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Development of Agricultural Mechanization on rice production
in Thailand
Abstrat
Phakwipha Sutthiwaree 1 *, Minli Yang 2 , Yuxiang Huang 1
1 Academy,Collage of Engineering China Agricultural University No.17
West Qing Hua Road,Haidian Beijing, 10083 P.R.China
2 Professor, Collage of Engineering China Agricultural University No.17
West Qing Hua Road,Haidian Beijing, 10083 P.R.China
*Corresponding author. E-mail: pakwipa_18@hotmail.com
The traditional Thai rice production commonly uses animal and manual operation which is
appropriate for small farms scale same as the field in Thailand. But since the land revolution
and the industrial estate has expanded larger growth area, causing labor shortage in
agricultural. The mechanization on rice production became more important and developed
especially in the irrigated area. Due to the double cropping system, the mechanization
expanded rapidly with increase both in number and size of machinery used. The purpose on
this paper is study on Thai rice mechanization development status which cover on rice
production patterns, soil preparation, planting, chemical and fertilizer application, harvesting
and drying. The study follows the data of Office of Agricultural Economic (OAE) and
Agricultural Engineering Research Institute (AERI). The data was analyzed on comparing
mechanization statistic from 1998 to 2008. There are two rice production patterns. One is the
irrigated-area pattern which is almost fully mechanization. The other one is non-irrigated-area
pattern which can be more mechanization development. The soil preparation is full
mechanization in both patterns. The planting in irrigated-area is mechanized than nonirrigated-area.
The crop protection in both patterns needs more mechanization development.
The harvesting-threshing in irrigated-area was operated by combine-harvester with hire
contact system while in non-irrigated-area was operated by manual harvesting and thresher.
The drying was operated by cooperative group and private miller. The mechanization on rice
production developed slowly period by period from the simple equipment as tillage, thresher,
translpnter and combine-harvester respectively. The mechanization is not only advantage on
the labor shortage, timeliness but also profit on production increasing and reduces cost
production. In decade the mechanization has expanding with both in number and size of
machinery such as the walking tractor 26 percent increase and riding tractor 50 percent
increased. The knapsack sprayer reduced 8 percent while the engine sprayer increased 43
percent. The combine harvester was increased more than 90 percent in using. However
mostly of machinery for rice production is a local manufacture, except some complicated
machines which are imported. Thai mechanization on rice production is possibility to be
developed for full mechanization in both areas. The optimize pattern should persist
development from the basic situation on each area. The mechanization policy should
continue conduce.
Key words: agricultural mechanization, rice production, Thailand
1. Introduction
Thailand is a tropical country locates in Southeast Asia has 3 seasons: hot season
(Mid of February to Mid of May), rainy season (Mid of May to Mid of October) and cold
season (Mid of October to Mid of February). The average temperature is 27C. The annual
precipitation approximate 1,572.50 mm. The total population is 63 million and 39.14 percent
is in the part of farm work [4, 6, and 14] which 27.59 percent is 3.6 ha farm household sizes. The
approximate of total cultivated area is 21 million ha. The main crop is paddy which covers 50
percent of cultivated area. In 2008 reported the total rice production 31.65 million ton is from
10.68 million ha. Thailand is one of the world rice suppliers which sharing 30 percent in the

world market. Rice production is a mainly income of country which provides annually income
more than 5,459 million US$ [6] .The large major rice planting area is 5.28 million ha which
located in the northeastern nevertheless the second rice planting area 0.99 million ha located
in the central plain of Thailand. Double cropping for rice practice is normally in Thailand
which managed by irrigation system. The twenty-eight percent of total agricultural area is
irrigated area which is fifty percent located in the central plain [6] . The major rice production
approximate 10.38 million ton are from the northeastern which is the Jasmine rice production
area nevertheless the yield per ha is fairly low comparing with another region. While the
second rice production approximate 4.48 million ton is from central plain which yield per ha is
higher [2] . Due to the area in the northeaster is upland field and few of farm mechanization
comparing with the central plain which is double crop area. Since 1960-83 Thailand has
rapidly expanded agricultural area. Seventy-eight percent of the growth of agricultural
production explained by the expanding planted area and 22 percent by increase in land
productivity. The agricultural growth pattern of Thailand conforms to the resource exploitation
model. The investment of land consolidation and irrigation system was important
prerequisites for successful development of mechanization system [8] . The agricultural
mechanization has not only changed the characteristics of labor in agriculture but also
influenced the workload, timeliness of operation and increased capacity of production
resulted in the need for higher speeds bigger and heavier machines [11] .
The early mechanization system in Thailand started from irrigation system, land
preparation, threshing and harvesting step by step. The mechanization has played a
significant role in increasing agricultural production by completing farm operations in time
reducing cost of production and increasing crop intensity. The five years National Economic
and Social Development Plan (NESDP) has provided since 1962 up to the present, there is
the 11 th Plan. The mechanization policy has not significant included in NESDP. Even though
in 1979 during the 4 th NESDP National Committee for Agricultural Mechanization (NCAM)
was set up responsibility to mechanization policy. The cabinet approved the national
mechanization policy and strategy prepared by NCAM in 1985. The main purpose of
agricultural mechanization policy which provided by NCAM as follow; first the mechanization
policy shall support the development of the agricultural sector by increasing productivity. The
second is farm machinery shall be of good quality of low price and suitable for the country’s
condition. The third is standardization will be promote and organized. In 1992 during 7 th
NESDP the mechanization policy was significant role but those policies were abandoned by
five years later [16] .
The agricultural mechanization has played important role in agriculture of Thailand more
than 50 years ago. The ratio of mechanization for land preparation and harvesting has
reached to 90 percent and 40 percent respectively. Especially for rice production in the
central plain of Thailand, the mechanization has more developed and reached a modern
agricultural practice. The modern agricultural practice are mainly based on machines
especially high speed power full tractor and its implement. But there has less research on
rice production mechanization during the twenty century and the mechanization policy can
not notice obviously in NESDP. The emphasis of mechanization is for supporting the
development of agricultural mechanization including increase farmer income by policy. The
rice mechanization policy is following to the development of agricultural mechanization. The
study on development of agricultural mechanization on rice production in Thailand is useful
for activate the mechanization policy in the future.
2. Methods and material
The study follows the statistic data of Office of Agricultural Economic (OAE) and the
agricultural machinery researching information of Agricultural Engineering Research Institute
(AERI).The data analysis was conducted on rice production patterns including the
development of mechanization on soil preparation, planting, chemical and fertilizer
application, harvesting and drying. The data was analyzed on comparingstatistic in decade

since 1998 to 2008. The trend of rice mechanization developing in Thailand is also
recommend
3. Results and Discussion
3.1 Rice cultivation pattern in Thailand
According to the mechanization on rice production was developed from the irrigated
area which in the central plain of Thailand and expanded to other regions. Following the
irrigation system Thai rice cultivation can be divided to two patterns.
3.1.1 The irrigated area
The most of them are appropriate to multiple crop practice in a year and the procedure
must operate on time as table 1. The mechanization is more effective and advantage in this
area. The rice cultivation pattern for irrigated area is follow; Land preparation; the first and
second tillage were operated by walking tractor or riding tractor attach to the moldboard
plow, disc plow or rotary. Planting; there are two methods operation system. The one is wet
broadcasting which was operated by broadcaster or manual. In the irrigated area 80 % is a
wet broadcasting. The other one is transplanting which was operated by transplanter or
manual. Fertilizer and Chemical application; there was operated by broadcaster. Harvesting;
there was operated by combine harvester. Drying; there was operated by dryer which
managed by rice supplier or sunshine drying.
3.1.2The non- irrigated area
The non-irrigated area or rain fed area which is 57 % of total rice planted area. Most of
area is upland field with a sandy soil locate in the northeastern. The paddy field is commonly
small size and high ridge for water storage purpose. The operating time follow the table 1.
The rice cultivation pattern for non-irrigated area is following; Land preparation; the first and
second soil tillage were operated by walking tractor or riding tractor attached to disc plow and
disc harrow. Planting; there are 4 main methods for practical.
• Transplanting, which operated by manual.
• Wet broadcasting, which operated by manual.
• Dipping, which operated by manual or machinery.
• Dry broadcasting, which operated by manual or machinery. In non-irrigated area 70
percent is dry broadcasting.
Fertilize and chemical application; there was operated by manual. Harvesting; there was
operated by thresher or combine harvester. Drying ; there is the same method with irrigated
area.
Table.1 Time period rice practice in Thailand.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Major rice
Second rice
Second rice
Remark: irrigated area non- irrigated area
3.2 The development of soil preparation mechanization on rice production
The walking tractor and riding tractor have commonly used in both irrigated and nonirrigated
area. Even though the riding tractor was the first introduced to Thailand but failed
using. The development of soil preparation mechanization was follow.
3.2.1 The walking tractor and equipment
The traditional rice production in Thailand was commonly using cattle attached to a
simple tool. Since 1891 the first had imported steam power tractor and rotary hoes was
introduced to Thailand [4] . It was not wildly used due to the machine was not suitable for
Thailand paddy field condition and the cost was expensive. In 1947 a single axle tractor with
rotary hoes powered 4.4 kW gasoline engine was imported, but its low chassis was not
suitable for Thailand paddy field [5] . Until 1954 the Agricultural Engineering Division (AED)
was established response to research and develop the agricultural machineries for rice

production. The walking tractor was researched and developed until in 1963 the local factory
manufactures walking tractor by a simple system and easily using for Thai farmer. Thai
walking tractor structure consist of a long handle without clutch and breaking by pulley
system. The walking tractor was commercial successfully. Because of during that period the
government provided the irrigation system so the farmer could practice double cropping. The
local factory could manufacture 5.22-8.21 kW walking tractor which had working capacity
about1.12 ha/day. Since 1998 to 2008 the number of walking tractor 25.63 percent
increased. There was 2.64 million units of walking tractor were owned by farmer in 2008 [3] .
In irrigated area, the walking tractor commonly attached with disc plough or mould-board
plough for soil preparation. Although three times practice a year is benefit for increasing rice
production per unit but it is not expedient for soil structure. Actually could find that the soil
hardpan was lower down, the field became a swampy. Due to the machinery compaction
force effect. The machine was easily sunk and stuck in the field which was a soil preparation
problem. The problem could be solved by applied the crawler tractor attached to rotary.
Although the crawler tractor can work well but there is not sustainable for the long period.
2005 the rotary puddler for attached to walking tractor was developed [6] . The 1.20 meter
working width rotary puddler was developed for primary and secondary tillage. The average
capacity 0.62 ha/h and 0.72 ha/h. respectively. The average fuel consumption 9.75 L/ha. and
10.65 L/ha. respectively. The prototype show as Fig.1, this equipment was available working
in puddle clay soil with self propeller 10.44 kW diesel engine power.
Fig.1 Prototype of rotary puddler
Upland field or rain fed areas are located in the northeastern and the upper north of
Thailand. There is the same method for soil preparation, but uses different kind of equipment
such as disc plow or disc harrow for primary tillage.
3.2.2 The riding tractor and equipment
In the early 1950 four wheel tractor was imported by government but it was not successful
for promote because at that period the labor shortage problem did not occur and farmer
practiced only one time a year. 1954 the prototype 4-wheel tractor was developed by AED
but at that period there was not successfully using cause of high cost. Although the
governments promoted several influence method as cheap hire service price or offer low
interest loan. 1984 the companies were successful developing a small diesel engine then
begin importing riding tractor for testing and developing for Thai’s field condition. The statistic
data reported that in 2008 about 287,226 riding tractor was owned by farmer which was
increase 50.27 percent since 1998 [3] .
2002 the rotary tillage was developed. The prototype was designed for a 20.14 kW riding
tractor with a 1.2 meter working width. The rotary tillage has average work capacity 0.2 ha/h
the field efficiency 57.06 percent and the fuel consumption 13.25 L/ha. At the present the
prototype is widely used in the irrigated area [7] . The most important requirement for double
crop rice cultivation is timelines. Most of farmer uses harrow tine attached to walking tractor
for second tillage which takes for three or four time operation. After second tillage farmer
uses the wooden plate for leveling.
Farmer in the irrigated area ought to quickly finish soil preparation on time due to the
limited period of supplying water which provide by the irrigation system. The soil preparation
in irrigated area occurs to the timeliness problem. The quickly job in short time was affect to
soil quality and rice production. 2005 the rotary puddling attached to riding tractor was
developed. The rotary puddling was designed for 20.14 kW riding tractor with 2.4 meter
working width. The second tillage was operated 2 times. The first time the work capacity is
0.36 ha/h, the field efficiency is 70.27 percent and the fuel consumption is 12.31 L/ha. The

second time the work capacity is 0.59 ha/h, the field efficiency is 84.75 percent the fuel
consumption is 8.19 L/ ha. The prototype shows as Fig.2 [8] .
3.3 The planting method and development of planting mechanization on rice
production
3.3.1 There are two types of rice planting method in irrigated area.
One is wet broadcasting, after finished soil preparation farmer will prepare for seedling.
The seedling method starts from take a pack of rice soak in water for 1-2 h. then take out
from water and keep on humidity by watering 2 times a day for 36-48 h. The seedling
geminated 1-2 millimeter length, it is ready for planting.
2005 the rice broadcaster was developed from knapsack sprayer attached to a small
engine has container capacity 24 kilogram. The prototype had work capacity 0.81 ha/h fuel
consumption 0.93 L/ha. It is benefit for reduce working time and labor cost about 20 and 50
percent respectively when comparing with manual broadcasting. The coefficient of
broadcasting uniformity is about 80 percent. The prototype shows as Fig.3 [9] .
Fig.2 The prototype of secondary rotary tillage
Fig.3 The prototype of rice broadcaster
The other one is manual transplant; the seedling method is following the seedling for
broadcasting method. The later broadcasted for 3-5 days should pump water in to the field
approximately 5-10 centimeter from soil level. After the seedling has 20-25 days old can
move it for manual transplanting. Since the transplanter provided to Thailand, rice planting
practices in irrigated area was operated by machinery more than manual transplanting. The
developing of rice transplant mechanization in Thailand follows below.
The transplant mechanization in Thailand began from the twelve rows walking
translpanter root-washed type which imported from China in 1978. The testing was
established for Thailand paddy field condition. The testing presented that the planting unit
damaged seedling and the planting depth was lower than common manual practice, cause of
the plant unsteady and weak.
Three years later the four rows walking transplanter mat type was imported from Japan.
The experiment was operated by Thailand and Japan co-operation. The result was quite
successful but due to the high cost of machinery, the advanced technology and high cost of
seedling preparation. Also at that period the labor shortage did not occur.
In 1991 the imported 8 rows riding transplanting mat type from china was tested in
Thailand paddy field condition [10] . The machine was working effectively. The problem was a
heavy machine trouble for headland turning and was not convenient for transport. At the
same time the four rows walking transplanter mat type imported from South Korea. The
testing was successful in Thailand condition. The 1.72 kW four rows walking transplanter
with 30 centimeter has row spacing, the planting depth and the number of hill 10, 12 and 14
centimeter respectively. The working capacity was 0.13-0.16 ha/h. The prepare seedling
method was developed by applied from manual transplanting seedling preparation method
instead of preparing in plastic tray which can reduce the production cost. The transplanter
was available and benefit for rice seeding center only.
In 2004 there were several agricultural machinery companies imported walking type and
riding type of transplanter for testing and developing in Thailand paddy field condition. The

transplanter began familiar among the farmer in the irrigated area which is the multi crop
area by hire contraction system.
3.3.2 There are four types of planting method in non-irrigated area [11] . There are manual
transplanting, wet broadcasting, dripping and dry broadcasting
Seventy percent of planting system in non-irrigated area is dry condition broadcasting.
After finished soil preparing, the farmer broadcasted by hand or machine. After broadcasting
farmer will plough for the last time to cover up the seeds.
In 2007 the rice planter attached to walking tractor was tested and developed for 2 types
show as Fig.4 [12] .
The first is broadcasting type assembled with 3 discs plow show as Fig.4 (a). After
broadcasted, seed will be covered by plough. The working capacity is 5.32 ha/h and fuel
consumption 5.93 L/h.
The second is dripping type assembled with disc opener show as Fig.4 (b). After
dripped, the seed was covered by the follow tine plowing. The working capacity is 0.20 ha/h
and fuel consumption 6.26 L/h.
(a) Rice broadcasting type
(b) Rice dripping type
Fig.4 Rice planter attach to walking tractor
The rice planter attached to riding tractor was tested and developed for 2 types [11] . The
first is broadcasting type working capacity 1.12 ha/h and fuel consumption 15.62 L/h show as
Fig.5 (a). The second is dripping type working capacity 0.8 ha/h and fuel consumption 9.83
L/h show as Fig.5 (b).
(a) Rice broadcasting type
(b) Rice dripping type
Fig.5 Rice planter attach to riding tractor
3.4. The development of Chemical and fertilizer application mechanization on rice
production
The chemical and fertilizer application in irrigated area is more mechanization compare to
non- irrigated area. The knapsack sprayer type is a common using for chemical application
among Thai farmer both in irrigated and non-irrigated area. In 1998 the total manual
knapsack sprayer 1.76 million units were owned. When the multipurpose sprayer was
developed, about 8.37% of manual knapsack sprayer was reduced. The multipurpose
sprayer is not only relief man power but also can apply for the fertilizer application. Recently
a small high pressure pump was provided to Thailand. The farmer applied it for the chemical
application by use the power transition from the walking tractor engine. In 2008 the statistic
reported that 0.77 million units of the multipurpose sprayer were owned by the farmer which
had greatly increase 40.63 percent in decade [13] .
3.5. The harvesting- threshing method and the development of harvesting-threshing
mechanization on rice production

There are two patterns for rice harvesting and threshing in Thailand
3.5.1 Traditional harvesting and threshing
The traditional harvesting was manual harvesting using sickle then collected in bundle and
pile in the field. The traditional threshing was done by animal power. At the present the
traditional harvesting-threshing commonly operated in the hill side area which is a few in the
north part of Thailand. It was completely replaced by the machinery in the irrigated area.
3.5.2 Mechanical harvesting and threshing
There are two kinds in mechanical harvesting and threshing patterns. The one is semimechanization.
The harvesting was operated by used sickle and the threshing was done by
axial flow thresher. The other one is fully mechanization. The harvesting-threshing were
done by the combine harvester. The local developed combine harvester was show as Fig.8.
The transportation system was conducted by truck and directly sell to the market or the
collector.
Fig.8 Local combine-harvester
The threshing mechanization development in Thailand had begun from the Japanese
binder propagation in 1975. But it was not popular due to the cutting system is low efficiency
and a high cost operation compared with a manual operation. The working capacity was
reported, 0.04 ha/h [14] . In the same year the axial flow thresher was developed and
successfully promoted by International Rice Research Institute. At the present, the axial flow
thresher has familiar used in the Northern and Northeastern.
Thai local-made combine harvest has successful for local developing and manufacturing
in the last two decade. The development of harvesting mechanization in Thailand can define
since 1978–86. There were many types of reaper from Japan and China was initially
introduction to Thailand. The circular cutting reaper from Japan was testing in Thailand
condition, the capacity was 0.16 ha/h. The reaper from China had the power tiller assembled
at front. The reaped straw was pushed to lay beside the working path. The binding was done
by manually after reap. The harvesting capacity was 0.3 ha/h. The machine was popular for
short period because it was heavy cause of trouble field operation. The reaper from Japan
was propagated to Thailand. The machine was a self-propelled with a 3.5 hp gasoline
engine. The harvesting capacity was 0.27 ha/h. The reaper was utilized in irrigated area for a
while.
The main problem of rice harvesting was about 1 million tons annually grain loss. The
grain loss encountered by manual harvesting and threshing were 7.8 and 4.6 percent
respectively while loss encountered by mechanical harvesting and threshing were 5.3 and
1.3 percent respectively. Even thought there also had imported combine harvester imported
from Europe, America but there was not successful in practical. Due to the imported
machinery was not efficiency for Thailand condition which is a small farm scale, different of
rice varieties. The imported machine was expensive, the repairing service and spare parts
were not a good provide.
Until in 1987 the local manufacturer was first developed local combine harvester was
modified some part of the imported combine harvester. The local-made combine harvester
was self - propelled by diesel engine 59.68-74.60 kW [14] . Three year later the local combine
harvester was popular among Thai farmer in irrigated area even though the machine was low
capacity and harvested the high moisture paddy. But the grain loss was lower, comparing
with manual harvesting.
In 1998 the local-made combine harvester was developed to be more efficiency. The
average working capacity was 0.66 ha/h. The corresponding gain loss was less than 10
percent [14] . In the same year OAE reported the static data of combine harvester about 2,000
units were mainly used in the central plain of Thailand [15] . Since 1998 to 2008 the number of

thresher was 15 percent reduced while the combine harvester was 91.27 percent increased
[13] .
3.6 The development of drying mechanization
The drying by machinery was the recently utilizable mechanization for Thailand. The
traditional system was a solar drying. As mention before farmers usually directly sell the
paddy to miller or collector after harvested.
Because of the paddy price was lowest in 1992, the huge of rice production need to be
storage. The traditional drying could not enough support. The drying mechanization was
occurred by the government subsidy system. The subsidized dryer was operated by
agricultural cooperative group and the low – interest loan purchase dryer was offered to the
private miller. At the present only the cooperative milling groups run business but 90 percent
of private miller or collector whose own the dryer are not running due to the high operation
price.
There are many types of paddy dryer was used in Thailand as a cross flow type, a mixed
flow type, a fluidized bed type and a rotary dryer type. The most of them was used in the
miller or cooperative group. The mixed flow dryer type was used by cooperative milling
group, which can use hull as a firing. The drying capacity 30 tons per day at initial moisture
22 percent dry to 15 percent.
4. Conclusion
According to the irrigation system, there are two patterns for rice production in Thailand.
First is the pattern in irrigated area which almost fully mechanization. Second is the pattern in
non-irrigated area which can be more mechanical development.
The soil preparation method in irrigated area is identical to non-irrigated area use both
walking and riding tractor for main power. The number of local manufactured walking tractors
in use increased 25.63 percent while number of riding tractor increased 50.27 percent. The
soil preparation equipment in irrigated area is more development due to the soil problem.
The rotary puddler was developed both for attached walking tractor and riding tractor. The
equipment benefit on reduce time on soil preparing process. The rice planting pattern in
irrigated area and non-irrigated is obviously distinction. The methodical practice in irrigated
area is wet broadcasting and transplanter while 70 percent is dry broadcasting in nonirrigated
area. The two types of planter as a broadcaster and a dipper were developed in
both for attached walking and riding tractor in non-irrigated area. The chemical and fertilizer
application method in irrigated area and non-irrigated area are identically. The mechanization
for chemical and fertilizer application was great development in decade. Since 1998 to 2008
the number of knapsack sprayer reduced 8.37 percent while the engine sprayer increased
42.63 percent. There are two patterns of harvesting and threshing method. The first is
manual harvesting and machinery threshing which mostly operated in the non- irrigated area.
The second is local-made combine harvester which mostly in irrigated area. In 2008 reported
the number of combine harvester was increased 91.62 percent while the number of reaper
reduced 15.07 percent in decade. The drying system is operated by cooperation group and
private miller with a mixed flow type dryer. The drying capacity 30 ton per day at the initial
moisture of 22 percent dry to 15 percent.
The mechanization development on rice production in Thailand is slowly developed
period by period according to the labor shortage and timeliness problem. The early
machinery development was the machinery for land preparation instead of animal power. At
the present most of the machineries for rice production are locally manufactured except for
some complicated machines which were imported. During this period; the mechanization has
been more important, not only solve the labor shortage and timeliness problem but also profit
on increase production and cost reduction. Thai mechanization on rice production is
possibility to be developed for full mechanization in both areas. In irrigated area need more
management on transplanting system and chemical and fertilizer application mechanization.
In non-irrigated area need more development on planting, chemical and fertilizer application
and harvesting mechanization. However, the patterns should be more appropriate

developed from the basic situation on each area. Also the mechanization policy should be
continuous.
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