Literature review: Impact of Chilean needle grass ... - Weeds Australia

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Roofing tiles were found to be regularly used as artificial shelters and determined to be a useful survey and population monitoring tool. She also developed an objective pictorial method of identifying individual animals based on head scale patterns. D. impar is listed as Vulnerable at the national level (Hadden 1995, Webster et al. 2003), Vulnerable in the ACT (Sharp 1997) and NSW and Endangered in South Australia and Victoria (O’Shea 2005). Tympanocryptis pinguicolla (Mitchell) Grassland Earless Dragon (Agamidae) Tympanocryptis Peters is an endemic Australian genus of small, terrestrial dragons distributed through most of mainland Australia (Cogger 1983). T. pinguicolla was originally described as T. lineata pinguicolla Mitchell in 1948 and raised to species status in 1999 with a change of common name from Eastern (ACT Government 2005) or Southern Lined Earless Dragon (Brereton and Backhouse 2003). The vernacular name refers to the absence of an external ear opening, and of a functional tympanum (ACT Government 2005) which is “hidden below the skin of the head” (Cogger 1983 p. 250). It was once abundant in the ACT and was recorded from near Cooma in the Southern Tablelands and Bathurst in NSW (ACT Government 2005). In Victoria, anecdotal evidence indicates it was once not uncommon in basalt plains grasslands north and west of Melbourne. All Victorian records with habitat data were from areas of rocky, open T. triandra grassland, including sites on the Jackson Creek at Holden Flora Reserve near Diggers Rest, the upper reaches of the Merri Creek, north of Donnybrook, and the Little River Gorge west of Werribee. All sites where it was observed between 1988 and 1990 were T. triandra grasslands with Red-leg Grass Bothrichloa macra and Silky Blue-grass Dichanthium sericeum (R.Br.) A. Camus in ungrazed or lightly grazed paddocks (Brereton and Backhouse 2003). In the ACT it is known from seven sites in natural temperate grassland and appears to prefer sites with little disturbance and grasslands that are short and open (ACT Government 2005). T pinguicolla is a diurnal, wholly terrestrial, insectivorous(Brereton and Backhouse 2003) and arachnivorous (ACT Government 2005)species which shelters in small burrows (Brereton and Backhouse 2003) including those of invertebrates, under rocks and within Austrostipa tussocks (ACT Government 2005). It is an oviparous species and females are believed in the main to breed only once, and to die after 1 year (ACT Government 2005). Loss and modification of habitat is probably largely responsible for its great decline (Brereton and Backhouse 2003). Other species The Pink Worm Lizard Aprasia parapulchella Kluge was known only from Coppins Crossing on the Molongo River, ACT and from near Tarcutta and Bathurst, NSW, the type specimens recorded under weathered granite rocks on a grazed, grassy riverside (Cogger 1983) and was listed as nationally endangered (Sharp and Shorthouse 1996). A recovery plan for the species in the ACT was published in 1995 (Sharp and Shorthouse 1996). The Corangamite Water Skink Eulamprus tympanum marnieae (Lvnnberg and Andersson) is endemic to the Victorian Volcanic Plain (DNRE 1997, Department of Sustainability and Environment 2007). Its inhabits rocky areas on the margins of wetlands in a limited area of the Victorian volcanic plains so exists on the margins of grasslands. “Weed invasion” is one threat to this species (Department of Sustainability and Environment 2007). The Pygmy Bluetongue, Tiliqua ?adelaidensis (Peters) is another grasslands species that may be threatened. Cogger (1983 p. 388) recorded that its distribution was “not known” with most recorded specimens from the Adelaide region. It was listed as ‘Indeterminate’ in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Vertebrates (IUCN 1988) with not enough information available to determine whether it was enadangered or rare. The Pygmy Bluetongue reportedly “depends on spider holes for shelter in the grasslands around Burra in South Australia’s Mid North” (Lunt et al. 1998). Invertebrates Plant invasions have the potential to modify interactions amongst species at all trophic levels. Changes to the composition, structure and functioning of communities caused by alien plant invasions have a major impact on native insects (Samways 2005). These effects include alteration of species richness and the composition of the fauna. The mechanisms include displacement of indigenous food plants, alterations to solar insolation by shading, and to shelter characteristics of the vegetation (Samways 2005). The impacts are generally complex, with individualistic responses by the range of taxa. On a world basis, ungulate mammals are the dominant herbivores in tropical grasslands whereas in temperate grassland this role is taken by insects (Tscharntke and Greiler 1995). Insects consume a greater proportion of the plant biomass compared to their own biomass than mammals (Tscharntke and Greiler 1995). Several features of grasses play a role in determining their insect fauna: lack of secondary thickening (woody tissue), simple architecture, protected buds, almost complete lack of secondary compounds with herbivore deterrence properties, but an abundance and great variety of silica bodies (phytoliths) in the epidermis that increases their resistance to invertebrate herbivory (Stebbins 1986, Tscharntke and Greiler 1995,Witt and McConnachie 2004). Invertebrates are the major component of biodiversity in temperate native grasslands in Australia (Yen 1999, Gibson and New 2007). New South Wales grasslands “have abundant herbivorous insects” (Keith 2004 p. 104). But surveys of grassland invertebrates in Australia had barely begun by the mid-1990s when Driscoll (1994) stated that the invertebrates of south eastern Australian grasslands had “never been surveyed’. Keith (2004 p. 104) exaggerated the exent of knowledge when he stated that the “invertebrate fauna of the grasslands before their modification and use as pastures is poorly documented”. Wapshere’s (1993 p. 344) statement that “nothing” was known about the nematode, mite and insect faunas of Austrostipa spp., despite their economic importance in native pastures, while not strictly correct (see the section above on the curculionid predators of Nassella species in Australia), nicely reflects the general paucity of information. Gibson and New (2007) considered remnant lowland native grasslands to be “among the least investigated” ecosystems entomologically in south-eastern Australia. Nevertheless it is has been “presumed widely” that loss of native plants in these systems has been accompanied by similar loss of invertebrate diversity (New 2000 p. 154). Invertebrate diversity appears to be particularly suitable for study and assessment of remnants because most of the vertebrate diversity has been lost from native grasslands, and because invertebrates are highly diverse, abundant and easy to collect (Yen 1995). It has been suggested that the suites of macroinvertebrates present are most appropriate for characterising grasslands for conservation, and can act as flagship taxa, and that microinvertebrates may be superior for monitoring ecological functioning (Yen 1995). However invertebrates hardly offer direct approaches to biodiversity assessment. Inventory studies are a primary 148
equirement, but unlike plants and vertebrates, complete inventories are idealistic (Yen 1999). Basic studies are required to characterise the invertebrate communities present and identify threatened species, and long term monitoring of permanent sites is necessary to fully determine the biodiversity that exists and the ways that it fluctuates. Yet, studies of natural grassland invertebrate communities in Australia have until recently been totally lacking (Yen 1995) and the conservation significance of existing invertebrate populations is difficult to assess because of major anthropogenic alteration of the habitat and lack of baseline survey data (Yen 1995 1999). Invertebrates have functional roles in most ecological processes including decomposition, nutrient cycling, soil aeration, seed dispersal, herbivory and pollination, and in food chains as prey, predators and parasites (Yen 1995 1999, Ens 2002a, Samways 2005, Stephens 2006).They therefore offer possibilities for exploring ecosystem structure and function, given an understanding of their biology. Identification of the effects of biodiversity threats and management practices on invertebrates is difficult (Yen 1995 1999) and knowledge of the how insect diversity and conservation is affected by alien plant invasion is “very limited” (Samways 2005 p.115). Assessment of insect populations and communities is complicated by their high spatial (
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Literature review: Impact of Chilea
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Fire 49 Other disturbances 50 Shade
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Conventions and standards Botanical
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neesiana appears to be a habitat ge
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population densities of existing sp
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elated plants have similar defences
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For invasion to occur there must be
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As yet there appears to be no evide
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experimental manipulation of specie
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species tend to be those which tran
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Taxonomy and nomenclature Stipeae N
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Vernacular names ‘Needlegrass’
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to Bouchenak-Khelladi et al. 2009).
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1 m (Walsh 1994), ca. 90 cm (Verloo
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Figure 2. Anatomy of the seed of N.
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are the seeds larger/smaller, longe
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also based on a misunderstanding of
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Table 2. Modified Feekes Scale for
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Argentina, in the provinces of Chac
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Figure 3. Recorded distribution of
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1994). Only 3 of 186 exotic grasses
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According to Morfe et al. (2003) th
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populations have been found in the
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(Honaine et al. 2006). The flechill
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In Australia the altitudinal range
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Proximity to urban development appe
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In the southern Brazilian campos of
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arundinacea (Gardener et al. 2005).
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al. 2008). Cues for masting may be
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Approximately 200 alien grass speci
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Dispersal of seed in contaminated s
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In New Zealand, Hurrell et al. (199
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No emergence was observed in undist
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and high impact (“ability to caus
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also noted that despite a wide rang
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a small reduction in seedhead produ
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Slashing and mowing Slashing can re
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Themeda re-establishment McDougall
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species (Lawton and Schroder 1977 p
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y increased importance of ant grani
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BIODIVERSITY “Biodiversity ... on
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According to Woods (1997 p. 61) “
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2004, Richardson and van Wilgen 200
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negative depending on the particula
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Competition with native plants Comp
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asexual seed production, so local f
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GRASSLANDS Grasses: “... the most
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susceptible to N. neesiana invasion
Page 97 and 98: Floristic composition, vegetation s
Page 99 and 100: proportion of the flora then presen
Page 101 and 102: tussock space (Stuwe and Parsons 19
Page 103 and 104: Like vascular plant diversity, comm
Page 105 and 106: Opinions differ on the nature and i
Page 107 and 108: Species Common Name Family Aust ACT
Page 109 and 110: in shifting the distribution, exten
Page 111 and 112: of these systems is largely explain
Page 113 and 114: pasture. The least understood trans
Page 115 and 116: tend to benefit more from relaxed c
Page 117 and 118: Bovids crop their food between the
Page 119 and 120: are therefore less likely to distur
Page 121 and 122: esult in a “short-term flush” o
Page 123 and 124: Fire effects on weeds Moore (1993 p
Page 125 and 126: Table 8. Typical nutrient levels in
Page 127 and 128: grasses produced sigificantly more
Page 129 and 130: Fossorial vertebrates are or were o
Page 131 and 132: (Rosengren 1999). Approximately one
Page 133 and 134: Table 12. Areal extent and conserva
Page 135 and 136: Foreman (1997) investigated the eff
Page 137 and 138: Willis (1964) considered that the f
Page 139 and 140: Austrostipa-Enneapogon) from around
Page 141 and 142: Woodlands and New England Grassy Wo
Page 143 and 144: Thylogale billardierii), Peramelida
Page 145 and 146: Its original habitat on the mainlan
Page 147: Table 17. Endangered reptile specie
Page 151 and 152: e assigned the same biodiversity sc
Page 153 and 154: Nematodes are mostly minute animals
Page 155 and 156: found in all mainland states, O. co
Page 157 and 158: Keyacris scurra, Melbourne (1993) o
Page 159 and 160: was once widespread in south- easte
Page 161 and 162: eing sluggish and wingless, and exi
Page 163 and 164: estoration and, if Australia follow
Page 165 and 166: close to the plant are able to bury
Page 167 and 168: Species *Chirothrips mexicanus Craw
Page 169 and 170: Table A2.1 (continued) Species Life
Page 171 and 172: Table A2.1 (continued) Species *Het
Page 177 and 178: Nematodes of grasses and grasslands
Page 179 and 180: REFERENCES Aceñolaza, F.G. (2004)
Page 181 and 182: Benson, D. and McDougall, L. (2005)
Page 183 and 184: Chan, C.W. (1980) Natural grassland
Page 185 and 186: DNRE (Department of Natural Resourc
Page 187 and 188: Fuhrer, B. (1993) A Field Companion
Page 189 and 190: Groves, R.H. and Whalley, R.D.B. (2
Page 191 and 192: Iaconis, L. (2004) Chilean needle g
Page 193 and 194: Levine, J.M., Adler, P.B. and Yelen
Page 195 and 196: McDougall, K.L. (1987) Sites of Bot
Page 197 and 198: Morfe, T.A., McLaren, D.A. and Weis
Page 199 and 200:
Perelman, S.B., León, R.J.C. and O
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Saunders, D.A. (1999) Biodiversity
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Thellung, A. (1912) La flore advent
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Weiss, J. and McLaren, D. (2002) Vi
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Literature review: Impact of Chilean needle grass ... - Weeds Australia

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