Population structure and plant demography - Alaska Geobotany ...
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Lesson 5: <strong>Population</strong> <strong>structure</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>plant</strong><br />
<strong>demography</strong><br />
• Density <strong>and</strong> pattern<br />
– R<strong>and</strong>om, clumped, regular distribution patterns<br />
• Plant <strong>demography</strong><br />
– Modular growth<br />
– Plant age vs. stages<br />
– <strong>Population</strong> growth models<br />
– Transition Matrix Models<br />
– Density dependence<br />
• The law of constant yield<br />
• Self-thinning rule<br />
– Life tables <strong>and</strong> survivorship curves<br />
• Fecundity<br />
• Net reproductive rate<br />
• Reproductive value<br />
• Metapopulation studies
Billings focus on the individual <strong>plant</strong><br />
Billings focus was the<br />
individual <strong>plant</strong><br />
within a complex of<br />
environmental<br />
factors, which he<br />
called a<br />
holocoenosis.<br />
This diagram<br />
summarizes an<br />
autecological<br />
approach to <strong>plant</strong><br />
ecology, with focus<br />
being individual<br />
species <strong>and</strong> their<br />
adaptations to the<br />
environment.<br />
W.D. Billings, 1952. The environmental complex in relation to <strong>plant</strong> growth <strong>and</strong><br />
distribution. Quaterly Review of Biology 27: 251-265.
Plant population<br />
“A group of <strong>plant</strong>s of the same species occupying a particular space<br />
at the same time.”<br />
Based on Krebs 1972<br />
The components from which <strong>plant</strong> communities are constructed.
Factors influencing <strong>plant</strong> populations:<br />
• The same factors influencing the presence of a <strong>plant</strong> in our<br />
original question “Why are organisms absent some places <strong>and</strong><br />
abundant in others?”<br />
– Environmental conditions<br />
– Resource availability<br />
– Competition<br />
– Disturbance<br />
– Availability of propagules (biogeography)
Measurement <strong>and</strong> description of <strong>plant</strong> population<br />
<strong>structure</strong> <strong>and</strong> dynamics<br />
• Distribution of <strong>plant</strong>s on the l<strong>and</strong>scape (density <strong>and</strong> pattern)<br />
• Measurement of <strong>plant</strong> <strong>demography</strong> (changes in <strong>plant</strong> population<br />
size <strong>and</strong> <strong>structure</strong> through time)<br />
• Distribution of suites of populations within l<strong>and</strong>scapes<br />
(metapopulation dynamics)
Density<br />
• “Number of individuals per unit area (e.g., trees per ha, or <strong>plant</strong>s per m 2 ).”<br />
• Most easily used for populations of discreet individuals such as trees.<br />
• Less useful for species that reproduce vegetatively, such as grasses.
Patterns of Distribution<br />
• Can give more information on a population s habitat preference, competitive<br />
dynamics, microhabitat distribution than density alone.<br />
• In r<strong>and</strong>om distribution patterns, the location of one individual has no bearing on<br />
another s.<br />
• In clumped <strong>and</strong> regular patterns, the presence of one <strong>plant</strong> may be affecting another,<br />
possibly through competition or allelopathy or clumped distribution of propagules<br />
from a parent <strong>plant</strong>.<br />
• A chi-square test can be used to test for r<strong>and</strong>om distribution.
Clumped patterns may also be due to the presence of special<br />
microhabitats.<br />
• Non-sorted circles,<br />
Howe Isl<strong>and</strong>, AK.<br />
• Example of regular<br />
distribution of<br />
habitats that causes<br />
clumped distribution<br />
of certain species.<br />
• Centers of circles<br />
have high<br />
evapotranspiration<br />
<strong>and</strong> salts<br />
accumulate.<br />
• Halophytic species,<br />
such as Braya<br />
purpurascens, are<br />
distributed mainly<br />
on the barren<br />
circles.<br />
Braya purpurascens.<br />
www.mun.ca/biology/ delta/arcticf/images/l314.jpg
Plant <strong>demography</strong><br />
• “The study of changes in population <strong>structure</strong> through time.”<br />
• Plant populations increase or decrease through birth <strong>and</strong> death<br />
processes as well as immigration <strong>and</strong> emigration, <strong>and</strong> by <strong>and</strong><br />
vegetative sprouting.<br />
• It includes counting:<br />
– Number of genetically distinct individuals,<br />
– Number of vegetatively reproduced individuals,<br />
– Number of leaves, branches, tillers, stems, flowers, etc.,<br />
– Movement of seeds into <strong>and</strong> out of the population <strong>and</strong> storage in the<br />
soil.
The influence of John Harper on<br />
<strong>plant</strong> population ecology<br />
• The study of population biology<br />
was almost solely a topic of<br />
zoologists until John Harper<br />
really created the field in the late<br />
1940 s <strong>and</strong> 1950 s after he met<br />
Charles Elton, a famous animal<br />
ecologist who was noted<br />
primarily for his studies of small<br />
mammal populations.<br />
• Harper made the field of <strong>plant</strong><br />
population biology quite<br />
accessible through <strong>Population</strong><br />
Biology of Plants, which was first<br />
published in 1977.
Major chapters in Harper s book<br />
Dispersal, dormancy <strong>and</strong> recruitment<br />
seed rain, dormancy, seed bank, recruitment of seedlings<br />
Effects of neighbors<br />
effects of density on yield <strong>and</strong> mortality, form <strong>and</strong> reproduction<br />
Mixtures of species: space, proportions, changes with time<br />
Effects of predators<br />
Defoliation<br />
Seasonality, search <strong>and</strong> choice<br />
Grazing animal effects<br />
Predation of seeds <strong>and</strong> fruits<br />
Pathogens<br />
Natural dynamics of populations<br />
Annual <strong>and</strong> biennials<br />
Herbaceous perennials<br />
Woody <strong>plant</strong>s<br />
Plants, vegetation, <strong>and</strong> evolution<br />
Reproduction <strong>and</strong> growth<br />
Life cycles <strong>and</strong> fertility schedules<br />
Community <strong>structure</strong> <strong>and</strong> diversity<br />
Natural selection <strong>and</strong> population biology
Idealized <strong>plant</strong> history (Harper 1977)<br />
• Starting with seed pool (the<br />
dormant phase), some of the<br />
seeds will not sprout <strong>and</strong><br />
become seedlings due to<br />
various factors, such as<br />
unfavorable site, seed<br />
herbivory, or climate (the<br />
environmental sieve).<br />
• Of the seedlings that sprout<br />
(the seedling cohort), only a<br />
few will reach maturity <strong>and</strong><br />
set seed.<br />
• The diagram also allows for<br />
vegetative reproduction,<br />
shown as the vegetative<br />
daughter connected to the<br />
parent <strong>plant</strong>, (these<br />
vegetative shoots are called<br />
ramets). Each genetically<br />
distinct parent <strong>plant</strong> is a<br />
genet.<br />
• The mature <strong>plant</strong>s will<br />
produce seeds, which in turn<br />
must pass through the<br />
environmental filter.<br />
J.L. Harper 1977
Genets, clones <strong>and</strong> ramets<br />
• Genet: a single genetic individual.<br />
• Clone: a group of distinct individuals that are part of a single<br />
genet (e.g., aspen trees)<br />
• Ramet: a single member of a clone (a branch of genet).
Plants have very different growth from animals<br />
• Animals have determinant growth (e.g. only one heart, two lungs, a liver,<br />
two arms, etc.) <strong>and</strong> usually determinant size.<br />
• Plants have indeterminant growth, (i.e., their size <strong>and</strong> abundance of parts<br />
can vary a lot because of the different environmental conditions. Different<br />
number of shoots, leaves, roots, flowers, fruits or seeds in response to<br />
favorable conditions. Similarly, their size can vary markedly, depending on<br />
the location.) They may react to stress by varying the number of parts.
For example, Chenopodium album (lambs quarter)<br />
under nutrient deficiency or if grown at high<br />
density, flowers <strong>and</strong> sets seed when only 50 cm<br />
high, but, given ideal growth conditions it may<br />
produce 50,000 times as many seeds <strong>and</strong> grow to<br />
1 m height.<br />
Thus, <strong>plant</strong> demographers are often more interested<br />
counting leaves or flowers, or individual stems,<br />
than they are in trying to count individual <strong>plant</strong>s.<br />
Modular growth (White 1979)<br />
• Concept of a <strong>plant</strong> being a population of parts (roots, leaves, stems,<br />
flowers, fruits) or modules.<br />
• Plants may independently allocate growth to different modules, depending<br />
on availability of resources <strong>and</strong> environmental conditions.
Fitness<br />
• Fitness = the lifetime reproductive success of an organism.<br />
• This concept is much easier to apply to animals than to <strong>plant</strong>s.<br />
• The ability of <strong>plant</strong>s to reallocate reproductive effort to vegetative modules<br />
during times of stress makes analysis of fitness difficult without following<br />
the reproduction among all its vegetative shoots.
Another important difference between <strong>plant</strong>s <strong>and</strong><br />
animals for population studies: Size distribution<br />
• Unlike animals, mature <strong>plant</strong> sizes are rarely<br />
distributed as a normal curve, in which most individual<br />
are of moderate size.<br />
• Plant sizes normally have an L-shaped frequency<br />
distribution of sizes .<br />
• Furthermore, the size of <strong>plant</strong>s is rarely a direct<br />
function of age.<br />
• Age is also often not a good predictor of reproductive<br />
status in <strong>plant</strong>s.<br />
Barbour et al. Fig. 4.4
<strong>Population</strong> dynamics of <strong>plant</strong> modules<br />
Harper 1977, p. 22<br />
• To get around<br />
some of these<br />
unique properties<br />
of <strong>plant</strong>s,<br />
population<br />
ecologists often<br />
examine modules<br />
of the <strong>plant</strong>s.<br />
• For example, in<br />
this study Harper<br />
examined the<br />
survivorship of<br />
cohorts of leaves<br />
of three species<br />
of grass during<br />
one growing<br />
season.<br />
• Cohorts of<br />
leaves were<br />
marked at<br />
different times<br />
during the<br />
summer <strong>and</strong> the<br />
percent surviving<br />
from previous<br />
markings noted.
Number of leaves of each cohort (Linum usitatissimum)<br />
(Bazzaz <strong>and</strong> Harper, 1976)<br />
• Here Bazzaz<br />
<strong>and</strong> Harper<br />
counted the<br />
number of<br />
leaves in each<br />
cohort <strong>and</strong><br />
followed their<br />
history.<br />
• Early leaves<br />
were longest<br />
lived, but more<br />
leaves were<br />
produced in<br />
later cohorts.<br />
Bazzaz <strong>and</strong> Harper, 1976
Morphological <strong>and</strong> physiological changes during<br />
the life cycle of a <strong>plant</strong> module<br />
Area, photosynthesis <strong>and</strong><br />
respiration<br />
Sucrose <strong>and</strong> phosphorus<br />
concentration<br />
• Just like with whole<br />
organisms or<br />
complete<br />
ecosystems, it is<br />
possible to study<br />
the ecophysiological<br />
processes of <strong>plant</strong><br />
modules.<br />
• These diagrams<br />
show the changes in<br />
size, respiration<br />
rate, photosynthesis<br />
rate, <strong>and</strong><br />
concentrations of<br />
phosphorus <strong>and</strong><br />
sucrose, through<br />
the life history of<br />
cucumber leaves.<br />
Milthorpe <strong>and</strong> Moorby 1974, cited in Harper 1977
Tree growth as the development of a population of<br />
modules<br />
Terminal shoots of Rhus typhina with age<br />
• Each point on the graph<br />
represents the number<br />
of terminal growing<br />
points on a tree of a<br />
particular age.<br />
• The borken line indicates<br />
the number of shoots<br />
expected if each growing<br />
shoot give rise to two<br />
new shoots in the next<br />
growth period. (The<br />
terminal meristem in this<br />
species aborts.)<br />
• The dark line shows the<br />
actual number of shoots,<br />
which is less than<br />
expected because some<br />
of the shoots die.<br />
• Solid dots are trees in<br />
unshaded habitats.<br />
From J. White, unpublished, reproduced in Harper, 1977<br />
Photo: http://ispb.univ-lyon1.fr/cours/botanique/photos_dicoty/dico%20Q%20a%20Z/Rhus%20typhina.jpg
<strong>Population</strong> growth models<br />
Used to predict populations of <strong>plant</strong>s at some future time.<br />
Discrete models: Based on Harper s diagram, we can derive the simple equation:<br />
N t+1<br />
= N t<br />
+ B - D + I - E<br />
N t+1 = Number of <strong>plant</strong>s at some future time.<br />
N t = Number of <strong>plant</strong>s at present time.<br />
B = Number of <strong>plant</strong>s established from the seed bank.<br />
D = Number of <strong>plant</strong>s that die.<br />
I = Number of seeds immigrating to the site.<br />
E = Number of seeds emigrating (dispersing) from the site.<br />
The rate of the population growth, , in this discrete model is equal to the population at<br />
some future time divided by the present population.<br />
= N t+1<br />
/N t<br />
However, it is not so simple to make these calculations because we rarely have all<br />
the information needed, <strong>and</strong> in many cases the data are impossible to obtain.
Continuous-time growth models<br />
• Useful for predicting population<br />
at any time in the future.<br />
• Need to know the rate of<br />
population increase, r,<br />
where r=b-d (number of births<br />
minus the number of deaths).<br />
• With r, we can calculate rate of<br />
change in a population N:<br />
dN/dt = rN.<br />
What is r for the Curve A (0)?
Continuous-time growth models<br />
Exponential growth:<br />
Curve A: r>0.<br />
• If r > 0, the population will grow<br />
exponentially.<br />
• If r = 0, the rate of change in the<br />
population is zero (stable<br />
population).<br />
• If r
Continuous-time growth models<br />
Logistic growth:<br />
Curve B.<br />
In this case the population is<br />
constrained by some<br />
environmental limitation to a<br />
carrying capacity (K).<br />
The population will slow as it<br />
reaches K.<br />
The equation for Curve B is:<br />
dN/dt = rN(K - N)/K,<br />
the Verhulst-Pearl equation.
Limitation of resources in the alga Chlorella<br />
• Gause (1924) showed that the Verhulst-Pearl<br />
equations fit population growth of<br />
Paramecium reasonably well.<br />
• An example from the <strong>plant</strong> world is the alga<br />
Chlorella (regarded as a superfood):<br />
– “Help your body remove the heavy metals <strong>and</strong> other pesticides in<br />
your body, improve your digestive system, including decreasing<br />
constipation, help you focus more clearly <strong>and</strong> for greater duration,<br />
balance your body's pH, <strong>and</strong> help eliminate bad breath”. Joseph<br />
Merkola http://www.mercola.com/forms/chlorella.htm<br />
• This alga forms clumps <strong>and</strong> so experiences<br />
the effects of density when there are still<br />
available resources in the medium. The<br />
initially exponential growth rate declines<br />
after 8 days (dashed curve).<br />
• If the lumping is prevented by shaking, the<br />
exponential rate continues for four more<br />
days before the nutrient limitation of the<br />
solution is reached.<br />
Pearsall <strong>and</strong> Bengry 1940, cited in Harper 1977,<br />
http://www.bioschool.co.uk/bioschool.co.uk/images/images/chlorella%20culture%201_JPG.jpg
The exponential <strong>and</strong> logistic growth curves well express the<br />
ideas of Malthus regarding the limitation of resources<br />
Through the animal <strong>and</strong> vegetable kingdoms, nature has scattered the seeds of life<br />
abroad with the most profuse <strong>and</strong> liberal h<strong>and</strong>. She has been comparatively sparing<br />
in the room <strong>and</strong> nourishment necessary to rear them. Their germs of existence<br />
contained in this spot of earth, with ample food, <strong>and</strong> ample room to exp<strong>and</strong> in would<br />
fill millions of worlds in the course of a few thous<strong>and</strong> years. Necessity, that imperious<br />
all pervading law of nature, restrains them within the prescribed bounds. The race of<br />
<strong>plant</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> race of animals shrink under this great restrictive law.<br />
Malthus, 1798, “An essay in the principal of population”<br />
What are some reasons<br />
Verhulst-Pearl might not<br />
apply to real <strong>plant</strong><br />
populations?
Why Verhulst-Pearl equation does not usually apply<br />
to the real world of <strong>plant</strong>s<br />
• Carrying capacities are rarely constant. They vary with<br />
environmental conditions.<br />
• Birth <strong>and</strong> death rates are not constant. Therefore, r is not<br />
constant.<br />
• Biomass of <strong>plant</strong>s may have more impact on the carrying<br />
capacity than the number of individuals.<br />
• <strong>Population</strong> boundaries are usually poorly defined.
Transition Matrix Models<br />
Present Census<br />
• Often the stage of life history of a <strong>plant</strong> is a<br />
more useful representation of survivorship<br />
<strong>and</strong> reproductive performance than age.<br />
• Transition matrix models are used to<br />
estimate the birth growth <strong>and</strong> death<br />
probabilities for individuals within different<br />
age classes or stages of a <strong>plant</strong> population.<br />
• Using discrete time steps populations of<br />
individuals within each age class may be<br />
projected into the future.<br />
• The matrix above shows is a general matrix<br />
that presents the probability values that<br />
represent the chance that a <strong>plant</strong> in a given<br />
stage of development will arrive at a different<br />
(or remain at the same) stage during the<br />
census interval. The matrix is for a <strong>plant</strong> with<br />
a 3-stage growth cycle (a biennial with seed,<br />
rosette, <strong>and</strong> flower stages).<br />
Leslie, P.H. (1945) The use of matrices in certain populations mathematics. Biometrika 33: 183-<br />
212.<br />
• For example: in the rosette column, if 60% of<br />
the rosettes of a <strong>plant</strong> die, <strong>and</strong> of these 25%<br />
remain as rosettes, <strong>and</strong> 75% become flowers.<br />
Then probabilities in the Rosette column are<br />
a rs =0, a rr = .4 x 0.25=0.1, <strong>and</strong> a rf = 0.4 x<br />
0.75 = 0.3.
Calculating future population size<br />
with transition matrices<br />
Transition matrix for a biennial. Seeds cannot produce flowers<br />
in the first year; <strong>and</strong> rosettes cannot produce seeds. Therefore,<br />
a sf <strong>and</strong> a rs are 0.<br />
1. To calculate the population<br />
<strong>structure</strong> of a future population. A<br />
census of the number of individuals<br />
in each stage of the present<br />
population is taken <strong>and</strong> portrayed<br />
in a column matrix ( B 1 ).<br />
2. This matrix is multiplied by the<br />
transition matrix (A). This matrix<br />
was obtained by monitoring the<br />
probability of individuals in each<br />
stage class (s = seed, i= immature, f<br />
= flowering) making the transition<br />
to another stage class or remaining<br />
at the same stage class. The<br />
resulting matrix ( B 2 ) shows the<br />
number of individuals that make the<br />
transition from one stage to the<br />
next.<br />
3. A new column matrix that portrays<br />
the future population <strong>structure</strong> is<br />
obtained by summing the values in<br />
each row to arrive at the total<br />
number of seeds, immature, <strong>and</strong><br />
flowering <strong>plant</strong>s.<br />
4. This new column matrix, which<br />
shows the population <strong>structure</strong> of<br />
the future population, can then be<br />
multiplied by the transition matrix<br />
to find the population <strong>structure</strong> at<br />
the next time interval. This assumes<br />
that the transition probabilities<br />
remain constant for future<br />
generations (which they don t).<br />
5. This is repeated until the<br />
population <strong>structure</strong> stabilizes<br />
(stable stage distribution).
Transition matrix model application to study of<br />
Dipsacus sylvestris (Teasel)<br />
• Werner <strong>and</strong> Caswell studied<br />
teasel populations in open<br />
field <strong>and</strong> shrubl<strong>and</strong>.<br />
• Teasel is a weedy invasive<br />
biennial species with a stem<br />
up to 2 m tall, that is<br />
increasingly prickly toward<br />
the tip. It has a huge eggshaped<br />
head that is armed<br />
with numerous, sharppointed<br />
bracts. The mature<br />
<strong>plant</strong>s are much sought after<br />
for dry flower arrangements.<br />
The <strong>plant</strong>s occur mostly on<br />
disturbed soil with high soil<br />
moisture. Native to Europe<br />
but is common throughout<br />
most of the lower 48 states.<br />
Wilde Karde 212.185.118.226/ bilddb/Bild.asp?I=119<br />
www.chicagobotanic.org/.../ dipfu05.jp<br />
http://bailey.aros.net/nature/images/<br />
Teasel%20reduced.jpg
Example of the use of transition matrices in the<br />
study of teasel populations (Dipsacus sylvestris)<br />
r = 0.957<br />
Upper: Transition matrix for<br />
the open field.<br />
Lower: Transition matrix for<br />
the shrub-covered field.<br />
Lowest row: Percent<br />
occurrence of each stage in<br />
the open field.<br />
r = -0.465<br />
Shrub covered field has lower seed<br />
production <strong>and</strong> lower probabilities<br />
of <strong>plant</strong>s reaching the flowering<br />
stage.<br />
Result shows an increasing population<br />
for the open field (r = 0.957), <strong>and</strong><br />
declining population in the shrub<br />
covered field (r = -0.465).<br />
Werner, P.A. & Caswell, H. 1977. <strong>Population</strong> growth rates <strong>and</strong> age versus state-distribution models for teasel…Ecol. 58: 11-3-1111.
Law of constant yield<br />
• Biomass is a better<br />
estimate of carrying<br />
capacity for <strong>plant</strong>s than<br />
density of <strong>plant</strong>s or seeds.<br />
• When the number of <strong>plant</strong>s<br />
are high enough for<br />
interspecific interference to<br />
be important, the yield is<br />
constant regardless of<br />
<strong>plant</strong>ing density.<br />
Trifolium subteraneum<br />
Bromus uniloides<br />
(3 levels of nitrogen in soil)<br />
• McDonald (1951) showed<br />
that the yield of Trifolium<br />
subteraneum <strong>and</strong> Bromus<br />
was constant regardless of<br />
the number of seeds or<br />
seedlings. (Seeds of Trisub<br />
in upper diagram varied<br />
across three orders of<br />
magnitude.)<br />
• The yield, however, is<br />
dependent on the<br />
availability of resources.<br />
The lower figure shows the<br />
response to three different<br />
levels of nitrogen.<br />
McDonald 1951, cited in Barbour et al. 1999.
Self-thinning rule<br />
Biomass vs. number of individuals<br />
B=CN -1/2 ,<br />
where B = biomass, <strong>and</strong> N is the population density,<br />
<strong>and</strong> C is a constant.<br />
Yoda et al. 1963, Westoby 1981. Cited in Barbour et al. 1999.<br />
• With <strong>plant</strong>s large individuals<br />
usurp greater amounts of<br />
resources, which tends to<br />
eliminate smaller individuals.<br />
Thus large indviduals have a<br />
greater competitive effect on<br />
small individuals than small<br />
individuals have on large. This<br />
leads to size hierarchies.<br />
• Plant populations are thus<br />
dependent on a combination of<br />
biomass <strong>and</strong> density (crowding<br />
dependent).<br />
• Yoda et al. (1963) presented a<br />
self-thinning rule that describes<br />
the interaction between<br />
biomass <strong>and</strong> population<br />
density. This diagram is from<br />
another study by Westoby<br />
(1981), whereby the original<br />
equation of Yoda et al. takes<br />
another form.<br />
• Below the line, biomass will<br />
tend to increase toward the<br />
line(vertical, up pointing<br />
arrows). Above the line, <strong>plant</strong><br />
mortality will reduce density<br />
(horizontal left pointing arrow)<br />
toward the line.<br />
• Once at the self-thinning line,<br />
individuals will die at a rate<br />
related to biomass<br />
accumulation rates.
Application of self-thinning rule to <strong>plant</strong>s of various sizes<br />
Plant mass vs. density<br />
• The equation appears<br />
to hold for <strong>plant</strong>s of all<br />
sizes.<br />
• The slope of the line =<br />
1/2 for trees, shrubs,<br />
<strong>and</strong> herbs, across 12<br />
orders of magnitude in<br />
size!<br />
J.White 1985, cited in Barbour et al. 1999.
Life tables: cohort table for<br />
Phlox drummondii<br />
www.eeob.iastate.edu/.../ Phlox_drummondii.jpg<br />
• Used for short-lived<br />
species, where the<br />
investigator can follow<br />
the survivorship of each<br />
individual.<br />
Leverich & Levin 1979 cited in Barbour et al. 1999.
Examples of survivorship curves<br />
Eurterpe globosa<br />
(= Prestoea acuminata)<br />
Phlox drummondii<br />
Van Valen 1975 for Eurterpe globosa <strong>and</strong> Leverich <strong>and</strong> Levin 1979 for P. drummondii. Cited in Barbour et al. 1999.
Survivorship curves (Deevey, 1947)<br />
Type I: characteristic of organisms<br />
with mortality concentrated in the<br />
later stages of life (e.g., annuals<br />
with seed dormancy).<br />
Type II: characteristic of organisms<br />
with constant mortality rates.<br />
Type III: characteristic of organisms<br />
with high juvenile mortality (e.g.,<br />
most trees).<br />
Note that large animals tend to have<br />
Type I survivorship <strong>and</strong> small<br />
animals tend to have Type III;<br />
whereas the opposite is true of<br />
large <strong>and</strong> small <strong>plant</strong>s.<br />
Deevey 1947. Cited in Barbour et al. 1999.
Fecundity <strong>and</strong> net reproductive rate<br />
Fecundity (b x<br />
) is the age-specific birthrate of individuals. It is a<br />
measure of the average number of seeds produced by individuals<br />
of a single size or age cohort during an interval (x).<br />
Net reproductive rate (R o<br />
) is a combination of the fecundity <strong>and</strong> the<br />
probability of that an individual will survive to the necessary age<br />
category. It is the product of the survivorship (l x<br />
) times fecundity,<br />
summed for the cohort over its life time:<br />
R o = l x b x .
Reproductive value of an individual of age x<br />
Reproductive value (V x<br />
) is the relative contribution that individuals of<br />
age x are likely to make to the seed pool before they die. It is<br />
calculated as the sum of the average number of seeds it produces<br />
in the current year (b x<br />
) plus the the average number of seeds<br />
produced by an individual in each age class older than b x<br />
(e.g.,<br />
b x+1<br />
,b x+2<br />
, etc.) times the probability that an individual will survive<br />
to each older age category (l x+1<br />
/l x<br />
):<br />
Vx = bx +<br />
(l x+i /l x )b x+i
Example: reproductive value of Phlox drummondii through its lifetime<br />
Leverich & Leven 1979
Size or age distribution of trees<br />
• Size (dbh) or age<br />
(no. of tree rings)<br />
can be used.<br />
• Used to examine the<br />
population<br />
dynamics of longer<br />
lived species.<br />
• Diagram shows the<br />
number of <strong>plant</strong>s in<br />
each size category<br />
for hardwoods <strong>and</strong><br />
pines in one st<strong>and</strong><br />
of trees.<br />
• What does this<br />
distribution<br />
suggest?<br />
Heyward 1939, cited in Barbour et al. 1999.
Metapopulations<br />
“The suite of populations in a region that are<br />
semi-isolated from each other because of<br />
habitat heterogeneity, but which show<br />
significant interchange of pollen <strong>and</strong>/or<br />
propagules.” (paraphrased from Levin,<br />
1970)<br />
Species are patchily distributed because of<br />
habitat heterogeneity.<br />
Erickson s (1945) study showed that <strong>plant</strong><br />
showed patchy distribution at all scales<br />
he mapped.<br />
Patches that are interconnected <strong>and</strong> show<br />
significant interchange are considered<br />
metapopulations.<br />
Ralph O. Erickson, 1945. The Clematis fremontii var. riehlii<br />
population in the Ozarks,” Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden,<br />
vol. 32
Adding complexity to Harper s original<br />
model<br />
Regional seed pool<br />
• Numerous studies have examined the<br />
exchange of propagules between local<br />
populations. Colonization at new sites<br />
can be a function of a variety of factors.<br />
For example:<br />
– Availability of open sites. Good sites may be<br />
going extinct through climate change,<br />
succession, or anthropogenic disturbances.<br />
– All good sites are currently occupied.<br />
• These <strong>and</strong> other factors can influence<br />
whether a species will exp<strong>and</strong> into new<br />
areas, maintain itself in the l<strong>and</strong>scape, or<br />
go extinct.<br />
Local populations
Metapopulations<br />
Pulliam (1989) recognized two distinct types of populations:<br />
Source populations: <strong>Population</strong>s in favorable areas that<br />
produce a lot of seed <strong>and</strong> potential emigrants.<br />
Sink populations: <strong>Population</strong>s in unfavorable habitats that<br />
must receive an constant influx in immigrants to maintain<br />
themselves.
Models of<br />
movement of<br />
species between<br />
populations<br />
• Infinite isl<strong>and</strong> models: Sewall Wright's (1943) infinite isl<strong>and</strong> model is a "l<strong>and</strong>scapeneutral"<br />
model that assumes equal population size <strong>and</strong> equal exchange of migrants<br />
across all populations.<br />
• Metapopulation models: (Levins 1970), is a demographic model that describes a set<br />
of populations with certain extinction probabilities that are connected by migration of<br />
colonists.<br />
• L<strong>and</strong>scape models: Use spatially explicit information about the mosaic of habitat<br />
types to describe the l<strong>and</strong>scape. This model can be combined with a metapopulation<br />
model or any model that describes a set of connected populations that occur within a<br />
l<strong>and</strong>scape. For further discussion of metapopulation models <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>scape<br />
approaches see Harrison <strong>and</strong> Taylor 1997, Wiens 1997. (For all models, lines indicate<br />
gene flow or migration, solid patches are populations; dotted patches indicate extinct<br />
populations.)<br />
From: Proceedings from a Workshop on Gene Flow in Fragmented, Managed, <strong>and</strong> Continuous <strong>Population</strong>sJanuary 5-9, 1998. National Center for<br />
Ecological Analysis <strong>and</strong> SynthesisUniversity of California-Santa BarbaraProceedings written byV. L Sork, D. Campbell, R. Dyer, J. Fern<strong>and</strong>ez, J. Nason,<br />
R. Petit, P. Smouse, <strong>and</strong> E. Steinberg.
Two recent studies of metapopulation genetics<br />
Giles, B.E. <strong>and</strong> J. Goudet. 1997. Genetic differentiation in<br />
Silene dioica metapopulations: Estimation of<br />
spatiotemporal effects in a successional <strong>plant</strong> species.<br />
American Naturalist, 149: 507-526.<br />
Olson M.S. <strong>and</strong> D.E. McCauley. 2002. Mitochondrial DNA<br />
diversity, populaiton <strong>structure</strong>, <strong>and</strong> gender association in<br />
the gynodioecious <strong>plant</strong> Silene vulgaris. Evolution, 56: 253-<br />
262.
Summary<br />
• Density <strong>and</strong> pattern<br />
– R<strong>and</strong>om, clumped, regular distribution patterns<br />
• Plant <strong>demography</strong> (Harper 1977)<br />
– Modular growth (White 1979)<br />
– Plant age vs. stages<br />
– <strong>Population</strong> growth models<br />
• Discrete-time model: difficult to apply<br />
• Continuous time model: exponential growth equation<br />
• Limitation of resources: Verhulst-Pearl logistic equation<br />
• Exponential vs. logistic population growth<br />
– Transition Matrix Models (Leslie 1975)<br />
– Density dependence<br />
• The law of constant of yield (Kira et al. 1975)<br />
• Self-thinning rule (Yoda et al. 1963)<br />
– Life tables <strong>and</strong> survivorship curves (Deevey 1947, Phlox example from Leverich<br />
<strong>and</strong> Levin 1975)<br />
• Fecundity<br />
• Net reproductive rate<br />
• Reproductive value<br />
– Forest population dynamics (Examples from Heyward 1939, Oosting <strong>and</strong> Billings<br />
1952)<br />
• Metapopulations<br />
– Interchange of propagules between local populations (Levin 1970).<br />
– Source <strong>and</strong> sink populations (Pulliam 1989).<br />
– Different models of gene flow between populations.
Literature for Lesson 5<br />
Werner, P.A. <strong>and</strong> J. Caswell. 1977. <strong>Population</strong> growth rates <strong>and</strong> age versus<br />
stage-distribution models for teasel (Dipsacus sylvestris Huds.)<br />
Ecology 58: 1103-1111.<br />
Giles, B.E. <strong>and</strong> J. Goudet. 1997. Genetic differentiation in Silene dioica<br />
metapopulations: Estimation of spatiotemporal effects in a<br />
successional <strong>plant</strong> species. American Naturalist, 149: 507-526.<br />
Leverich, W.J. <strong>and</strong> D.A. Levin,. Age-specific survivorship <strong>and</strong> reproduction in<br />
Phlox drummondii. American Naturalist 113: 881-903.<br />
Platt, W.J. <strong>and</strong> M. Weiss. 1985. An experimental study of competition among<br />
fugitive prairie <strong>plant</strong>s. Ecology 66: 708-720.<br />
Olson M.S. <strong>and</strong> D.E. McCauley. 2002. Mitochondrial DNA diversity, populaiton<br />
<strong>structure</strong>, <strong>and</strong> gender association in the gynodioecious <strong>plant</strong> Silene<br />
vulgaris. Evolution, 56: 253-262.<br />
Westoby, M. 1981. The place of the self-thinning rule in population dynamics.<br />
American Naturalist 118: 581-587.