NMFS Biological Opinion on U.S. Navy training ... - Govsupport.us
NMFS Biological Opinion on U.S. Navy training ... - Govsupport.us
NMFS Biological Opinion on U.S. Navy training ... - Govsupport.us
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FINAL PROGRAMMATIC BIOLOGICAL OPINION ON U.S. NAVY ACTIVITIES IN THE HAWAII RANGE COMPLEX 2008-2013<br />
below 1000 Hz; however, is quite poor. On the other hand, the hearing sensitivity of most sea turtles appear to be<br />
best at frequencies between about 200 Hz and 700 Hz. As a result, sea turtles might be expected to suffer more<br />
harmful effects from loud, low frequency noise than would dolphins.<br />
Beca<strong>us</strong>e ears adapted to functi<strong>on</strong> underwater are physiologically different from human ears, comparis<strong>on</strong>s <strong>us</strong>ing<br />
decibels would still not be adequate to describe the effects of a sound <strong>on</strong> a whale. When sound travels away from its<br />
source, its loudness decreases as the distance traveled by the sound increases. Th<strong>us</strong>, the loudness of a sound at its<br />
source is higher than the loudness of that same sound a kilometer distant. Aco<strong>us</strong>ticians often refer to the loudness of<br />
a sound at its source as the source level and the loudness of sound elsewhere as the received level. For example, a<br />
humpback whale 3 kilometers from an airgun that has a source level of 230 dB may <strong>on</strong>ly be exposed to sound that is<br />
160 dB loud. As a result, it is important not to c<strong>on</strong>f<strong>us</strong>e source levels and received levels when disc<strong>us</strong>sing the<br />
loudness of sound in the ocean.<br />
As sound moves away from a source, its propagati<strong>on</strong> in water is influenced by vario<strong>us</strong> physical characteristics,<br />
including water temperature, depth, salinity, and surface and bottom properties that ca<strong>us</strong>e refracti<strong>on</strong>, reflecti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
absorpti<strong>on</strong>, and scattering of sound waves. Oceans are not homogeneo<strong>us</strong> and the c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> of each of these<br />
individual factors is extremely complex and interrelated. The physical characteristics that determine the sound’s<br />
speed through the water will change with depth, seas<strong>on</strong>, geographic locati<strong>on</strong>, and with time of day (as a result, in<br />
actual s<strong>on</strong>ar operati<strong>on</strong>s, crews will measure oceanic c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s, such as sea water temperature and depth, to calibrate<br />
models that determine the path the s<strong>on</strong>ar signal will take as it travels through the ocean and how str<strong>on</strong>g the sound<br />
signal will be at given range al<strong>on</strong>g a particular transmissi<strong>on</strong> path).<br />
Sound tends to follow many paths through the ocean, so that a listener would hear multiple, delayed copies of<br />
transmitted signals (Richards<strong>on</strong> et al. 1995). Echoes are a familiar example of this phenomen<strong>on</strong> in air. In order to<br />
determine what the paths of sound transmissi<strong>on</strong> are, <strong>on</strong>e rule is to seek paths that deliver the sound to the receiver<br />
the fastest. These are called aco<strong>us</strong>tic rays. If the speed of sound were c<strong>on</strong>stant throughout the ocean, aco<strong>us</strong>tic rays<br />
would c<strong>on</strong>sist of straight-line segments, with reflecti<strong>on</strong>s off the surface and the bottom. However, beca<strong>us</strong>e the speed<br />
of sound varies in the ocean, most aco<strong>us</strong>tic rays are curved.<br />
Sound speed in seawater is general about 1,500 meters per sec<strong>on</strong>d (5,000 feet per sec<strong>on</strong>d) although this speed varies<br />
with water density, which is affected by water temperature, salinity (the amount of salt in the water), and depth<br />
(pressure). The speed of sound increases as temperature and depth (pressure), and to a lesser extent, salinity,<br />
increase. The variati<strong>on</strong> of sound speed with depth of the water is generally presented by a “sound speed profile,”<br />
which varies with geographic latitude, seas<strong>on</strong>, and time of day.<br />
In shallow waters of coastal regi<strong>on</strong>s and <strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tinental shelves, sound speed profiles become influenced by surface<br />
heating and cooling, salinity changes, and water currents. As a result, these profiles tend to be irregular and<br />
unpredictable, and c<strong>on</strong>tain numero<strong>us</strong> gradients that last over short time and space scales. As sound travels through<br />
the ocean, the intensity associated with the wavefr<strong>on</strong>t diminishes, or attenuates. This decrease in intensity is referred<br />
to as propagati<strong>on</strong> loss, also comm<strong>on</strong>ly called transmissi<strong>on</strong> loss. In general, in a homogeneo<strong>us</strong> lossless medium,<br />
sound intensity decreases as the square of the range due to somple spherical spreading. In other words, a source level<br />
of 235 dB will have decreased in intensity to a received level of 175 dB after about 914 meters (1,000 yards).<br />
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