Towards Sustainable Open and Distance Learning in the ...
Towards Sustainable Open and Distance Learning in the ...
Towards Sustainable Open and Distance Learning in the ...
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TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING IN THE<br />
DEVELOPMENTAL STATE: FINANCING QUALITY DISTANCE<br />
EDUCATION<br />
PIERRE DU PLESSIS<br />
UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG<br />
Email: pierredp@uj.ac.za<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
<strong>Distance</strong> education represents a major component of higher education<br />
provision <strong>in</strong> South Africa. <strong>Distance</strong> learn<strong>in</strong>g is an excellent method of reach<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>the</strong> adult students. Because of <strong>the</strong> compet<strong>in</strong>g priorities of work, home <strong>and</strong><br />
school adult students desire a high degree of flexibility. The structure of<br />
distance learn<strong>in</strong>g gives adults <strong>the</strong> greatest possible control over <strong>the</strong> time,<br />
place <strong>and</strong> pace of education.<br />
In 2001, 29% of all full-time equivalent students <strong>in</strong> public <strong>in</strong>stitutions, or 43%<br />
of all headcount students, were enrolled <strong>in</strong> declared distance programs. It<br />
shows that <strong>the</strong> use of distance education <strong>in</strong> higher education has significantly<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased access to higher education (CHE, 2003).<br />
The f<strong>in</strong>ancial logic of distance education, has <strong>in</strong> many ways been a response<br />
to education systems that are <strong>in</strong> crises because <strong>the</strong>y are push<strong>in</strong>g aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
speak<strong>in</strong>g academic’s ceil<strong>in</strong>g capacity to manage <strong>the</strong> learn<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>in</strong>com<strong>in</strong>g<br />
students.<br />
However, it has become a dangerous piece of conventional wisdom that<br />
distance learn<strong>in</strong>g is less expensive than traditional contact education. This<br />
paper wants to explore how quality education can be f<strong>in</strong>anced <strong>and</strong> what need<br />
to be done so that <strong>the</strong> quality of distance education is related to <strong>the</strong> level of<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestment <strong>in</strong> its design.<br />
Keywords: susta<strong>in</strong>able learn<strong>in</strong>g, distance learn<strong>in</strong>g, quality, economics,<br />
f<strong>in</strong>ances<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
<strong>Distance</strong> education is becom<strong>in</strong>g more <strong>and</strong> more popular as economic forces<br />
encourage, <strong>and</strong> new technologies facilitate, its spread. There is a tremendous<br />
growth <strong>and</strong> diversity <strong>in</strong> distance learn<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> number <strong>and</strong> type of <strong>in</strong>dividuals<br />
learn<strong>in</strong>g outside traditional classrooms, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> variety of providers, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> range<br />
<strong>and</strong> effectiveness of new technologies serv<strong>in</strong>g as delivery tools for learn<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
1
The quality of open <strong>and</strong> distance learn<strong>in</strong>g (ODL) varies like any o<strong>the</strong>r form of<br />
education. Its quality can be <strong>the</strong> result of a variety of factors, both <strong>in</strong>ternal <strong>and</strong><br />
external to an open distance learn<strong>in</strong>g organization for example, <strong>the</strong> levels of<br />
skills <strong>and</strong> expertise of staff, <strong>the</strong> resources available, weak or strong leadership<br />
efficiency of its adm<strong>in</strong>istration systems, or <strong>the</strong> communication <strong>in</strong>frastructure <strong>in</strong><br />
a country.<br />
“<strong>Distance</strong> education is becom<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly global, creat<strong>in</strong>g myriad new<br />
alliances as traditional educational <strong>in</strong>stitutions jo<strong>in</strong> with bus<strong>in</strong>ess, foreign<br />
governments <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational organizations to offer <strong>and</strong> use distance<br />
learn<strong>in</strong>g” (Sherry, 1996).<br />
<strong>Distance</strong> learn<strong>in</strong>g is used <strong>in</strong> a variety of sett<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>and</strong> for a broad range of<br />
purposes. Universities use it to <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>the</strong> number of students who have<br />
access to higher education, companies use it to upgrade <strong>the</strong> skills of <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
employees <strong>and</strong> to keep abreast of rapidly advanc<strong>in</strong>g technologies, <strong>in</strong>dividuals<br />
make use of distance learn<strong>in</strong>g for <strong>the</strong>ir own professional development <strong>and</strong> to<br />
enhance <strong>the</strong>ir career opportunities, governments use distance learn<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
provide on-<strong>the</strong>-job tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g to teachers <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r governmental workers, to<br />
enhance <strong>the</strong> quality of traditional primary <strong>and</strong> secondary school<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> to<br />
deliver <strong>in</strong>struction to very remote rural areas.<br />
Most <strong>in</strong>stitutions are concerned to achieve <strong>the</strong> highest possible quality, but not<br />
all have addressed <strong>the</strong> management of quality with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> organization <strong>in</strong> a<br />
systematic way as much as <strong>the</strong>y need to. Quality is often judged <strong>in</strong> terms of<br />
<strong>the</strong> learn<strong>in</strong>g materials, whatever <strong>the</strong> medium. These are <strong>the</strong> pivot on which<br />
<strong>the</strong> whole learn<strong>in</strong>g enterprise turns. However, a course is more than materials.<br />
Ideological arguments are made for open learn<strong>in</strong>g, economic ones for<br />
distance learn<strong>in</strong>g. If it can produce similar results to those of conventional<br />
education at a lower cost, <strong>the</strong>n distance education has a powerful appeal<br />
(Maguire, 2005).<br />
These are grounds for th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g that distance learn<strong>in</strong>g may have economic<br />
advantages. There are two sides to <strong>the</strong> argument. The educational side is <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>ory of media equivalence, that <strong>the</strong>re are no significant differences <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
effectiveness of different educational media. The economic side of distance<br />
learn<strong>in</strong>g allows a division of labour, <strong>in</strong> which a group of academics <strong>and</strong><br />
producers manufactures teach<strong>in</strong>g material, an organizational mach<strong>in</strong>e<br />
distributes it <strong>and</strong> ano<strong>the</strong>r group provides a m<strong>in</strong>imum of <strong>in</strong>dividual tutorial<br />
support to students.<br />
Economics of scale become possible provided that <strong>the</strong>re are enough students<br />
to justify <strong>the</strong> manufactur<strong>in</strong>g cost of <strong>the</strong> first group <strong>and</strong> student contact is kept<br />
down to conta<strong>in</strong> costs of <strong>the</strong> second.<br />
Various technologies have been used for distance learn<strong>in</strong>g, but pr<strong>in</strong>t-based<br />
correspondence courses have been <strong>and</strong> will cont<strong>in</strong>ue to be <strong>the</strong> dom<strong>in</strong>ant<br />
delivery mechanism <strong>in</strong> both <strong>the</strong> developed <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g worlds.<br />
2
Pr<strong>in</strong>t is still <strong>the</strong> cheapest technology <strong>and</strong> even if <strong>the</strong> costs of us<strong>in</strong>g high-tech<br />
dissem<strong>in</strong>ation tools falls below those of pr<strong>in</strong>t, it will be some time before many<br />
countries have adequate <strong>in</strong>frastructures (Halse & Terzoli, 2002).<br />
DEFINITION AND CONTEXT OF DISTANCE LEARNING<br />
<strong>Distance</strong> learn<strong>in</strong>g is <strong>the</strong> process of transferr<strong>in</strong>g knowledge to students who<br />
are separated from <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>structor (teacher) by time <strong>and</strong>/or physical distance<br />
<strong>and</strong> are mak<strong>in</strong>g use of technology components, such as <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternet, video,<br />
DE’s, tapes <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r forms of technology to accomplish learn<strong>in</strong>g (Campbell,<br />
2003).<br />
The California <strong>Distance</strong> <strong>Learn<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Project (CDLP) def<strong>in</strong>es distance learn<strong>in</strong>g as<br />
follows: “<strong>Distance</strong> learn<strong>in</strong>g (DL) is an <strong>in</strong>structional delivery system that<br />
connects students with educational resources. DL provider educational<br />
access to students not enroll<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> educational <strong>in</strong>stitutions <strong>and</strong> can augment<br />
<strong>the</strong> learn<strong>in</strong>g opportunities of current students. The implementation of DL is a<br />
process that uses available resources <strong>and</strong> will evolve to <strong>in</strong>corporate emerg<strong>in</strong>g<br />
technologies.” (http://www.cdlponl<strong>in</strong>e.org/<strong>in</strong>dex.cfm)<br />
<strong>Distance</strong> learn<strong>in</strong>g is what should occur if special consideration has been taken<br />
regard<strong>in</strong>g course design, <strong>in</strong>structional techniques, communication mediums,<br />
<strong>and</strong> organization <strong>and</strong> adm<strong>in</strong>istrative issues associated with <strong>the</strong> distance<br />
education program. Knowledge transfer should transpire despite “<strong>the</strong> fact that<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>structor <strong>and</strong> student are geographically separated by time or distance”<br />
(Moore& Kearsley, 1996).<br />
<strong>Distance</strong> education is a systematic organized form of self study <strong>in</strong> which<br />
student counsel<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>the</strong> presentation of learn<strong>in</strong>g material <strong>and</strong> secur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong><br />
supervis<strong>in</strong>g of students’ success is carried out by a team of teachers, each of<br />
whom has responsibilities. It is made possible at a distance by means of<br />
media which can cover long distance.<br />
“<strong>Distance</strong> learn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> distance education are terms used synonymously <strong>in</strong><br />
education <strong>and</strong> learn<strong>in</strong>g technologies. It is deemed that distance learn<strong>in</strong>g has<br />
been a method of teach<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> learn<strong>in</strong>g for many <strong>in</strong>dividuals for at least one<br />
hundred years,” accord<strong>in</strong>g to Moore & Kearsley, 1996).<br />
SIGNIFICANCE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION<br />
Educators of adults face <strong>the</strong> challenge of serv<strong>in</strong>g a student population <strong>and</strong><br />
society that is <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly diverse. Mov<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> 21 st century, <strong>the</strong> adult<br />
population is expected to be <strong>the</strong> fastest grow<strong>in</strong>g segment of high education<br />
<strong>and</strong>, older students will constitute <strong>the</strong> majority.<br />
3
While distance education is already a fact of life for most universities <strong>and</strong> an<br />
<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g number of community colleges, know<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> “<strong>in</strong>tr<strong>in</strong>sic problems <strong>and</strong><br />
overcom<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>m will be critical to successful implementation of distance<br />
programs on a large scale <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> future” (K<strong>in</strong>naman, 1995).<br />
In distance learn<strong>in</strong>g, students <strong>and</strong> teachers will f<strong>in</strong>d <strong>the</strong>mselves play<strong>in</strong>g<br />
different roles than is <strong>the</strong> norm <strong>in</strong> traditional education. The teacher is no<br />
longer <strong>the</strong> sole source of knowledge but <strong>in</strong>stead becomes a “facilitator to<br />
support student learn<strong>in</strong>g, while <strong>the</strong> student activity participates <strong>in</strong> what <strong>and</strong><br />
how knowledge is imparted” (Harry, 1992). <strong>Distance</strong> learn<strong>in</strong>g requires a<br />
collaborative effort between student <strong>and</strong> teacher, <strong>in</strong>bounded by <strong>the</strong> traditional<br />
limits of time, space <strong>and</strong> s<strong>in</strong>gle <strong>in</strong>structor effort.<br />
Technology has also changed <strong>the</strong> face of education. Advances <strong>in</strong><br />
telecommunications technology has opened up <strong>the</strong> possibility of personal <strong>and</strong><br />
group <strong>in</strong>teraction <strong>in</strong> distance education. Both computer <strong>and</strong> audio<br />
conferenc<strong>in</strong>g permit <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>troduction of class discussions without <strong>the</strong> group<br />
meet<strong>in</strong>g face-to-face. Phone calls <strong>and</strong> electronic mail replaces personal office<br />
visits. The distance learner can now have almost <strong>the</strong> same <strong>in</strong>structional<br />
contact <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>teraction as <strong>the</strong> student on campus. But remote access<br />
education does not need to elim<strong>in</strong>ate all <strong>the</strong> benefits of human contact. In fact,<br />
“<strong>the</strong> proliferation of <strong>the</strong> modern teleconferenc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> World Wide Web<br />
provides a rich expanse of both <strong>in</strong>formation <strong>and</strong> contacts that were previously<br />
unavailable” (Gulusha, 2004).<br />
FLEXIBILITY<br />
From a pedagogical po<strong>in</strong>t of view, distance education offers <strong>the</strong> students<br />
flexibility – flexibility of schedul<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> possibility of proceed<strong>in</strong>g at one’s own<br />
pace, <strong>the</strong> opportunity to study without hav<strong>in</strong>g to travel <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> best funded<br />
programmes, <strong>in</strong>dividualized attention from <strong>the</strong> lecturer (NADEOSA, 2005). At<br />
<strong>the</strong> same time, distance learn<strong>in</strong>g, when reduced to <strong>in</strong>dividualized self-study,<br />
can be isolat<strong>in</strong>g. Much of education consists of dialogue; <strong>the</strong> lack of a formal<br />
structure <strong>and</strong> timetable <strong>in</strong> distance learn<strong>in</strong>g can be detrimental to <strong>the</strong> tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
experience <strong>and</strong> lead to poor motivation <strong>and</strong> high-dropout rates.<br />
SUSTAINABILITY OF DISTANCE EDUCATION<br />
Susta<strong>in</strong>ability open <strong>and</strong> distance education is one <strong>in</strong> which it is operated <strong>in</strong><br />
meet<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> needs of <strong>the</strong> present generation without compromis<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> ability<br />
of future generations to meet <strong>the</strong>ir own need (Daniels, 2004), has opened,<br />
……” <strong>the</strong> purpose of open <strong>and</strong> distance learn<strong>in</strong>g, is to facilitate susta<strong>in</strong>ability<br />
development. Susta<strong>in</strong>ability has assumed a dimension that will be difficult to<br />
underm<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> any education, socio-economic programmes.<br />
4
Daniels (2004) identified six factors of success <strong>and</strong> susta<strong>in</strong>ability. These are:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Clarity of purpose <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tention. The purpose <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>tention for<br />
embark<strong>in</strong>g on ODL must be well stated <strong>in</strong> a very clear, specific <strong>and</strong><br />
unambiguous manner.<br />
Economic Structure. Any <strong>Open</strong> University that aspires to be great <strong>and</strong><br />
provide quality education should be f<strong>in</strong>ancially buoyant. When open<br />
<strong>and</strong> distance learn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>stitutions are economically viable, <strong>the</strong>y depend<br />
less on government. The implication of this is farfetched. In <strong>the</strong><br />
develop<strong>in</strong>g countries, many ideas <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>novations cannot be susta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
because most of <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>stitutions depend majorly on government<br />
subvention. “In a situation where (Salawu, Olugbenga & Kayode, 2010)<br />
<strong>in</strong>stitutions are <strong>in</strong>dependent of <strong>the</strong> government, susta<strong>in</strong>ability is best<br />
experienced. This also reduces government <strong>in</strong>tervention <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> runn<strong>in</strong>g<br />
of <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>stitutions. In such a situation, creativity <strong>in</strong>novativeness <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>genuity is encouraged.”<br />
Institutional Structure. For open <strong>and</strong> distance learn<strong>in</strong>g to record<br />
successes, <strong>the</strong>re is a need for <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>stitution to enjoy <strong>in</strong>stitutional<br />
autonomy.<br />
Leadership. Ano<strong>the</strong>r major <strong>in</strong>gredient of susta<strong>in</strong>able open <strong>and</strong><br />
distance learn<strong>in</strong>g is an effective <strong>and</strong> efficient leadership especially at<br />
<strong>the</strong> foundation years. Good leadership, accord<strong>in</strong>g to Daniels (2004) is<br />
also crucial at <strong>the</strong> time of change. Good leadership has <strong>the</strong> potential of<br />
revitaliz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> re-energiz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>stitutions that are moribund <strong>and</strong> less<br />
functional. Good leadership provides <strong>and</strong> enabl<strong>in</strong>g environment to<br />
allow for <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>stitution to achieve <strong>the</strong> purpose for which it was<br />
established. “Thus a good leader is an embodiment of talent, vision,<br />
energy, resources <strong>and</strong> commitment to achieve targets <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> fact goes<br />
beyond atta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> maximum capacity of <strong>the</strong> system” (Salawu, et al,<br />
2010).<br />
It is <strong>the</strong> responsibility of a good leader to appo<strong>in</strong>t <strong>the</strong> right people to<br />
occupy right positions. Where all <strong>the</strong>se are absent, <strong>the</strong> leadership<br />
becomes weak, <strong>in</strong>active, <strong>in</strong>sensitive <strong>and</strong> may risk failure (Pradhan &<br />
Deshmukh, 2001).<br />
<br />
An Effective <strong>and</strong> Balanced Teach<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> <strong>Learn<strong>in</strong>g</strong> System. This<br />
means <strong>the</strong> provision of high quality education that satisfies <strong>the</strong><br />
aspirations of <strong>the</strong> students to <strong>the</strong> extent that <strong>the</strong>y wish to come back to<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>stitution for fur<strong>the</strong>r studies <strong>and</strong> feel proud to recommend <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>stitution to o<strong>the</strong>rs seek<strong>in</strong>g knowledge. “In order to achieve this, <strong>the</strong>re<br />
is a need to provide <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> high quality study materials<br />
effective student support <strong>and</strong> good logistics, perfect conduct of<br />
exam<strong>in</strong>ations <strong>and</strong> almost immediate, hitch free registration <strong>and</strong><br />
effective tutorials where <strong>the</strong>y are provided” (Salawu, et al, 2010).<br />
5
Flexibility, promptness <strong>and</strong> alertness are some of <strong>the</strong> actions to be<br />
taken to ensure that <strong>the</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> learn<strong>in</strong>g system is not only<br />
effective <strong>and</strong> balanced but susta<strong>in</strong>able.<br />
Intellectual Excitement. Daniels (2004) is of <strong>the</strong> view that students<br />
will enjoy <strong>the</strong>ir <strong>in</strong>stitution <strong>and</strong> help to make it susta<strong>in</strong>able, if <strong>the</strong>y f<strong>in</strong>d<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir studies <strong>in</strong>tellectually or practically excit<strong>in</strong>g. Students must realize<br />
that <strong>the</strong> education <strong>the</strong>y are receiv<strong>in</strong>g is to act as a change factor <strong>and</strong> as<br />
“a catalyst which should propel <strong>the</strong>m to become more enlightened by<br />
mak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>m realize that <strong>the</strong>y are entitled to almost unlimited<br />
opportunities” (Salawu, et al, 2010) <strong>and</strong> quality.<br />
Quality has become a dynamic concept that has constantly adapted to a world<br />
whose societies are undergo<strong>in</strong>g profound social <strong>and</strong> economic transformation.<br />
Old notions of quality are no longer enough, despite <strong>the</strong> content, <strong>the</strong>re are<br />
many common elements <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> pursuit of a quality education, which should<br />
equip all people to be fully participat<strong>in</strong>g members of <strong>the</strong>ir own communities<br />
<strong>and</strong> also citizens of <strong>the</strong> world (UNESCO, 2003).<br />
Quality is <strong>the</strong> characteristic of <strong>the</strong> products <strong>and</strong> service on organization offers.<br />
Quality <strong>in</strong> ODL programmes thus means quality of graduates it produces <strong>and</strong><br />
quality of learn<strong>in</strong>g experiences it provides. “Quality Assurance is a deliberately<br />
planned <strong>and</strong> systematic process of determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> ensur<strong>in</strong>g that adequate<br />
<strong>and</strong> acceptable st<strong>and</strong>ards, scholarship, human <strong>and</strong> material <strong>in</strong>frastructure are<br />
put <strong>in</strong> place, ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>and</strong> enhanced” (Ogunsanya & Mohan, 2007).<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to Murgatroyd & Morgan (1993) “quality assurance refers to <strong>the</strong><br />
determ<strong>in</strong>ation of st<strong>and</strong>ards, appropriate methods <strong>and</strong> quality requirements by<br />
an expert body, accompanied by a process of <strong>in</strong>spection or evaluation that<br />
exam<strong>in</strong>ers <strong>the</strong> extent to which practice meets <strong>the</strong>se st<strong>and</strong>ards.”<br />
From <strong>the</strong> def<strong>in</strong>itions of quality assurance, it is apparent that <strong>the</strong> major concern<br />
of quality assurance is determ<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>and</strong> enforcement on <strong>the</strong> part of an<br />
organization <strong>in</strong> meet<strong>in</strong>g up with <strong>the</strong> set quality st<strong>and</strong>ard as a means of<br />
satisfy<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> clients or <strong>the</strong> consumers of <strong>the</strong> product or service (Salawu, et al,<br />
2010).<br />
The guarantee<strong>in</strong>g quality <strong>in</strong> distance education is a central challenge across<br />
<strong>the</strong> world. Too many students have been duped <strong>in</strong>to part<strong>in</strong>g with <strong>the</strong>ir hardearned<br />
money <strong>and</strong> giv<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong>ir precious time to pursue – educational<br />
programmes where <strong>the</strong>ir chances of success are m<strong>in</strong>imal or <strong>the</strong> programmes<br />
for which <strong>the</strong>y are enrolled are worthless. Sadly, distance students are easily<br />
exploitable, because <strong>the</strong>y are scattered <strong>and</strong> isolated.<br />
POLICY ENVIRONMENT OF DISTANCE LEARNING IN SOUTH AFRICA<br />
In 1994, <strong>the</strong> African National Congress (ANC) document: A Policy Framework<br />
for Education <strong>and</strong> Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g outl<strong>in</strong>ed a vision of a future ‘well-designed <strong>and</strong><br />
6
quality distance education system based on <strong>the</strong> pr<strong>in</strong>ciples of open learn<strong>in</strong>g’<br />
(ANC, 1994: 78) that would contribute to <strong>in</strong>crease education was prioritized,<br />
as was a commitment to an open learn<strong>in</strong>g approach:<br />
The African National Congress commissioned SAIDE, <strong>the</strong> South African<br />
Institute for <strong>Distance</strong> Education, to organize a review of current distance<br />
education <strong>and</strong> also propose ways <strong>in</strong> which distance education could<br />
contribute <strong>in</strong>tegrally to <strong>the</strong> proposed education <strong>and</strong> tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g system. This<br />
review as carried out <strong>in</strong> early 1994 by an <strong>in</strong>ternational team of very prom<strong>in</strong>ent<br />
distance educator experts. It was deeply critical of much of <strong>the</strong> distance<br />
education on offer <strong>in</strong> South Africa but identified a number of explicit roles that<br />
distance education could play <strong>in</strong> transformation of education.<br />
In 1995 White Paper on Education <strong>and</strong> Tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g, <strong>the</strong> first policy statement on<br />
education from <strong>the</strong> newly elected government took, up this <strong>the</strong>me, stat<strong>in</strong>g:<br />
The dimensions of South Africa’s learn<strong>in</strong>g deficit are so vast <strong>in</strong> relation<br />
to <strong>the</strong> needs of <strong>the</strong> people, <strong>the</strong> constitutional guarantee of <strong>the</strong> right to<br />
basic education, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> severe f<strong>in</strong>ancial constra<strong>in</strong>ts on <strong>in</strong>frastructural<br />
development on a large scale, that a completely fresh approach is<br />
required to <strong>the</strong> provision of learn<strong>in</strong>g opportunities (DoE, 1995: 28).<br />
The term ‘open learn<strong>in</strong>g’ was understood <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> White Paper, as follows:<br />
<strong>Open</strong> learn<strong>in</strong>g is an approach which comb<strong>in</strong>es <strong>the</strong> pr<strong>in</strong>ciples of learner<br />
centeredness, lifelong learn<strong>in</strong>g, flexibility of learn<strong>in</strong>g provision, <strong>the</strong><br />
removal of barriers to access learn<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>the</strong> recognition for credit of prior<br />
learn<strong>in</strong>g experience, <strong>the</strong> provision of learner support, <strong>the</strong> construction<br />
of learn<strong>in</strong>g programmes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> expectation that learners can succeed,<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>tenance of rigorous quality assurance over <strong>the</strong> design of<br />
learn<strong>in</strong>g materials <strong>and</strong> support system.<br />
South Africa is able to ga<strong>in</strong> from worldwide experience over several<br />
decades <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> development of <strong>in</strong>novative methods of education,<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> use of guided self-study, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> appropriate use of a<br />
variety of media, which give practical expression to open learn<strong>in</strong>g<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>ciples (DoE, 1995: 28)<br />
Explicit policy around education was <strong>the</strong>n to be taken up with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
policy documents of <strong>the</strong> different sectors. Given <strong>the</strong> significant<br />
provision of distance education <strong>in</strong> higher education, considerable<br />
attention was given to distance education <strong>in</strong> this sector.<br />
HIGHER EDUCATION POLICY<br />
The official post-apar<strong>the</strong>id higher education process began <strong>in</strong> 1995 with <strong>the</strong><br />
National Commission on Higher Education (NCHE). It was required to<br />
formulate a vision <strong>and</strong> policy proposals to ensure development of a well-<br />
7
planned, <strong>in</strong>tegrated, high quality system of higher education, <strong>the</strong> vision <strong>and</strong><br />
policy needed to address unjust regularities <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>efficiencies <strong>in</strong>herited from<br />
<strong>the</strong> apar<strong>the</strong>id era, <strong>and</strong> to respond to <strong>the</strong> new social cultural <strong>and</strong> economic<br />
dem<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
PARTICIPATION AND ACCESS<br />
The NCHE advocated substantially <strong>in</strong>creased participation rates <strong>in</strong> higher<br />
education. It emphasized <strong>the</strong> role that resource-based learn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> distance<br />
education could play with respect to expansion, to <strong>the</strong> pr<strong>in</strong>ciple of redress as it<br />
applies to those previously denied higher education opportunities, as well as<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir role <strong>in</strong> meet<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> grow<strong>in</strong>g economic <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r imperative for flexible<br />
lifelong opportunities (DoE, 1996:6.4.5/119).<br />
Echo<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> sentiments of <strong>the</strong> 1995 White Paper, White Paper 3: A<br />
Programme for <strong>the</strong> Transformation of Higher Education (DoE, 1997) endorsed<br />
<strong>the</strong> notion that distance education <strong>and</strong> on-campus, resource-based learn<strong>in</strong>g<br />
have a crucial role to play <strong>in</strong> “address<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> challenges of exp<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g access,<br />
diversify<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> body of learners, be<strong>in</strong>g responsive to <strong>the</strong> needs of nontraditional<br />
students, for example, those already <strong>in</strong> employment or who need to<br />
earn <strong>in</strong> order to meet study costs, <strong>and</strong> enhanc<strong>in</strong>g quality with <strong>the</strong> context of<br />
limited resources” (DoE: 26).<br />
In 2001, <strong>the</strong> M<strong>in</strong>istry of Education’s National Plan for Higher Education (MoE,<br />
2001) set revised targets for participation rates <strong>and</strong>, for <strong>the</strong> first time, for<br />
graduation rates <strong>and</strong> ratios for enrolment among different fields of study, thus<br />
dramatically ref<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> notion of <strong>in</strong>creased participation. With regard to <strong>the</strong><br />
notion of access for groups previously marg<strong>in</strong>alized, <strong>the</strong> report has a separate<br />
outcome on ‘broaden<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> social base of students’, emphasiz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
particular workers, mature learners, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> disabled (ibid: 28). No special<br />
mention is made of <strong>the</strong> role of distance education <strong>in</strong> this regard, perhaps<br />
because of <strong>the</strong> M<strong>in</strong>istry’s concern expressed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir report on <strong>the</strong> quality of<br />
distance education provision.<br />
COST EFFECTIVENESS<br />
Particular emphasis was placed on cost-effectiveness of distance education <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> NCHE report (NCHE, 1996). It gave, as its reason for propos<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
exp<strong>and</strong> distance education more than ‘contract’ education, relatively lower;<br />
cost per qualifier’ <strong>in</strong> distance education <strong>in</strong>stitutions (ibid: 95). It goes on to<br />
suggest that <strong>in</strong>creased use of resource-based learn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> distance<br />
education would contribute to greater efficiency <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> use of resources.<br />
The White Paper on Higher Education encouraged resource-based learn<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>and</strong> distance education throughout <strong>the</strong> higher education system, as, it argued,<br />
‘<strong>the</strong> quality <strong>and</strong> success of teach<strong>in</strong>g need not be dependent upon staff levels<br />
ris<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> t<strong>and</strong>em with <strong>in</strong>creased enrolments. In o<strong>the</strong>r words. …better use can<br />
8
e made of scarce <strong>and</strong> costly physical resources scholarship <strong>and</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>g<br />
expertise’ (DoE, 1997: 26). The White Paper did however caution about <strong>the</strong><br />
efficiency <strong>and</strong> effectiveness of much current distance education provision<br />
(ibid: 27).<br />
NEW POLICY IN DISTANCE HIGHER EDUCATION<br />
In 2003, <strong>the</strong> M<strong>in</strong>ister of Education requested <strong>the</strong> advisory body, <strong>the</strong> Council<br />
on Higher Education (CHE), to provide advice on a range of issues around<br />
regulation, fund<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> co-ord<strong>in</strong>ation of distance education.<br />
FINANCIAL LOGIC OF DISTANCE EDUCATION<br />
Ideological arguments are made for open learn<strong>in</strong>g, economic ones for<br />
distance education. If it can produce similar results to those of conventional<br />
education at a lower cost, <strong>the</strong>n distance education has a powerful appeal.<br />
There are grounds for th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g that distance education may have economic<br />
advantages. There are two cornerstones to this argument. “The educational<br />
cornerstone is <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>ory of media equivalence: that <strong>the</strong>re are no significant<br />
differences <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> effectiveness of different educational media … The<br />
economic cornerstone …. <strong>Distance</strong> education allows a division of labour, <strong>in</strong><br />
which a group of teachers <strong>and</strong> produces manufactures teach<strong>in</strong>g material, an<br />
organizational mach<strong>in</strong>e distributes it, <strong>and</strong> ano<strong>the</strong>r group provides a m<strong>in</strong>imum<br />
of <strong>in</strong>dividual tutorial support to students” (Perraton, 2000: 119).<br />
However, it has become a dangerous piece of conventional wisdom that<br />
distance education is less expensive than traditional contact education.<br />
Research on comparative costs has not been undertaken on a consistent or<br />
comprehensive enough basis. Some studies have looked at <strong>in</strong>stitutional costs,<br />
o<strong>the</strong>rs at public expenditure costs, <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs at total economic costs. Some<br />
have exam<strong>in</strong>ed recurrent costs but neglected capital costs. However, when<br />
distance education enrolls large numbers of students on each course <strong>in</strong> order<br />
to reap large economies of scale, distance education can be more costefficient<br />
than conventional <strong>in</strong>stitutions. “Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, distance education<br />
<strong>in</strong>stitutions can be more cost-efficient than conventional <strong>in</strong>stitutions when <strong>the</strong>y<br />
offer high-quality learn<strong>in</strong>g materials <strong>and</strong> tutorial support for students, <strong>the</strong>reby<br />
secur<strong>in</strong>g satisfactory retention <strong>and</strong> graduation rates” (Dhanarajan, 1994). If<br />
<strong>the</strong>y do not achieve satisfactory retention <strong>and</strong> graduation rates <strong>the</strong>y may well<br />
be much more expensive.<br />
In distance education, major expenses are <strong>in</strong>curred <strong>in</strong> design<strong>in</strong>g courses,<br />
particularly if <strong>the</strong>y <strong>in</strong>volve <strong>the</strong> use of expensive media <strong>and</strong> technologies. This<br />
can become a bottomless pit of expenses, s<strong>in</strong>ce it is always possible to add<br />
more person-power or seek more expensive media <strong>and</strong> technologies. A broad<br />
generalization that has fairly high reliability for distance education is that <strong>the</strong><br />
9
quality at <strong>the</strong> subject matter <strong>and</strong> pedagogy (course) is related to <strong>the</strong> level of<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestment <strong>in</strong> its design.<br />
COST STRUCTURE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION<br />
F<strong>in</strong>ancial data on distance education is extremely limited with regard to<br />
develop<strong>in</strong>g countries <strong>and</strong> South Africa <strong>in</strong> particular <strong>and</strong> often does not offer<br />
<strong>in</strong>sight <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> economics of mixed mode <strong>in</strong>stitutions offer<strong>in</strong>g distance<br />
education courses.<br />
<strong>Distance</strong> education <strong>in</strong> South Africa has always been funded less generously<br />
than face-to-face education. It rests on <strong>the</strong> rationale provided <strong>in</strong>ternationally <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> literature that distance education is more cost effective than face-to-face<br />
education. It means that for <strong>the</strong> same revenue, distance education claims to<br />
be able to provide more student places.<br />
To underst<strong>and</strong> average cost<strong>in</strong>g data, it is necessary to have some<br />
underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> nature of costs <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> cost structure of open <strong>and</strong><br />
distance learn<strong>in</strong>g (ODL) systems. Management account<strong>in</strong>g has evolved.<br />
“Tradition notions of fixed <strong>and</strong> variable costs have been embedded <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
much richer framework of committed <strong>and</strong> flexible costs. Costs arise from <strong>the</strong><br />
acquisition <strong>and</strong> use of organizational resources” (Abriox & Ferreira, 2009).<br />
The majority of expenses are determ<strong>in</strong>ed by <strong>the</strong> commitment to create a<br />
productive capacity to develop <strong>and</strong> offer courses <strong>and</strong> an <strong>in</strong>frastructure to<br />
manage <strong>and</strong> support students (Rumble, 1997).<br />
TYPES OF COSTS<br />
Committed costs embrace for example most personnel costs, costs of<br />
comput<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> telecommunications systems, <strong>and</strong> depreciation on build<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
<strong>and</strong> equipment. Committed costs are unaffected by how much <strong>the</strong><br />
organization uses <strong>the</strong> committed resources. Committed costs are dist<strong>in</strong>ct from<br />
flexible costs, which are paid for only <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> amounts used. Examples of<br />
flexible costs are payments to contact course authors, <strong>the</strong> postage costs of<br />
deliver<strong>in</strong>g materials to students, telephone call charges, <strong>and</strong> payments to<br />
tutors for assignment marked. Flexible resources do not have a capacity<br />
def<strong>in</strong>ed for <strong>the</strong>m because <strong>the</strong>ir supply (<strong>and</strong> capacity) can be adjusted up or<br />
down to meet actual dem<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
DISTANCE LEARNING RELATED COST ELEMENTS<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to Rumble (1999) any ODL system <strong>in</strong>volves <strong>the</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g cost<br />
element:<br />
<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>itial capital cost of <strong>the</strong> bus<strong>in</strong>ess. This <strong>in</strong>cludes costs for build<strong>in</strong>gs,<br />
equipment, grounds, furniture <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation <strong>and</strong> communication<br />
10
technology (ICT). These costs are driven by <strong>the</strong> size of <strong>the</strong> operation<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> extent to which functions are undertaken <strong>in</strong>-house or bought <strong>in</strong><br />
(Abrioux & Ferreira, 2009).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<strong>the</strong> costs of susta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> bus<strong>in</strong>ess as an operation. These costs<br />
(overheads) <strong>in</strong>clude <strong>the</strong> costs of direction <strong>and</strong> general management<br />
(f<strong>in</strong>ance, purchas<strong>in</strong>g, estates that is build<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>and</strong> grounds runn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong><br />
ma<strong>in</strong>tenance costs) <strong>and</strong> depreciation on plant <strong>and</strong> equipment. These<br />
are committed costs that arise from a management decision to provide<br />
a capacity to operate at a given level <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> a certa<strong>in</strong> way.<br />
<strong>the</strong> costs of develop<strong>in</strong>g a curriculum <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> materials used <strong>in</strong> courses.<br />
Some of <strong>the</strong>se costs are committed <strong>and</strong> some are <strong>in</strong>direct common<br />
costs aris<strong>in</strong>g from <strong>the</strong> decision to create a capacity to develop <strong>and</strong><br />
support a given curriculum (for example, <strong>the</strong>re is a body of academic<br />
staff who are charged with <strong>the</strong> task of develop<strong>in</strong>g a ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g a<br />
curriculum, permanent editors, designers <strong>and</strong> managers <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
production office). O<strong>the</strong>r costs are flexible, <strong>in</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r words, money is<br />
spent only if <strong>the</strong> activity takes place. Here it can refer to consultants<br />
that are hired to unite materials for courses. “If course materials are<br />
used over a period of years, <strong>the</strong> cost of develop<strong>in</strong>g materials can be<br />
seen as an <strong>in</strong>vestment <strong>and</strong> hence as a capital cost <strong>the</strong>n can be<br />
annualized over <strong>the</strong> life of a course” (Rumble, 1999).<br />
<strong>the</strong> cost of present<strong>in</strong>g courses. Here we refer to costs that are <strong>in</strong>curred<br />
annually (cost of academic management of <strong>the</strong> course profile, cost of<br />
pack<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> dispatch<strong>in</strong>g course materials), toge<strong>the</strong>r with all <strong>the</strong> cost<br />
that are <strong>in</strong>curred every time <strong>the</strong> course is presented (cost of develop<strong>in</strong>g<br />
new assignments <strong>and</strong> exam<strong>in</strong>ation papers, cost of face-to-face tutorials<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> monitor<strong>in</strong>g of course computer-based conferences, <strong>the</strong> cost of<br />
gett<strong>in</strong>g materials to students.<br />
<strong>the</strong> committed <strong>and</strong> flexible costs <strong>in</strong>curred <strong>in</strong> support<strong>in</strong>g students.<br />
These costs <strong>in</strong>clude student admission, registration, bill<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> fee<br />
collection, allocation of tutors <strong>and</strong> support services. Both <strong>the</strong> flexible<br />
course presentation costs <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> flexible student support costs are<br />
<strong>the</strong>mselves a function of a range of activity related costs driven by an<br />
appropriate volume of activity. For example, among <strong>the</strong> cost elements<br />
might be <strong>the</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g:<br />
- cost of assignment mark<strong>in</strong>g – <strong>the</strong> number of students on <strong>the</strong><br />
course<br />
- number of assignments set<br />
- <strong>the</strong> average rate of submission of assignment<br />
- assignment mark<strong>in</strong>g fee paid to tutors or markers.<br />
11
FACTORS AFFECTING COSTS<br />
The complexity of this cost structure is hidden by simple measures such as<br />
<strong>the</strong> average cost per student, <strong>the</strong> average cost per graduate <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> average<br />
cost per putative <strong>in</strong>structional hour. Several key factors (Abrioux & Ferreira,<br />
2009, Rumble, 1999) do affect <strong>the</strong> average cost.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
total number of students. The more students <strong>the</strong>re are, <strong>the</strong> more that<br />
committed <strong>in</strong>stitutional costs will be spread across <strong>the</strong> student body,<br />
br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g average costs down.<br />
cost of course options. “To ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir academic credibility <strong>and</strong> cater<br />
for m<strong>in</strong>ority <strong>in</strong>terests, most <strong>in</strong>stitutions have to offer a large number of<br />
courses. The more courses <strong>the</strong>re are, <strong>the</strong> greater <strong>the</strong> level of <strong>in</strong>itial<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestment <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir development <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> greater <strong>the</strong> annual expenditure<br />
<strong>in</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> replac<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>” (Rumble, 1999). M<strong>and</strong>atory courses,<br />
lower level courses <strong>and</strong> courses <strong>in</strong> popular subjects will generally have<br />
more students than o<strong>the</strong>r courses. Institutions still f<strong>in</strong>d that <strong>the</strong> cost of<br />
small-population courses is effectively carried (Rumble, 1999) by <strong>the</strong><br />
efficiencies reaped on courses attract<strong>in</strong>g large numbers of students.<br />
number of years over which a course is presented without any changes<br />
to <strong>the</strong> materials. The longer <strong>the</strong> life of a course, <strong>the</strong> longer <strong>the</strong> period<br />
over which <strong>the</strong> annualized costs of development will be spread.<br />
“Long course lives are problematic because subjects evolve, <strong>and</strong> dated<br />
courses will reduce <strong>the</strong> overall quality of <strong>the</strong> programme” (Bakia, 2002).<br />
choice of media <strong>and</strong> technologies. Each technology (Bakia, 2002,<br />
2003) has its own cost structure. The flexible element <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> cost will be<br />
driven by different factors, such as student heads, student courses,<br />
ratio of tutors to students <strong>and</strong> proportion of assignments returned for<br />
correction <strong>and</strong> size of tutorial group.<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to Caw<strong>the</strong>ra (2002) research has shown that:<br />
(1) “The pr<strong>in</strong>t, audio <strong>and</strong> pre-recorded <strong>in</strong>structional television media<br />
tend to be cheaper” <strong>and</strong><br />
(2) The most expensive technologies tend to be face-to-face tuition <strong>and</strong><br />
computer-based teach<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> learn<strong>in</strong>g “which <strong>in</strong>cludes hardware,<br />
software, connectivity, electronic, library <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r site access, <strong>and</strong><br />
academic <strong>and</strong> technical support, varies, enormously, depend<strong>in</strong>g on<br />
what is offered” (Bakia, 2002).<br />
<br />
type of learner support offered. The high cost of face-to-face support<br />
means that its use should be limited if costs are to be kept down. In<br />
practice, as Bakia (2002: 41) observes, many distance education<br />
12
projects have high variable (flexible) costs as well as substantial costs<br />
aris<strong>in</strong>g from <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>vestment <strong>in</strong> materials <strong>and</strong> support systems for<br />
students.<br />
If <strong>in</strong>stitutions wish to keep costs down (Rumble, 1999), <strong>the</strong>y should<br />
- Avoid cost-<strong>in</strong>duc<strong>in</strong>g actions, such as us<strong>in</strong>g copyrighted materials where<br />
high fees need to be paid for usage.<br />
- Pass costs on to <strong>the</strong> student, ei<strong>the</strong>r as charges or by mov<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
system boundaries so that <strong>the</strong> students pay for activities that <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>stitution might have paid before.<br />
- Adopt structures <strong>and</strong> labour policies that m<strong>in</strong>imize costs. Employ<br />
people on contract for service to develop course <strong>and</strong> teach students,<br />
ra<strong>the</strong>r than as full-time employees. “Establish work<strong>in</strong>g practices that<br />
reduce cost of labour, example by design<strong>in</strong>g courses to be wrapped<br />
around exist<strong>in</strong>g textbooks ra<strong>the</strong>r than develop<strong>in</strong>g new materials”<br />
(Rumble & Koul, 2007).<br />
- Use technology to <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>the</strong> student load per academic.<br />
- reduce cost of labour by replac<strong>in</strong>g expensive academic labour with less<br />
well-tra<strong>in</strong>ed adjunct labour, which is less costly.<br />
Table 1 summarises <strong>the</strong> many factors <strong>the</strong> impact costs.<br />
Table 1: Major factors affect<strong>in</strong>g costs <strong>in</strong> distance learn<strong>in</strong>g (DL).<br />
(Rumble, 1999).<br />
Factor<br />
What it<br />
affects<br />
How <strong>the</strong> factor affects <strong>the</strong> cost<br />
Total<br />
student<br />
numbers<br />
Unit costs<br />
Flexible<br />
costs<br />
Committed costs of capital <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g course<br />
development <strong>and</strong> costs <strong>in</strong>curred <strong>in</strong> susta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
bus<strong>in</strong>ess will be spread across students. Units costs will<br />
<strong>the</strong>refore be higher if students numbers are low <strong>and</strong><br />
lower <strong>and</strong> if student numbers are high.<br />
Total student-related flexible costs will rise <strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>e with<br />
student costs.<br />
13
Courses<br />
presented<br />
Capital<br />
costs<br />
The more courses presented, <strong>the</strong> greater will be <strong>the</strong><br />
number that need to be developed, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a rise <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> capital cost of <strong>the</strong> curriculum.<br />
Course<br />
lives<br />
Capital<br />
costs<br />
The longer that courses are presented before be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
withdrawn or remade, <strong>the</strong> greater will be <strong>the</strong> number of<br />
years over which <strong>the</strong> capital costs of <strong>the</strong>ir development<br />
can be annualized, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>refore <strong>the</strong> lower <strong>the</strong> sum that<br />
needs to be spread across <strong>the</strong> student body as a whole,<br />
or across <strong>the</strong> students tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> particular course.<br />
Media <strong>and</strong><br />
Technology<br />
choice<br />
Committed<br />
costs <strong>and</strong><br />
flexible<br />
costs<br />
Each medium/technology has its own cost structure.<br />
Therefore, media <strong>and</strong> technology choice will affect total<br />
costs, total committed costs <strong>and</strong> flexible costs <strong>in</strong><br />
different ways.<br />
Face-toface<br />
support<br />
Flexible<br />
costs<br />
The amount of face-to-face support that needs to be<br />
provided will be driven by decisions about <strong>the</strong> size of<br />
groups <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> number of hours to be given to each<br />
course member. The total number of hours required will<br />
rise as student numbers, <strong>and</strong> hence group numbers,<br />
rise. In large-scale systems, relatively modest <strong>in</strong>creases<br />
<strong>in</strong> student numbers can generate considerable<br />
<strong>in</strong>creases <strong>in</strong> cost.<br />
Course<br />
design<br />
parameters<br />
Committed<br />
costs <strong>and</strong><br />
flexible<br />
costs<br />
Design parameters – <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g decisions to create all<br />
materials <strong>in</strong>ternally, buy <strong>in</strong> materials (<strong>and</strong> whole<br />
courses) or merely create study guides to exist<strong>in</strong>g<br />
textbooks that students have to buy <strong>the</strong>mselves – will<br />
impact on costs <strong>in</strong> a range of ways.<br />
Course<br />
module size<br />
Work<strong>in</strong>g<br />
practices<br />
<strong>and</strong> hence<br />
capital<br />
costs<br />
Large modules (e.g., requir<strong>in</strong>g 50-100 hours of study)<br />
will, depend<strong>in</strong>g on design decisions, need teams to<br />
develop <strong>the</strong> materials. This <strong>in</strong>curs higher transactional<br />
costs as team members <strong>in</strong>teract. Smaller modules can<br />
often be developed by one or two people, thus reduc<strong>in</strong>g<br />
transactional costs.<br />
Cost<br />
recovery<br />
through<br />
cost shar<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Committed<br />
<strong>and</strong> flexible<br />
costs<br />
Decisions to get students to pay for goods (e.g., text)<br />
<strong>and</strong> services used at cost, cost plus <strong>and</strong> less than cost<br />
will <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>the</strong> extent to which variables <strong>in</strong> course<br />
design affect <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>stitution or <strong>the</strong> student.<br />
14
Labour<br />
employment<br />
policies<br />
Capital<br />
costs <strong>and</strong><br />
flexible cost<br />
Us<strong>in</strong>g contracts for service for course developers <strong>and</strong><br />
course tutors will reduce <strong>the</strong> level of committed cost put<br />
<strong>in</strong>to hir<strong>in</strong>g staff on contracts of service. In general, this<br />
will <strong>the</strong>refore reduce <strong>the</strong> capital costs of develop<strong>in</strong>g<br />
courses <strong>and</strong> ensure that <strong>the</strong> flexible costs of teach<strong>in</strong>g<br />
are no more <strong>and</strong> no less than those needed to deliver<br />
<strong>the</strong> courses.<br />
Labour<br />
substitution<br />
policies<br />
Flexible<br />
costs<br />
Us<strong>in</strong>g less expensive labour – for example, graduate<br />
students ra<strong>the</strong>r than more qualified staff as tutors <strong>and</strong><br />
assignment markers – will reduce <strong>the</strong> flexible costs of<br />
teach<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
THE COST OF TECHNOLOGY<br />
One of <strong>the</strong> arguments of us<strong>in</strong>g technology is that it br<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>the</strong> unit cost of<br />
education down. In distance education (Orival, 2000: 138), this has been done<br />
through <strong>the</strong> achievement of <strong>in</strong>creases <strong>in</strong> productivity follow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> substitution<br />
of capital (<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> form of technology) for labour (teachers).<br />
“One of <strong>the</strong> strongest arguments for us<strong>in</strong>g test, reusable audio <strong>and</strong> video, <strong>and</strong><br />
ICT as a repository of <strong>in</strong>formation <strong>in</strong> education ra<strong>the</strong>r than us<strong>in</strong>g face-to-face<br />
teach<strong>in</strong>g is that it shifts some of <strong>the</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>g from <strong>the</strong> teacher to <strong>the</strong> medium,<br />
help<strong>in</strong>g to br<strong>in</strong>g down <strong>the</strong> unit cost of education, provided that student<br />
numbers are high” (Coley, Cradler & Engel, 1999).<br />
However, as Orival (2000: 147) po<strong>in</strong>ts out, “<strong>the</strong> costs of ICT are l<strong>in</strong>ked to a<br />
global market <strong>in</strong> hardware, software <strong>and</strong> consumables. Thus <strong>the</strong> cost does not<br />
really differ significantly between developed <strong>and</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g countries”.<br />
WAY FORWARD<br />
Various proposals have been put forward to argue <strong>the</strong> case for <strong>in</strong>creased<br />
percentages of subsidy be<strong>in</strong>g granted to distance education. Government<br />
proposed <strong>the</strong> 50% fund<strong>in</strong>g formula for distance education. Proposals for <strong>the</strong><br />
range between 65% <strong>and</strong> 75% of total subsidy are be<strong>in</strong>g put forward.<br />
The arguments are based on <strong>the</strong> sound logic that distance education<br />
effectively is more expensive than <strong>the</strong> old correspondence education.<br />
To simply <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>the</strong> subsidy provides no assurance for better quality or<br />
improvement if delivery. While improvements <strong>in</strong> quality of delivery are<br />
required, <strong>the</strong>se should be preceded by careful plann<strong>in</strong>g to ensure that<br />
additional fund<strong>in</strong>g will <strong>in</strong>deed be used to improve quality.<br />
15
Larger distance education programmes are be<strong>in</strong>g used to cross-subsidize<br />
small, unsusta<strong>in</strong>able programs. One of <strong>the</strong> reasons for <strong>in</strong>troduc<strong>in</strong>g distance<br />
programmes <strong>in</strong>ternationally has been to exp<strong>and</strong> access to higher education<br />
delivery <strong>in</strong> key areas, ra<strong>the</strong>r than to provide a comprehensive suite of<br />
programmes across all learn<strong>in</strong>g disciples.<br />
If small-scale distance education programmes <strong>in</strong> niche areas are considered a<br />
priority, strategies need to be developed to support <strong>the</strong>m <strong>and</strong> by cost<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>n<br />
carefully.<br />
Supply rais<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> subsidy for distance education programmes is likely only to<br />
perpetuate <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>herently <strong>in</strong>efficient f<strong>in</strong>ancial situation, ra<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong>n requir<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong>stitutions to reflect critically on what <strong>the</strong>ir priorities are where rationalization<br />
needs to take place.<br />
If <strong>the</strong> subsidy for distance education require more than 50% subsidy, it is<br />
critical that such programmes demonstrate exactly how <strong>the</strong>y propose to<br />
achieve <strong>the</strong>se goals, before <strong>the</strong>y are granted additional fund<strong>in</strong>g. Apply<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
blanket <strong>in</strong>crease is likely to perpetuate <strong>in</strong>efficient f<strong>in</strong>ancial, without provid<strong>in</strong>g<br />
any guarantees of improved quality of delivery.<br />
CONCLUSION<br />
We know enough about what makes distance education expensive, <strong>and</strong> more<br />
or less are able to control costs. We also know that if distance education is<br />
properly designed, distance education can work deliver<strong>in</strong>g a quality of<br />
education that is at least as good as that <strong>in</strong> traditional <strong>in</strong>stitutions. We can<br />
<strong>the</strong>refore design distance education systems that will deliver a significant<br />
<strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> number of <strong>in</strong>stitutions available at a reasonable cost,<br />
compared to <strong>the</strong> alternative strategy of exp<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g traditional <strong>in</strong>stitutions.<br />
Determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g cost-versus-price templates for any nontraditional program has<br />
one critical advantage: those <strong>in</strong>volved must exam<strong>in</strong>e cost issues – a topic<br />
often less than appeal<strong>in</strong>g to faculty (Taylor & Parker, 2003). Course fees are<br />
obviously <strong>in</strong>sufficient to fund development <strong>in</strong> distance education, but<br />
underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g actual costs can be useful <strong>in</strong> argu<strong>in</strong>g for more state support for<br />
distance education programmes. Legislators often th<strong>in</strong>k that distance courses<br />
are cheaper than resident courses because <strong>the</strong>y don’t underst<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> f<strong>in</strong>e<br />
expertise, <strong>and</strong> technology required to develop a distance course.<br />
16
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