their extermination probably having followed very similar lines to those reported by Marshall (1968): shot for food, oil and as vermin, but road deaths have probably also caused substantial populations losses. Of the threatened birds mentioned by Robinson (1991) the following may be the most restricted to <strong>grass</strong>land habitats: <strong>Australia</strong>n Kestrel Falco cenchroides Vigors and Horsfield, Little Button Quail Turnix velox (Gould), Red-chested Button-quail T. pyrrhothorax (Gould), Singing Bushlark Mirafra javanica Horsfield, Rufous Songlark Cincloramphus mathewsi Iredale, Brown Songlark C. cruralis (Vigors and Horsefield), and possibly Southern Whiteface Aphelocephala leucopsis (Gould) (Blakers et al. 1984). Notable subjects <strong>of</strong> conservation concern are the Plains Wanderer Pedionomus torquatus Gould, <strong>Australia</strong>n Bustard Ardeotis australis (J.E. Gray), Bush Thick-knee or Stone Curlew Burhinus grallarius (Latham) and Painted Button-quail Turnix varia (Latham) (Lunt et al. 1998), although the Painted Button-quail reportedly lives only in heath, woodland and eucalypt forest (Blakers et al. 1984). Loyn and French (1991) discussed the diets <strong>of</strong> Stubble Quail, a relatively common species also found in <strong>grass</strong>lands, and Plains Wanderer in relation to exotic plant invasions. The Bush Thick-knee is mainly a woodland bird (Blakers et al. 1984), usually living in Victoria on farmland remnants <strong>of</strong> lightlytimbered, lowland <strong>grass</strong>y woodlands, most commonly treed with Eucalyptus microcarpa (Johnson and Baker-Gabb 1994). The bird is classified as Vulnerable in Victoria, where it has sufferred widespread regional extinction in the south due to habitat clearing and alteration. It is a long-lived, sedentary, nocturnal, cursorial ground-nesting bird, requiring low, sparse groundcover (10-70% bare ground, <strong>grass</strong>es 67%
Table 17. Endangered reptile species in south-eastern <strong>Australia</strong>n native temperate <strong>grass</strong>lands. U = unlisted,V= vulnerable, E = endangered, T = threatened. Species Common Name ACT NSW SA Vic References Delma impar Fischer Striped Legless Lizard V V/E E V Coulson 1990, Kukolic 1994, Sharp and Shorthouse 1996, Eddy et al. 1998,Webster et al. 2003, Keith 2004, O’Shea 2005, Department <strong>of</strong> Sustainability and Environment 2009a Tympanocryptis pinguicolla (Mitchell) Eulamprus tympanum marnieae (Lvnnberg and Andersson) Aprasia parapulchella Kluge Grassland Earless Dragon E E E Sharp and Shorthouse 1996, Eddy et al. 1998, Brereton and Backhouse 2003, Keith 2004, ACT Government 2005, Department <strong>of</strong> Sustainability and Environment 2009a Corangamite Water Skink - - - T Department <strong>of</strong> Sustainability and Environment 2007 Pink-tailed Worm Lizard, Pink-tailed Legless Lizard E or V Suta flagellum Eastern Whip Snake E or V Varanus rosenbergii Rosenbergs Monitor E or V E T Sharp and Shorthouse 1996,Eddy et al. 1998, Keith 2004, Department <strong>of</strong> Sustainability and Environment 2009a E or V E or V T Eddy et al. 1998 Eddy et al. 1998, Department <strong>of</strong> Sustainability and Environment 2009a Delma impar, Striped Legless Lizard (Pygopodidae) Delma impar Fischer is one <strong>of</strong> 38 species in the Pygopodidae, a family <strong>of</strong> mostly surface active, fossorial or semi-fossorial, arthropod-eating lizards, endemic to <strong>Australia</strong> except for two species in Papua New Guinea, and most closely related to diplodacytline Geckonidae (O’Shea 2005). It is the most southerly occurring <strong>of</strong> the 17 Delma spp., is considered to be a diurnal, semi-fossorial species, active from September to late March or April (O’Shea 2005). It is slow growing, and could live for up to 20 years (O’Shea 2005). According to Hadden (1995) D. impar had been recorded at 125 sites from the South East <strong>of</strong> South <strong>Australia</strong>, through eastern and northern Victoria to southern NSW and the ACT, <strong>of</strong> which possibly 45 were then considered still capable <strong>of</strong> supporting it. Additionally O’Shea (2005) mapped recent records from the South East <strong>of</strong> South <strong>Australia</strong>. The lizard’s rarity was considered to be due to its specificity to lowland <strong>grass</strong>land habitat and the widespread loss and degradation <strong>of</strong> such habitats. Western (Basalt) Plains Grassland was the major vegetation type occupied in Victoria (Webster et al. 2003). Population densities were reportedly highest in dense, relatively undisturbed native <strong>grass</strong>land, although capture rates were relatively high in an area dominated by Nassella trichotoma and total <strong>grass</strong> cover appeared to be the best predictor <strong>of</strong> population density (Coulson 1990). Most <strong>of</strong> the extant sites (Hadden 1995) were native perennial tussock <strong>grass</strong>lands, either T. triandra in Victoria or T. triandra and Austrostipa bigeniculata in the ACT (Kukolic 1994), but a few were dominated by the exotic perennial Phalaris aquatica, while sites then dominated by Nassella spp. were found to no longer harbour the species (Hadden 1995). Kukolic (1995) recorded pitfall trap captures in T. triandra <strong>grass</strong>lands with mixed native and exotic <strong>grass</strong>es and in areas more dominated by exotic <strong>grass</strong>es at Yarramundi Reach, ACT. Hadden (1995) found that tussock cover >50% was usual at the majority <strong>of</strong> extant sites and tussocks were considered important for shelter and as basking sites. D. impar utilises deep cracks in clay soils for shelter, breeding and refuge, and surface rocks may be similarly used, but are not a necessary habitat component (Hadden 1995). Fire was considered an unknown risk, while livestock grazing was considered acceptable since it occurred on nearly half the known extant sites (Hadden 1995). Kukolic (1994) recommended that fire not be used to manage the habitat, mentioning finds <strong>of</strong> dead individuals at Derrimut, Victoria, after control burns. Webster et al. (2003) noted that fires in spring represented a clear risk to Victorian populations because soil cracks were seasonally unavailable. Weed invasion was listed as one <strong>of</strong> numerous threats to its habitat (Webster et al. 2003). O’Shea (2005) found that the population at Iramoo Grassland, Victoria, was present in areas dominated by N. neesiana and N. trichotoma as well as T. triandra areas, and persisted well in 0.5 ha areas that were deliberately burnt. She argued that <strong>grass</strong>land structure (presence <strong>of</strong> perennial tussocks) rather than floristic criteria determined suitable habitat. Spiders, larval Lepidoptera, Black Field Crickets Teleogryllus commodus (Walker) (Orthoptera: Gryllidae) and cockroaches (Blattodea) are the most frequently recorded prey items (O’Shea 2005). Coulson (1990) reported that the majority <strong>of</strong> faecal pellets obtained from individuals at Derrimut Grassland, Vic., from mid January to early February contained unidentified larval Noctuidae (Lepidoptera) and T. triandra fragments which were presumed to have been larval gut contents. Faecal pellets studies by Wainer (1992) indicated prey 10-30 mm in length including locusts (Acrididae), an earwig, an ant, adult moths, as well as items already mentioned. Invertebrates common in the habitat that were not eaten included millipedes, slaters, slugs, bugs (Hemiptera) and beetles (Coleoptera). He also found unidentified <strong>grass</strong> seeds in the scats. Kutt et al. (1998) reported that nocutid larvae consistuted a high proportion <strong>of</strong> the diet from November to January and crickets were predominant from December to February, corresponding with the abundance <strong>of</strong> these taxa. The lizard appears to have a flexible foraging strategy with seasonal food preferences, and forages in the daytime. Brumation takes place in the soil from late March or April to September (O’Shea 2005). Victoria’s largest documented and best studied population (an estimated 600 individuals) is in the Iramoo Grassland Reserve, Cairnlea. O’Shea (1997) provided preliminary details <strong>of</strong> alternative detection and trapping techniques for the lizard. O’Shea (2005) found that the population at Iramoo was present in areas dominated by either T. triandra or N. neesiana and N. trichotoma, however the exotic habitat was contiguous with the native habitat. Small scale (0.5 ha) summer and autumn fires interspersed in larger areas <strong>of</strong> unburnt habitat appeared to have little effect on population size and structure or habitat quality. 147
- Page 1 and 2:
Literature review: Impact of Chilea
- Page 3 and 4:
Fire 49 Other disturbances 50 Shade
- Page 5 and 6:
Conventions and standards Botanical
- Page 7 and 8:
neesiana appears to be a habitat ge
- Page 9 and 10:
population densities of existing sp
- Page 11 and 12:
elated plants have similar defences
- Page 13 and 14:
For invasion to occur there must be
- Page 15 and 16:
As yet there appears to be no evide
- Page 17 and 18:
experimental manipulation of specie
- Page 19 and 20:
species tend to be those which tran
- Page 21 and 22:
Taxonomy and nomenclature Stipeae N
- Page 23 and 24:
Vernacular names ‘Needlegrass’
- Page 25 and 26:
to Bouchenak-Khelladi et al. 2009).
- Page 27 and 28:
1 m (Walsh 1994), ca. 90 cm (Verloo
- Page 29 and 30:
Figure 2. Anatomy of the seed of N.
- Page 31 and 32:
are the seeds larger/smaller, longe
- Page 33 and 34:
also based on a misunderstanding of
- Page 35 and 36:
Table 2. Modified Feekes Scale for
- Page 37 and 38:
Argentina, in the provinces of Chac
- Page 39 and 40:
Figure 3. Recorded distribution of
- Page 41 and 42:
1994). Only 3 of 186 exotic grasses
- Page 43 and 44:
According to Morfe et al. (2003) th
- Page 45 and 46:
populations have been found in the
- Page 47 and 48:
(Honaine et al. 2006). The flechill
- Page 49 and 50:
In Australia the altitudinal range
- Page 51 and 52:
Proximity to urban development appe
- Page 53 and 54:
In the southern Brazilian campos of
- Page 55 and 56:
arundinacea (Gardener et al. 2005).
- Page 57 and 58:
al. 2008). Cues for masting may be
- Page 59 and 60:
Approximately 200 alien grass speci
- Page 61 and 62:
Dispersal of seed in contaminated s
- Page 63 and 64:
In New Zealand, Hurrell et al. (199
- Page 65 and 66:
No emergence was observed in undist
- Page 67 and 68:
and high impact (“ability to caus
- Page 69 and 70:
also noted that despite a wide rang
- Page 71 and 72:
a small reduction in seedhead produ
- Page 73 and 74:
Slashing and mowing Slashing can re
- Page 75 and 76:
Themeda re-establishment McDougall
- Page 77 and 78:
species (Lawton and Schroder 1977 p
- Page 79 and 80:
y increased importance of ant grani
- Page 81 and 82:
BIODIVERSITY “Biodiversity ... on
- Page 83 and 84:
According to Woods (1997 p. 61) “
- Page 85 and 86:
2004, Richardson and van Wilgen 200
- Page 87 and 88:
negative depending on the particula
- Page 89 and 90:
Competition with native plants Comp
- Page 91 and 92:
asexual seed production, so local f
- Page 93 and 94:
GRASSLANDS Grasses: “... the most
- Page 95 and 96: susceptible to N. neesiana invasion
- Page 97 and 98: Floristic composition, vegetation s
- Page 99 and 100: proportion of the flora then presen
- Page 101 and 102: tussock space (Stuwe and Parsons 19
- Page 103 and 104: Like vascular plant diversity, comm
- Page 105 and 106: Opinions differ on the nature and i
- Page 107 and 108: Species Common Name Family Aust ACT
- Page 109 and 110: in shifting the distribution, exten
- Page 111 and 112: of these systems is largely explain
- Page 113 and 114: pasture. The least understood trans
- Page 115 and 116: tend to benefit more from relaxed c
- Page 117 and 118: Bovids crop their food between the
- Page 119 and 120: are therefore less likely to distur
- Page 121 and 122: esult in a “short-term flush” o
- Page 123 and 124: Fire effects on weeds Moore (1993 p
- Page 125 and 126: Table 8. Typical nutrient levels in
- Page 127 and 128: grasses produced sigificantly more
- Page 129 and 130: Fossorial vertebrates are or were o
- Page 131 and 132: (Rosengren 1999). Approximately one
- Page 133 and 134: Table 12. Areal extent and conserva
- Page 135 and 136: Foreman (1997) investigated the eff
- Page 137 and 138: Willis (1964) considered that the f
- Page 139 and 140: Austrostipa-Enneapogon) from around
- Page 141 and 142: Woodlands and New England Grassy Wo
- Page 143 and 144: Thylogale billardierii), Peramelida
- Page 145: Its original habitat on the mainlan
- Page 149 and 150: equirement, but unlike plants and v
- Page 151 and 152: e assigned the same biodiversity sc
- Page 153 and 154: Nematodes are mostly minute animals
- Page 155 and 156: found in all mainland states, O. co
- Page 157 and 158: Keyacris scurra, Melbourne (1993) o
- Page 159 and 160: was once widespread in south- easte
- Page 161 and 162: eing sluggish and wingless, and exi
- Page 163 and 164: estoration and, if Australia follow
- Page 165 and 166: close to the plant are able to bury
- Page 167 and 168: Species *Chirothrips mexicanus Craw
- Page 169 and 170: Table A2.1 (continued) Species Life
- Page 171 and 172: Table A2.1 (continued) Species *Het
- Page 173 and 174: Table A2.1 (continued) Species Life
- Page 175 and 176: Table A2.1 (continued) Species Life
- Page 177 and 178: Nematodes of grasses and grasslands
- Page 179 and 180: REFERENCES Aceñolaza, F.G. (2004)
- Page 181 and 182: Benson, D. and McDougall, L. (2005)
- Page 183 and 184: Chan, C.W. (1980) Natural grassland
- Page 185 and 186: DNRE (Department of Natural Resourc
- Page 187 and 188: Fuhrer, B. (1993) A Field Companion
- Page 189 and 190: Groves, R.H. and Whalley, R.D.B. (2
- Page 191 and 192: Iaconis, L. (2004) Chilean needle g
- Page 193 and 194: Levine, J.M., Adler, P.B. and Yelen
- Page 195 and 196: McDougall, K.L. (1987) Sites of Bot
- Page 197 and 198:
Morfe, T.A., McLaren, D.A. and Weis
- Page 199 and 200:
Perelman, S.B., León, R.J.C. and O
- Page 201 and 202:
Saunders, D.A. (1999) Biodiversity
- Page 203 and 204:
Thellung, A. (1912) La flore advent
- Page 205 and 206:
Weiss, J. and McLaren, D. (2002) Vi