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Research Nutrition Project), Madagascar, and Senegal showed that children whose growth is monitored and whose mothers receive nutrition and health education and have access to basic child health services have a better nutritional status and/or survival than children who do not. The debate about GMP has remained ongoing. In 2003, a report by Save the Children UK questioned the evidence behind community nutrition projects in Bangladesh, Ethiopia, and Uganda. It also stated that “growth monitoring and promotion interventions are bound to fail unless they are explicitly linked to efforts to address the underlying causes of malnutrition.” A systematic review of the evidence for the impact of GMP in 2007 provided a comprehensive view of various programmes worldwide and provided evidence that significant reductions in malnutrition can be achieved through intensive health and nutrition education and basic healthcare without GM. After the launch of the new growth standards by WHO in 2006, a momentum was created to revisit GM activities and rethink the best use of the years of experience. As countries have begun to adopt the new standards, many questions have been raised concerning the programmatic uncertainties of GM at the community level. Many countries face a challenge in dealing with the question of whether or not to implement GM and GMP. Despite all the developments in nutrition programming in the past 10 years, GM still seems to be a convenient delivery mechanism for community interventions. However, national planners need better guidance on transitioning to alternative options that are not based on monitoring growth in the communities, if GM has not proven to be effective in contributing to programmes for prevention of undernutrition. Part of the confusion about the place of GM in nutrition programmes appears to be due to lack of agreement on the definition and expected outcomes of GM and GMP. The authors of this review suggest the following clarifications: Growth monitoring is a process of following the growth of a child compared with a standard by periodic, frequent anthropometric measurements and assessments. The main purpose of GM is to assess growth adequacy and identify faltering at early stages before the child reaches the status of undernutrition. Community based growth monitoring is not itself an intervention that can treat growth faltering when it is identified. It is rather an activity which, in addition to making a child’s growth visible, may become an important point of contact with the caregiver and stimulate discussions at the community level. If implemented as a stand-alone activity, GM does not provide any benefits apart from knowledge about a child’s growth status. GMP is defined as tailored counselling based on the GM results and follow-up problem solv- The decision to include GM and promotion sessions in community-based programmes needs to be made at the national and subnational levels after careful consideration of priorities, available resources, and the feasibiling with caregivers. This allows looking into growth monitoring-specific outcomes and benefits, as compared with general counselling and other interventions that could be delivered outside the GM session as well. A community-based programme should include a number of interventions such as general counselling to caregivers (either individually or in groups) and delivery of different services within the context of the communitybased programme. These interventions and services could be delivered during the same GMP session, using the opportunity of the contact with caregivers. These services, however, are not dependent on measuring the growth of children and can also be delivered outside the GM context. Growth monitoring Combining GMP and additional interventions needs to be planned carefully to ensure that the quality of both is maintained. In some settings, workers may become overburdened by additional tasks and focus most of their attention on delivery of services rather than effective counselling and problem-solving with mothers. Evidence is accumulating on the types of community interventions that are effective, practical, and sustainable. These interventions are not necessarily linked to GM, which raises the question of whether there is a need for this activity if the community-based programmes can be designed and implemented successfully without monitoring the growth of each child. ity of reaching a high quality of GMP activities. In many settings where a concrete nutritional problem is affecting most of the population, such as micronutrient deficiencies or low breastfeeding rates, a targeted intervention may be a first priority for reaching quick improvements before deciding on more comprehensive community-based programmes, which could include GMP. Although it is not strictly necessary for inclusion in any community-based programme, under certain conditions having quality GMP can add desirable aspects to these programmes. The approach of regular monitoring of child growth provides the opportunity for better community actions to prevent undernutrition. High quality GM can: • Provide an opportunity to prevent undernutrition before it occurs. GMP helps community workers identify infants and children who have growth faltering (or are at risk for faltering) and promotes timely actions to improve the situation within a short time frame • Assist in focusing attention and resources on children at risk. • Motivate families and caregivers to change and improve practices. • Help target and tailor counselling messages. • Produce ancillary benefits. GM sessions provide opportunities for immunisation, screening and treatment for diarrhoea, malaria, and pneumonia, counselling on various health and nutrition topics and the provision of other community-level health or preventive services as needed. These additional benefits that are pertinent to GMP do not receive enough attention during most of the evaluations of community-based programmes. In general, the level of commitment from the health system required for successful implementation of GM and GMP has proven difficult to maintain at a large scale, with the exception of few well-supported and well-supervised national programmes. Supportive supervision of community health workers requires ample allotment of time and funding, which may not be realistic within a strained healthcare system. UNICEF/NYHQ2011-0273/Dormino Appropriate implementation of GMP is dependent on the motivation of health workers. Experience shows that community workers can be effectively motivated to accurately measure, plot, and diagnose growth faltering but are often undervalued, under supervised, and poorly paid. The ratio of trained staff to the target population may also be inadequate. The quality of training of community workers requires significant resources and efforts. In an evaluation of nine projects (governmentally and non-governmentally implemented) in Africa and Asia that included GM, most of the settings had adequate infrastructure to support GM but training was incomplete, leaving only a small proportion of the staff able to adequately take weight measurements. In addition, the low educational level of community workers in some settings impedes 25
their capacity to interpret and analyse growth measurement results, identify at-risk children, and analyse possible causes of growth faltering. Although good coverage has been shown in small-scale programmes, reaching all targeted children is generally difficult to achieve, and attendance is often less than desired. The frequency of GMP attendance often declined in children of older age groups, and children who were most at risk attended less often than betteroff children. Health managers worldwide attribute low attendance to a lack of interest by mothers after completion of vaccination, weak awareness campaigns to motivate mothers, and the inability of parents to respond to information provided during the sessions (due to illiteracy, inability to understand the growth chart, or lack of access to foods). A review of GMP in seven countries concluded that GMP is not implemented appropriately and attributed its failure to a lack of adequate investment and to the fact that GMP is often implemented in isolation from other necessary nutritional actions. The key implementation problems were low coverage (often the poorest children had the worst coverage), no action or low-quality action taken based on the analysis of GM data, and no agreement on the human, organisational, and financial resources needed for successful GMP. In general, GMP has been shown to be successful in cases where it was added to an existing well-managed and well-supervised health system, where health workers and community workers were adequately trained and recognised for their work, where accurate equipment and materials were available, where communities were involved in the GMP process, and where culturally appropriate communication was developed Important questions to answer in evaluations of GM or GMP programmes could be: “Does the measurement facilitate dialogue and counselling?” “To what degree does information about child growth affect the quality of counselling?” “To what extent can community workers provide quality tailored counselling based on growth status?” Such questions need to be answered by looking at different outcomes, including the caregiver’s awareness of the child’s growth status, knowledge about necessary care practices, confidence and satisfaction with the acquired information during counselling sessions and child care behaviours. A government agricultural extension officer showing a farmer how to care for a cassava plant (FAO supported project) Political economy of adaptation through crop diversification in Malawi Summary of article 1 The seriousness of the problem of climate change and its negative effects on livelihoods is widely recognised in Malawi, even though no single coherent policy framework exists. However, there are several sector policies such as crop production (1990), national environmental management plan (1994), national forest (1996), national irrigation (2000), amongst others. In addition, Malawi developed and adopted the National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) in 2006, which serves as a framework for climate change adaptation efforts in the country. The objectives of NAPA are to improve community resilience, restore forests, improve agricultural production and improve preparedness for floods and droughts. A recent article examines the opportunities and challenge of climate change adaptation in Malawi using the case of crop diversification. It draws from an innovative experiment about policy engagement and influence between two sets of researchers: those working with the Research to Policy for Adaptation project and Participatory Action Researchers. The former are mainly experts in policy processes, whereas the latter are experts in climate change adaptation. The engagement between these two groups was guided by the conceptual framework for policy processes developed in the Knowledge Technology and Society (KNOTS) team at the Institute of Development Studies, UK. The framework analyses policy processes from three perspectives: narratives and evidence, actors and networks, and politics and interests. The basic thrust of the framework is the way in which policies are talked about, and the associated values, power relations and politics that frame policies in a particular way. The framework draws attention to the fact that policymaking and processes cannot be reduced to universal recipes that are supposed to work irrespective of the time and place in which they are adopted. In other words, policies are more effective when they are informed by an understanding of power relations, incentives and change processes. The key findings of this research included the following: • While constantly making references to the ideals of crop diversification, the main preoccupation of the government is to achieve food security ©FAO/Jon Spaull Research because of its centrality in the country’s electoral politics. For the government, food security can be guaranteed by the use of high-yielding hybrid maize varieties. • Seed companies are keen to promote hybrid maize seeds since they are their main product and through the subsidy programme, seed companies are guaranteed a ready market. • Donors are interested in promoting a private sector-driven input supply system through the promotion of agro-dealers to fill the vacuum following the dismantling of the state-driven input supply system through liberalisation. This has made hybrid maize the dominant seed that is made available to farmers through the input subsidy programme. • Most communities argue that crop diversification cannot be a success due to the cultural orientation that equates food to maize. Foodstuffs made from alternative cereals, such as millet and sorghum, are widely perceived as ‘inferior’ to the extent that households resorting to such foodstuffs are taken to be desperate. • Most international humanitarian nongovernmental organisations (NGOs) perceive crop diversification as desirable but not attainable as long as weather index insurance schemes are exploited as commercial ventures by the private sector. They condemn the insurance schemes as a barrier to crop diversification mainly due to their institutional arrangements. Farmers take loans from a designated bank, procure seeds from a specified company, and dispose of their produce to a designated buyer. Not only are the farmers bound up in a particular institutional arrangement that effectively curtails their freedom, but the seed companies involved are known to promote almost exclusively hybrid maize. The major lesson from the study is that policy influence is not merely a question of generating robust scientific evidence and making it available to policymakers. It is as much about generating new evidence as it is creating strategic partnerships, coalitions and alliances. Policy engagement and influence entails engaging with policymakers for them to understand the implications of new or even old evidence as vital input into their decision-making processes. Therefore, the manner in which evidence is packaged, how it is communicated to policymakers, by whom and when, matters a great deal for researchers to effectively engage with the policy processes and influence the final outcomes. The main implication of the KNOTS framework is that processes of discussing, negotiating, approving and implementing policies are as important as the scientific content of the policies themselves. The experience with crop diversification show that dominant stakeholders almost always have their way and that implementation of crop diversification has been constrained by a dominant narrative that equates food security with maize. The input subsidy programme, which is the single most important resource in the agricultural sector, has been captured by politicians primarily to advance their own political goals. Alternative narratives had had no significant effect on the mainstream narrative of crop diversification that equates food security with availability of maize. The case study sheds light on the dynamics of political, economic and social processes that either promote or block pro-poor change. 1 Chinsinga.B, Mangani. R, and Mvula.P (2011).The political economy of adaptation through crop diversification in Malawi. IDS Bulletin Volume 42, Number 3, pp 110-117, May 2011. 26
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