Untitled - Australian History Mysteries

ISBN 978-0-949380-72-2 

© 2009 National Museum of Australia and Ryebuck Media Pty Ltd 

Written by Robert Lewis, Tim Gurry, David Arnold 

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activity 4 Case study 2 

Case Study 

In 1928 a dingo trapper was killed by one or more Aboriginal people 

near the Coniston pastoral station, about 240 kilometres north-west 

of Alice Springs in the Northern Territory. A month later, a local 

pastoralist was attacked, but managed to beat off his attackers. The 

two police patrols that were sent out to bring back the offenders 

admitted killing 31 Aboriginal people who they claimed had resisted 

arrest (although this official figure is disputed), and arrested two — 

who were later acquitted at their trial for the murder of the trapper. 

A Commonwealth Government inquiry was established to look 

into the killing of the 31 Aboriginal people during the two arrest 

expeditions. It reported its findings in early 1929. 

This event became known as the Coniston Massacre, and is the last 

known mass killing of Aboriginal people on the frontier. Aboriginal 

people of the area and others say that far more than 31 people were 

actually killed, with estimates even up to several hundred. 

How could these terrible events have occurred Who was 

responsible for them What were the findings of the Board of Inquiry 

and what reasons did it give for these findings What impacts did the 

killings have on the people who lived in that area at that time How 

do these events continue to impact on the families of the Aboriginal 

victims today 

In this unit students explore evidence that will help them to 

understand why these events occurred at this time, in this place, 

among these people. 

They will also be able to make an informed and balanced judgement 

about whether they agree with the verdicts of the enquiry into the 

killings, and whether later accounts of the events, including the 

display in the National Museum of Australia, are fair and accurate 

representations of it. 

2What happened 

at Coniston in 

1928 

Case study 2 What happened at Coniston in 1928 

29

Teacher’s guide 

Why teach this unit 

Frontier conflict is a significant element of the history of frontier contact in Australian history. Some of the 

incidents of conflict are clear, others are not. The Coniston Massacre of 1928 is well documented both officially 

and through oral evidence, and students will probably reach strong conclusions — though they need to be 

challenged to justify those conclusions, as much of the evidence is not clear-cut. By studying the Coniston 

Massacre students will be able to understand the devastation and horror of frontier conflict, and to apply the 

skills of analysis and empathetic reconstruction required to other examples from Australia’s shared history. 

Key learning outcomes 

By the end of the unit students will be better able to: 

> describe the historical events of the Coniston Massacre of 1928 

> critically analyse a variety of written, pictorial and oral evidence about the events 

> understand and empathise with the views and experiences of a variety of individuals and groups involved 

> realise that different cultures saw events differently 

> appreciate the difficulty of making an informed decision based on evidence 

> make an informed and balanced judgement about the actions of the participants in the events 

> understand the consequences and implications of the events, lasting to current times 

> critically analyse a variety of representations of the events 

> create their own representation or version of the event. 

Suggested classroom approach 

This unit is a long and detailed one for implementation in the classroom, but has been structured so as 

to distribute much of the workload between groups. Students need to grapple with the large amount of 

text presented to help them fully appreciate the complexities of the evidence presented and the various 

interpretations that have subsequently been placed on that evidence. It is therefore essential that teachers 

spend time absorbing this evidence themselves so that they can best decide how to introduce it to 

their students. 

Understand key concepts 

Activity 1 This activity is designed to help students identify with the main concept — killings — in a way that 

they can identify with, but without being too personal. Teachers should not dwell too long on this activity. 

Visit the scene 

Activity 2 Students are now advised to ‘visit’ the area through the DVD segment. They will see the physical 

nature of the area, will receive further information, and will have further questions raised. 

Examine key evidence 

Activity 3 This is the most important part of the unit. The activity consists of five tasks. 

Task 1 : analysing the background evidence given to the Coniston Board of Inquiry 

Task 2 : understanding the two police expeditions (Evidence set 1–5) 

Task 3 : hearing Aboriginal accounts (Documents 1–8) 

Task 4 : some final evidence (Documents 1–11) 

Task 5 : coming to a conclusion. 

Here students find out from the people involved, what they said and did, and how they felt. The evidence 

in Task 1 is selected from the official inquiry held from December 1928 – January 1929. The board heard 

evidence about general conditions in the area at the time of the killings to try to decide if there had been 

provocation of Aboriginal people by the settlers leading to the killing of Brooks and the attempted killing of 

Morton. Students can divide the evidence between them. The board has been criticised as a ‘whitewash’, 

but students will learn of this assessment later. 

The next task (Task 2) draws on the evidence of Mounted Constable Murray who was in charge of the two 

expeditions (often referred to as reprisal parties) during which the killings occurred. His evidence allows 

students to construct a day-by-day timeline of the first expedition, although his evidence about the second 

expedition is much more vague and imprecise. It is mainly during this later expedition that Aboriginal people 

claim that far more killings occurred than were officially acknowledged. Some of the terms used by Murray 

to describe Aboriginal people are offensive to us today, but were accepted usage at the time. Students are 

challenged to make a fair judgement based on the limited evidence. 

Language is also an issue of sensitivity in the third part of the activity (Task 3), where much evidence from 

Aboriginal people is given in English, not their first language, and is transcribed verbatim. Both the official 

evidence and the oral evidence of the Aboriginal witnesses have to be critically evaluated by students, 

although this is clearly very challenging. 

30 

Australian History Mysteries 3 Five case studies in twentieth century Australian history

Teacher’s guide 

Students now see some other evidence (Task 4), often powerful and compelling, but also often not able to be 

tested in ways that might make it more reliable. This section also raises the sensitive issue of the involvement 

with the police party of some Aboriginal people in the events. Students are challenged again to make 

judgements, this time based on new and contradictory evidence, and to come to a final conclusion (Task 5). 

Representation and commemoration 

Activity 4 The activity consists of four tasks: 

Task 1 : comparing three written representations of the Coniston Massacre 

Task 2 : how has the Coniston Massacre been commemorated 

Task 3 : analysing the National Museum of Australia’s representation of the Coniston Massacre 

Task 4 : creating a final representation of the Coniston Massacre. 

In Task 1 students are asked to consider how writers present the Coniston Massacre as a frontier conflict 

event today. 

Task 2 encourages students to think about how the impacts of the past continue to effect the lives of 

Aboriginal people of the area today, and the issue of reconciliation, and how the Coniston Massacre relates to 

this movement. 

Students are now in a position to critically analyse and assess the National Museum of Australia’s Coniston 

Massacre display in the Gallery of First Australians (Task 3), and can use that as a model approach to 

evaluating museum displays. 

Finally, taking into account the evidence presented from the whole unit, we ask students to create their own 

representation or version of the Coniston Massacre as a way of recording their final conclusions (Task 4). 

Further information 

Transcript of the findings of the Board of Enquiry concerning the killing of natives in Central Australia by 

Police Parties and others, and concerning other matters, Commonwealth of Australia, 18 January 1929, 

http://naa12.naa.gov.au/scripts/imagine.aspB=66518&I=1&SE=1 

Trish Albert, First Australians: Plenty Stories Series. Remembering Coniston, Pearson Rigby & National 

Museum of Australia 2009. 

Central Land Council, Making Peace With the Past: Remembering the Coniston Massacre, 1928–2003, 

Alice Springs, 2003, www.clc.org.au/Media/publications/coniston/7small.pdf 

John Cribbin, The Killing Times, Fontana Collins, Sydney, 1984. 

Bruce Elder, Blood on the Wattle, Child and Associates, Sydney, 1988, Chapter 12. 

Dick Kimber, ‘Real true history: the Coniston Massacre in 18 instalments’, Alice Springs News 10 September 

2003 –11 February 2004. 

Justin O’Brien, ‘To infuse an universal terror’: The Coniston killings of 1928, 

www.clc.org.au/Media/publications/coniston/coniston2.PDF 

Peter Read and Jay Read (eds), Long Time, Olden Time, Institute for Aboriginal Development Publications, 

Alice Springs, 1991. 

Henry Reynolds, This Whispering in our Hearts, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 1998, Chapter IX. 

Bill Wilson and Justin O’Brien, ‘‘‘To infuse an universal terror”: a reappraisal of the Coniston killings’, 

Aboriginal History, vol. 27, 2003 pages 59-76. 


31

activity 1 

Case study 2 

Understanding a key concept 

Imagine that … 

You woke up this morning, not feeling well. ‘Sorry mum, I really can’t go to school today.’ 

So, you are at home, just taking it easy, when you see a news flash: there has been a shooting at your 

school, in your classroom, and three of your friends have been shot! 

1 What do you think your feelings might be 

2 List and discuss what questions you would want answered about the event. 

Your main response would probably be a sense of disbelief and unreality — how could such a terrible event 

occur in my normal little world How can you explain and understand such a tragedy 

That’s really what this unit is about — understanding and explaining an event in Australian history that seems 

inconceivable to us today: the killing of a local man near a place called Coniston station, near Alice 

Springs in the Northern Territory, which led to the killing of at least 31 other people. 

The broad story is clear, though there are disagreements and uncertainties about some of the specific 

aspects of the events, and you will need to try and work out the details of what you think happened. 

But the key enquiry will be for you to try and understand and explain what happened — why those people in 

that place at that time did those specific things. 

When you have done that you can think about how history books and museum displays tell us about these 

events — and whether they have got it right. 

And, finally, you’ll be asked to think about the long-term consequences of these events. Often history is not 

confined to the past; what happened years ago can still affect peoples’ lives today. 

Start by looking at the DVD to see what the area is like, and to meet some of the key people involved in 

the events. 

32 


activity 2 

Case study 2 

Visiting the scene of the events 

DVD 

Activity 

DVD time code: 

24:55–35:20 

Visiting the site of the events at Coniston 

will help you understand the environment, 

to meet some key participants in the event, 

and to make sense of some of the evidence. 

Watch the episode on the DVD and answer 

these questions. 

1 Describe the environment of the Coniston 

area. What does it look like What might 

it have been like to live there in 1928 

2 How might ‘visiting’ this place help you 

understand or have greater empathy with 

the events of the past 

3 What do we learn about the leader of the 

police party, William George Murray Does 

this surprise you Explain your answer. 

4 How might Murray’s background help us 

to understand what happened 

5 According to local Aboriginal researcher 

Teresa Napurrula Ross: 

> Who killed Brooks 

> Who helped 

> Why was he killed 

> How might this have been a justifiable 

action according to Aboriginal law 

6 What was the police response to this killing 

7 How might this response have been a 

justifiable action according to European 

law 

8 What happened to Kamalyarrpa 

Japanangka (sometimes known as 

Bullfrog) Does this surprise you 

Explain your answer. 

9 Napurrula Ross calls Japananga ‘a hero, 

a coward and a murderer’. From what you 

know so far about the events of Coniston in 

1928, explain how he can be each of these 

at the same time. 

10 In 2003, a ceremony was held to unveil 

the new memorial. How might the events 

of 1928 still have impacts on people of the 

area today 

11 The National Museum of Australia has 

several objects that relate directly to this 

event. How do they add to your knowledge 

and understanding of, and your empathy 

with, the events 

Now that you have an awareness of the 

environment and the story you need to go 

back and look at some evidence from the 

time to try to develop a better understanding. 

Case study 2 What happened at Coniston in 1928 33

activity 3 

Case study 2 

Examining key evidence 

During this stage of your investigation into the 1928 Coniston 

Massacre you are going to continue your journey back into the past 

by reading the words of people who took part in the event. 

There are four main sources of these words: 

> evidence given at the Board of Inquiry of January 1929 about 

the background to the killing of 31 Aboriginal people in 1928 

(you will explore this in Task 1) 

> evidence given at the inquiry by Mounted Constable Murray 

about the killing of the Aboriginal people on two expeditions 

during late 1928 (you will explore this in Task 2) 

> oral records of Aboriginal witnesses, recorded mainly in the 

1970s (you will explore this in Task 3) 

> some final pieces of evidence from various other sources 

— such as letters, remembered conversations, private 

diaries — that may help you further develop your own 

conclusions (you will explore this in Task 4). 

WARNING: 

• In looking at the evidence 

that follows you will find 

terms for Aboriginal people 

that are considered offensive 

today. You need to be sensible 

about quoting and referring 

to that language in your own 

discussion and writing. 

• Aboriginal readers are advised 

that there are references to 

people who are deceased. 

• Note also that the spelling 

of words (such as Walpiri/ 

Warlpiri) have been kept as 

they appear in the original 

documents. 

Task 1 

Analysing the background evidence given to the 

Coniston Board of Inquiry 

In December 1928 and January 1929, a Commonwealth Government Board of Inquiry listened to evidence from 

people in Alice Springs and the surrounding area about the killings near Coniston station in 1928. They wanted to 

decide if there were any particular reasons why Aboriginal people would have attacked local settlers. They looked 

for evidence of conflict over water, a shortage of food that would have led to Aboriginal people killing cattle, any 

‘provocation’ by settlers, and any other factors, such as the work of missionaries or conflict between different 

Aboriginal groups, that might help explain why tensions existed. 

1 Look at the following information, based on evidence given to the Board of Inquiry into the Coniston police 

killings and on images from the approximate time and place, to summarise information relevant to each of 

the questions in this table. 

Background to the Coniston Massacre 

Which different Aboriginal groups are mentioned 

as being in the area 

What were the missionaries trying to achieve 

How did most of the Europeans react to them 

What were the attitudes of Aboriginal people to 

the pastoralists 

What were the attitudes of Europeans to the 

Aboriginal people 

Was the drought reducing water resources 

Was the drought reducing the availability of 

natural food sources 

What was the nature of police activities in 

the region 

What was the overall state of relations between 

Aboriginal people and pastoralists 

34 


activity 3 

Case study 2 

(i) Background information 

Three traditional Aboriginal groups, the Warlpiri, 

Anmantyerre and Arrernte, lived near the area. 

By 1928 there were only about 40 non-Indigenous 

people living at Alice Springs, and a small number 

living on large pastoral holdings or stations in 

the area. These stations were developed where 

permanent water was available in arterial springs 

or soaks. The pastoralists grazed sheep, goats and 

cattle. The stock needed large areas to forage for 

food, and were free to wander — there were no 

fences on properties. 

Non-Aboriginal people had started settling the period 

from the 1860s. By 1928 these pastoralists and town 

people identified these four different situations of 

Aboriginal people: 

> those living in traditional ways (often referred 

to by non-Aboriginal people as ‘myalls’ or ‘bush 

blacks’) who had limited and casual contacts with 

cattle stations adjoining their tribal territory. This 

enabled them to obtain occasional food, without 

having to give up their independence. 

> a few young men who were beginning to work 

regularly on stations. 

> Aboriginal people who were starting to gather 

on mission stations, or around missionaries who 

would provide them with food and medicine. 

> a few older people camped near stations who 

were supplied with food by the station owners. 

In 1911, the Northern Territory was separated from 

South Australia, and became a Commonwealth 

Territory. It was governed by an administrator 

in Darwin. However, Central Australia was a 

separate jurisdiction within this, and was under the 

direct control of the Federal Government, whose 

representative in 1928 was JC Cawood. 

There were only six policemen to cover the whole 

area — with one sergeant in Alice Springs, and five 

mounted constables based in different areas. There 

were few cars, few roads, and few telephones — yet 

people were scattered over huge distances, and 

most travelled by horse or camel. Aboriginal people 

travelled on foot. 

Randal Stafford’s Coniston station was on the edge 

of the frontier. To the west lay the Tanami desert, to 

the north the Lander River country — both areas 

described by Randal Stafford as still ‘myall country’. 

Coniston station was considered to be ‘the last 

outpost on the edge of the desert.’ 

The area was in one of its periodical droughts in 

1928. 

John Cribbin, The Killing Times, Fontana/Collins, Sydney, 1984 


35

activity 3 

Case study 2 

Barrow Creek Annual Rainfall 1873–2002 

www.bom.gov.au/jsp/ncc/cdio/weatherData/avp_nccObsCode=139&p_display_type=dataFile&p_startYear=&p_stn_num=15525 

Drought brought Aboriginal people closer to the permanent soaks of the more settled district. Drought also 

meant that some pastoralists moved their cattle into the Lander River area for feed, and this brought them 

closer to Aboriginal people who relied on waterholes and soaks on their traditional lands. 

1 Add any relevant information from above to the Background to the Coniston Massacre table. 

(ii) Meeting with people from the period and the place 

2 Look at the following images from the time and place and add any information to the Background to the 

Coniston Massacre table. 

Adelaide Register 10 November 1928 

Cribbin, The Killing Times, page 194 

Padygar and Arkrira, the two Aboriginal men charged 

with killing Fred Brooks in 1928 

Annie Lock, missionary, with two children that 

she cared for 

36 


activity 3 

Case study 2 

Michael Terry Collection, National Library of Australia 

Japananga (Bullfrog) many years after the killing of Fred Brooks 

B Dean and V Carell, Dust From the Dancing, Ure Smith, Sydney, 1955 

Local pastoralist Jack Saxby in 1928 

FE Baume, Tragedy Track: the Story of the Granites, 

North Flinders Mines Limited and Hisperian Press, Carlisle, 1994 

Terry Collection, National Library of Australia 

Aboriginal camp 1920s 

Local pastoralist Harry Tilmouth and 

a station worker 

NTAS Stan Cawood Image Collection NTAS 234 

Aboriginal stockmen Bob, Tommy, Hughie and Jack 1929 

Police Mounted Constable Murray with his 

wife and son in 1931 

Sunday Sun February 1931 


37

activity 3 

Case study 2 

Otto Tschirn collection 1918, permission of the Anderson Family, 

provided by Strehlow Research Centre 



Aboriginal women 

Near Hermannsburg, c.1918 

A pastoralist and a station worker 






A camp 


A men’s ceremony 


(iii) Summary of evidence 

from pastoralists and 

missionaries 

In evidence given to the 1928–29 Board 

of Inquiry into the killing of Aboriginal 

people by police parties in the Coniston 

area in 1928, many pastoralists criticised 

the work of some missionaries. They saw 

these missionaries as spreading ideas of 

equality that led to a loss of white authority, 

and made Aboriginal people dependent on 

handouts. 

They also criticised the absence of police 

patrols and resources, and the failure 

of the courts to impose sentences that 

deterred Aboriginal people from killing 

stock for food. 

A female pastoralist testified that she and 

her married daughter on another property 

both felt threatened by the Aboriginal 

people, and had to carry weapons at 

all times. 

Missionary Annie Lock, the main target of 

the pastoralists’ criticisms, testified about 

the abuse she had seen Aboriginal women 

suffer from white workers and pastoralists, 

and the anger that this caused among the 

Aboriginal men. 

She agreed that more police were needed, 

and that ‘I don’t think a little flogging would 

hurt a lot of’ Aboriginal men. 

3 Add any information to the 

Background to the Coniston 

Massacre table. 

38 


activity 3 

Case study 2 

Task 2 

Understanding the two police expeditions 

You now have a good idea of the background to the 

events at Coniston in 1928, including the tensions 

that existed at the time, and the attitudes of some of 

the people who lived in the region. 

It’s time to look at the evidence of the policeman who 

led the two parties that killed (at least) 31 Aboriginal 

people over a period of about six weeks. 

The next two pages provide a map of the Coniston 

area, and a partially completed chronology of the 

events at Coniston in 1928. 

1 Working in groups, each group should look at 

one of the following five pages of evidence from 

William Murray. Work through your page and 

answer the questions in the timeline. Report 

your answers to all other groups so that 

everybody can complete the timeline. 

The timeline includes the two separate police 

expeditions: 

> Mounted Constable Murray’s first expedition 

— the Brooks expedition — resulting in 17 

recorded deaths, and the arrest and trial of two 

accused men; and 

> Murray’s second expedition — the expedition 

with Morton to arrest the Aboriginal men who 

had attacked him — resulting in 14 recorded 

deaths. 

2 After having read the evidence and completed the 

timeline, answer these questions using column B. 

Leave column C blank for the moment. 

Board of Inquiry summary table 

A 

Key issues 

1 Why were the two police parties 

sent out 

B 

Evidence from the 

Board of Inquiry 

C 

Other evidence not given 

to the Board of Inquiry 

2 What did Murray say he was 

trying to achieve 

3 What evidence was there for 

Murray to suspect each of the 

Aboriginal groups he came 

across of involvement in the 

killing of Brooks 

4 According to Murray’s evidence, 

how did he try to peacefully 

arrest them 


why were so many suspects 

killed 


how many people did Murray not 

arrest 


why did he let these people 

go free 

8 According to this evidence, 

did Murray commit any crimes, 

or were the killings able to be 

explained and justified 


39

activity 3 

Case study 2 

Map of the events at Coniston in 1928 

Central Land Council map, National Museum of Australia Coniston display 

Names in red are those recognised in the Board of Inquiry as places where killings occurred. 

Names in blue are those identified by Aboriginal people as additional places where killings occurred. 

40 


activity 3 

Case study 2 

Timeline of the two Coniston police party expeditions 

Date 

1928 

Key events 

2 August Dingo trapper Frederick Brooks, aged 61, 

is a friend of the owner of Coniston pastoral 

station, Randal Stafford. 

He sets off with two camels and two 

Aboriginal assistants, Skipper and Dodger, 

for a soak 22 kms away, to trap dingoes. 

6 August Brooks is camped. An Aboriginal group is 

camped nearby. He has negotiated with 

Japananga (Bullfrog) for the use of his wife. 

7 August Bullfrog confronts Brooks for payment. 

Brooks is killed at the soak — later called 

Brooks Soak (Yurrkuru). He is half-buried 

in an enlarged rabbit burrow. His camp is 

ransacked. 

10 August Murray is sent to investigate complaints 

of cattle killing on Pine Hill and Coniston 

stations. He has Aboriginal trackers named 

Paddy and Major with him. 

11 August Stafford phones from Ti Tree to Alice 

Springs to report the killing of Brooks. 

Murray is told of the killing at a station. His 

superior, Cawood, tells him to investigate 

and arrest the culprits for trial. 

12 August – 

1 September 

1.1 Who is in the party 

1.2 What happened at the camp at Coniston 

1.3 What were Murray’s orders 

What was he trying to do 

How did he know where to go to find those 

accused of killing Brooks 

How did the Aboriginal people react when 

Murray arrived 

What was the result of the clash 

What evidence tied this group to Brooks 

2.1 What did Murray do with the group of 

Aboriginal people from the previous clash 

What did Murray and his party do for these 

few days 

2.2 How did Murray know to go to 6-mile soak 

What contact was there 

With what results 

What did Murray do 

What was the outcome 

3.1 What happened overnight 

What happened to the women and children 

prisoners 

What happened to the wounded prisoners 

3.2 What happened during the day 

4.1 How did Murray get the two prisoners 

What did they admit 

What happened to these prisoners 

What happened in the hills 

What happened to the wounded prisoner 

at the camp 

Date 

Key events 

4.2 What happened to the last wounded 

prisoner 

Who returned to Alice Springs 

19 September On 21 October, pastoralist John ‘Nugget’ 

Morton had been attacked by 15 Aboriginal 

men. He shot one and escaped, though 

badly beaten. Aboriginal oral history says 

he was attacked because of his ill-treatment 

of Aboriginal women. He reported the 

attack and, on 19 September, Murray’s 

superior Cawood ordered him to go to 

Morton’s Broadmeadows station and arrest 

the attackers. Murray arrived there on 

24 September. 

24 September 

– 17 October 

5.1 Who was involved in this party 

5.2 What happened at Tomahawk waterhole 

What did Murray try to do 

How many Aboriginal people died in the 

clash 

How did Murray know they were guilty of 

the attack on Morton 

5.3 Where did the party now go 

How did the Aboriginal people behave 

when Murray and Morton arrived 

How did Murray know who to arrest 

What happened to the Aboriginal people 

Murray was trying to arrest 

What happened to the other Aboriginal 

people there 

5.4 Where did the party now go 

What happened to the large group 

What did Murray try to do 

How did the Aboriginal people respond 

What was the outcome of the clash 

18 October Murray returns to Alice Springs. 

19 October Murray writes his report, but does not say 

how many people were killed. He later 

nominates 14 deaths. 

20 October Murray takes the two men accused of killing 

Brooks to Darwin for trial 

7–8 November The men are tried but the charges are 

dismissed. At the trial it is revealed that 

Murray killed 17 people during the ‘hunt’ for 

those responsible for Brooks’ murder. 

28 November The Commonwealth Government 

announces a Board of Inquiry into the 

17 deaths and the 14 from the second 

expedition. 

30 December The Board starts hearing evidence. 

1929 

18 January The Board makes its findings. 

Now use all this evidence to complete column B of 

the Board of Inquiry summary table. 


41

activity 3 

Case study 2 

Extracts from evidence of Mounted Constable William George Murray, 

16 January 1929. 

Evidence set 1 (Brooks expedition) 

Use this evidence to answer the various questions in the Timeline about what happened during 

the two expeditions. 

EXTRACT 1.1 

As the result of the Murder of Brooks ... I arrived at Coniston 

Station. I organised a party of eight including myself, and 

three aboriginals. The other four white men were Randal 

Stafford, John Saxby, William Briscoe and Alex Wilson 

(Half-caste). I then obtained ... 14 horses and necessary 

equipment. On arrival at Coniston Station, I instructed my two 

trackers Paddy and Major to see that no natives left the native 

camp at Coniston Station. Should any new arrivals arrive they 

must be detained and not allowed to depart and spread the 

news of my arrival. 

EXTRACT 1.2 

On the afternoon of 15th August, excited voices were heard 

in the native camp [near Coniston Station] ... I found my two 

trackers endeavouring to arrest two natives ... On nearing the 

trackers, I could see that they were becoming overpowered. 

When I arrived on the scene, one native got free with the chain 

hanging in his hand and struck me over the shoulders with it. 

At this moment I noticed that the second prisoner was free 

from the tracker and had turned his attention to me. Realising 

that the position was dangerous, I drew my revolver and fired 

at one native. The bullet struck him over the left eye and he fell 

to the ground ... The wounded native remained unconscious 

for about two hours. When he recovered he was secured and 

in chains. The two prisoners were tied to a tree for the night. 

EXTRACT 1.3 

On the morning of the 16th August 1928 ... I 

set out with horses and the aforementioned 

party also the two prisoners accompanied 

me – they having volunteered to show where 

the alleged murderers were camped ... I 

also instructed them that there was to be no 

shooting unless absolutely necessary; that 

I would endeavour to arrest the lot. I also 

instructed them that women and children 

were not to be harmed ... I sighted the camp 

first and increased my pace to a gallop. I 

noticed the natives were assembling and 

coming towards me. They took up their 

position in the grass amongst some low 

bushes. On riding up to them, I noticed that 

they were all in a sitting or kneeling position. 

Only one native appeared to be armed. I 

dismounted with a view to disarming the 

native. Immediately I stepped to the ground, 

the whole of the native party rushed me 

with weapons in their hands — they having 

had them concealed in the grass. I seized 

one native and threw him. The others then 

commenced to strike me with their weapons. 

As the position appeared serious and I could 

not see any of my party in sight I drew my 

revolver and fired two shots. The reports 

attracted other members of the party who 

were quickly on the scene. I heard several 

shots fired. When other members of the party 

arrived the natives ceased to attack ... When 

order was restored, it was found that four 

natives including one lubra were dead. The 

fifth one — a lubra — was found to be badly 

wounded ... The natives were instructed by 

myself to sit down and remain quiet ... We 

collected 23 spears which were concealed 

in the grass and bushes, apparently in 

readiness for an attack; also a number of 

boomerangs, nulla nullas and yamsticks ... 

A quantity of property was recovered and 

identified by Stafford as the property of Fred 

Brooks deceased — consisting of coat, shirt, 

singlets, quart pot, blanket, calico, knives, 

tobacco. The natives were then instructed 

to move down to the creek about 200 yards 

distant and remain there for the night. Myself 

and Stafford prepared two graves and buried 

the four natives. I then went to see the 

wounded lubra and found that she was dead. 

She was buried and we camped near the 

scene for the night. 

42 


activity 3 

Case study 2 

Extracts from evidence of Mounted Constable William George Murray 

16th January 1929. 




EXTRACT 2.1 

When daylight came all the natives who had 

been collected were still there ... The whole of 

the day was spent in searching for tracks but 

none could be found. In the evening, I instructed 

the number of natives whom we had detained 

to move to a spring about 4 miles distant and 

that could remain there and not be interfered 

with. We then packed our horses and moved on 

some few miles taking with us the two native 

prisoners and one [young boy witness named] 

Lala ... We camped for the night. 

The third day was again spent in searching for 

tracks. No tracks were found. We camped 

for the night. 

On the fourth day we decided to proceed to 

a soakage about 40 miles down the Lander. 

We travelled via Coniston Station camping 

there for a night. At this point Mr Stafford, the 

two prisoners and Lala left the party. Tracker 

Jack from Alice Springs had then arrived. I left 

instructions that he was to watch the prisoners 

and the witness closely. 

EXTRACT 2.2 

We then proceeded down the Lander, camped at Boundary 

Soak, ascertained from some natives there that the alleged 

murderers were at the 6 mile soak ... 

We covered about 10 miles in two hours, came up to a 

natives camp in the scrub. My party was then riding in 

extended order. Immediately the natives sighted us six 

adult male natives were seen to assemble in the scrub. As 

my party was closing around them the natives threatened 

to fight and kill us if we did not go away. They were 

cautioned by my trackers to put down their weapons. They 

refused to do so but commenced throwing boomerangs. 

Several of my party narrowly escaped being struck. I again 

dismounted and the six natives immediately rushed me. 

I received several blows from boomerangs and yamsticks 

and was compelled to use my revolver. I fired four shots 

also heard shots from other directions. 

When order was restored, it was found that three male 

natives were dead and three male natives wounded. The 

three wounded did not appear to be seriously wounded in 

my opinion. They together with a number of women and 

children were taken back to the creek arriving there about 

midnight. They were instructed to sit down and remain until 

morning. They had in their possession a quantity of native 

food which they had brought with them from their camp. 

The three wounded prisoners were identified as the alleged 

murderers of Brooks. A guard was put over the camp 

throughout the night. 


43

activity 3 

Case study 2 






EXTRACT 3.1 

Shortly after daylight when I awoke I examined the 

prisoners and found that two were dead. 

We then had breakfast — the horses were packed. 

I instructed my trackers Paddy, Major, Dodger and 

Alex Wilson to proceed up the creek with the one 

prisoner who was wounded. Myself Saxby and Briscoe 

remained behind and buried the two dead some 

little distance away from where they had died. I then 

instructed the remainder of the natives who were all 

women and children numbering 21 that they could 

remain at the 6 mile soakage. 

Myself and party then mounted and overtook the 

packhorses. It was quite noticeable that the wounded 

prisoner was becoming weaker. I was doubtful whether 

he would be able to get as far as Briscoe’s camp. After 

several rests we arrived at Briscoe’s camp. Although I 

endeavoured to persuade the prisoner to ride a horse 

he refused to do so. The horses were watered, canteens 

filled. The prisoner was given water which appeared to 

make his condition much worse. I then decided to obtain 

camels and have him taken to Coniston Station. Whilst 

preparing for transport he died and was buried some 

half mile distant from Briscoe’s camp ... 

About sundown in the evening we arrived at the spring 

where I had instructed the party of natives from the first 

camp to camp. We could see no sign of natives so we 

camped for the night. 

EXTRACT 3.2 

In the morning we obtained a saddle horse each 

... and went in different directions to pick up 

their tracks. 

Within an hour I returned to the camp having 

found the tracks of a number of natives leaving 

the spring. It was quite noticeable that there 

were many more bucks’ tracks there than could 

have been made by the party we had left there 

... We followed them to the foot of the range as 

the country was too rough for horses I instructed 

Paddy and Major to follow them on foot and the 

horses would proceed along the flat ... Paddy and 

Major came down from the ranges. They stated 

that the tracks were still continuing along the range 

in a westerly direction. We had lunch. As the only 

known water was 20 miles west, I decided to leave 

the tracks and hurry on towards the water. We 

could then pick up the tracks on the soft ground 

after they left the range. 

Later on in the day, we again struck tracks. 

We followed them for some distance. At dark we 

camped for the night, dug a well and watered 

the horses. 

44 


activity 3 

Case study 2 






EXTRACT 4.1 

Shortly after daylight several natives were noticed up 

on the ranges probably two miles distant ... The trackers 

overtook the natives before I could reach them. When 

I arrived on the scene, I found that Paddy had two 

male natives handcuffed together with the one handcuff. 

Two lubras and one old blackfellow were sitting down. 

A number of boomerangs and yamsticks were lying 

close handy. 

I questioned the two prisoners. They admitted having 

been at Stafford Spring and had assisted to kill Brooks 

... I noticed that the prisoners had slipped the handcuff 

and were making off down the hill. They were called 

on to stop several times but it had no effect. I drew 

my revolver and fired several shots over their heads. 

It had no effect. I then fired at the native closest to 

me who was then at least 150 yards distant. He fell. 

I considered the second one out of the revolver range 

and called on my tracker to get the rifle. Two shots were 

fired and the fleeing native fell having been hit through 

the head. Both natives were dead. They were buried 

... I questioned to the blackfellow and lubras and as 

satisfied that they were not implicated in the matter. 

They were allowed to go free having been given a few 

crusts of bread and a bit of meat. 

We then proceeded further west, picked up natives 

tracks and followed them for about 36 miles. We sighted 

a number of blacks ... Immediately they sighted us they 

took up their position amongst some boulders and in 

caves ... They were instructed by the trackers but they 

replied that they would fight us if we came near them ... 

Myself dismounted and went on foot searching for the 

natives amongst boulders and caves. After some little 

time two natives rushed out of a cave as I was passing. 

I received several blows from yam sticks. Having my 

hand in readiness, I fired and shot one native dead. 

The other native disappeared amongst the rocks. I saw 

no more of him. 

Later in the afternoon, I came in contact with one male 

native and a number of women and children. This native 

made off but I overtook him and brought him back to 

where the packhorses were. 

On arriving at the camp I found the remainder of my 

party with the exception of Wilson had assembled. They 

had two wounded prisoners. I examined the prisoners 

and found that they were very seriously wounded ... 

We then had lunch. The two wounded died during our 

lunch hour. 

We then returned to Cockatoo Spring with the one 

prisoner and later returned to Coniston Station. I then 

had three prisoners. 

EXTRACT 4.2 

The following morning, I examined the prisoners 

and found that the one with the wound over the 

eye was in a serious condition and unable to 

walk ... About 11am the wounded prisoner died 

and was buried some few hundred yards from 

Coniston Station. 

In the afternoon I left for Alice Springs with two 

prisoners, one witness, and three trackers. 


45

activity 3 

Case study 2 



Evidence set 5 (Morton expedition) 



EXTRACT 5.1 

In consequence of a report relative to the 

attack on Morton by natives I proceeded 

to Broadmeadow Station ... obtained ... 

horses from Morton; about 14 in number. 

Myself and Morton, Alex Wilson and a 

small native boy proceeded down the 

Lander to the spot where Morton had 

been attacked. Judging by the tracks a 

number of natives had travelled down the 

river, for about 40 miles. 

EXTRACT 5.2 

On nearing a place known as Tomahawk 

waterhole ... I came across seven male 

adult natives. I galloped around and they 

assembled in one heap ... I dismounted 

and the natives immediately attacked ... 

fired several shots wide of the natives 

... The position appeared serious and 

I fired to stop the natives. The shots 

attracted Morton and he was quickly on 

the scene. Four natives were shot. The 

remaining three were questioned and 

gave a satisfactory explanation as to their 

movements during the past few weeks. 

They further stated that the four dead 

had only arrived there some few days 

and that they were the cheeky ones who 

had tried to kill Morton. The four dead 

were recognised by Morton as those who 

had attacked him. 

EXTRACT 5.3 

We then proceeded to a spot on the Lander known as Boomerang 

Waterhole. From there we proceeded in a N.E. direction for about 

30 miles ... As Morton knew the next water in that direction we 

decided to make straight for it, and not delay following tracks. 

This water is shown on the maps as Circle Well ... We sighted a 

number of male natives. Morton and myself galloped and rounded 

them up. They were instructed by Morton who speaks the native 

language fluently to throw down their weapons. Two of them 

refused although told a number of times to put them down. The 

remainder of the natives sat down and appeared quite docile ... 

Morton stated that he knew the two of them personally. They had 

been casually employed by him recently and that they were the 

two who first approached him and assisted to hold him whilst 

the remainder of the attackers used their weapons. I decided to 

dismount. Immediately I stepped to the ground the two of them 

jumped on top of me. I threw them aside and got possession 

of a tomahawk from one of them. He then attacked me with his 

boomerang. I used a tomahawk to defend myself. The second 

blow struck him on the head and he fell dead. The second native 

was in the act of driving a spear through me from about two 

yards distance. I drew my revolver. Both Morton and I fired at the 

same instant and the native was killed. The other natives were 

questioned and they told us in which direction the remainder of 

the party were. 

EXTRACT 5.3 

We then proceeded in an easterly direction about 36 miles and 

came onto a soakage at the lower end of the Hansen River. 

There was a large camp of natives there. They were rounded up 

— around 40 in all including nine adult male natives. We got them 

rounded up in the bed of the creek which is very wide at that 

point. All of the male natives were armed. They were instructed 

to put down their weapons ... I then decided to dismount. As soon 

as I did so quite a number of the natives rushed me and attacked 

with their sticks and boomerangs. Two natives rushed to get the 

one spear that was standing upright in a bush. I noticed their 

movement and also grabbed for the spear. Myself and a native 

got hold of the spear together. I wrenched it from him. It broke 

and left the small end in his hand while I had the strong end. The 

natives were then so close around me I felt that I could not get 

my revolver in time so I drove the spear right through a natives 

chest; then jumped back drew my revolver and fired. At the same 

time I called to Morton to fire or they would get me. Even after 

several shots were fired it did not steady them. When order was 

restored it was found that there were eight killed. 

We then returned to Broadmeadow Station. 

Board of Inquiry members Adelaide Register 15 January 1929 

46 


activity 3 

Case study 2 

Task 3 

Hearing Aboriginal accounts 

The only Aboriginal voice heard at the enquiry was 

Paddy, one of the trackers with the police party. No 

evidence was heard from any Aboriginal people who 

came into contact with the two police expeditions. 

During the 1970s, some historians spoke to 

Aboriginal people who were alive at the time of the 

killings. Here are their accounts, usually as recorded 

in English, which was often the people’s second, third 

or even fourth language. 

Documents 1–5 are evidence of events at three 

specific places. Documents 6–7 are not specific to 

a place. 

Use these accounts to complete this summary table. 

Summary of Aboriginal evidence of the killings 

Deaths 

Locations 

Tipinpa Dingo Hole Wajinpulungk Not specified 

Who 

How many 

How 

Why 

By whom 


47

activity 3 

Case study 2 

Killings at Tipinpa 

Document 1: evidence of Jampijinpa 

Jampijinpa would have probably been about four or five 

years old at this time. 

His family was camped at Tipinpa (Patirlirri) along the 

route the police party riding north from Coniston to 

Morton’s place at Mud Hut would have taken. Murray 

made no mention in his report of going to Tipinpa. 

But the pastoralist Saxby who joined the exploration 

party of Michael Terry in 1929, told Terry that Murray had 

been there the year before. 

They shot your old father 

Yeah ... Down at Tipinpa. That’s this Murray bin shottit. 

When I was little feller ... I seen him. I seen him. Murray, 

Murray grab me then and he’s hold me on the shoulder 

... There was big camp there ... They yardem round, 

bringem to one mob, see, make it one heap. And they 

shottit. Two or three shotgun is goin’, people is goin’. 

Nugget. Whatsaname was there too, Jack Murray ... 

Roundem up. Ust like cattle we roundem up ... Just 

suddenly. And just shottit there ... [just] man. Woman, 

they lettem go free ... Shottem all the man. Shottem. 

The old woman was ‘live. And kid. 

Read and Read, Long Time, Olden Time, p. 44 

Document 2: evidence of Warlpiri witnesses 

In 1971, historian Dr Mervyn Hartwig, one of the recognised 

authorities on the killings, interviewed a dozen Walbiri who 

were definite in their declarations that Murray had been 

there, shooting. Alex Wilson [a part-Aboriginal member of 

both parties] in 1971 estimated that ‘about six’ were shot at 

Tippinba, and he confirmed the Tippinba episode with [this] 

author in 1983, although suggesting ‘a lot’ rather than ‘about 

six’ had died. 

John Cribbin, The Killing Times, Fontana/Collins, Sydney, 1984, p. 160. 

48 


activity 3 

Case study 2 

Killings at Dingo Hole 

Killings at Wajinpulungk 

Document 3: Willowra Jimmy 

Jungarrayi 

Followem this river, through there. 

Now, they bin findem ... two old feller, 

longa Dingo Hole ... They bin finish 

them poor bugger. 

That man [Murray] bin turn back, come 

back after shoot two man ... and findem 

[a group] there longa bush. Girl and 

kid and all. They bin finishem again, 

whole lot. 

Read and Read, Long Time, Olden Time, p. 47. 

Document 5: Johnny Nelson Jupurrula 

[A large group] bin there tryin’ to makem ... corroborees, you 

know, sacred site ... And [the police party] from Willowra, run 

into this mob here and givem trouble ... And they prisonem my 

father ... And they gaolem my father, you know, put a chain on ... 

They coming there now, chasem round now, some all run away. 

Right, prisonem whole lot, everyone. Tiem up longa trees. All little 

boys, oh, lotta tracker, some stockmans too. And shootem whole 

lot, some feller, shootem, heapem up. Tie ‘em up whole lot. And 

shootem in the morning ... That’s where my father got shot there 

too ... Oh, women and all. Not young girl. No, lettem go… Lettum 

go [some children], some of them. 

Read and Read, Long Time, Olden Time, p. 49–50. 

Document 4: evidence of 

Warlpiri witnesses 

Mervyn Hartwig writes: ‘Walbiri 

interviewed at Willowra in 1971 were 

adamant that the posse rode further 

down the Lander to Gunadjerai (Dingo 

Hole) where a corroboree was in full 

swing and to Djaralygu (where the 

creek finishes) and that a total of fifteen 

(four adult males and eleven women 

and children) were shot. They supplied 

the full names of only five of these (four 

men and one woman) indicating the 

sub-section names only of the others’. 

Cribbin, The Killing Times, p. 162. 


49

activity 3 

Case study 2 

Killings in areas that are not specified in the evidence 

Document 6: Neddy Jakamarra 

All our mob been shot. My grandmother 

Maryanne ... bin die poor bugger. A lot 

of people bin shot there. Working man, 

too. All the working man bin shot too. You 

know, they bin go to corroboree, working 

people, Stirling [cattle station on the upper 

Hanson] men, and from Barrow Creek. 

Cribbin, The Killing Times, p. 163. 

Document 7: George Jangala as recorded by 

historian Dick Kimber 

He [George Jangala] said that he was, he must have been 

about four or five I reckon, and they shot his father, his big 

brother then ran over and threw himself down on his father’s 

body, understanding he was likely to be dead and then in 

just total shock and sorrow, then the people of the patrol — 

and there were at least two involved at that time — shot his 

brother and they used an action, a repeater action rifle and 

then he said that, ‘they pointed it at me and one of them there 

he’ — George wouldn’t have remembered the exact words 

because he’s a little Warlpiri boy who hadn’t really known 

white people himself — one of them he said lifted the rifle 

barrel and said — and this is George’s reconstruction of it I’m 

sure — ‘don’t shoot him he’s only a little kid’ and that’s why 

he survived. So you have a situation which one might say 

even had the father shown a likelihood to throw a spear or 

boomerang or fight, the brother who was shot certainly didn’t 

… He’s a man who’s thrown himself on the body in sorrow 

hoping somehow his father’s alive and he just happens to be 

a big boy so he’s shot. 

Quoted in Justin O’Brien, ‘To infuse an universal terror’: The Coniston killings of 1928 

www.clc.org.au/Media/publications/coniston/coniston2.PDF , p. 23. 

Document 8: Where did killings occur 

Sites of killing mentioned in the official inquiry 

Yurrkuru (Brooks Soak) 

Ngarningiri 

Yuendumu 

Ngarnka (Mt Leichhardt) 

Tomahawk Waterhole 

Janganpa (Boomerang Waterhole) 

Circle Well 

Liirlpari (Whitestone) 

Thimplengkwe (Baxters Well) 

Sites of killing provided by Aboriginal witnesses 

Jarrarlyku (Curlew Waterhole) 

Kunajarrayi (Dingo Waterhole) 

Kurlurlu 

Warranyirrtipa 

Warlawurrukurlangu 

Patilirri (Tipinba) 

Yungarnti 

Warlukurlangu 

Mawu 

Mt Denison 

1 Identify on the map on page 40 the places 

mentioned in the official enquiry. 

2 Identify on this map the additional places 

mentioned by Aboriginal witnesses. 

3 Suggest reasons why these two lists would be 

different. 

4 Which list are you more likely to believe Why 

5 Look back at the Board of Inquiry summary 

table on page 39. Add any new ideas and 

information to column C that you would now take 

into account in answering questions 1–8. 

50 


activity 3 

Case study 2 

Task 4 

Some final evidence 

Here is some final information from a variety of 

people that may help your decision-making. Some 

of this evidence is ‘hearsay’ — that is, one person 

reporting what another had to say, and this sort of 

evidence cannot be tested. Some is opinion. Be 

careful about the weight you give this evidence. 

As you work through this evidence add it to the 

Board of Inquiry summary table on page 39 to 

help you finally answer questions 1 –8 on that page. 

Information from Document 1 should go in Column B, 

and the rest in Column C. 

Document 1: summary of the findings 

of the Board of Enquiry 

• 30 witnesses gave evidence 

• The board examined the witnesses 

thoroughly 

• The board believed the evidence of the 

witnesses 

• There was not the slightest evidence that 

the two police parties were a reprisal or 

punitive expedition. If it was a reprisal, why 

were wounded treated, and nearly 30 people 

allowed to go free after various encounters 

• In all cases, the shootings were justified in 

self-defence 

• There was no provocation which could have 

led to the killing of Brooks and the attempted 

killing of Morton 

• The drought was not causing pressure on 

water and food resources 

• The reasons for the Aboriginal unrest at 

the time were the advance of the Walmulla 

tribe from Western Australia intent on killing 

white settlers and their Aboriginal workers, 

the influence of individual missionaries 

preaching a doctrine of equality, 

inexperienced white settlers ‘making free 

with the natives’ and treating them as 

equals, ‘semi-civilised natives’ migrating and 

influencing ‘myalls’, the woman missionary 

living with naked blacks, and lowering their 

respect for whites, insufficient police to apply 

the laws quickly, imprisonment not being 

an effective deterrent to crime, escaped 

prisoners from Darwin wandering the area 

without being arrested. 

Based on Board of Enquiry report, 18 January 1929 

Document 2: missionary Athol McGregor on Murray 

Missionary Athol McGregor wrote in his journal that when Murray 

was billeted in police quarters in Darwin for the trial of the two 

men accused of killing Brooks, another policeman, Mounted 

Constable Victor Hall, told McGregor: ‘[Murray] shocked and 

disgusted many or all of the policemen there with his freely 

expressed opinions as to what was good enough for a blackfellow, 

and he said the number shot was nearer seventy that seventeen.’ 

Quoted in Cribbin, The Killing Times, Fontana, p. 164. 

Document 3: a letter from Annie Lock 

The missionary Annie Lock provided evidence of the massacre in a 

letter dated 28 September 1929 to the Association for the Protection 

of Native Races ... She told a terrible tale: ‘The natives tell me that 

they simply shot them down like dogs and that they got the little 

children and hit them on the back of the neck and killed them and in 

front of the eyes of those they left they knocked the dogs in the head 

and threw them in the fire ... They had some prisoners and took the 

chains off them and told them to run away and as they were running 

they shot them. This is the natives verdict and we have to be careful 

and prove it, but, I questioned them in different ways and when they 

least expected it, even to boys and girls and they all say the same 

thing and instead of 34 it was over 70.’ 

Quoted in O’Brien, ‘To infuse an universal terror’: The Coniston killings of 1928–2002, p. 31. 

[Note that Annie Lock made no reference to the killings in her 

evidence to the enquiry.] 

Document 4: Randal Stafford in a conversation 

recorded by TGH Strehlow 

‘Well, four years are gone since it all happened ... I only know of 

most of their doings by hearsay, of course ... But I can tell you this: 

most of the things they did were hushed up afterwards at the official 

enquiry ... I was told that they shot down myalls up and down the 

Lander River for many miles ... some of the men who went out with 

Murray told me that the true figure was at least twice as high ... to 

shoot down whole camps of blacks without leaving any live witnesses 

behind is not my idea of justice.’ 

Quoted in O’Brien, ‘To infuse an universal terror’: The Coniston killings of 1928–2002, pp. 31–32. 

Document 5: letter from Government 

Resident Cawood about the ‘recent 

unfortunate happenings’ 

‘In the opinion of old residents of this part, trouble 

has been brewing for some time, and the safety 

of the white man could only be assured by drastic 

action on the part of the authorities. In their opinion 

the only other alternative was to hand the country 

back to the blacks. I am firmly of the opinion that 

the result of the recent action by the police will 

have the right effect upon the natives.’ 

Letter, 25 October 1928, National Archives of Australia: A431 1950/2768 Part 2 

[Attachment]:50. 


51

activity 3 

Case study 2 

Document 6: Murray’s motives are questioned 

In response to the enquiry and its findings Rev William Morley, 

secretary of the Association for the Protection of the Native 

Races of Australia and Polynesia, noted ‘an absence of 

identification of individual natives as implicated in the murder’ 

and questioned why there had been so many raids on native 

camps: ‘It appears that something more than making an arrest 

of individual natives was contemplated.’ 

Quoted in O’Brien, ‘To infuse an universal terror’: The Coniston killings of 1928–2002, p. 8. 

Document 7: historian Dick Kimber on Alex Wilson 

When I first met Alex in 1970 ... he had a tendency to boast ... 

and, while not giving a specific figure, he indicated that many, 

many more than 31 had been shot. I took it that he meant scores 

more ... What did emerge, though, was that there were not often 

calls to surrender … All of these shootings were, according to 

Alex, ‘in cold blood’, with many being shot down while Murray and 

Morton were still mounted on their horses. 

Quoted by Kimber, 4 February 2004. 

Document 8: Randal Stafford on Murray’s character 

During his meeting with T.G.H. Strehlow at Coniston in September 

1932, Randal Stafford made what Strehlow described as ‘a few 

pungent remarks on Murray’s personal character’ ... What real 

bushman, I ask you, would believe Murray’s evidence when he 

told the court how he grabbed a spear from one of the attacking 

blacks and drove it through the chest of the attacker, or how he 

killed another black with the boomerang he had wrenched out of 

his own hands Those silly Wild West yarns may take in the city 

mugs down South, but I know Murray far too well for that. He may 

be a killer, but he’d never rush into any real danger all on his own: 

the man’s far too cunning for that. 

Quoted in O’Brien, ‘To infuse an universal terror’: The Coniston killings of 1928–2002, pp. 41–42. 

Document 9: historian Dick Kimber 

The account ... of the first attack by Constable Murray’s patrol on 

a group of 20 to 30 Aborigines seems straightforward enough, 

but it is worth considering from other perspectives. I believe 

that the people of the Warlpiri camp, having observed the patrol 

approaching, had adopted submission-alert positions, recognising 

that they were facing a superior force ... The possibility for a slow 

approach, using an interpreter, was there. Mounted Constable 

Murray[‘s] ... approach was as a cavalry charge — from walk to 

canter to full gallop, yelling out arrest commands in English ... His 

gallop to the edge of the camp, and immediate determination to 

arrest the standing warrior, meant that the Warlpiri group could 

only interpret the action and the approach of the other men in one 

way from their own world view: killing of the men was intended, and 

capture of the women and children when they were not also killed 

in the fighting. Their only options were to pick up their weapons to 

fight, and to flee for their lives. They attempted both. 

Kimber, 22 October 2003. 

Document 10: some character 

sketches by historian Dick Kimber 

Randal Stafford: A well-educated bushman, who 

openly acknowledged his Anmatyerre wife Alice, 

a competent shot, best friends with Fred Brooks, 

able to speak some Aboriginal language. 

Jack Saxby: A young man, an expert marksman. 

Billy Briscoe: A frontier cattlemen who lived with 

an Aboriginal woman, well-armed, with a basic 

ability in the Anmatyerre language. 

Dodger: a young man, armed with a revolver, 

spoke both local Aboriginal languages and ‘bush 

English’. 

Nugget Morton: Known to be very strong and 

cruel, believed to be a rapist of Aboriginal women 

and girls as young as 9 and 10. 

Tracker Paddy: A Western Australian Aboriginal 

man, believed to be a killer and a rapist of local 

women. 

William George Murray: A World War 1 Light 

Horseman, Gallipoli and Western Front veteran, 

twice wounded in action, rose to the rank of 

sergeant, with no police training. 

Based on Kimber, 22 October 2003, and O’Brien, ‘To infuse an universal terror’: 

The Coniston killings of 1928–2002. 

Document 11: evidence of William 

Murray at the enquiry 

A The matter of a reprisal or a punitive 

expedition in order to massacre all the blacks 

never entered my head or the heads of any of 

my party that I know of ... If either I or my party 

desired to massacre the blacks we would not 

have allowed 20 or 23 of them to get away at 

Coniston not have allowed others to escape 

when we interrogated them and found they had 

nothing to do with the murder. If we had desired 

to shoot them all we could have done it from 

some distance. We would not have separated 

and I would not have taken the risk of going up 

alone and dismounting to arrest them. 

B When I said at [the trial of the two Aboriginal 

men in] Darwin in answer to Mr Foster that 

we shot to kill I meant that the position was 

too dangerous for us to take any chances 

... Mr Foster said to me ‘You did not want to 

be bothered with wounded blackfellows’ 

I said ‘Well what could I do with wounded 

blackfellows’ meaning I could not render 

them any medical treatment to save their lives 

hundreds of miles from civilisation ... 

Evidence of William Murray at the Board of Enquiry 

Now complete the Board of Inquiry summary 

table on page 39. 

52 


activity 3 

Case study 2 

Task 5 

Coming to a conclusion 

You now have a great deal of information, some of it 

contradictory. It’s time to make some decisions. Here 

is a set of statements about various aspects of the 

Coniston killings. They are some of the main points 

Some possible statements about the Coniston Massacre 

that witnesses and historians have made. Decide 

whether you agree with each one. They will help you 

sort out and clarify your own ideas. For each category 

you may want to add your own statements. 

Background 

Brooks 

Japananga 

(‘Bullfrog’) 

The police expeditions 

Mounted Constable 

Murray 

The official 

inquiry 

Aspect 

• The drought meant that Aboriginal people were starving 

• Aboriginal people and Europeans generally got on well 

• Unrest was caused by settlers taking over Aboriginal people’s water holes 

and land 

• Unrest was caused by a party of Aboriginal people that wanted to kill settlers 

• Unrest was caused by missionaries preaching equality 

• Settlers and Aboriginal people respected each others’ laws and culture 

• There were too few police to enforce European law 

• was killed by Japananga alone 

• was killed by several people 

• was killed by a large group 

• was killed out of sexual jealousy 

• was killed because he broke Aboriginal law 

• was killed because he abused Aboriginal women 

• was killed because Japananga was angry 

• was a coward 

• was a hero 

• was a murderer 

• was acting to enforce traditional law 

• were punitive expeditions to terrorise Aboriginal people 

• were acting to enforce the law 

• deliberately killed as many Aboriginal people as possible 

• only killed those resisting arrest 

• killed 31 people 

• killed about 70 

• killed 100–200 

• communicated effectively with Aboriginal people 

• killed everybody they met 

• killed only guilty people 

• killed women and children 

• told the truth 

• told lies 

• told the full story 

• told only those parts of the story that suited him 

• acted bravely and was a hero 

• acted as a coward and was a murderer 

• was just a policeman doing his job 

• was fair and impartial 

• heard from all the available witnesses 

• was unfair and a whitewash 

• achieved justice 

• was completely unjust 

Your conclusion based on all the evidence 

Certainly/ 

probably YES 

Not 

sure 

Certainly/ 

probably NO 


53

activity 4 

Case study 2 

Representation and commemoration 

Although we know a lot about the Coniston 

Massacre, it is still very difficult to be certain about 

exactly what happened, when, where, to whom, by 

whom and why. 

When people write history they are creating 

representations, that is, versions of what happened. 

The best versions or representations of history will 

use the following criteria such as: 

> be factually accurate 

> draw on a variety of sources 

> look at a variety of viewpoints 

> acknowledge strengths and weaknesses of 

arguments and evidence 

> distinguish between evidence and opinion 

> clearly indicate what is fact and what is fiction or 

speculation. 

You are now in a position to do this in your own 

judgements about Coniston, and to critically analyse 

others’ versions or representations of it. 

Task 1 

Comparing three written representations of the 

Coniston Massacre 

Look at these three accounts of the Coniston Massacre, and answer the questions that follow. 

1 Oxford Companion to Australian History 

The Coniston massacre was the first of a series of 

massacres perpetrated on the Anmatyerre as well 

as Walbri (or Warlpiri) people in the area around 

Coniston, near Yuendumu, NT, in 1928. Prompted 

in particular by the slaying of a prospector on 

Coniston station that year, the police made 

numerous punitive expeditions. The last was led 

by Constable William Murray, who fired on a large 

group of people. While Murray admitted to killing 

only 31, it is more probable that between 70 and 

100 Walbri people died. The brutality of the police 

achieved its objective of bringing the Aborigines 

‘into submission’, and many of the Walbri left 

the station. The government resident in Central 

Australia justified the massacre, and the police 

were exonerated. 

Helen Doyle, in Graeme Davison, John Hirst & Stuart Macintyre (eds), The Oxford 

Companion to Australian History, OUP, Melbourne, 1999, p. 145. 

2 Encyclopaedia of Aboriginal Australia 

Coniston Massacre occurred after Frederick Brooks, a 

prospector, was killed by Aboriginal people where he was 

camped at a soak near Coniston station, east of Yuendumu, 

NT, in 1928. His body was discovered in a rabbit warren, and 

when the authorities were notified a punitive expedition set out 

from Alice Springs. In a subsequent inquiry into the expedition, 

the police involved admitted to 17 Aboriginal deaths in relation 

to Brooks’s death, and were exonerated. It has subsequently 

become clear that a vast number of people were murdered 

in a series of raids lasting over a year and covering a wide 

area. It is also clear that those killed in the initial expedition 

were assembled for ceremonies, and their murder may 

have destroyed an entire land-holding or religious ... group, 

jeopardising and destabilising land tenure, ceremonial life and 

the exchange network for the entire region. 

David Horton (ed.), The Encyclopaedia of Aboriginal Australia, vol. 1, Australian Studies Press, 

Canberra, 1994, p. 218. 

1 Does each give a good sense of what happened 

3 Bruce Elder, Blood on the Wattle 

Murray had the particular frontier mentality which 

constructs the world in simplistic terms: Aborigines 

need to be controlled, white settlers need to be 

protected ... Returning to Coniston station on 12 

August, Murray was determined, in his own brutally 

methodical way, to teach the Aborigines in the area 

a lesson about the sacrosanct nature of white life 

which they would never forget ... 

He realised that, at most, three Aborigines had 

been involved in the killing of Old Fred Brooks. 

However, as far as he was concerned, all the 

Aborigines of the area were guilty by association. 

He could see no reason why he should restrict his 

attentions to the three offenders. 

Bruce Elder, Blood on the Wattle, Child & Associates, Sydney, 1988, p. 145. 

2 Identify any factual inaccuracies or distortions that you 

can see in these accounts. 

3 Identify any places where any of the three has 

speculated on a participant’s feelings in a way that is 

not supported by the record as you now understand it. 

4 Why do you think the author has done this 

5 Which of these do you think is the best account Why 

6 Is it important for historical accounts to be factually 

accurate and to acknowledge where they depart the 

historical record and enter into speculation Or doesn’t 

it matter as long as they basically get it right Explain 

your ideas. 

You could also look at history textbooks in your school 

library or accounts of Coniston on the internet and critically 

analyse how they deal with the Coniston Massacre. 

54 



Task 2 

How has the Coniston Massacre been commemorated 

How do we commemorate significant events What are we declaring that we remember, and what do we want 

people to learn about events 

Compare these two 

memorials, just a few 

hundred metres apart 

at Brooks Soak, and 

both connected with the 

Coniston Massacre. 

1 Compare what the 

two memorials tell 

you about the nature, 

causes and meaning 

of the event. 

2 How do you explain 

such differences 

The message reads in two languages: 

IN 1928 NEAR THIS PLACE THE 

MURDER OF FREDERICK BROOKS 

LED TO THE KILLING OF MANY 

INNOCENT ABORIGINAL PEOPLE 

ACROSS THE REGION. 

WE WILL REMEMBER THEM ALWAYS 

24 SEPTEMBER 2003 

In Memory Of Frederick Brooks 

Murdered On 7th August 1928. 

Old Man In The Early Days Of Coniston 

Those Days When Our 

Troubles Were Great 

In The Years You & I Worked Together. 

I Found You A True & Staunch Mate. 

His Old Mate Randal Stafford. 



The Coniston Massacre resulted in the death of many people. 

It also had long-term impacts. 

3 Look at these two documents and list any long-term impacts 

that the Massacre has had on the people of the area. 

Source A: personal impacts 

Our ancestors, the poor things, that the whitefellas shot — 

we will always remember them. We’ll always remember 

this. We still remember. That memory, that old people been 

get shot there, that won’t go away from the brain— we still 

gottem. We are not upset for that problem, but we are just 

worrying about our people who got shot just for cold blood, 

you know. The trouble makers got other people into trouble. 

We’re not upset [i.e. wanting retribution]. We just want it to 

be remembered. We want people to remember. We want 

people to think why was it that innocent people [having a 

ceremony] were killed and not the trouble makers 

We remember that my mother’s mother’s father and my 

mother’s father’s father also and my aunty’s mother’s father 

were killed there (at Athimpelengkwe). My father’s father’s 

father too. 

Source B: regional and cultural impacts 

Escaping from the scene of the massacre, 

Aboriginal survivors headed in the directions of 

Barrow Creek, Tennant Creek, the Granites, Tanami, 

Mount Doreen and other places toward the Western 

Australia border. Although many Warlpiri and 

Anmatyerre were eventually to return to the Lander 

River area, a substantial number remained in the 

places to which they had fled. Many members of the 

Yurrkuru claimants’ families were among those who 

died in the Coniston massacre. 

Yurrkuru (Brookes Soak) Land Claim 1992, Yurrkuru (Brookes Soak) Land Claim 

Report No. 43, Findings, Recommendation and Report of the Aboriginal Land 

Commissioner, Mr Justice Olney, to the Minister for Aboriginal and Torres Strait 

Islander Affairs and to the Administrator of the Northern Territory, Commonwealth of 

Australia 1992 www.fahcsia.gov.au/sa/indigenous/pubs/annualreports/aboriginal_ 

land_comm_reports/yurrkuru/Documents/43.PDF 

www.clc.org.au/Media/publications/coniston/Thommy_Thompson_interview.pdf 


55

activity 4 

Case study 2 

In 2003 a ceremony was held at the unveiling of the memorial plaque shown on the previous page. 

Banner at 2003 anniversary ceremony at Yurrkuru (Brooks Soak) National Museum of Australia 

4 Why do you think that the events of 1928 are still 

so strongly remembered, and are passed down 

to succeeding generations 

5 What are some other events which Australians 

keep remembering and commemorating in a 

similar way 

6 Imagine that you had been asked to make a 

short speech about the Coniston Massacre 

at the ceremony in 2003. Write out the key 

points you would make. You can then compare 

your ideas with those of Liza Dale-Hallett, the 

great-niece of William George Murray. 

Below is the text of the speech actually given in 2003 by Liza Dale-Hallett, the great-niece 

of William George Murray. 

I would like to thank the Central Lands Council for 

making it possible for me to be here today for this special 

occasion. I would also like to thank the Elders of this 

country for your very warm and generous welcome. 

I am here because, like you, I am linked by family to the 

tragic killings of many of your people 75 years ago. I am 

here as the great niece of Mounted Constable William 

George Murray, who played a leading role in these 

killings. But more importantly, I am here because I care 

about our shared history. 

The 1928 Coniston Massacre involved the killing of 

between 31 and 100 Aboriginal people. I am deeply sorry 

that it happened. I know in my heart it was wrong. Sadly, 

I cannot change what happened. 

The Coniston Massacre links my life with yours. We share 

this past. We also share the future. I hope that being 

together today will help us to find new meanings from 

our difficult and painful pasts, and to create a future that 

gives respect to the diversity and equal rights of 

all Australians. 

I feel very privileged to be here with you, face to face, 

feeling the unjust, painful and tragic events of the 

Coniston Massacre. Being involved in this experience 

helps me to feel the realities of my past, to grow in 

understanding, and to build positive links between us. 

My deepest wish is that non-indigenous Australians 

will extend the same generosity of spirit to Aboriginal 

Australians, as you have extended to me and my 

husband Martin. 

These are my hopes…May the spirits of those who were 

killed find rest. May the pain of those affected by the 

Massacre be healed. May we all find peace in our hearts. 

Thank you for your hospitality. Thank you for the 

opportunity of being here today. 

Manuscript of speech provided by author 

7 Most Australians today are concerned with the idea of reconciliation. Do you think a knowledge 

and understanding of the Coniston Massacre will contribute to reconciliation in Australia today 

Explain your ideas. 

56 


activity 4 

Case study 2 

Task 3 

Analysing a museum display 

Analysing the National Museum of Australia’s 

representation of the Coniston Massacre 

The National Museum of Australia has a display 

on the Coniston Massacre as part of its Resistance 

exhibition. 

1 The elements that make up the Museum’s 

exhibition module are on pages 58-59.Look at 

these and then complete this table about the 

display. 

Aspects to consider 

Your comments 

Your initial impression of the 

display is: 

What is included in the display 

Is it historically accurate 

Is the historical context explained 

clearly 

Is the significance of this display 

clearly explained 

Are the objects displayed authentic 

for that event or period as far as you 

can tell 

Are these objects the best possible 

ones to tell the story 

Are the text descriptions clear and 

informative 

Do the surroundings influence your 

impression of the display 

How is the display arranged 

Is the nature of the event clearly 

identified (e.g. am I told if it is 

controversial or contested) 

If so, are a variety of viewpoints 

clearly and fairly represented 

Do I know where the evidence has 

come from and what sort of evidence 

it is 

Is the display designed to promote 

a particular message 

Is its purpose to present objects 

(neutral), or to explain (impartial), or 

to argue a particular view (partisan) 

At the end, do you feel that you really 

understand the situation 

Your final judgement about the 

display is: 

What have you learnt from this 

display about the Coniston 

Massacre 


57


A Yungulu panungku milya-pinyi nyarra-manu kujalu-jana 

yapa-patu 

Kardiyarlu makiti-kirlirli ngurra nganimpa-nyangurla. 

We want everyone to know what the whitefellas with 

rifles did to Aboriginal people in our country. 

Teresa Napurrula Ross, Warlpiri woman, 2007 

C My name is Teresa Napurrula Ross and 

I’m telling a story about Coniston. Where 

whitefellas (kardiya) shot all the Walpiri 

(yapa). Then they were shot with rifles, 

everywhere ... My father told me to do this 

story when I was 10 years old … He was 

at Yurruku at the time of the shooting. He 

was about 14 or 15 years old then. And he 

saw them. He saw kardiya shooting yapa 

... People call [Bullfrog] ‘the whitefella killer’ 

... After killing Brooks he got away. And he 

remained a free man. Some of the elders said 

about Bullfrog he shouldn’t have killed Fred 

Brooks. Because others got killed for that. 

Some of them said it was okay for him to kill 

Brooks because Brooks stole his wife. The 

whitefella gave him tobacco, to Japananga, 

the whitefella killer. And then Japananga 

gave him his wife to sleep with. The old men 

said no, they killed hundreds and hundreds 

... [W]hy did they kill the wrong people They 

should have got Bullfrog, the one that killed 

the whitefella. At the Remembrance Day [in 

2003] when we had that commemoration it 

was good to get together and to remember 

all the people that had been shot by the ones 

with rifles. 

B MURDER AND REPRISAL 

The Coniston Massacre 

In August 1928, a white dingo trapper, Fred 

Brooks, was found murdered on Coniston station 

in Central Australia. Soon after, a reprisal party 

led by Mounted Constable George Murray 

shot dead more than 60 innocent men, women 

and children. These shootings became known 

as the ‘Coniston Massacre’. No charges were 

laid against Murray or his followers. They were 

considered to have ‘acted in self-defence’. 

Warlpiri law 

Brooks’s killer was a Warlpiri man, Kamalyarrpa 

Japananga (‘Bullfrog’). Bullfrog’s granddaughter, 

Rosie Nungurrayi, said in 1975, ‘At Yurruku 

my grandfather killed a whitefella. He hit the 

whitefella because the whitefella stole his wife’. 

In Warlpiri society breaches of marriage law 

were considered capital crimes 

D Kamalyarrpa (Bullfrog) was never caught or 

tried for Brooks’s murder. Three years later, 

anthropologists working in the area met 

Kamalyarrpa. They photographed him and 

collected his spearthrower, without knowing 

of his involvement in Brooks’s killing. 

Extracts from the video commentary by Teresa Napurrula Ross 

South Australian Museum 


58 


activity 4 

Case study 2 

E In 1977, Alec Jupurrurla, who was living nearby 

at the time of Brooks’s murder, recalled the 

event: ‘One boomerang he put right through here 

[indicating throat] and ... he cuttem with stone 

knife. Finish’. 

G The blacks saw me coming and threw a couple 

of spears at me. I jumped off my horse and fired 

four or five shots with my rifle. I do not know 

whether I hit them or not. I certainly tried. 

Jack Saxby, 1928 Board of Enquiry 

Jack Saxby, friend of Fred Brooks and member 

of the reprisal party, just before the Coniston 

Massacre 1928 



F Ceremonies old and new 

In August 2003 a commemoration was held 

to mark the 75th anniversary of the Coniston 

Massacre. The event was attended by 

Aboriginal people (survivors and their families), 

representatives of the Northern Territory Police 

and descendants of Constable George Murray, 

who led the reprisal party. 

Michael Terry Collection, National Library of Australia 

Image of feathered ornament worn in the 2003 ceremony. National Museum of Australia 

H Killing sites Map 

See page 40 

Courtesy Central Land Council and Institute 

for Aboriginal Development, Alice Springs 

I 

Nganimparlu kapurnalu-jana manngu-nyanyirni 

taarnngangku-juku. 

We will remember them always. 

Coniston Massacre monument 

Case study 2 What happened at Coniston in 1928 59

activity 4 

Case study 2 

Task 4 Creating a final representation of the 

Coniston Massacre 

1 From all the evidence you have considered in this unit of work on the 1928 Coniston Massacre, now create 

your own representation or version of this event. Use this format to record your final conclusions. 

My 1928 Coniston Massacre representation 

Key questions 

My answers 

Who was 

involved 

When did it 

happen 

Where did it 

happen 

How did it 

happen 

Why did it 

happen 

What were 

the results or 

outcomes 

How did 

people 

respond to it 

at the time 

What is my 

response to it 

today 

2 Compare your final representation of the events of Coniston with those of other students. 

How similar or different are the various representations How do you account for these 

similarities and differences 

60 


Australian History Mysteries 

Investigating five case studies in twentieth century Australian history

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