.<br />
Despite a very good representation (even the Brianskaya oblast Governor attended),<br />
there was no discussion at the first Forum. At the second Forum we had foreign<br />
representatives, our traditional partners, and some questions were allowed. At the third<br />
Forum, we started to have some sort of discussion, with participation of representatives<br />
from the military. A real dialogue occurred only at the fourth Forum, where every<br />
participant, including Kambarka citizens, a representative from a small Udmurt village<br />
and a minister, participated in the discussion. Sergey Kirienko, Chairman for the State<br />
chemical weapons commission, and Zinovy Puck, Head of ammunition agency, openly<br />
answered the questions. We have a serious achievement, because people opened their<br />
hearts, and environmental education plays a huge role in it.<br />
People can change. We thought that there is nothing more conservative than the<br />
Army. Even in the Army, there are normal Russian people, who start understanding the<br />
issue. We believe that <strong>Green</strong> Cross International can register this unique event at the<br />
United Nations. <strong>It</strong> is not a conference or workshop, or even a Forum. <strong>It</strong> is a unique child<br />
of the <strong>Green</strong> Cross – a public Forum-dialogue.<br />
Why do I think the Forum was a success You remember my opening speech and<br />
the scheme about four segments of a society, which are involved in a large process, including<br />
disarmament, chemical and nuclear weapons destruction, and energy issues. There are<br />
four segments of international community that must take part in such processes.<br />
The first segment is people of towns and villages near chemical weapons storage<br />
sites, or nuclear plants: Angarsk, Sosnovy Bor, Balakovo, Kirov, Lermontovo, Severodvinsk.<br />
These are real people and they were able to express their diverse points of views<br />
and pose questions to the Forum participants.<br />
The second level is the regional level, which was represented by Chelyabinskaya,<br />
Archangelskaya and Leningradskaya oblasts bureaucracy. Our chemical forums’
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
experience indicates that it is critical to increase attempts and contracts in order to involve<br />
regional authorities and ministries, and parliaments. We had local authority representatives<br />
at every forum, which is necessary. Also we had media representatives<br />
– „Udmurtskaya Pravda” and local newspapers – and they wrote about the Forum to<br />
attract more people. Our hopes rely on the existing network of the <strong>Green</strong> Cross offices<br />
in Tomsk, Murmansk, Vladivostok, and Saint-Petersburg. Therefore, we have the potential<br />
to attract more local authorities and political elites.<br />
Now, the third level is the most difficult, and is represented by the federal level<br />
and ministries. There are eight ministries related to nuclear disarmament, and we invited<br />
them, but their responses varied. Presently, our major partner is Rosatom. Albert<br />
Petrovich is the only remaining representative today, and he is not a Rosatom officer. He<br />
coordinates the environment center, but was basically representing Rosatom. I address<br />
this point to Sergey Kirienko, so that higher officials and department managers listened<br />
to the people and answered the questions we are unable to answer. We represent the<br />
general public and are unable to give the answers people need.<br />
Therefore, we need to continue to attract a larger number of higher officials. We had<br />
some other Rosatom branch representatives: Rosenergoatom, TVEL, etc. The key institutions<br />
were represented by the Kurchatov Institute, International Eco-Center, ISDNE (IBRAE) and<br />
others. We had good representation from the Russian Academy of Science; we had real academy<br />
representatives who worked at the conference. Dr. Sagdeyev and I met Dr. Izrael near a<br />
hotel elevator, who told us: „I just learned about it and if I knew earlier, I would have come. <strong>It</strong><br />
is so interesting. I have never heard about this Forum before, but I need to leave today. Please<br />
invite me next time.” We had representatives from the Federal Council. Now, I start to name<br />
key players. The State Duma. Where is the State Duma Where is Grachev, the Chairman for<br />
the Duma environmental committee, whom we invited Grachev is a member of the Public<br />
council, he agreed to come, but did not do so. Such behavior is very typical. In our Forums we<br />
always have the Federal Council representatives, but there are never representatives from the<br />
State Duma. There are parliamentary representatives from the regions of chemical weapons<br />
stockpiles, who get their salary for work, and who must defend their voters’ interests, and they<br />
never come. We have our regional activists who actively communicate with these representatives,<br />
but these representatives never come to our forums.<br />
We also have departments in the Ecology Ministry, but nobody cares. Danilov-Danilyan<br />
or Poryadin promised to come, but none of the State Ecology Committee showed up.<br />
There were no representatives from the State Technical Investigation Committee, and no<br />
questions were answered. Our task is to ask Rosatom to have these people at our forums.<br />
The fourth level, which is key to nuclear disarmament, is the financial level. Thanks<br />
to <strong>Global</strong> Partnership, and other donor countries, including Switzerland, we initiated nuclear<br />
disarmament. There was one person who worked with us in Geneva and Moscow, and who<br />
supported us. There were fourteen participants from other countries as well as other foreign<br />
participants, and you saw Paul Walker’s panel with twelve so called soldiers, who gave us<br />
presentations. We had an opportunity to ask questions, these people keep their hands on pulse,<br />
they talked to you. <strong>It</strong> is critical where the allocated money goes and whether it is spent on<br />
nuclear disarmament and nuclear submarines dismantlement. We are grateful to these people,<br />
because all these people are secretaries at the embassies; they are key officers, like Simon
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Evons, Ministers of Foreign Affairs and others. Such people found the time to cross the ocean<br />
and come here. We even had representatives from Japan and Australia. Our first three chemical<br />
forums were without any international representation. Today, unlike before, we discuss<br />
our key concerns as equal partners with federal and regional authorities.<br />
The uniqueness of our Forum-dialogue is in its active involvement of civil society<br />
at the four levels. First level is branches of large non-state networks of our country<br />
in Sosnovy Bor, Angarsk and etc, branches of the All-Russian environment protection<br />
society, and a great network of nonprofit organizations. There was no Forum where at<br />
the same table one could find representatives of Russian Ecology Academy, „Bellon”,<br />
<strong>Green</strong>peace, <strong>Green</strong> Cross, Socio-Ecological Union International and its program on<br />
nuclear environmental policy, Center for environmental policy of Russia, Russian ecological<br />
congress, and Russian regional environmental center.<br />
I am one of the leaders in the green movement, and I cannot think of a network<br />
in the country that did not participate in the Forum. We are all very different and our<br />
views are different, but we have an opportunity to share our views, argue and come to<br />
a consensus at the Forum. All these nonprofit organizations and centers do not meet<br />
(exception – Environment protection forum) and talk. <strong>It</strong> is great that a green movement<br />
is alive and can influence processes in the country. At the Forum we had so many great<br />
proposals from green public organizations. Finally we had representatives of international<br />
NGOs: colleagues from <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Green</strong> <strong>USA</strong>, <strong>Green</strong> Cross Switzerland, Nuclear<br />
Threat Initiative and other participating organizations. These organizations expressed<br />
their opinions, they support and encourage us. This is Forum number one, but I promise<br />
you that soon we will have a Forum-dialogue number two.<br />
Now I would like to say what we need for the second Forum-dialogue and what<br />
we did not have at this Forum. We need financial support, especially in the area of nuclear<br />
power, though we will ask our Finnish and British friends again. We would like to see as<br />
our sponsors France, <strong>It</strong>aly, Japan, Australia, and Germany. This is our plan for future efforts;<br />
we will attract these countries at least for participation in our Forum-dialogue, and<br />
later in our programs. We hope to have support from the green movement in our country.<br />
<strong>Green</strong> Cross in Vladivostok almost does not participate in our discussions because this<br />
problem is not as critical for the Far East as it is for the western part of our country. Here<br />
I mean nuclear submarines destruction, because we cannot exclude Far East from our<br />
discussion. I ask representatives of other organizations to help us in this issue.<br />
We need to put proposals on paper, we need evaluations, and answers to the<br />
questions before June. By August we should have our first newsletter about the second<br />
international Forum. Unlike in 2007, we started late and many western representatives<br />
could not come. We will have more time next year to organize communication and invite<br />
even more participants. Toporov noted correctly that we want many more people in<br />
Russia to come to the Forum.<br />
In order to complete our Forum, we should publish our presentations. Based on our<br />
ten-year chemical forum experience, publishing is not easy. We need the texts in two languages<br />
in order to publish the Forum discussions in one Russian month (A Russian month<br />
means one month and a half, because Russians are on vacation for the first half of May.)<br />
Therefore, before June 1, you all must submit your reports. The people responsible for
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
publications are: for the Europeans, Stephan Robinson; for North America – Paul Walker;<br />
and for Russia – Alexander Fyodorov, <strong>Green</strong> Cross Russia Communication Director.<br />
Finally and most importantly: Thank You! Paul Walker has already thanked participants,<br />
but I want to thank you again. I especially want to note our colleagues from<br />
California who came here for two days to listen to our complicated issues. Their visit<br />
took a great effort and I am really honored. I want to thank our sponsors. All the sponsors<br />
are in front of you, and we would not have achieved anything without them. Now I<br />
want to thank representatives of <strong>Green</strong> Cross, my own employees who worked night and<br />
day to organize this program. You know what it takes to organize a small conference. I<br />
want to thank my colleagues in the United States and Switzerland. I want to thank the<br />
interpreters, because it was not easy for them, as we all are from different places and we<br />
think in different ways. They did a great job and we are so grateful to them.<br />
Well, I thank all of you. See you again. Goodbye. Have a great trip home!
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Participants<br />
Russian participants<br />
ABALKINA Irina Leonidovna, Senior Researcher, Institute on Problems of the<br />
Safe Development of Nuclear Energy, RAS<br />
ALEKSAKHIN Rudolf Mikhailovich, Director, All-Russian Scientific Institute<br />
for the Investigation of Agricultural Radioecology<br />
ARUTYUNYAN Rafael Varnasovich, First Deputy Director, Institute of the<br />
Safe Development of Nuclear Energy, RAS<br />
ASHIKHMINA Tamara Yakovlevna, President, <strong>Green</strong> Cross Russia Kirov affiliate<br />
ASMOLOV Vladimir Grigor’evich, Deputy Director General, Concern<br />
„RosEnergoAtom”<br />
BARANOVSKY Sergey Igorevich, President, <strong>Green</strong> Cross Russia<br />
BARISHPOL Ivan Fedotovich, President, All-Russian Society for Concervation<br />
of Nature<br />
BEZRUKOV Eugeny Konstantinovich, Scientific Secretary, All-Russian Scientific<br />
and Design Institute for Nuclear Machine Building (ASDINMB)<br />
BIRYUKOV Valery Ivanovich, Head of Unit, Department for Security and Disarmament,<br />
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russia<br />
BOGDANOV Pyotr Konstantinovich, Advisor to the Scientific Deputy Director,<br />
ASDINMB<br />
BOLSUNOVSKY Alexander Yakovlevich, Deputy Director, Institute of Biophysics,<br />
SB RAS, Krasnoyarsk<br />
BRYSGALOVA Natalie Vladimirovna, Director, Russian Environmental Congress<br />
BURLAKOVA Elena Borisovna, Chairwoman, Scientific Council on Radio-Biology,<br />
RAS<br />
CHECHENOV Husein Dzhabrailovich, Vice-chair, Committee on Science,<br />
Health, Environment and Education, Russian Federation Council<br />
CHEPENKO Boris Alexandrovich, Director, Centre for Radiation Safety of The<br />
Ministry of Industry and Energy of the Russia<br />
CHILAP Valery Viktorovich, Laboratory Head, ASDINMB<br />
CHINENOV Alexandr Vladimirovich, Laboratory Head, ASDINMB<br />
CHUPROV Vladimir Alexandrovich, Director, Energy Programme, <strong>Green</strong>peace,<br />
Moscow<br />
D’YAKOV Anatoly Stepanovich, Director, Centre on Investigation of Problems<br />
of Demilitarisation, Energetics and Environment, Moscow Physical-Technical Institute<br />
EFANOV Alexander Dmitreevich, Head of Department, Institute of Physics and<br />
Power Engineering, Obninsk<br />
FAL’KOVSKY Lev Naumovich, Head of Department, ASDINMB<br />
FILIPPOV Gennady Alexeevich, Scientific Director, ASDINMB<br />
FONARYOV Boris Il’ich, Laboratory Head, ASDINMB
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
GOROSHKO Oleg Viktorovich, Coordinator, Nuclear Programme, British Embassy<br />
in Russia<br />
GOVERDOVSKII Andrey Alexandrovich, Head of Department, Institute of<br />
Physics and Power Engineering, Obninsk<br />
GOVYRINA Elena Vyacheslavovna, Director, Public information centre, “Mayak”<br />
nuclear facility, city of Ozersk, Chelyabinskaya Oblast<br />
GRIGOR’EV Alexander Vladimirovich, Head Department of Dismantlement<br />
Nuclear and Radiation-Dangerous Facilities, Rosatom<br />
GUROV Anatoly Nikolaevich, Director, Department of Industry, Administration<br />
of the Arkhangelskaya Oblast<br />
IMPOLITOVA Alexandra Alexandrovna, Deputy Scientific Secretary, International<br />
Independent Environmental-Political University (IIEPU)<br />
IVANOV Viktor Konstantinovich, Deputy Director, Medical-Radiological Scientific<br />
Centre, Russian Academy of Medical Sciences<br />
IZRAEL Yury Anton’evich, President, Russian Environmental Academy, academician<br />
of RAS<br />
KAZNOVSKY Pavel Stanislavovich, Senior Researcher, ASDINMB<br />
KAZNOVSKY Stanislav Petrovich, Head of Department, ASDINMB<br />
KONYSHEV Igor Valer’evich, Advisor to the Head of the Russian Federal<br />
Atomic Energy<br />
KORNEVA Larisa Ivanovna, Fund for the Development of the Mineralni’e Vody<br />
Region, Stavropolsky Kray<br />
KOSTINA Svetlana Yur’evna, Deputy Minister, Head of Department of Radiation<br />
Safety, Ministry for Radiation and Environmental Safety, Chelyabinskaya oblast<br />
KRIVOV Yury Ivanovich, Deputy Head of Administration of the town of Zarechny,<br />
Penzenskaya oblast<br />
KUZNETSOV Vladimir Mikhailovich, Director, „Nuclear and Radiation Safety”<br />
Programme, <strong>Green</strong> Cross Russia<br />
LEONOV Vladimir Alexandrovich, Programme Director, <strong>Green</strong> Cross Russia<br />
LETOV Viktor Nikiforovich, Chair of Extended Vocational Training for Radiation<br />
Hygiene, RMA of Post-Diploma Education<br />
MAKAROVA Irina Sakibzhanovna, Scientific Secretary, IIEPU<br />
MALYSHEV Dmitry Vladlenovich, Deputy Director, Department for Corporate<br />
Clients, Insurance Group “Sogaz”<br />
MATVEENKO Vladimir Anatol’evich, Russian Engineering Academy<br />
MELIKHOVA Elena Mikhailovna, Head of Department, ISDNE, RAS<br />
MEL’NIKOV Vladimir Vasil’evich, Advisor to Minister of Industry of Chelyabinskaya<br />
oblast Government<br />
MEN’SHIKOV Valery Fedorovich, Co-Director, Programme for Nuclear and<br />
Radiation Safety of the Centre for Environmental Policy of Russia (CEPR) and Social-<br />
Ecological Union International (SEU-Int)<br />
MESHKOVA Tatiana Vladislavovna, Head, Department for the Liquidation of<br />
Radiation Accidents, Ministry for Radiation and Environmental Safety, Chelyabinskaya<br />
oblast
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
MOKHOV Viktor Valentinovich, Director General, Company „<strong>Green</strong>Tech”<br />
NAZAROV Anatoly Georgievich, Director, Environmental Centre of the Vavilov<br />
Institute for Natural History and Technology, RAS<br />
NAZAROV Oleg Igorevich, Head of Department, ASDINMB<br />
NEGROBOV Oleg Pavlovich, Head of Department, Voronesh State University<br />
NIKITIN Arkady Timofeevich, Prorector for Science, IIEPU<br />
NIKITIN Vladimir Semyonovich, Director, Research Bureau “Оnega”<br />
ORADOVSKAYA Ida Vasil’evna, Medical-Biological Agency of the Russian<br />
Federation<br />
OSTRETSOV Igor Nikolaevich, Deputy Director, ASDINMB<br />
PELEVINA Irina Ivanovna, Laboratory Head, Institute for Bio-Chemical Physics,<br />
RAS<br />
POPOVA Lidiya Vladimirovna, Centre for Nuclear Ecology and Energy Policies,<br />
SEU-Int<br />
RIKHVANOV Leonid Petrovich, Head of Department, Tomsk Polytechnical<br />
University<br />
ROMANOV Yegor Vladimirovich, Director, NGO “Dialogue +”, city of Ozersk,<br />
Chelyabinskaya oblast<br />
RYLOV Mikhail Ivanovich, Director, Centre for Nuclear and Radiological Safety,<br />
St.-Petersburg<br />
SAMKO Lina Sergeevna, Public Expert Council, Sosnovy Bor, Leningradskaya<br />
oblast<br />
SAVCHENKO Vitaly Alexandrovich, Head of Presidium, Board of the All-Russian<br />
Society for Conservation of Nature<br />
SAVIN Anatoly Ivanovich, Academician, RAS<br />
SHAVORONKIN Sergey Nikolaevich, Expert, “Nuclear and Radiation Safety”<br />
Programme, <strong>Green</strong> Cross Russia, city of Murmansk<br />
SHCHERBININ Nikolay Gennadievich, Director, <strong>Green</strong> Cross Russia public<br />
outreach office, Severodvinsk<br />
SIMONOV Eugeny Yakovlevich, Expert, „Nuclear and Radiation Safety” Programme,<br />
<strong>Green</strong> Cross Russia<br />
SKOBELEV Yury Viktorovich, Advisor, Nuclear and Radiation Safety Agency,<br />
Far-Eastern Okrug<br />
SOBOL Maria Yakovlevna, President, <strong>Green</strong> Cross Russia Chelyabinsk affiliate<br />
SOROKIN Vladimir Nikolaevich, Chief Researcher, United Institute of Energetics<br />
and Nuclear Investigations, Minsk (Sosny), Belarus<br />
SOROKIN Vladimir Vladimirovich, Senior Researcher, United Institute of Energetical<br />
and Nuclear Investigations, Minsk (Sosny), Belarus<br />
STAROSTINA Lyudmila Borisovna, Scientific Researcher, Environmental Centre<br />
of the Vavilov Institute for Natural History and Technology, RAS<br />
SUBBOTINA Elena Borisovna, Editor, “<strong>Global</strong> Energy” newspaper, section<br />
“Education, management, ecology”<br />
TALEVLIN Andrey Alexandrovich, Centre for the Support of Public Initiatives,<br />
Chelyabinsk
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
TETERIN Alexander Gennadievich, Head, Technical Planning Department, Angarsk<br />
Electrolytic Chemical Combine<br />
TIKHOMIROV Valery Viktorovich, Director, All-Russian Scientific Institute<br />
for the Investigation of Nature Conservation<br />
TOROPOV Alexey Vladimirovich, Director, <strong>Green</strong> Cross Russia Public Outreach<br />
Office, Tomsk<br />
VASIL’EV Albert Petrovich, Director, International Centre for Environmental<br />
Safety of Minatom of Russia<br />
VINOGRADOVA Anna Mikhailovna, Head, Balakovskaya affiliate (Saratov<br />
Oblast) of the All-Russian Society for Conservation of Nature<br />
VUKOLOVA Tatiana Vladimirovna, Senior Advisor, Department for International<br />
Relations, Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation<br />
YABLOKOV Alexey Vladimirovich, Professor, Corresponding member of the<br />
RAS, Programme for Nuclear and Radiation Safety of the Centre for Environmental<br />
Policy of Russia and Social-Ecological Union International<br />
YES’KOV Yury Mikhailovich, Head of Department, ASDINMB<br />
ZOLOTKOV Andrey Alexeevich, Board Director, “Bellona-Murmansk”, city of<br />
Murmansk<br />
Foreign participants<br />
ARNAUDO RAYMOND, Senior Advisor, U.S. Department of Energy – Moscow<br />
Office<br />
BEGLINGER LUKAS, Minister, Deputy Head of Mission, Embassy of Switzerland<br />
in Russia<br />
CAVANAGH BERNADETTE, Deputy Head of Mission, Embassy of New Zealand<br />
in Russia<br />
DASH MICHELLE, Deputy Director, U.S. Department of Energy – Moscow Office<br />
EGOROV SERGEY, Director, U.S. Civilian Research & Development Foundation,<br />
Moscow office<br />
EVANS SIMON, Deputy Director, International Nuclear Policy and Programmes,<br />
UK Department of Trade and Industry<br />
FLORY DENIS, Nuclear Counselor, French Embassy in Russia<br />
GARDNER DONALD, Business Development Lead Russia/FSU Markets,<br />
Washington Group International, Cleveland (Ohio)<br />
GOSENS DIANA, Senior Policy Officer, Non-Proliferation and Arms Control,<br />
Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs<br />
GOTTEMOELLER ROSE, Director, Carnegie Endowment for International<br />
Peace Moscow Center<br />
GUSTAFSSON ASA, Desk Officer, Department for Disarmament and Non-Proliferation,<br />
NIS, Swedish Ministry for Foreign Affairs<br />
HALLOUIN MATTHIEU, Assistant to the Nuclear Counselor for the G8 <strong>Global</strong><br />
Partnership, French Embassy in Moscow<br />
JEREMENKO ELENA, Officer, Science, Environment and Nuclear Safety Division,<br />
Embassy of Germany in Russia
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
KIRSCH JOERG, Counselor, Economical Division, Embassy of Germany in Russia<br />
KURAI TAKASHI, Minister, Political Affairs Division, Embassy of Japan in Russia<br />
KURAKIN VLADIMIR, Senior Program Manager, Nonproliferation Program,<br />
U.S. Civilian Research & Development Foundation, Moscow office<br />
MATHIOT ALAIN, Director of the G8 <strong>Global</strong> Partnership Programme for France<br />
MATTSSON HAKAN, Advisor, Department for Radiation Protection and Nuclear<br />
Safety, Norwegian Radiation Protection Authority<br />
McCUTCHEON ROBERT, Nuclear Nonproliferation Officer, Office of Environment,<br />
Science, and Technology, U.S. Embassy to the Russian Federation<br />
MEYER UWE, Counselor, Head of Science, Environment and Nuclear Safety<br />
Division, Embassy of Germany in Russia<br />
NOBILE MASSIMILIANO, Director, Project Management Unit, <strong>It</strong>alian-Russian<br />
Cooperation Agreement<br />
ORITO EISUKO, First Secretary, Political Affairs Division, Embassy of Japan<br />
in Russia<br />
PIGEON COLLEEN, Second Secretary, <strong>Global</strong> Partnership Program, Embassy<br />
of Canada in Russia<br />
RECHSTEINER RUDOLF, Member of Parliament, Swiss National Council,<br />
Member Committee for the Environment, Spatial Planning and Energy<br />
ROBINSON STEPHAN, International Coordinator Legacy Programme, <strong>Green</strong><br />
Cross Switzerland<br />
RODZIANKO MICHAEL, Head of Moscow Representative Office, Washington<br />
International, Inc.<br />
SIDDALL ALEXANDRA, Second Secretary, Embassy of Australia in Russia<br />
SOKOVA ELENA, Director, NIS Nonproliferation Program, Center for Nonproliferation<br />
Studies, Monterey Institute of International Studies, Monterey (California)<br />
TERVA JYRKI, Second Secretary, Economic Section, Embassy of Finland in Russia<br />
TRAKHTENBERG ELENA, Expert, Coordination Office, Embassy of Switzerland<br />
in Russia<br />
TRETTIN CARL, Associate, Office of Environment, Science, and Technology,<br />
U.S. Embassy to the Russian Federation<br />
VAN BEUNINGEN FRANK, Advisor Security Affairs, Non-Proliferation and<br />
Arms Control, Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs<br />
VAYNMAN JANE, Fulbright Fellow, Carnegie Moscow Center<br />
VON HIPPEL FRANK, Professor, Co-chairman of the International Panel on<br />
Fissile Materials, Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs, Princeton<br />
University<br />
WALKER PAUL, Legacy Program Director, <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Green</strong> <strong>USA</strong><br />
WHITNEY MARK, Executive Director, U.S. Department of Energy – Moscow<br />
Office<br />
YAMASHITA YASUNORI, First Secretary, Economic Affairs Division, Embassy<br />
of Japan in Russia
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
List of Acronyms<br />
ADE – type of plutonium nuclear reactor<br />
AECC – Angarsk Electrolysis Chemical Complex<br />
AMB – nuclear reactor type<br />
ASDINMB– All-Russian scientific and design institute for nuclear machine building<br />
BN – nuclear reactor on fast neutrons<br />
BNPP – Balakovskaya Nuclear Power Plant<br />
CA – critical assembly<br />
CI – chromosomal instability<br />
CIS – Commonwealph of independent states<br />
CWD – chemical weapon destruction<br />
DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid<br />
EBRD – European Bank of Reconstruction and Development<br />
EGP – type of nuclear reactor, power graphite steam<br />
FBR – type of nuclear reactor<br />
FL – Federal Law<br />
FNPP – floating nuclear power plant<br />
FSUE – federal state unitary enterprise<br />
FTP – federal target program<br />
HEU – highly-enriched uranium<br />
HPR – hydro power reactor<br />
HRW – high-level radioactive waste<br />
GP – <strong>Global</strong> Partnership<br />
IAEA – International Atomic Energy Agency<br />
IAEA EP – IAEA expert panel<br />
INSAG – International Nuclear Safety Advising Group of IAEA<br />
ICRP – International Commission on Radiological Protection<br />
IIEPU – International Independent Environment-Policy Univrsity<br />
ISDNE – Institute of the Safe Development of Nuclear Energy of RAS<br />
ISO – International Organization for Standards<br />
KChKhK – Kirovo-Chepetskiy Chemical Industrial Complex<br />
LEU – low-enriched uranium<br />
LNPP – Leningrad Nuclear Power Plant<br />
LRW – liquid radioactive waste<br />
LWS – liquid waste storage<br />
MOX fuel – mixed oxide fuel<br />
MPDG – Multilateral Plutonium Disposition Group<br />
NGO – non-governmental organization<br />
NIB – nuclear icebreaker<br />
NII – research institute<br />
NPP – nuclear power plant
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
PWR – type of nuclear reactor<br />
RAO UES – Russian Joint-Stock United Energy Systems<br />
RAS – Russian Academy of Sciences<br />
REA – Russian Environmental Academy<br />
RI – reactor installation<br />
RMBK – type of nuclear reactor (LWGR)<br />
Rosatom – Federal Agency for the Atomic Energy<br />
RSRC – Russian State Research Center<br />
RTG – Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator<br />
SB RAS – Siberian branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences<br />
SCP – Siberian Chemical Plant<br />
SEU Int. – Socio-Ecological Union International<br />
SNF – spent nuclear fuel<br />
SRC – Scientific Research Center<br />
SRW – solid radioactive waste<br />
TDP – thermodynamic plant<br />
TESI – Tomsk Environmental Student ispection<br />
UN SCNR – United Nations Scientific Committee on Nuclear Radiation<br />
UNDP – United Nations Development Program<br />
USD – United States dollar<br />
UrB – Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences<br />
USSR – Union of Soviet Socialist Republic<br />
WHO – World Health Organization
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
Contents<br />
Preface ................................................................................................................3<br />
S.I. Baranovsky. Opening Remarks ....................................................................4<br />
Y.A Israel. Opening Forum-Dialogue ............................................................... 7<br />
S.V. Kirienko. To the Participants of the Public Dialogue Forum „Atomic<br />
Energy, Society, and Security”.........................................................................9<br />
V.G. Asmolov. Priority Programs of the Nuclear-Energetics Complex............. 10<br />
Troy Lulashnik. International efforts for protection of Nuclear and<br />
Radioactive materials in Russia and CIS.......................................................16<br />
D.V. Malyshev. The Vienna „Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage”<br />
Convention: Key problems.............................................................................19<br />
V.M. Kuznetsov. Current Safety Conditions at Russian Nuclear Installations..24<br />
H.D. Chechenov. Innovative Projects for Nuclear Energy Development..........39<br />
I.N. Ostretsov. Modern Energy Problems and Relative Heavy Nuclear<br />
Energy.............................................................................................................45<br />
Rudolf Reichshteiner. Renewable Energy and Efficiency – European Path<br />
to Common Prosperity....................................................................................50<br />
V.A. Chuprov. Non-Nuclear Energy Scenario for Russia..................................58<br />
V.V. Mokhov. Bioenergy – a Path to Solving Energy Problems......................... 65<br />
A.G. Nazarov, E.B. Burlakova, I.I. Pelevina, I.V. Oradovskaya, V.N. Letov.<br />
Chernobyl, Biosphere, and Humans: a Look into the Future ........................67<br />
V.K. Ivanov. Radiation Risks Assessment for Rosatom Personnel Within<br />
the Framework of International Standards ...................................................97<br />
I.V. Konyshev. Experience in solving social and environmental questions<br />
in problem areas: The example of Muslyumovo village in the<br />
Chelyabinskaya oblast .................................................................................100<br />
L.V. Popova, V.F. Men’shikov, A.V. Yablokov. Outstanding Problems<br />
of the Nuclear Industry ................................................................................103<br />
R.V. Arutyunyan, L.M. Vorob’eva, I.I. Linge, E.M. Melikhova. Nuclear<br />
Energy: Ecological Safety and Sustainable Development ...........................111<br />
V.N. Sorokin. Theoretical Analysis of Small Dosed of Radiation Concep ......115<br />
A.V. Toropov. Public Discussion of the Nuclear Capacity Development<br />
Plans at the Siberian Chemical Plant ..........................................................117<br />
A.M. Vinogradova. Social environmental review experience of<br />
Balakovskaya Nuclear Power Plant, Units №5 and №6 ............................. 123<br />
S.N. Zhavoronkin. Sea Atom and NGOs .........................................................132
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
L.S. Samko. Underestimating Public Opinion in Nuclear Projects<br />
Implementation Report.................................................................................135<br />
Discussion at the End of the First Day ...........................................................138<br />
V.M. Kuznetsov. Radiation Heritage of the Cold War .....................................143<br />
V.I. Biryukov. Russia’s Priorities under the <strong>Global</strong> Partnership<br />
Framework....................................................................................................153<br />
A.V. Grigor’ev. Integrated Dismantlement of Nuclear Submarines and<br />
International Cooperation............................................................................156<br />
A.S. D’yakov. Weapons-Grade Plutonium Disposal: Existing Conditions<br />
and Perspectives...........................................................................................163<br />
Evans Simon. UK International Nuclear Security and Nonproliferation<br />
Programme...................................................................................................166<br />
Hakan Mattsson. Norwegian Nuclear Assistance to Russia in the<br />
Framework of the <strong>Global</strong> Partnership............................................................ 168<br />
Joerg Kirsch. German–Russian Project on Decommissioning Nuclear<br />
Submarines in the Saida Guba.....................................................................169<br />
Alain Mathiot. French-Russian Cooperation in the Framework of the<br />
<strong>Global</strong> Partnership.......................................................................................170<br />
Colleen Pigeon. Canadian <strong>Global</strong> Partnership Program: Protection of<br />
Nuclear and Radiological Materials............................................................173<br />
Massimiliano Nobile. <strong>It</strong>alian–Russian Cooperation Agreement in <strong>Global</strong><br />
Partnership Program (Nuclear Issues)........................................................ 175<br />
Takashi Kurai. Japan’s Cooperation for the Dismantlement of<br />
Decommissioned Nuclear Submarines in the Russian Far East.......................178<br />
Alexandra Siddall. Working Within the Framework of the G8 GP:<br />
Australia–South Korean–Japanese Cooperation to Dismantle Nuclear<br />
Submarines in the Russian Far East.............................................................180<br />
Jyrki Terv. Finnish Assistance for the Nuclear Safety of Russia in Frame<br />
of <strong>Global</strong> Partnership...................................................................................182<br />
Asa Gustafsson. Swedish Nuclear Assistance to Russia in the Frame of<br />
the <strong>Global</strong> Partnership.................................................................................184<br />
Questions and Answers after „Foreign” Plenary Session..............................186<br />
S.Y. Kostina. Chelyabinskaya Oblast: Experience Gained with the<br />
Remediation of the Legacies of Nuclear Accidents......................................188<br />
A.N. Gurov, V.S. Nikitin, M.A Kozhin. Radiation Monitoring and<br />
Accident Alert System Upgrade in the Arkhangelskaya Oblast....................192<br />
V.S. Nikitin, N.G. Scherbinin. Informing the Population of Severodvinsk<br />
on the Safety of Nuclear Submarine Recycling Based on Comparative<br />
Analysis of Nuclear, Radiological and Social Risks.....................................195
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
A.Y. Bolsunovsky. Radiological Problems of the Yenisey River Near<br />
the Rosatom Chemical Plant........................................................................199<br />
T.Y. Ashikhmina. The Problems of Radioactive Waste on the Territory<br />
of the Kirovskaya Oblast..............................................................................203<br />
A.G. Teterin. Environmental Safety of AECC as a Project Component<br />
for the Creation of an International Center for Uranium Enrichment<br />
in Angarsk.....................................................................................................208<br />
S.N. Zhavoronkin. Remediation of Technical, Coastal Navy Bases in<br />
Northern Russia: The Case of Andreeva Bay. Position of the Regional<br />
NGOs.............................................................................................................21<br />
1<br />
A.V. Yablokov. Inextricable Connections between Atomic Energy and<br />
Nuclear Weapons Proliferation....................................................................219<br />
Elena Sokova. Civilian Highly Enriched Uranium and Nuclear<br />
Terrorism: Russia’s Role in Reducing the Threat.........................................229<br />
Rose Gottemoeller. Threat Reduction Cooperation in 2015............................232<br />
Frank van Hippel. Opportunities to Minimize Stocks of<br />
Nuclear-explosive Materials.........................................................................235<br />
M.Y. Sobol. <strong>Green</strong> Cross Russia Public Outreach and Information<br />
Office in Chelyabinsk: Discussing <strong>It</strong>s Experience in Overcoming the<br />
Legacy of the Cold War By Presenting <strong>It</strong>s Work in the Settlement<br />
of Muslyumovo, Chelyabinskaya Oblast......................................................240<br />
L.I. Korneva. Mining Tails as a Legacy of the Cold War.................................243<br />
V.A. Abramov. Environmental and Radiological Monitoring in the Far East. 246<br />
The Overall Discussion of the Forum Results.................................................248<br />
Stephan Robinson. Conclusion and Summary of the Session..........................258<br />
S.I. Baranovsky. Closing Remarks...................................................................259<br />
Participants of Forum-Dialogue..................................................................... 263<br />
List of Acronyms..............................................................................................268
Nuclear National Dialogue – 2007<br />
RUSSIAN NUCLEAR NATIONAL DIALOGUE<br />
“Energy, Society, and Security”<br />
Editors: Richard Bell, Alexander Fyodorov, Cristian Ion,<br />
Vladimir Leonov, Paul Walker.<br />
Translation: Elena Ilina, Olga Kovarzina<br />
Photo: I.I. Manilo, M.I. Rigosyk, А.А. Stepashkin<br />
Cover Design: A.E. Burov<br />
Layout: A.E. Shkrebets