Literature review: Impact of Chilean needle grass ... - Weeds Australia

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Lepidoptera Amongst the Lepidoptera that attack Poaceae, the Noctuidae are generally polyphagous (Witt and McConnachie 2004). A high proportion of Satyrinae (Nymphalidae) and Hesperiidae are grass feeders (Braby 2000). A study of 13 satyrines and 3 hesperines showed that they all stored the grass secondary metabolite flavonoid tricin, while one species stored glycosylflavones, with the flavone stored in the wings and body and constituting 1-2% of their dry weight.(Harborne and Williams 1986). One important role of flavonoids in grasses is probably as grazing deterrents (Harborne and Williams 1986) and these butterflies have therefore to some extent overcome those defences. A species of Gelechiidae has been found rarely attacking the florets of Chionochloa spp. in New Zealand (Kelly et al. 1992). Australian Grassland Invertebrate Faunas A few studies of the faunas of particular natural grassland associations have been undertaken in Australia including Sharp (1997), Melbourne (1993), Farrow (1999 2006), New (2000), Gibson and New (2007) and the studies of Yen and colleagues in Victoria. The study of Farrow (1999) was a pioneering quantification of the biodiversity of a major part of the insect fauna of ACT grasslands. Victoria Terrestrial invertebrates of western Victorian Basalt Plains Grasslands have been surveyed and discussed by Yen (1999) and assessed by Yen, Horne, Kay and Kobelt (1994) and Yen et al. (1995), and in the western region of Melbourne by Yen, Kobelt, Lillywhite and Van Praagh (1994). These were the first baseline invertebrate surveys of native temperate grasslands in southeastern Australia (Farrow 1999), however these are long unpublished reports containing little analysis. Previous studies covered only a very limited number of individual taxa (e.g. Key 1978, Horne 1992, McDougall 1989), or were a part of dietary studies of endangered vertebrates including Delma impar (Coulson 1990, Wainer 1992) and Perameles gunnii (Yen 1995) or related to agricultural pest species (e.g. Schroder 1983). Approximately 50 taxa were identified from pitfall trap specimens taken at Derrimut Grassland Reserve by Kathy Ebert (Coulson 1990) but only ants and some spiders were identified, and only to genus. Initial pitfall trap sampling suggested that basalt plains grasslands have lower invertebrate divesity than other habitats in Victoria (Yen 1999), paralleling Willis’s (1964) view of the vascular plant and bryophyte diversity. Hadden (1997, 1998) investigated invertebrates in both the Northern and Western Plains, but did not provide specific identifications. Hadden and Westbrooke (1999) detected 160 arthropod morphospecies using pitfall traps, sweep net and hand searching in a grazed T. triandra pasture near Ballarat: 26 Formicidae, 90 Coleoptera and 44 Araneae. The Coleoptera and Araneae were identified to family level and the Formicidae to genus. Various features of the fauna were identified including the low number of aerial web-building spiders, the dominance of Iridiomyrmex spp. ants and the small size of those Coleoptera spp. that were abundant. Gibson and New (2007) detected 24 morphospecies of Formicidae and 27 Coleoptera species by pitfall trapping in spring and summer at Craigieburn grassland, Victoria. Both major taxa appeared to be representative of regional diversity and included no rare or apparently grassland-specific species. Collecting techniques used in the surveys of Yen et al. were pitfall trapping, weeping, suction sampling, canopy fogging and direct searching. Yen, Horne, Kay and Kobelt (1994) reported on 1992-3 seasonal surveys of 12 remant grassland sites representative of the range of site types, management practices and conservation ranking of all sites previously listed McDougall and Kirkpatrick (1994): 5 roadside reserves (4 burnt annually), 3 railway reserves (2 burnt annually), 2 privately owned pastures, 1 conservation reserve and 1 cemetry; and an additional 5 sites were surveyed once: 2 rail, 1 roadside, 2 private, along with 6 areas adjacent to seasonally sampled sites. Yen, Kobelt, Lillywhite and Van Praagh (1994) surveyed a variety of vegetation types during 1991-93 that included 2 Poa grasslands (Point Cook and Werribee) and 5 T. triandra grasslands (Truganina, Derrimut, St Albans rail reserve, Manor rail reserve, Evan St rail reserve). Yen et al. (1995) surveyed 29 additional grassland sites during 1994, completing their coverage of all the remnant grasslands listed by McDougall and Kirkpatrick (1994) that were still in existence. 5 of these sites were in the Melbourne region and the remainder between Ballarat and Hamilton. Yen, Kobelt, Lillywhite and Van Praagh (1994) quantified the numbers of individuals collected by order, and by genus or species (where possible) for Coleoptera (beetles), Formicidae (ants) and Araneae (spiders). Yen, Horne, Kay and Kobelt (1994) and Yen et al. (1995) duplicated this analysis but also included species or genus level data for Orthoptera (grasshoppers and crickets) and Hemiptera (true bugs) and reported on spiders only at family level. A reference collection of grassland invertebrates has been established at the Museum of Victoria under the supervision of Peter Lillywhite, and identification of included taxa is proceeding gradually (Yen pers. comm. 2006, Kobelt pers. comm. 2007). Miller and New (1997) determined the ant fauna of (?derived) Austrodanthonia grasslands at Mount Piper, Victoria. The fauna was a far less diverse subset of that found in nearbye woodland and only one species was restricted to grassland. They found that sites invaded by Holcus lanatus supported an average of c. 16 and a total of 28 morphospecies while the more natural grasslands supported an average of c. 21 and a total of 33 morphospecies. However matched invaded and uninvaded sites”only a few tens of metres apart, did not differ significantly from each other in diversity” (p. 378) and “many species” showed “little apparent discrimination in relation to dominant grass species” (p. 381). Four morphospecies were trapped only at H. lanatus sites, while seven were trapped only at the Austrodanthonia sites. “Overall disturbance may be more significant to ants than simple replacement of native by exotic grass species” (Miller and New 1997 p. 381). Few unique features have been noted about Victorian grassland invertebrate assemblages. One such example is the presence of ants that make use of rocks as a habitat. These ants are absent from ACT grasslands (Melbourne 1993). Australian Capital Territory Little is known about the distribution and ecological requirements of most invertebrate species in ACT grasslands (Sharp 1997 p. 4), although the fauna is much better studied that most other grassland areas, partly due to the presence of CSIRO Entomology and its predecessors in the national capital since 1928. Driscoll (1994) integrated knowledge then available to develop an invertebrate conservation and research strategy for the ACT. Numerous localised studies of selected grassland groups or species have been undertaken, including Edwards (1994) on the Golden Sun Moth, Rowell and Russell (1995) on the grasshopper 156
Keyacris scurra, Melbourne (1993) on ants and carabid beetles, Greenslade (1994) on Collembola, Melbourne et al. (1997) on native crickets (Gryllidae) and exotic slugs (Arionidae, Limacidae and Milacidae), Sharp (1997) on all orders and their relationship to grassland composition, structure and functioning and Farrow (1999, 2006) on canopy-living insects and their relationships to management factors, season of sampling and vegetation type. Melbourne (1993) sampled three types of native grassland, dominated respectively by T. triandra, Austrostipa (typically A. bigeniculata) and Austrodanthonia and two types of exotic grassland dominated by Phalaris aquatica (improved pasture) and Avena fatua (an enriched grassland) maily using pitfall traps. A total of 37 ant species in 18 genera and 24 carabid species in 22 genera were detected. The pitfall trap catch size of ants was significantly larger in plots where vegetation was experimentally cleared and plots where litter was removed. Some species were more commonly trapped in cleared areas, some in uncleared, with one species showing no response to vegetation density. Slug (Limacidae and Milacidae) catches were approximately equal across treatments. However analysis suggested that structural differences in the grassland vegetation effected the efficiency of the traps, and that the trap catches in different vegetation types did not reflect actual abundance. Further analysis indicated that ant catches in the relatively open Austrodanthonia grasslands were approximately twice those in the more dense T. triandra and Austrostipa associations, and were by far the lowest in Phalaris pasture. Grassland type also affected carabid abundance (almost all being Notiobia edwardsii), with T. triandra having the lowest numbers and Austrostipa the highest. Catches of crickets were also lowest in T. triandra, while slugs were most abundant in the two most highly modified grassland types and next in T. triandra. The number of ant species trapped also varied significantly between grassland types, Austrostipa and Austrodanthonia being highest, but the number of carabid species was not signifcantly different between types. Other sampling methods yielded only very low numbers of individuals. Melbourne et al. (1997) further reported on the crickets and slugs, the real abundances of which were determined to be properly reflected in the pitfall trap catches. Slug numbers increased with increasing density of the grasslands, possibly because slugs moved less on the drier substrates associated with more open habitat. The cricket Bobilla victoriae Otte and Alexander was several times more abundant in Phalaris aquatica grassland than the other grassland types, while T. commodus was also more common in P. aquatica. Greenslade (1994) sampled springtails (Collembola) at 29 grassland and grassy woodland sites in the ACT and compared numbers and abundances of native, exotic and rare species. One new species of in the Tomoceridae was found at an ungrazed T. triandra site. Results showed a high degree of congruence with assessments of biodiversity based on vascular plants but not with ants and only partially with carabid beetles. Sites with high disturbance and weed invasion consistently had low Collembola diversity. T. triandra and Austrostipa sites had distinct faunas. Abundance of exotic species correlated with the amount of bare ground, as did the abundance of the rare native species Australotomurus sp., probably corresponding with their high temperature threshold for activity. Sharp (1997) analysed invertebates collected from soil samples at grassland sites. Species representing 22 orders were found, dominated numerically by Acarina (mites), Collembola (springtails) and Coleoptera (beetles). Abundance and order richness of soil invertebrates were highest at sites dominated byT. triandra (rather than Austrodanthonia), at sites with darker wet-soil colour and at sites managed by mowing, and lowest in grazed sites, and was not significantly related to floristic association. Farrow (1999) sampled canopy-living insects by sweep netting in 11 of the most important ACT grasslands in January and November 1998 and February 1999. He found representatives of 8 orders and 48 families and ‘super groupings’, and approximately 328 morphospecies including approximately 150 micro-Hymenoptera but excluding Lepidoptera, all Diptera except Tephritidae and some minor orders. Apart from micro-Hymenoptera, four families each were represented by >10 morphospecies: Chrysomelidae and Curculionidae (Coleoptera), Cicadellidae (Hemiptera) and Acrididae (Orthoptera), and Hemiptera were most speciose with 73 spp., followed by Coleoptera with 58 spp. and Orthoptera with 18 spp. Cicadellidae spp. were by far the most abundant family comprising 77% of the total individuals in summer1998 and 37% in summer 1999. Next in abundance was Acrididae, followed by micro-Hymenoptera, Lathrididae (Coleoptera), Tephritidae (Diptera) and Alydidae (Hemiptera). 34-40% of species were detected at only one location, and further 16-21% at two locations, confirming that most species are rare. There was no evidence of a total biodiveristy difference between habitats dominated by forbs and grasses. Insect predators were relatively uncommon. Spiders outnumbered insects in summer 1999. Farrow (2006) resurveyed the same sites and four additional ones in 1999, 2000 and 2001. He found representatives of 57 families and ‘super groupings’ and an estimated 383 species, with similar family representation to the previous study. Conservation of grassland invertebrates A 1984 survey of Australian entomologists identifed Austrostipa, Austrodanthonia and T. triandra grasslands among the broad habitat types that were poorly conserved from the invertebrate viewpoint (Hill and Michaelis 1988). Indentified taxa of conservation significance with many species associated with these grasses included Synemon (Lepidoptera: Castniidae), Pterolocera (Lepidoptera: Anthelidae), Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera) and Acridoidea (Orthoptera) (Hill and Michaelis 1988). Small reserves can be sufficient for the conservation of grassland invertebrates (Key 1978, Hill and Michaelis 1988). In alpine grasslands, management regimes are a threat to dayfling Geometridae (Lepidoptera) (Hill and Michaelis 1988, McQuillan 1999). Trends apparent from sampling of mown vs. unmown grasslands in the ACT indicate that mown areas have fewer individual insects and that insects may aggregrate in unmown areas (Farrow 1999). Five relatively well known invertebrate taxa of conservation significance found in grasslands are discussed in more detail below: the xanthorhoinine geometrid moths (Lepidoptera), the sun moths, Synemon spp. (Lepidoptera: Castniidae), the morabine grasshoppers (Orthoptera) , the cricket Coorabooraama canberrae Rentz (Orthoptera) and the Perunga grasshopper Perunga ochracea (Sjöstedt). Two grassland invertebrate species are officially declared threatened species in the ACT, Synemon plana (endangered) and P. ochracea (vulnerable) (ACT Government 2005). Other species with notable conservation significance in the ACT include Lewis’s laxabilla Laxabilla smaragdina Sjöstedt (Orthoptera) and Whisker’s Springtail Tomocereridae new genus undescribed sp. (Yen 1995, Anonymous 1997). 157
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Literature review: Impact of Chilea
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Fire 49 Other disturbances 50 Shade
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Conventions and standards Botanical
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neesiana appears to be a habitat ge
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population densities of existing sp
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elated plants have similar defences
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For invasion to occur there must be
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As yet there appears to be no evide
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experimental manipulation of specie
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species tend to be those which tran
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Taxonomy and nomenclature Stipeae N
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Vernacular names ‘Needlegrass’
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to Bouchenak-Khelladi et al. 2009).
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1 m (Walsh 1994), ca. 90 cm (Verloo
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Figure 2. Anatomy of the seed of N.
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are the seeds larger/smaller, longe
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also based on a misunderstanding of
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Table 2. Modified Feekes Scale for
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Argentina, in the provinces of Chac
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Figure 3. Recorded distribution of
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1994). Only 3 of 186 exotic grasses
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According to Morfe et al. (2003) th
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populations have been found in the
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(Honaine et al. 2006). The flechill
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In Australia the altitudinal range
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Proximity to urban development appe
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In the southern Brazilian campos of
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arundinacea (Gardener et al. 2005).
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al. 2008). Cues for masting may be
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Approximately 200 alien grass speci
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Dispersal of seed in contaminated s
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In New Zealand, Hurrell et al. (199
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No emergence was observed in undist
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and high impact (“ability to caus
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also noted that despite a wide rang
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a small reduction in seedhead produ
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Slashing and mowing Slashing can re
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Themeda re-establishment McDougall
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species (Lawton and Schroder 1977 p
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y increased importance of ant grani
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BIODIVERSITY “Biodiversity ... on
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According to Woods (1997 p. 61) “
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2004, Richardson and van Wilgen 200
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negative depending on the particula
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Competition with native plants Comp
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asexual seed production, so local f
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GRASSLANDS Grasses: “... the most
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susceptible to N. neesiana invasion
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Floristic composition, vegetation s
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proportion of the flora then presen
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tussock space (Stuwe and Parsons 19
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Like vascular plant diversity, comm
Page 105 and 106: Opinions differ on the nature and i
Page 107 and 108: Species Common Name Family Aust ACT
Page 109 and 110: in shifting the distribution, exten
Page 111 and 112: of these systems is largely explain
Page 113 and 114: pasture. The least understood trans
Page 115 and 116: tend to benefit more from relaxed c
Page 117 and 118: Bovids crop their food between the
Page 119 and 120: are therefore less likely to distur
Page 121 and 122: esult in a “short-term flush” o
Page 123 and 124: Fire effects on weeds Moore (1993 p
Page 125 and 126: Table 8. Typical nutrient levels in
Page 127 and 128: grasses produced sigificantly more
Page 129 and 130: Fossorial vertebrates are or were o
Page 131 and 132: (Rosengren 1999). Approximately one
Page 133 and 134: Table 12. Areal extent and conserva
Page 135 and 136: Foreman (1997) investigated the eff
Page 137 and 138: Willis (1964) considered that the f
Page 139 and 140: Austrostipa-Enneapogon) from around
Page 141 and 142: Woodlands and New England Grassy Wo
Page 143 and 144: Thylogale billardierii), Peramelida
Page 145 and 146: Its original habitat on the mainlan
Page 147 and 148: Table 17. Endangered reptile specie
Page 149 and 150: equirement, but unlike plants and v
Page 151 and 152: e assigned the same biodiversity sc
Page 153 and 154: Nematodes are mostly minute animals
Page 155: found in all mainland states, O. co
Page 159 and 160: was once widespread in south- easte
Page 161 and 162: eing sluggish and wingless, and exi
Page 163 and 164: estoration and, if Australia follow
Page 165 and 166: close to the plant are able to bury
Page 167 and 168: Species *Chirothrips mexicanus Craw
Page 169 and 170: Table A2.1 (continued) Species Life
Page 171 and 172: Table A2.1 (continued) Species *Het
Page 177 and 178: Nematodes of grasses and grasslands
Page 179 and 180: REFERENCES Aceñolaza, F.G. (2004)
Page 181 and 182: Benson, D. and McDougall, L. (2005)
Page 183 and 184: Chan, C.W. (1980) Natural grassland
Page 185 and 186: DNRE (Department of Natural Resourc
Page 187 and 188: Fuhrer, B. (1993) A Field Companion
Page 189 and 190: Groves, R.H. and Whalley, R.D.B. (2
Page 191 and 192: Iaconis, L. (2004) Chilean needle g
Page 193 and 194: Levine, J.M., Adler, P.B. and Yelen
Page 195 and 196: McDougall, K.L. (1987) Sites of Bot
Page 197 and 198: Morfe, T.A., McLaren, D.A. and Weis
Page 199 and 200: Perelman, S.B., León, R.J.C. and O
Page 201 and 202: Saunders, D.A. (1999) Biodiversity
Page 203 and 204: Thellung, A. (1912) La flore advent
Page 205 and 206: Weiss, J. and McLaren, D. (2002) Vi
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Literature review: Impact of Chilean needle grass ... - Weeds Australia

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