Literature review: Impact of Chilean needle grass ... - Weeds Australia

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Table 3. Native vegetation formations invaded by N. neesiana outside Australia. Vegetation class Locations Country Major associated spp. Reference Bidenti pilosae-Ageratinetum adenophorae community Teneriffe, Canary Islands Spain Bidens pilosa Ageratina adenophora Myrica faya, Salix canariensis Martín Osorio et al. 2000 (Erica platycodon): Ilici Teneriffe, Canary Islands Spain Martín Osorio et al. 2000 canariensis-Ericeto playcodonis Aeonietum cuneati Teneriffe, Canary Islands Spain Martín Osorio et al. 2000 Periploco-Phoenico canariensis Teneriffe, Canary Islands Spain Phoenix canariensis Martín Osorio et al. 2000 Within Australia, occurrence in disturbed anthropogenic habitats is usual: e.g. North Central Region of Victoria: roadsides, waterways, small neglected semi-urban allotments (Frederick 2002), Sydney region “roadsides, pastures, grassy areas, along creeks and rivers” (Benson and McDougall 2005). In the ACT it occurs under a wide range of conditions “from heavily mown or grazed sites, from damp gullies and depressions out to drier slopes, to sites with low to medium levels of disturbance and in shaded and unshaded locations” (Bruce 2001). Areas in which it is most likely to occur include roadsides, tracks and paths (vehicle, walking, animal), mown areas, waterways and drainage lines (Bruce 2001). It is generally more abundant in grasslands that are small in size (
In Australia the altitudinal range is from near sea level (e.g. in the Altona area near Melbourne) to c. 1200-1400 m at Guyra on the Northern Tablelands of NSW (Gardener et al. 2005). In the Sydney region it is found from 0-600 m (Benson and McDougall 2005). Climate Stipeae are generally classic xeromorphs or mesic, Austrostipa aristiglumis (F.Muell.) S.W.L. Jacobs and J. Everett and Trikeraia being exceptions (Arriaga and Jacobs 2006). In south-eastern South America members of the tribe increase with increasing latitude, being absent in the megathermic zones, a major vegetation component in mesothermic zones and dominant in Patagonia (Perelman et al. 2001). Indeed, increases of c. 15 to 23% in the average relative cover of Stipeae compared to other grass tribes has been measured across the narrow latitudinal range (c. 35-38°) of the Flooding Pampa, in Argentina (Perelman et al. 2001). The distribution of particular Stipeae, including several Nassella species, in this region shows strong latitudinal correlations, with a group including N. hyalina and N. charruana found only in the north, and others found only in the south (Perelman et al. 2001). N. neesiana is unusual in that it has a very wide climatic tolerance. It has invaded areas outside the climatic range it occupies in South America (Gardener 1998). The stronghold of N. neesiana, the pampas region, has warm, often humid summers, mild, usually drier winters with temperatures uncommonly below freezing, annual rainfall of 600-1000 mm, and little drought (Mack 1989). In the pampas, “grass is driven out only where water is very abundant in the soil, as ... along the banks of rivers ... the climate is a perfect grassland-climate, with ... rainfall not more than moderate but well distributed ... humid, moderately warm vegetative season [and] strong winds ... with moderate atmospheric humidity ... hostile indeed to woodland” (Schimper 1903 p. 459). Summer rainfall is prevalent in eastern South America south of 30° including Rio Grande do Sul, eastern Uruguay and Argentina (Schimper 1903). Restricted occurences in southern Brazil, where the grasslands are considered to be relicts of drier, cooler conditions, may be determined by the more subtropical, humid climate (Overbeck and Pfadenhauer 2007). N. neesiana is one of the dominant grasses in La Plata district of Buenos Aires where the climate is warm temperate and humid, with a mean annual temperature of 16.5 ºC and mean annual rainfall of 992 mm (Cabrera 1949). It occurs across the Flooding Pampa of north-eastern Argentina which has annual rainfalls of 850-900 mm, average annual temperatures of 13.8-15.9°C and average minimum temperatures in July of 1.8-6°C (Perelman et al. 2001). It is a major grass in the Tandilia Range of south-east Buenos Aires province where the annual rainfall is about 800 mm and the mean monthly temperatures for the coldest and warmest months are 13 and 23°C (Honaine et al. 2009), and in parts of south-west Buenos Aires Province, where the climate is humid temperate with a mean annual temperature of 14.5ºC and annual average rainfall of 850 mm (Amiotti et al. 2007). It occurs in the littoral areas and lower parts of the La Plata basin where the climate lacks a marked dry season (Schimper 1903). Large tracts of northern Argentina, the base of the Andes and the Provinces of Entre Rios and Corrientes have annual rainfall of 1000-1200 mm (Schimper 2003) and in those areas N. neesiana loses its dominance in grassland to species better adapted to a wetter, more subtropical climate (Soriano et al. 1992). In Uruguay N. neesiana is supposedly “resistant to adverse climates” (Gardener et al. 1996b p. 3, citing Rosengurtt et al. 1970). In the Pampean province of southern Brazil the annual rainfall is in the range of c. 1200-1600 mm and mean annual temperatures are 13-17°C (Overbeck et al. 2007). On the Juan Fernández Islands of Chile it grows in dry or humid areas (Baeza et al. 2007). In continental South America as a whole N. neesiana is found in the 500-1500 mm annual rainfall zones, with some extreme outliers, and its northern distribution is “limited by lack of low winter temperatures necessary for vernalization” (Gardener et al. 1996b), so is restricted to higher altitudes in the tropics. It occurs in southern Chile near Valdiva where the average annual rainfall exceeds 2600 mm and maximum/minimum temperatures are 22.8/11.1 in January and 11.1/5.0ºC in July (Gardener et al. 1996b). Similar seasonal temperatures occur in montane-alpine areas of south-eastern Australia, although few such areas have rainfall exceeding 1600 mm. It occurs in areas of far north-east Argentina near Posadas, where the rainfall was over 1900 mm per annum, with January and July maximum/minimum temperatures of 33.2/21.8ºC and 21.9/11.4ºC (Gardener et al. 1996b). The closest approximations to such a climate in Australia occur in the wet tropics. In western Argentina it occurs at Medoza, where the climate is very dry (223 mm) with January/July maximum/minimum temperatures of 32.0/19.4ºC and 14.7/2.4ºC (Gardener et al. 1996b), similar to some arid areas of inland southern Australia. In arid regions of South America it may only occur where the microclimate is more mesic, e.g. along rivers (Gardener et al. 1996b). In South Africa N. neesiana has been recorded in temperate summer rainfall areas (Wells et al. 1986). The climate parameters of one of its stronghold areas in New Zealand are an annual average rainfall of 650-900 mm, warm summers with frequent droughts and moderate winters, conditions said to be very similar to the climate in its Argentinian range (Bourdôt and Hurrell 1989a). The 900 mm isohyet has been quoted as a limiting factor in north-facing hill slopes in the Hawkes Bay area of New Zealand (Slay 2002) where its potential range was considered to be “northerly facing hill country in low to medium rainfall (700-900 mm)” (Slay 2001 p. 5). In south eastern Australia N. neesiana occurs primarily in areas with 500-800 mm average annual rainfall (Muyt 2001) in a range of climates including the warm wet summer/cold dry winter of the Northern Tablelands of NSW, and hot dry summer/cold wet winter of southern Victoria (Gardener et al. 1999). In the Sydney region it is found in areas with 700-1000 mm mean annual rainfall (Benson and McDougall 2005). N. neesiana appears to be well adapted to seasonal dryness (Bourdôt and Hurrell 1987b) and is drought tolerant (Muyt 2001, McLaren et al. 2002b, Slay 2002c, Storrie and Lowien 2003). Tsvelev (1977 p. 2) thought that the small chromosomes and small pollen grains (general stipoid characters), lemma and palea structure protecting the flowers, a dense clumping habit and the presence of intravaginal shoots (as in N. neesiana) all indicated specialisation for xerophytic climates. Slay (2002a p. 10) thought that the bare ground resulting from drought was “the catalyst for seedling establishment”. Fire Fire is a feature of the campos and pampas grasslands of South America, but as in other areas of the world, the ancient and pre- European fire regimes are poorly understood. Darwin (1845 p. 114) reported that the plains from Bahía Blanca to Buenos Aires were commonly deliberately burnt, “chiefly for improving the pasture”: “it seems necessary to remove the superfluous 49
Page 1 and 2: Literature review: Impact of Chilea
Page 3 and 4: Fire 49 Other disturbances 50 Shade
Page 5 and 6: Conventions and standards Botanical
Page 7 and 8: neesiana appears to be a habitat ge
Page 9 and 10: population densities of existing sp
Page 11 and 12: elated plants have similar defences
Page 13 and 14: For invasion to occur there must be
Page 15 and 16: As yet there appears to be no evide
Page 17 and 18: experimental manipulation of specie
Page 19 and 20: species tend to be those which tran
Page 21 and 22: Taxonomy and nomenclature Stipeae N
Page 23 and 24: Vernacular names ‘Needlegrass’
Page 25 and 26: to Bouchenak-Khelladi et al. 2009).
Page 27 and 28: 1 m (Walsh 1994), ca. 90 cm (Verloo
Page 29 and 30: Figure 2. Anatomy of the seed of N.
Page 31 and 32: are the seeds larger/smaller, longe
Page 33 and 34: also based on a misunderstanding of
Page 35 and 36: Table 2. Modified Feekes Scale for
Page 37 and 38: Argentina, in the provinces of Chac
Page 39 and 40: Figure 3. Recorded distribution of
Page 41 and 42: 1994). Only 3 of 186 exotic grasses
Page 43 and 44: According to Morfe et al. (2003) th
Page 45 and 46: populations have been found in the
Page 47: (Honaine et al. 2006). The flechill
Page 51 and 52: Proximity to urban development appe
Page 53 and 54: In the southern Brazilian campos of
Page 55 and 56: arundinacea (Gardener et al. 2005).
Page 57 and 58: al. 2008). Cues for masting may be
Page 59 and 60: Approximately 200 alien grass speci
Page 61 and 62: Dispersal of seed in contaminated s
Page 63 and 64: In New Zealand, Hurrell et al. (199
Page 65 and 66: No emergence was observed in undist
Page 67 and 68: and high impact (“ability to caus
Page 69 and 70: also noted that despite a wide rang
Page 71 and 72: a small reduction in seedhead produ
Page 73 and 74: Slashing and mowing Slashing can re
Page 75 and 76: Themeda re-establishment McDougall
Page 77 and 78: species (Lawton and Schroder 1977 p
Page 79 and 80: y increased importance of ant grani
Page 81 and 82: BIODIVERSITY “Biodiversity ... on
Page 83 and 84: According to Woods (1997 p. 61) “
Page 85 and 86: 2004, Richardson and van Wilgen 200
Page 87 and 88: negative depending on the particula
Page 89 and 90: Competition with native plants Comp
Page 91 and 92: asexual seed production, so local f
Page 93 and 94: GRASSLANDS Grasses: “... the most
Page 95 and 96: susceptible to N. neesiana invasion
Page 97 and 98: Floristic composition, vegetation s
Page 99 and 100:
proportion of the flora then presen
Page 101 and 102:
tussock space (Stuwe and Parsons 19
Page 103 and 104:
Like vascular plant diversity, comm
Page 105 and 106:
Opinions differ on the nature and i
Page 107 and 108:
Species Common Name Family Aust ACT
Page 109 and 110:
in shifting the distribution, exten
Page 111 and 112:
of these systems is largely explain
Page 113 and 114:
pasture. The least understood trans
Page 115 and 116:
tend to benefit more from relaxed c
Page 117 and 118:
Bovids crop their food between the
Page 119 and 120:
are therefore less likely to distur
Page 121 and 122:
esult in a “short-term flush” o
Page 123 and 124:
Fire effects on weeds Moore (1993 p
Page 125 and 126:
Table 8. Typical nutrient levels in
Page 127 and 128:
grasses produced sigificantly more
Page 129 and 130:
Fossorial vertebrates are or were o
Page 131 and 132:
(Rosengren 1999). Approximately one
Page 133 and 134:
Table 12. Areal extent and conserva
Page 135 and 136:
Foreman (1997) investigated the eff
Page 137 and 138:
Willis (1964) considered that the f
Page 139 and 140:
Austrostipa-Enneapogon) from around
Page 141 and 142:
Woodlands and New England Grassy Wo
Page 143 and 144:
Thylogale billardierii), Peramelida
Page 145 and 146:
Its original habitat on the mainlan
Page 147 and 148:
Table 17. Endangered reptile specie
Page 149 and 150:
equirement, but unlike plants and v
Page 151 and 152:
e assigned the same biodiversity sc
Page 153 and 154:
Nematodes are mostly minute animals
Page 155 and 156:
found in all mainland states, O. co
Page 157 and 158:
Keyacris scurra, Melbourne (1993) o
Page 159 and 160:
was once widespread in south- easte
Page 161 and 162:
eing sluggish and wingless, and exi
Page 163 and 164:
estoration and, if Australia follow
Page 165 and 166:
close to the plant are able to bury
Page 167 and 168:
Species *Chirothrips mexicanus Craw
Page 169 and 170:
Table A2.1 (continued) Species Life
Page 171 and 172:
Table A2.1 (continued) Species *Het
Page 173 and 174:
Page 175 and 176:
Page 177 and 178:
Nematodes of grasses and grasslands
Page 179 and 180:
REFERENCES Aceñolaza, F.G. (2004)
Page 181 and 182:
Benson, D. and McDougall, L. (2005)
Page 183 and 184:
Chan, C.W. (1980) Natural grassland
Page 185 and 186:
DNRE (Department of Natural Resourc
Page 187 and 188:
Fuhrer, B. (1993) A Field Companion
Page 189 and 190:
Groves, R.H. and Whalley, R.D.B. (2
Page 191 and 192:
Iaconis, L. (2004) Chilean needle g
Page 193 and 194:
Levine, J.M., Adler, P.B. and Yelen
Page 195 and 196:
McDougall, K.L. (1987) Sites of Bot
Page 197 and 198:
Morfe, T.A., McLaren, D.A. and Weis
Page 199 and 200:
Perelman, S.B., León, R.J.C. and O
Page 201 and 202:
Saunders, D.A. (1999) Biodiversity
Page 203 and 204:
Thellung, A. (1912) La flore advent
Page 205 and 206:
Weiss, J. and McLaren, D. (2002) Vi
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