Ecology of Red Maple Swamps in the Glaciated Northeast: A ...

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elated to avian richness and abundance. Swift et al. (1984) found that stem densities of short shrubs (1-3 m), tall shrubs (3-5 m), and subcanopy trees were positively correlated with breeding species richness, while short shrub density was positively correlated with abundance. Several measures of the tree stratum, including tree height, stem diameter, and crown closure, were negatively correlated with avian richness and abundance. Shrub layer characteristics were strongly related to bird community characteristics in Merrow's (1990) study also. The percentage cover of shrubs less than 2 m tall was positively correlated with the species richness of singing males, and richness generally increased with shrub foliage volume as well. The presence of a dense, extensive shrub layer within red maple forested wetlands appears to add significantly to habitat complexity, providing nest sites, foraging substrates, song perches, and escape cover for a variety of bird species. Fig. 7.6. Breeding bird richness and diversity in major North American vegetation types. Means with 2 standard errors are depicted. Parentheses indicate the number of censuses included for each vegetation type. Data for all types except red maple swamp are from Tramer (1969). Red maple swamp data were recorded from northeastern U.S. sites greater than 5 ha in size censused by Black and Seeley (1953)' Slack et al. (1975), Swift (1980), Meyers et al. (1981), Taylor (1984), and Merrow (1990). (Melospiza georgiana), and (Agelaius phoeniceus). Over the wide range of structural characteristics measured by Swift et al. (1984) and Merrow (lw), shrub layer structure appeared to be most closely Water Regime and Peat Depth Soil moisture gradients in nonwetland forests have been shown to affect the distribution of breeding birds (Karr 1968; Bertin 1977; Smith 1977). Karr even suggested that surface water is of such great importance that it should be considered equivalent to vegetation strata when describing avian habitats. In Massachusetts red maple swamps, Swift et al. (1984) found that percent cover of surface water, presence of streams, and peat depth were positively correlated with avian richness and abundance, while the degree of water level fluctuation tihroughout the summer was negatively correlated with these characteristics. Peat depth was negatively wrrelated with water level fluctuation and positively correlated with percent surface water; therefore, it was interpreted to be an indicator of sib wetness (Swift 1980). The influence of hydrology on swamp bird communities may be more clearly understood when considered in combination with the effects of vegetation structure. In the eight wetlands studied by Swift et al. (1984), wetter sites also had greater peat depths, denser shrub layers, a less-developed tree stratum, and a larger and more diverse breeding bird community. The swamps studied by Swift et al, spanned a wide range of hydrologic, edaphic, and structural conditions; their results should be interpreted in that light. Because of the relatively great influence of hydrologic variables on the breeding bird community, Swift
et al. (1984) hypothesized that, given similar vegetation struh, avian richness and abundance would increase at sites with deeper organic soils and water seasonal surface-water coverage. Merrow (1990) verified this hypothesis, to some extent, in his study of 12 mature, relatively homogeneous red maple swamps. Of 20 habitat variables examined, only peat depth was significantly correlated with avian abundance. Surface-water coverage was not an important variable in Merrow's study, most likely because water levels in southern Rhode Island were unusually low during his census period. Red Mapk Swamps a' Habitat swamp immediately adjacent to the impoundment. Nest densities in the green-timber impoundment were also higher than those in flooded dead timber and cattail marshes within the refuge (see Cowardin et al. 1967). Mallards accounted for nearly 8094 of the 355 nests found (Kivisalu et al. 1970). Other nesting species included wood duck, black duck, Canada goose (Bnznta canadensis), blue-winged teal (Anas discors), green-winged teal (A. crecca), hooded merganser, gadwall (A. strepera), and American wigeon (A. americam). Stumps and tree cavities with openings less than 1 m above the ground accounted for the majority of waterfowl nest sites from 1965 to 1967 at Montezuma (Kivisalu et al. 1970). After a predator-control program was instituted in 1968, the majority of waterfowl nests were built on tree mounds. Racpredadofeggs ~ ~ ~ floodplains, t e d bmin swamps, and beaver flowages of tho Northeast are important feeding coons andminkwemthe~rimar~ snd -as for migrating waterfowl and incubating hens. Nests were placed an average 1959; Stanton 1965; Rockwell 1970; Kirby 1988). In of 70 cm above the water surface; thus, the need for most years, surface water levels in forested wet- ca~ful water level management in forested waterlands are highest from late fall through spring, fowl impoundments is clear. allowing access ta these areas by migrating water- Of all the waterfowl species that breed in the fowl, Among the species that frequent flooded Northeast, wood ducks (Fig. 7.6) are the most swamps during migration are the wood duck, highly adapted for life in forested wetlands American black duck, mallard (Anas platyrhyn- (Johnsgard 1975; Bellrose 1976). Their strong dechs), ring-necked duck (A~th~a collaris), and pendence on surface water, cavity-nesting habit, hooded merganser (Lophodytes cucullatus). perching ability, and deft maneuverability in flight Waterfowl species that breed in northeastern lidfilt bws shruba unique adaptations to forested wetlands include QK)=~ or stump m~ters this habitat. Throughout the and central such as American black ducks and mallards, as well united states, wood ducks breed in floodas cavity-nesting wood ducks, common goldeneyes plain forests and bottomland hardwood (Buce~hala 'langula), 'Ommon mergansers Wer- maple swamp is the principal forest type used by @s me~mer), and hooded mergansers @lbse bmding wood ducks in the Northeast (M&ilvreY 1976). 1968). Upland forest stands within 0.3 krn of sur- Impoundments in hard- face water bodies also may be used as nesting areas woods of the southern and central United States and Rogers McCilvrey 1968). provide important migration and wintering habitat Grice and Rogers (1965) and McGilvrey (1968) for waterfowl (Yeager 1949; Kadlec 1962; Fredrickoutlined the habitat requirements of breeding wood son and Taylor 1982). Given the success of this technique in wintering areas, green-timber im- ducks in detail. Trees at least 40 cm in diameter, poundments were constructed in the mid-1960$ at with cavities at least 15 cm deep and entraoees the Montezuma National Wildlife Refuge in central larger than cm in diameter? appear to be the p+w york. ~h~ pwpose of the impoundments was minimal nesting; requirement. Still or slowly movto provide both migration and nesting habitat for surface water 8 to 45 cm deep must be present waterfowl (Thompson et al. 1968). A 120-ha red in Swamps when ducks are seeking nest sites in maple swamp, which was diked and flooded to a Mmh and April, and areas should remain i .~depth of 25-30 em from mid-March through June, dated at leasf, halfway thgh the incubation pewas wed by 10 species of nesting waterfowl be- riod. Because of the scarcity of natural cavities in tween 1965 and 1969 (Kivisalu et al. 1970). Water- many swmps and the loss of forested wetland fowl nest density averaged 0.91 per ha over the habitat, the introduction of artificial nest boxes has &year period; only six waterfowl nests were found signif~cantly increased wood duck breeding populaduring the same 5 years in 365 ha of unmanaged tions throughout the eastern United States
Page 2 and 3:
Technical IIbpg~rt Series U.S. Fish
Page 5 and 6:
Preface In many areas of the glacia
Page 7 and 8:
Acer rubrum (red maple) diagnostic
Page 9 and 10:
Zone 111 . St . Lawrence Valley and
Page 11 and 12:
Fig . 3.7. Red maple swap with unde
Page 13 and 14:
Table 4.5. Flood tolerance of trees
Page 15 and 16:
Chapter I. Introduction Wetland kbr
Page 17 and 18:
Regional Setting throughout the gla
Page 19 and 20:
C-J Spruce-Fa Beech-Birch-Maple Mit
Page 21 and 22:
Fig. 1.4. The range of red maple (a
Page 23 and 24:
~ b 1.5, h fircort~ of Wet landc Ir
Page 25 and 26:
Fig. 22. &~lrit~ve Irtndtici~pe yos
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egional groundwakr table by the roc
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y e~rr~mtrtm~~,irzst ion. Cat~t,inu
Page 31 and 32:
inflow^ Outflows OF SWQ SWI Fig. 25
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Fig, 23.6,Soasonally flmded red map
Page 35 and 36:
Fig. 27. Water levels in six mode I
Page 37 and 38:
The duration of soil saturation has
Page 39 and 40:
Organic soils are always very poorl
Page 41 and 42:
Chapter 3. The Plant Community The
Page 43 and 44:
.dar02f 'B Xi? s%u?mma -?sway+xqq p
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Community S tructare Red maple swam
Page 49 and 50:
suggesta a strong correlation betwe
Page 51 and 52:
Table 3.2. Stmtuml chumcteristics o
Page 53 and 54:
Table 3.3. Continued. "- -- - Speci
Page 55 and 56:
Table __ 3.3. _ Continued ._.lll.__
Page 57 and 58:
Table 3.3. Continued. . * - __.. ^.
Page 59 and 60:
Zone I II III TV C" Drppnmriad* sp.
Page 61 and 62:
on Long Island, pin oak, swamp whit
Page 63 and 64: fern moea (?ki.c&inz &limfulum), an
Page 65 and 66: countered (Table 3.3). The herb lay
Page 67 and 68: ~akareous Seepage Swamps England si
Page 69 and 70: and globeflower are. listed in four
Page 71 and 72: was the most likely reason for diff
Page 73 and 74: kvei fluctuation during the gmwing
Page 75 and 76: Table 4.2. .Rektit.e ~bmchnce w Q)
Page 77 and 78: difficuit to delineate in many inst
Page 79 and 80: in the librature btlx>~ithe moi~ttl
Page 81 and 82: Origin. an$ Relationship to Water R
Page 83 and 84: Influence on Swamp Vegetation Flori
Page 85 and 86: taka wpra-x li)wcir, t raac* df~rla
Page 87 and 88: dwuL 4.3 6.3. C ~ ~ ~ strisk- P C I
Page 89 and 90: Chapter 5. Ecosystem Processes Irr
Page 91 and 92: - 0 2 E E 0l *" C 8 g 00 - c_ m 3 -
Page 93 and 94: Ehnzdoltf (IWj wm mmht~nt, rru@w on
Page 95 and 96: 1976; I">irwia RE& vari iier Vdk 18
Page 97 and 98: Xletritus Exprort and 'sod Chain Su
Page 99: Chapter 6. Wetland Dynamics Most no
Page 102 and 103: since forested wetland is the endpo
Page 104 and 105: kettle bogs, lakes, or large rivers
Page 106 and 107: mmdwakr depression wetlands. Becaus
Page 108 and 109: (Mniotila varia), regularly breed i
Page 110 and 111: EXusbtand arid Eddleman (1Y30) quan
Page 112 and 113: census results. Twenty-five (40%) o
Page 116 and 117: Fig. 7.6. Wood duck (Aix sponsa). T
Page 118 and 119: Table 7.5. Small-mammal communities
Page 120 and 121: ing the latter years of flowage occ
Page 122 and 123: Chapter 8. Values, Impacts, and Man
Page 124 and 125: of the bordering upland. Both studi
Page 126 and 127: Fig. 8.1. ST folia) in pel fer. .bu
Page 128 and 129: Table 8.1. Emrnpks ofgmss loss rate
Page 130 and 131: Fig. 8.3. Southern New England red
Page 132 and 133: Fig. 8.4. Electric utility lines pa
Page 134 and 135: e expected to cause more drastic fl
Page 136 and 137: and enhancement has been a highly c
Page 138 and 139: y capturing sediment, reducing nutr
Page 140 and 141: M.R.S.A., Sect. 480.A). Research by
Page 142 and 143: Broadfoot, W. M., and H. L. Willist
Page 144 and 145: Fefer, S. I. 1980. me palushe syste
Page 146 and 147: Jordan, R J. 1978. Glacial geology
Page 148 and 149: Xew Hampshire Xatural Areas Program
Page 150 and 151: Ren MAPLE SWAMR 137 Smith, H. 1984.
Page 152 and 153: Appendix A. Sources of Floristic Da
Page 154 and 155: Appendix B. Plants of Special Conce
Page 156 and 157: Appendix B. Continued Species d Car
Page 158 and 159: Appendix C. Vertebrates That Have B
Page 160 and 161: Mourning warbler ... Nashville warb
Page 162 and 163: Appendix D. Vertebrates of Special
Page 164 and 165:
~tnte"and ronsewat ion stat ilu' d
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