International Giant Otter Studbook Husbandry and Management

and frequency after each toileting/elimination should be closely observed and recorded to help
determine cub health and handrearing effectiveness. For example, this can indicate if and how
much a formula needs to be adjusted or even totally changed (esp. with newly introduced
formulas) or if the feeding frequency / techniques, formula preparation techniques, and/or
amount fed is inappropriate.
Stools should be very softly formed into a definitive shape and golden yellow in color when
milk formula is fed. The stools’ surface can also appear shiny and translucent, as if the stool is
covered by a very thin layer of translucent jelly. The stool, although, should not appear greasy
(see below). When cubs are gradually switched from mother’s milk to an artificial milk
replacer, it is normal that the cubs’ stool color may slowly change as the new formula strength is
gradually increased (see below for abnormal color changes). During weaning, stool color will
darken and its consistency and texture will change. When weaned to a total fish diet, stool will
appear dark in color with a green or black hue, and sometimes have white, yellow, or green
mucous blobs. Stool may be loosely formed or unformed but should be very thick in
consistency (i.e. like thick oatmeal with a rough texture from fish scales etc.). If stools look
otherwise in color or form/consistency, problems may exist. Certain odors or changes in urine
or stool odor can also indicate problems.
Milk replacer formulas too strong in dilution could cause loose stool (stool with little or no
form or pudding-like consistency), diarrhea, or liquid/runny stool. This is a common
problem, especially when new formulas are introduced too quickly. Usually diluting the
formula with electrolyte solutions for general use or water will help reduce diarrhea and
rehydrate the cub (see Section 2). Diarrhea can cause bloating (i.e. a tight distended abdomen),
abdominal cramping, flatulence, digestion problems, and dehydration, and if continued and
severe, possibly death. Other handrearing practices (e.g. non-sanitary conditions, using dirty
feeding apparatuses or improperly stored formulas etc.) or health problems can also cause
diarrhea.
Black and tarry (although this could be normal for some otters a day or two after their birth),
bright green, white, or cream stool color or stool excessively greasy/shiny in appearance
indicates possible milk formula inadequacy or cub health problems unrelated to formulas.
Bright or dark red blood in the stool also indicates problems. Bright red blood (often on the top
layer of stool) could indicate an irritation to the rectum/bowels from diarrhea or straining to
defecate. Dark red blood, especially that which is mixed in and throughout the stool, can
indicate a very serious health problem (i.e. internal bleeding) and medical treatment is needed
immediately. Immediately after a 7 day old giant otter cub at Dortmund Zoo was removed from
its parents for handrearing, it eliminated softly formed dark green stools (Sykes-Gatz, pers.
obs.). This stool resulted from mother’s milk, although it is important to note that this cub died
of an inherited thyroid malfunction at 11 days old, which may have affected its stool color. The
cub although did not appear underweight at the time it was pulled, but it was significantly
injured. Additionally, just after a 3 day old giant otter cub at Dortmund Zoo was removed from
its parents for handrearing, it eliminated softly formed dark green stools (Sykes-Gatz, pers.
obs.). This stool resulted from mother’s milk and the cub died on the same day from a severe
infection. (This cub had different (although still related) parents than the last cub just
aforementioned above and it is assumed that it did not have an inherited thyroid malfunction.)
Otter cubs usually urinate and defecate (simultaneously) several times a day, usually before or
after every to every other feeding and/or corresponding toileting. (See toileting stimulation in
Section 4.) If cubs do not defecate (constipation) and/or urinate after two or more
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