Literature review: Impact of Chilean needle grass ... - Weeds Australia
Literature review: Impact of Chilean needle grass ... - Weeds Australia
Literature review: Impact of Chilean needle grass ... - Weeds Australia
Create successful ePaper yourself
Turn your PDF publications into a flip-book with our unique Google optimized e-Paper software.
e assigned the same biodiversity score as those that are rare and narrowly distributed (New 1984, Driscoll 1994) and links with<br />
other biological studies where species names are used can rarely be made except by later reference to preserved voucher<br />
specimens. Imprecise taxonomic information severely limits connections with the whole range <strong>of</strong> existing biological and<br />
ecological information about particular taxa (Churchill 1997).<br />
Thus it is generally difficult to determine whether a particular <strong>grass</strong>land area contains a good representation <strong>of</strong> the invertebrate<br />
fauna. The criterion <strong>of</strong> rarity is also difficult to assess given the general low level <strong>of</strong> invertebrate knowledge. It requires<br />
examination over temporal and spatial scales largely beyond the reach <strong>of</strong> current resources. Endemism may be a better criterion<br />
(Driscoll 1993), but again <strong>of</strong>ten requires more knowledge than is available (Melbourne 1993), except for a very limited range <strong>of</strong><br />
organisms, or at the biogeographical scale.<br />
Landscape criteria and the biological attributes <strong>of</strong> species<br />
Landscape criteria are intended to enable the integration <strong>of</strong> habitat patch attributes, dispersal characteristics and dispersal<br />
opportunities <strong>of</strong> the organism with population biology, conservation genetics and the features <strong>of</strong> the surrounding landscape to<br />
arrive at guidelines for conservation (Driscoll 1994). For example, small populations may frequently become extinct, but that is<br />
not a problem if recolonisation from surrounding habitat is inevitable. However knowledge <strong>of</strong> the dynamics <strong>of</strong> invertebrate<br />
metapopulations is very difficult to investigate in fragmented <strong>grass</strong>land remnants (Yen 1999). Consideration <strong>of</strong> these<br />
complications led Driscoll (1994) to conclude that until such time as a wide range <strong>of</strong> invertebrates with variable dispersal<br />
abilities and life strategies could be assessed, all native <strong>grass</strong>land remnants were potentially important for invertebrate<br />
conservation, and conservation approaches should attempt to ensure maximal connectivity between the remnants.<br />
Consideration <strong>of</strong> the biological significance <strong>of</strong> <strong>grass</strong>land invertebrate faunas must include identification <strong>of</strong> taxa restricted to<br />
<strong>grass</strong>lands and determination <strong>of</strong> the presence <strong>of</strong> threatened species (Yen 1995). The most important criteria in determination <strong>of</strong><br />
species at risk are low vagility (Hill and Michaelis 1988, Farrow 1999), low reproductive rate, long development period and<br />
degree <strong>of</strong> endemicity (Hill and Michaelis 1988). These criteria are clearly apparent for <strong>grass</strong>land invertebrate taxa known to be<br />
endangered (see below).<br />
Knowledge <strong>of</strong> the distribution <strong>of</strong> invertebrate species is <strong>of</strong>ten too limited to determine whether a species is restricted to<br />
<strong>grass</strong>lands. Ants are amongst the better known groups and ants <strong>of</strong> native <strong>grass</strong>lands have been found to be largely a subset <strong>of</strong><br />
those <strong>of</strong> neaby woodlands (New 2000), again paralleling the vascular plants. Most <strong>grass</strong>land plants are also found in other<br />
vegetation formations, particularly <strong>grass</strong>y woodlands, but if invertebrate foodplants or larval hosts are restricted to <strong>grass</strong>lands<br />
then breeding populations <strong>of</strong> the invertebrate must also be restricted to <strong>grass</strong>lands. Some species may be restricted to <strong>grass</strong>lands<br />
by multiple factors, e.g. microclimate and food plant distribution. The endangered Ptunurra Xenica Oriexenica ptunarra L.E.<br />
Couchman (Lepidoptera: Satyrinae), a Tasmanian endemic, has Poa-feeding larvae and occurs in “open plains and poorly<br />
drained areas bordering mountain lakes and swamps”, in open <strong>grass</strong>y woodlands and tussock <strong>grass</strong>lands, mainly in the Midlands<br />
(Braby 2000 pp. 495-496). Two other Xenica species O. orichora (Meyrick) and O. latialis Waterhouse and Lyell are mainly<br />
restricted to alpine <strong>grass</strong>lands in south-eastern <strong>Australia</strong> (Braby 2000). The thermal requirements <strong>of</strong> these species (including<br />
open sunny areas for the adults to bask) are probably important in determining the habitat occupied. Similarly, <strong>grass</strong>hopper<br />
diversity is impacted when trees reduce insolation in <strong>grass</strong>lands (Samways 2005).<br />
Low vagility occurs when species are wingless or have reduced aptery, e.g. female <strong>grass</strong> anthelids, Pterolocera spp.,<br />
(Lepidoptera: Anthelidae) are virtually wingless (Common 1990); the primitive, diverse, endemic <strong>Australia</strong>n tribe Amycterini<br />
(Coleoptera: Curculionidae) with some species in <strong>grass</strong>lands, are wholly flightless (Zimmerman 1993), and morabine<br />
<strong>grass</strong>hoppers are very sluggish and sedentary. Poor dispersal abilities are particularly important in highly fragmented habitats<br />
where remnant habitat patches are small and vulnerable to severe disturbances. Farrow (1999) noted that three <strong>of</strong> four<br />
endangered ACT insects were flightless, but found that only seven species, about 2% <strong>of</strong> species sampled in canopies <strong>of</strong> ACT<br />
<strong>grass</strong>lands, had flightless adults: one cicadellid, four Orthoptera and two micro-Hymenoptera spp. A higher proportion, <strong>of</strong> course<br />
could be expected to occur in the ground- and soil-dwelling faunas.<br />
Low reproductive rates probably occur in some large weevils and morabine <strong>grass</strong>hoppers. Species with long development<br />
periods probably include the Golden Sun Moth Synemon plana Walker (Edwards 1994). Rhopaea sp. (Coleoptera:<br />
Melolonthinae) may have a 2 or 3 year life cycle, making them more vulnerable to local extinction (Allsopp 2003). Local<br />
endemicity is exhibited for example by sun moths (Castniidae), anthelids, Amycterinae and Morabinae. These factors are<br />
considered in more detail below in relation to various <strong>grass</strong>land invertebrates identified as threatened or at risk in south-eastern<br />
<strong>Australia</strong>.<br />
Management effects<br />
Various effects <strong>of</strong> <strong>grass</strong>land management on invertebrate species have been studied. Intensification <strong>of</strong> use generally results in<br />
loss <strong>of</strong> specialist species and increases in the proportion and dominance <strong>of</strong> common generalist species and exotic species<br />
(Tscharntke and Greiler 1995). Driscoll (1994) provided a brief <strong>review</strong> <strong>of</strong> grazing, pasture improvement, chemical use and fire.<br />
Kirkpatrick et al. (1995 p. 87) claimed that herbicides “may badly affect native invertebrates”, but there appears to be little<br />
published evidence. Farrow (1999 2006) evaluated the effects <strong>of</strong> grazing, fire and mowing on sites he sampled in the ACT, but<br />
the small number <strong>of</strong> sites sampled provided largely inconclusive results. “There was no consistent evidence that burning had any<br />
long-term impact on diversity” and “limited evidence from one site ... that regular mowing did not appear to limit biodiversity”<br />
(Farrow 2006 p. 2). Natural variation due to drought had a more pr<strong>of</strong>ound effect in reducing diversity than any <strong>of</strong> these<br />
management measures (Farrow 2006).<br />
Maintenance <strong>of</strong> microhabitat and habitat variability and plant diversity are basic requirements for invertebrate conservation.<br />
Manipulation <strong>of</strong> patch dynamics, by promoting variation in plant diversity, plant age and successional stage can enhance species<br />
richness (Tscharntke and Greiler 1995) but the increased diversity may comprise widespread, abundant species with little habitat<br />
specificity. Farrow (1999 2006) found that the small, isolated urban <strong>grass</strong>lands with relatively uniform vegetation in the ACT<br />
had markedly fewer species <strong>of</strong> canopy-living insects than the larger, better-connected, more vegetatively diverse, peri-urban<br />
<strong>grass</strong>lands, but Farrow (2006 p. 11) concluded that the diversity was “not related to measurable or easily observable<br />
environmental variables including vegetation diversity”.<br />
151