International Giant Otter Studbook Husbandry and Management
International Giant Otter Studbook Husbandry and Management
International Giant Otter Studbook Husbandry and Management
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obs.. 2002).] Cubs were taken into the water much too frequently <strong>and</strong> were treated too<br />
roughly there. Parents pushed <strong>and</strong> held the cubs underwater too frequently or forced them<br />
underwater for too long, so sometimes they nearly drowned the cubs. (The swimming lessons<br />
that giant otter parents reportedly give, both in the wild <strong>and</strong> when captive parents are not<br />
stressed, can appear rough, although comparatively, the aforementioned treatment is excessive.)<br />
The greater the amount of stress/disturbance, the more excessive the aforementioned<br />
behaviors have become. Parents may also carry out similar behaviors in a significantly<br />
less exaggerated manner (i.e. they may exhibit these behaviors to a minor degree) as a result<br />
of lesser stressors/disturbances.<br />
To what degree parents are vulnerable to disturbances <strong>and</strong> normal human activity that<br />
did not bother them before parturition, or how parents are effected by stress <strong>and</strong> to what<br />
degree they abuse/neglect their cubs because of it, can vary from non-existent to extreme<br />
dependent on many factors. These factors include the duration, intensity, frequency, <strong>and</strong><br />
familiarity of the disturbance, husb<strong>and</strong>ry <strong>and</strong> management practices, the extent of visual <strong>and</strong><br />
acoustic isolation available, <strong>and</strong> the quality, furnishings, design, <strong>and</strong> size of the indoor <strong>and</strong><br />
outdoor enclosures. (I.e. see the enclosure conditions <strong>and</strong> husb<strong>and</strong>ry practices that are<br />
necessary to consider in Part B below.) Individual otter personality <strong>and</strong> history (e.g. physical<br />
<strong>and</strong> behavioral problems), the degree of experience that each parent <strong>and</strong> if present, older<br />
offspring, has with rearing cubs, family social structure (i.e. the age of any older offspring<br />
present at the time of the new litter birth, whether the sire is present etc.), <strong>and</strong> pair compatibility<br />
are also factors. All of these factors will affect the success of cub-rearing.<br />
Negative reactions (e.g. parental neglect or cub abuse) to human disturbances (i.e. any<br />
actions carried out by humans near <strong>and</strong> in enclosures etc.) may not occur immediately after<br />
the disturbances have taken place. E.g. a reaction may take as long as a half hour to occur<br />
after the disturbance <strong>and</strong> the parents could react calmly until that point, without showing stress<br />
etc.. The time, type, <strong>and</strong> degree of both the disturbances <strong>and</strong> parental behaviors should be<br />
closely monitored (either from the recommended hidden viewing areas or on video<br />
monitors/tapes) <strong>and</strong> recorded on an on-going basis to evaluate the actual presence of negative<br />
responses.<br />
Normal/routine human activities tolerated before parturition can cause parents significant<br />
stress at <strong>and</strong> after parturition <strong>and</strong> can result in cub neglect/abuse <strong>and</strong> litter loss. This<br />
includes routine keeper activity performed by familiar keepers, such as daily enclosure<br />
cleaning, feeding, observations, or simply the presence of the familiar keeper near or in the<br />
enclosure <strong>and</strong> the presence of usual visitors or zoo staff. After parturition otters can be<br />
disturbed by even the most familiar visual <strong>and</strong> acoustic presence/occurrence. Insignificant<br />
or small unusual events can also cause significant stress. Examples of what may very likely<br />
cause extreme stress include the direct presence of the public <strong>and</strong> unfamiliar zoo staff (esp.<br />
within the nestbox area or directly within the enclosure), “loud/excessive” or “sudden noises”,<br />
“unusual activities”, removal of any family/group member (e.g. mates or previous offspring),<br />
relocation to a new enclosure, significant physical changes to or within the exhibit etc.. If<br />
parents are aware that even familiar caretakers have entered the area in which they are, at that<br />
moment, keeping their cubs (i.e. nestboxes/dens containing nestboxes, or caretakers peering<br />
into/placing their h<strong>and</strong>s in natural underground dens) this may also cause extreme stress. These<br />
kinds of stress may likely cause litter loss. When familiar keepers are simply near the area<br />
where otters are keeping their cubs, this can cause significant stress. When familiar keepers<br />
enter the enclosure within the first week (or sometimes even longer) after parturition, even when<br />
keeper activities are greatly minimized, significant stress can result. When otters detect, e.g.<br />
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