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Table 3.3 Telecommunications indicators in selected emerging economies (2001–3) Total Total Telephone Telephone telephone telephone per 100 per 100 GDP per capita GDP per capita subscribers subscribers inhabitants inhabitants Country 2001 (US$) 2002 (US$) (k) 2001 (k) 2003 2001 2001 Brazil 3,544 2,603 66,176.5 85,595.3 38.51 48.65 China 833 963 325,188.0 532,700.0 24.77 42.38 Egypt 1,544 1,260 9,488.7 14,533.2 14.70 21.17 India 459 488 44,964.7 75,071.4 4.38 7.10 Mexico 5,871 6,328 35,531.7 46,408.8 35.83 45.44 Nigeria 423 409 1,000.3 4,002.5 0.86 3.25 Russia 1,709 2,370 41,028.7 73,493.0 27.96 50.20 South Africa 2,982 2,293 15,711.5 18,546.0 ∗ 35.26 40.80 South Korea 11,127 11,481 54,837.2 59,392.1 115.83 123.93 Turkey 3,062 2,630 38,477.4 46,804.3 56.15 66.19 *2002 figures Source: compiled by authors from ITU statistics. http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/statistics/
72 MEDIA POLICY AND GLOBALIZATION In this last section we consider how the new institutional reality of the WTO in 1995 posed new challenges for national governments in the South. In order to follow these changes more carefully, the next section provides a brief overview of three relatively powerful emerging economies, and the shifting role of the nation-state as it liberalizes telecommunications policy, while facing pressures from both translational capital and multilateral policy convergence. Corporate discipline and unruly publics (1996–2005) Pressure from TNCs to play a bigger role in multilateral telecommunications reform was acute throughout the 1980s, but became formalized within the ITU in 1994. At this time, a ‘second tier of membership was created to facilitate greater participation of the private sector and NGOs’ (Siochrú et al. 2002: 49). In reality, telecommunications companies have driven the policy agenda with minimal participation by NGOs, who have less power, fewer experts and access to the privately funded meetings that increasingly define policy goals. A recent study found that ‘more aid money now goes into creating governance regimes than to developing the communications networks and services that people will actually use’. This same study points out that within the ITU, the private sector has come to ‘out-number governments 450 to 187’ (Winsek 2002: 24–5). The pressure for reregulating telecommunications to reflect neoliberal trade norms is most apparent when we turn to the new multilateral institution of telecommunications governance: the WTO. The Uruguay Rounds of the GATT ended in 1994 with sixty nations committing to liberalization of value-added services – cellular phones, paging, privateleased networks etc. – but only eight willing to liberalize basic telecommunications and public-data networks (Siochrú et al. 2002: 57). It would take another three years of negotiations within the newly created WTO to establish the ABT, which would require all sixty-nine signatories to liberalize gradually their telecommunications service markets fully, as well as establish independent regulatory agencies similar in form to the US FCC. With US policy-makers and corporate lobbyists leading the push for liberalization in the WTO, it is not coincidental that the 1996 Telecommunications Act commits to opening up competition in all markets in telecommunications services, thereby fundamentally altering the domestic legal framework that had guided universal telecommunications provision (Aufderheide 1999). The explicit commitment to liberalization in basic services, and the transformation of regulation as a ‘technical’ function to ensure efficient operation of markets, is a drastic departure for most states in the South. The WTO agreement elevated the mode of
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Paula Chakravartty Katharine Sarika
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Media Topics Series editor: Valerie
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C○ Paula Chakravartty and Kathari
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Tables and figures Tables 3.1A Infr
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viii PREFACE shared, between the No
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Abbreviations ABT AFL-CIO AISI Anat
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Part One Policy contexts
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Page 37 and 38: 2 Revisiting the history of global
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Page 64 and 65: 3 Governing the central nervous sys
Page 66 and 67: TELECOMMUNICATIONS POLICY 53 Table
Page 68 and 69: TELECOMMUNICATIONS POLICY 55 somewh
Page 70 and 71: TELECOMMUNICATIONS POLICY 57 broadb
Page 72 and 73: TELECOMMUNICATIONS POLICY 59 was fi
Page 74 and 75: TELECOMMUNICATIONS POLICY 61 the ex
Page 76 and 77: TELECOMMUNICATIONS POLICY 63 ineffi
Page 78 and 79: TELECOMMUNICATIONS POLICY 65 to exe
Page 80 and 81: TELECOMMUNICATIONS POLICY 67 all se
Page 82 and 83: TELECOMMUNICATIONS POLICY 69 rhetor
Page 86 and 87: TELECOMMUNICATIONS POLICY 73 libera
Page 88 and 89: TELECOMMUNICATIONS POLICY 75 real l
Page 90 and 91: TELECOMMUNICATIONS POLICY 77 public
Page 92 and 93: TELECOMMUNICATIONS POLICY 79 who li
Page 94 and 95: Table 3.4 (Continued ) Date Country
Page 96 and 97: TELECOMMUNICATIONS POLICY 83 has al
Page 98 and 99: 4 Governing the backbone of culture
Page 100 and 101: BROADCASTING POLICY 87 Across broad
Page 102 and 103: BROADCASTING POLICY 89 largely by s
Page 104 and 105: BROADCASTING POLICY 91 countries. P
Page 106 and 107: BROADCASTING POLICY 93 Common conce
Page 108 and 109: BROADCASTING POLICY 95 support and
Page 110 and 111: BROADCASTING POLICY 97 European cou
Page 112 and 113: BROADCASTING POLICY 99 European Par
Page 114 and 115: BROADCASTING POLICY 101 it has on g
Page 116 and 117: BROADCASTING POLICY 103 limited way
Page 118 and 119: BROADCASTING POLICY 105 because of
Page 120 and 121: BROADCASTING POLICY 107 identity. P
Page 122: BROADCASTING POLICY 109 than others
Page 126 and 127: 5 Policies for a new world or the e
Page 128 and 129: THE INFORMATION SOCIETY 115 good jo
Page 130 and 131: THE INFORMATION SOCIETY 117 we are
Page 132 and 133: THE INFORMATION SOCIETY 119 phrasin
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THE INFORMATION SOCIETY 121 Order
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THE INFORMATION SOCIETY 123 (EC 200
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THE INFORMATION SOCIETY 125 and acr
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THE INFORMATION SOCIETY 127 Materia
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THE INFORMATION SOCIETY 129 Interne
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THE INFORMATION SOCIETY 131 Table 5
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THE INFORMATION SOCIETY 133 that is
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THE INFORMATION SOCIETY 135 ‘limi
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THE INFORMATION SOCIETY 137 subsume
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THE INFORMATION SOCIETY 139 the pol
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THE INFORMATION SOCIETY 141 Table 5
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THE INFORMATION SOCIETY 143 ‘comm
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6 Civil society and social justice:
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CIVIL SOCIETY AND SOCIAL JUSTICE 14
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Conclusion The three pillars for th
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CONCLUSION 171 as the structural co
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CONCLUSION 173 the experiences of t
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CONCLUSION 175 political systems, s
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CONCLUSION 177 in the area of Inter
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Bibliography Abramson, Bram Dor and
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 181 Bell, Daniel (1973
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 183 Crossroads: Whose
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 185 ECA (Economic Comm
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 187 Garnham, Nicholas
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 189 Series on Gender a
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 191 International Cent
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 193 Klein, Hans and Mi
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 195 Millar, Melanie St
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 197 Park, Donghyun (20
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 199 Sarikakis, Kathari
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 201 Sussman, Gerald (1
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 203 Media Policy in th
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206 INDEX Civil Society Declaration
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208 INDEX International Telecommuni
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210 INDEX Television Without Fronti
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