Land Rights and the Forest Peoples of Africa
Land Rights and the Forest Peoples of Africa
Land Rights and the Forest Peoples of Africa
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<strong>L<strong>and</strong></strong> rights <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> forest peoples <strong>of</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> – Part I<br />
Actions like <strong>the</strong>se are based on <strong>the</strong> highly discriminatory notion, <strong>of</strong>ten supported by national<br />
governments <strong>and</strong> international agencies, <strong>and</strong> justified by reference to <strong>the</strong> Lockean ideology<br />
outlined above, that agriculture constitutes legitimate l<strong>and</strong> use <strong>and</strong> confers some level <strong>of</strong><br />
rights to l<strong>and</strong>, whereas hunter–ga<strong>the</strong>rer usage confers no such rights. This can easily lead to<br />
hunter–ga<strong>the</strong>rers being denied <strong>the</strong> right to hunt <strong>and</strong> ga<strong>the</strong>r <strong>and</strong> to <strong>the</strong>ir being excluded from<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir forests without adequate consultation or compensation, if any is even <strong>of</strong>fered (see for<br />
example, <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Batwa <strong>of</strong> Ug<strong>and</strong>a below). If compensation is <strong>of</strong>fered, forest people<br />
are given much less than <strong>the</strong>ir farming neighbours. <strong>Forest</strong> people are also frequently not<br />
granted any rights or sustained support by governments, missionaries or development<br />
agencies, unless <strong>the</strong>y are willing to give up <strong>the</strong>ir way <strong>of</strong> life, settle by <strong>the</strong> road, engage in<br />
agriculture <strong>and</strong> send <strong>the</strong>ir children to village schools.<br />
When such changes are carried out forcibly, <strong>the</strong>y continue to embody a fundamentally<br />
discriminatory attitude that denies, <strong>and</strong> can potentially destroy, a people’s way <strong>of</strong> life in a<br />
similar manner to <strong>the</strong> way in which Europeans sought to destroy indigenous cultures in North<br />
America <strong>and</strong> Australasia. Similarly, <strong>the</strong> agencies <strong>and</strong> people engaged in such fundamentally<br />
discriminatory activities towards <strong>the</strong> forest people <strong>of</strong> Central <strong>Africa</strong> <strong>of</strong>ten believe that <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
assimilationist attitudes <strong>and</strong> practices are generous <strong>and</strong> paternal, ra<strong>the</strong>r than a denial <strong>of</strong><br />
hunter–ga<strong>the</strong>rers’ fundamental human rights.<br />
In looking at <strong>the</strong> reasons for this discrimination by <strong>the</strong>ir neighbours, Woodburn suggests that<br />
<strong>the</strong>se hunter–ga<strong>the</strong>rers are politically weak since, more than in any o<strong>the</strong>r human societies,<br />
<strong>the</strong>y stress egalitarianism <strong>and</strong> work hard to minimise social differentiation <strong>of</strong> power, wealth<br />
<strong>and</strong> status. Their lack <strong>of</strong> property <strong>and</strong> wealth accumulation means that <strong>the</strong>y appear poor by<br />
<strong>the</strong> st<strong>and</strong>ards <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir farming neighbours, whose security lies in accumulating resources. For<br />
forest people, <strong>the</strong>ir security has relied on high mobility <strong>and</strong> a rich natural environment, <strong>and</strong> a<br />
social system where people share with o<strong>the</strong>rs what <strong>the</strong>y have hunted, ga<strong>the</strong>red or bartered<br />
for. Such sharing is grounded in ideology <strong>and</strong> ritual forms through which forest people ensure<br />
that relationships between <strong>the</strong>mselves, <strong>and</strong> with <strong>the</strong>ir forest environment, are based on cooperation,<br />
harmony <strong>and</strong> abundance. The processes that ensure equality – dem<strong>and</strong> sharing, 45<br />
nomadism, <strong>the</strong> high valuation <strong>of</strong> personal autonomy, equalising rituals <strong>and</strong> practices which<br />
can involve much hilarity, ridicule, shouting <strong>and</strong> improvised singing, story-telling <strong>and</strong> music<br />
– are in sharp contrast to dominant farmers’ values <strong>of</strong> authority, politeness <strong>and</strong> deference to<br />
seniors. This can lead to farmers being unable to underst<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> values <strong>and</strong> strengths <strong>of</strong><br />
forest peoples’ cultures, seeing <strong>the</strong>m instead as uncivilised or threatening. 46 Yet forest<br />
peoples’ equalising processes are not just one more reason for agriculturalists’ discriminatory<br />
attitudes <strong>and</strong> actions but are also, paradoxically, effective processes for including o<strong>the</strong>rs (such<br />
as villagers) <strong>and</strong> subverting <strong>the</strong>se very processes <strong>of</strong> discrimination.<br />
45 Dem<strong>and</strong> sharing is <strong>the</strong> term given to a set <strong>of</strong> social norms where A has <strong>the</strong> right to dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> B that B gives<br />
A something that A needs that B has an excess <strong>of</strong>. Anybody might fulfil ei<strong>the</strong>r role. Its effect is to distribute<br />
resources within a community <strong>and</strong> maintain egalitarian relations. The onus is on those without to dem<strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>ir share, ra<strong>the</strong>r than on those with to give resources away, but it is sharply distinct from begging, to<br />
which it is <strong>of</strong>ten compared. Whereas begging involves people with little or nothing pleading for a fragment<br />
<strong>of</strong> what o<strong>the</strong>rs may permanently have more <strong>of</strong>, dem<strong>and</strong> sharing involves both parties acknowledging a<br />
mutual responsibility. Ensuring that no one can build up relationships <strong>of</strong> debt, it is <strong>the</strong> norm in egalitarian<br />
contexts, <strong>and</strong> impossible in contexts <strong>of</strong> structured inequality.<br />
46 Ibid., pp 352–3.<br />
Kidd & Kenrick 15<br />
March 2009