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TELECOMMUNICATIONS POLICY 57 broadband, cellular and satellite networks catering to transnational corporate users, translated into hundreds of billions of dollar of debt for these same firms since 2000. The massive investment corresponded with increasingly rapid and complex patterns of conglomeration, mergers and transnational alliances between local and long-distance service providers, broadband and digital cable companies and firms specializing in satellite and wireless services. 3 Beginning in 2000, a global glut in telecommunications capacity, combined with a series of highly public corruption scandals involving telecommunications giants like WorldCom, raised new concerns about corporate accountability in the sector. Today the industry is once again undergoing a series of transnational mergers where national regulators are encouraging a new round of consolidation after two decades of promoting deregulation on the normative grounds that competition improved services for consumers. Perhaps the most telling example is the current status of AT&T, the US private telecommunications monopoly that triggered the global deregulation process in 1984 when national regulators allowed the company to be broken up into multiple regional ‘baby bell’ service providers (Horwitz 1989). In 2005, AT&T’s monopoly has been replaced by an oligopoly made up of four regional telecommunications providers including SBC, the ‘baby bell’ that is ‘swallowing its former parent’ AT&T which will ‘live on as the business division’ providing services for corporate clients (Belson 2005). Similarly, Verizon is in the process of buying up MCI, therefore reversing the twenty years of competition between local and long-distance providers that served as the model for reform for most other nations. The processes of consolidation that we see today are taking place in a multipolar universe of telecommunications giants based in Europe and North America, but also the Asia Pacific and Latin America (see Table 3.2). In order to make sense of the normative basis for this global shift, we turn to the historical context of the evolution and disintegration of the national public-interest model of telecommunications regulation. Historicizing telecommunications policy and national public interest (1950–1980) The colonial legacy of international telecommunications policy dates back to the 1865 when the (then) International Telegraph Union (ITU) emerged as the first international organization established by twenty European countries to coordinate common technological standards and protocols between member nations, including their colonies. The US and other sovereign nations continued joining the organization as telephony
Table 3.2 Top 20 telecommunications operators – ranked by revenue (1999) Rank Telecommunication Revenue Total Net Income Operator (Country) Total (US $Million) Change 98–99** Total (US $Million) Change (98–99)** Total (000s) 1 NTT (Japan) 97,953 6.7 2,821 −46.0 223.9 2 AT&T (US) 62,391 17.2 3,428 −34.5 147.8 3 SBC (US) 48,489 7.1 8,159 6.1 204.5 4 MCI Worldcom (US) 37,120 104.3 3,941 # 77.0 5 Deutsche Telekom (Germany) 35,750 1.1 1,309 −40.9 195.8 6 BT (UK) 34,955 20.2 3,264 −31.9 136.8 7 Bell Atlantic (US) 33,174 5.1 4,202 41.7 145.0 8 China Telecommunication (China) 9 France Telecommunication (France) 10 Telecommunication Italia (Italy) 27,539 14.5 . . . . . . 444.5 27,344 10.5 2,786 20.5 174.3 27,229 8.2 1,745 −12.2 122.7 11 GTE (US) 25,336 −0.5 4,033 87.5 99.0 12 BellSouth (US) 25,224 9.1 3,448 −2.2 96.2 13 Telefonica (Spain) 23,051 31.4 1,812 38.0 118.8 14 Sprint (US) 19,928 18.0 −935 # 77.6 15 DDI (Japan) 14,396 22.4 −99 # 2.6 16 Vodafone AirTouch (UK) 14,183 26.6 166 # 29.5 17 US West (US) 13,182 6.3 1,324 −11.0 58.3 18 Telstra (Australia)b 12,046 5.3 2,305 16.0 52.8 19 Telmex (Mexico) 10,132 23.1 2,643 53.2 63.9* 20 KPN (Netherlands) 9,169 14.9 832 20.5 34.8 Top 20 599,591 12.9 47,202 14.1 2,506 Note: US dollar values obtained by using operator supplied exchange rates or ending period exchange rate. Net income is after tax. # indicates that Net Income was negative in 1997 and/or 1998. A Year beginning 1 April. B Year ending 30 June. * = 1997data.**= percentages. Source: ITU PTO Database 2001. Reproduced with the kind permission of ITU.
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Paula Chakravartty Katharine Sarika
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Media Topics Series editor: Valerie
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C○ Paula Chakravartty and Kathari
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Tables and figures Tables 3.1A Infr
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viii PREFACE shared, between the No
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Abbreviations ABT AFL-CIO AISI Anat
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Part One Policy contexts
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4 MEDIA POLICY AND GLOBALIZATION a
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Page 37 and 38: 2 Revisiting the history of global
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Page 64 and 65: 3 Governing the central nervous sys
Page 66 and 67: TELECOMMUNICATIONS POLICY 53 Table
Page 68 and 69: TELECOMMUNICATIONS POLICY 55 somewh
Page 72 and 73: TELECOMMUNICATIONS POLICY 59 was fi
Page 74 and 75: TELECOMMUNICATIONS POLICY 61 the ex
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Page 78 and 79: TELECOMMUNICATIONS POLICY 65 to exe
Page 80 and 81: TELECOMMUNICATIONS POLICY 67 all se
Page 82 and 83: TELECOMMUNICATIONS POLICY 69 rhetor
Page 84 and 85: Table 3.3 Telecommunications indica
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Page 88 and 89: TELECOMMUNICATIONS POLICY 75 real l
Page 90 and 91: TELECOMMUNICATIONS POLICY 77 public
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Page 94 and 95: Table 3.4 (Continued ) Date Country
Page 96 and 97: TELECOMMUNICATIONS POLICY 83 has al
Page 98 and 99: 4 Governing the backbone of culture
Page 100 and 101: BROADCASTING POLICY 87 Across broad
Page 102 and 103: BROADCASTING POLICY 89 largely by s
Page 104 and 105: BROADCASTING POLICY 91 countries. P
Page 106 and 107: BROADCASTING POLICY 93 Common conce
Page 108 and 109: BROADCASTING POLICY 95 support and
Page 110 and 111: BROADCASTING POLICY 97 European cou
Page 112 and 113: BROADCASTING POLICY 99 European Par
Page 114 and 115: BROADCASTING POLICY 101 it has on g
Page 116 and 117: BROADCASTING POLICY 103 limited way
Page 118 and 119: BROADCASTING POLICY 105 because of
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BROADCASTING POLICY 107 identity. P
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BROADCASTING POLICY 109 than others
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5 Policies for a new world or the e
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THE INFORMATION SOCIETY 115 good jo
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THE INFORMATION SOCIETY 117 we are
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THE INFORMATION SOCIETY 119 phrasin
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THE INFORMATION SOCIETY 121 Order
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THE INFORMATION SOCIETY 123 (EC 200
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THE INFORMATION SOCIETY 125 and acr
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THE INFORMATION SOCIETY 127 Materia
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THE INFORMATION SOCIETY 129 Interne
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THE INFORMATION SOCIETY 131 Table 5
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THE INFORMATION SOCIETY 133 that is
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THE INFORMATION SOCIETY 135 ‘limi
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THE INFORMATION SOCIETY 137 subsume
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THE INFORMATION SOCIETY 139 the pol
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THE INFORMATION SOCIETY 141 Table 5
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THE INFORMATION SOCIETY 143 ‘comm
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6 Civil society and social justice:
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CIVIL SOCIETY AND SOCIAL JUSTICE 14
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Conclusion The three pillars for th
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CONCLUSION 171 as the structural co
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CONCLUSION 173 the experiences of t
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CONCLUSION 175 political systems, s
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CONCLUSION 177 in the area of Inter
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Bibliography Abramson, Bram Dor and
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 181 Bell, Daniel (1973
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 183 Crossroads: Whose
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 185 ECA (Economic Comm
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 187 Garnham, Nicholas
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 189 Series on Gender a
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 191 International Cent
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 193 Klein, Hans and Mi
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 195 Millar, Melanie St
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 197 Park, Donghyun (20
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 199 Sarikakis, Kathari
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 201 Sussman, Gerald (1
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 203 Media Policy in th
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206 INDEX Civil Society Declaration
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208 INDEX International Telecommuni
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210 INDEX Television Without Fronti
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