GEOMORPHOLOGY REPORT - CRC LEME

CRCLEME
Cooperative Research Centre for
Landscape Environments
and Mineral Exploration
OPEN FILE
REPORT
SERIES
GEOMORPHOLOGY AND
SURFACE MATERIALS:
LINDSAY-WALLPOLLA AND
LAKE VICTORIA-ANABRANCH
J. Clarke, V. Wong, C. Pain, H. Apps, D. Gibson,
J. Luckman and K. Lawrie
CRC LEME OPEN FILE REPORT 237
December 2008
CRCLEME
(CRC LEME Restricted Report 261R, 2007
2nd Impression 2008)
CRC LEME is an unincorporated joint venture between CSIRO-Exploration & Mining, and Land & Water, The Australian
National University, Curtin University of Technology, University of Adelaide, Geoscience Australia, Primary Industries
and Resources SA, NSW Department of Primary Industries and Minerals Council of Australia, established and supported
under the Australian Government’s Cooperative Research Centres Program.

CRCLEME
Cooperative Research Centre for
Landscape Environments
and Mineral Exploration
GEOMORPHOLOGY AND
SURFACE MATERIALS:
LINDSAY-WALLPOLLA AND
LAKE VICTORIA-ANABRANCH
J. Clarke, V. Wong, C. Pain, H. Apps, D. Gibson,
J. Luckman and K. Lawrie
CRC LEME OPEN FILE REPORT 237
December 2008
(CRC LEME Restricted Report 261R, 2007
2nd Impression 2008)
CRC LEME 2007
CRC LEME is an unincorporated joint venture between CSIRO-Exploration & Mining, and Land & Water, The Australian
National University, Curtin University of Technology, University of Adelaide, Geoscience Australia, Primary Industries and
Resources SA, NSW Department of Primary Industries and Minerals Council of Australia.
Headquarters: CRC LEME c/o CSIRO Exploration and Mining, PO Box 1130, Bentley WA 6102, Australia

This report (CRC LEME Open File Report 237) is a reprinting of CRC LEME Restricted Report
261R, first issued in 2007 as part of the CRC LEME/Geoscience Australia River Murray Corridor
(South Australian Border To Gunbower) Victorian AEM Mapping Project.
Electronic copies of the publication in PDF format can be downloaded from the CRC LEME
website: http://crcleme.org.au/Pubs/OFRSindex.html. Information on this or other LEME
publications can be obtained from http://crcleme.org.au.
Hard copies will be retained in the Australian National Library, the J. S. Battye Library of West
Australian History, and the CSIRO Library at the Australian Resources Research Centre,
Kensington, Western Australia.
Reference:
Clarke, J. Wong, V., Pain, C., Apps, H., Gibson, D., Luckman, J., and Lawrie, K. 2007.
Geomorphology and Surface Materials: Lindsay-Wallpolla and Lake Victoria-Anabranch. CRC
LEME Restricted Report 261R, 74 pp. (Reissued as Open File Report 237, CRC LEME, Perth,
2008).
Keywords: 1. Regolith materials 2. Geomorphology - Victoria 3. Salinity 4. River Murray
ISSN 1329-4768
ISBN 978 0 643 09673 8
Addresses and affiliations of Authors:
J. Clarke, V. Wong, C. Pain, H. Apps, D. Gibson, J. Luckman and K. Lawrie
Geoscience Australia
PO Box 378
CANBERRA
ACT 2601
Published by: CRC LEME
c/o CSIRO Exploration and Mining
PO Box 1130, Bentley, Western Australia 6102.
Disclaimer
The user accepts all risks and responsibility for losses, damages, costs and other consequences
resulting directly or indirectly from using any information or material contained in this report. To the
maximum permitted by law, CRC LEME excludes all liability to any person arising directly or
indirectly from using any information or material contained in this report.
© This report is Copyright of the Cooperative Research Centre for Landscape Environments and
Mineral Exploration 2007, which resides with its Core Participants: CSIRO Exploration and Mining
and Land and Water, the Australian National University, Curtin University of Technology, the
University of Adelaide, Geoscience Australia, Primary Industries and Resources South Australia,
New South Wales Department of Primary Industries and Mineral Council of Australia.
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of private study, research, criticism or review, as
permitted under Copyright Act, no part may be reproduced or reused by any process whatsoever,
without prior written approval from the Core Participants mentioned above.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
In early 2007, an airborne electromagnetic (AEM) survey was acquired along a 450 km reach
of the River Murray Corridor (RMC) in SE Australia. This aim of this survey, carried out
under the auspices of the Australian Government’s Community Stream Sampling and Salinity
Mapping Project (CSSSMP), and managed by the Bureau of Rural Sciences (BRS), is to
provide information vital for addressing salinity, land management and groundwater resource
issues. The study area stretches from where the Murray River crosses the South Australian
border eastwards and south along the Murray River to Torrumbarry Weir. A total of 24,000
line km of AEM data were acquired. The survey area encompasses iconic wetland areas,
national and state forest parks, and areas of irrigation and dryland farming.
Within the Lindsay-Wallpolla and Lake Victoria-Darling Anabranch project area key land
management questions include: 1) What is the potential for salt mobilisation during Living
Murray inundation actions? 2) How is salt delivered to the river? 3) How are the drivers of
floodplain health with respect to groundwater processes to be understood? 4) How are the
high recharge areas in the floodplain to be indentified? 5) What is the extent and thickness of
the Blanchetown Clay and the Coonambidgal Formation? 6) Where is salt stored in the
unsaturated zone?
To address many of these questions, maps of the distribution of salt stores, saline and fresh
groundwater and the hydraulic properties of soil and regolith materials in the shallow subsurface
are required. These are required to provide a 3-D understanding of how salt stores and
saline groundwaters connect to the surface waterways and land surface. Sub-surface
interpretations in the survey areas are hampered by a low density of useful borehole data in
the floodplain in particular, and by a paucity of soil and landscape surface mapping at
appropriate scales throughout the project area. New maps of surface materials, and a new
geomorphic understanding of the RMC project area is required to constrain the interpretation
of the AEM surveys, and address the land management questions.
This report documents the results of new surface materials mapping in the Lindsay-Wallpolla
and Lake Victoria-Darling Anabranch survey area, the methodology used to produce the
maps, and supporting analyses. These data inform interpretation of the surface layer of the
AEM products and provide an understanding of the geomorphic evolution of the landscape.
The Murray River in the Lindsay-Wallpolla Islands reach runs though a valley incised
through a Late Cainozoic succession consisting of the Blanchetown and Loxton-Parilla
Formations. These are mantled by Pleistocene aeolian sands of the Woorinen Formation.
The modern floodplain consists of three distinct generations of meander belt sediments with
scroll bars and oxbow billabongs. A conventional fine-grained floodplain is absent because
of the meander belt sediments extend across the full width of the floodplain within the
confines of the incised valley. However, older meander deposits are draped by floodplain silty
clays with the thicknesses increasing to more than a metre on the oldest deposits. The oldest
floodplain deposits also show distinctively longer meander wavelengths and wide channels
than the modern channel, indicating a diminished flow over time. The soils vary markedly in
salinity and pH, with a general trend of increasing pH and salinity with increasing age.
An extensive terrace occurs along both sides of the incised valley of the Murray River. The
terrace is mantled by aeolian silts and sands and have local outlying dunes of the Woorinen
Formation. Ghosts of channels and billabongs are visible in satellite imagery suggesting an
environment similar to from that which formed the modern floodplain. The soils are potassic,
alkaline, and moderately saline.
iii

Lindsay and Wallpolla Creeks are sinuous fixed-channel anastomosing channels. While these
channels may partly follow abandoned channels of the Murray River, they are incised into the
floodplain and are inferred to be related to drainage during high water levels. These channels
and the oxbow billabongs from abandoned meander loops of the Murray River are clay-lined,
with water flow either non-existent or very slow. It is these channels that are flooded during
the artificial watering process.
Distal to the river are several clay pans with associated lunettes. The largest of these is Lake
Victoria, followed by Lake Wallawalla. These abut the rise forming the edge of the incised
valley or against the terrace. In their natural state, they are several metres lower than the rest
of the floodplain, forming evaporation basins for water draining off the proximal floodplains
along the fixed channels. Engineering works have resulted in Lake Victoria being used for
permanent water storage and Lake Wallawalla for temporary storage. Both lakes are
interpreted as modified meander loops of the Murray River.
Ken Lawrie
Project Leader
iv

ABBREVIATIONS
ACRES
AEM
ASTER
BC
BRS
CF
CMA
CRC LEME
DEM
GA
GMW
LIDAR
MDBC
MS
PS
RGB
RMC
SF
SPOT
STRM
VNIR
WF
XRD
XRF
Australian Centre for Remote Sensing
Airborne Electromagnetics
Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer
Blanchetown Clay
Bureau of Rural Sciences
Coonambidgal Formation
Catchment Management Authority
Cooperative Research Centre for Landscape Environments and
Mineral Exploration
Digital elevation model
Geoscience Australia
Goulbourn-Murray Water
Light Detection and Ranging
Murray-Darling Basin Commission
Monoman Sands
Parilla Sands
Red, Green, Blue
River Murray Corridor
Shepparton Formation
Satellite Pour l'Observation de la Terre
Shuttle Radar Terrain Model
Very near infrared radiation
Woorinen Formation
X Ray Diffraction
X Ray Fluorescence
v

TABLE OF CONTENTS
_Toc224538156
1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................ 1
2 PREVIOUS STUDIES..................................................................................................... 2
3 KEY LAND MANAGEMENT QUESTIONS ................................................................ 3
4 METHODOLOGY........................................................................................................... 5
4.1 Basic method and rationale ...................................................................................... 5
4.2 Data Availability and Quality .................................................................................. 5
4.2.1 Satellite imagery .................................................................................................. 5
4.2.2 Digital Elevation Models..................................................................................... 5
4.2.3 Gamma-ray data................................................................................................... 6
4.3 Satellite image Processing ....................................................................................... 6
4.4 Fieldwork ................................................................................................................. 7
5 RESULTS ........................................................................................................................ 7
5.1 Regolith Landform Units ......................................................................................... 7
5.1.1 Uplands................................................................................................................ 8
5.1.2 Alluvial terrace .................................................................................................... 8
5.1.3 Floodplain............................................................................................................ 9
5.2 Vegetation .............................................................................................................. 11
5.2.1 Uplands.............................................................................................................. 12
5.2.2 Alluvial Terrace................................................................................................. 12
5.2.3 Floodplain.......................................................................................................... 13
6 ANALYTICAL DATA.................................................................................................. 13
6.1 Granulometry ......................................................................................................... 16
6.1.1 Methodology...................................................................................................... 16
6.1.2 Results ............................................................................................................... 16
6.2 EC and pH.............................................................................................................. 17
6.2.1 Methodology...................................................................................................... 17
6.2.2 Results ............................................................................................................... 17
6.3 XRF geochemistry ................................................................................................. 19
6.3.1 Methodology...................................................................................................... 19
6.3.2 Results ............................................................................................................... 19
6.4 XRD mineralogy.................................................................................................... 20
6.4.1 Methods ............................................................................................................. 20
6.4.2 Results ............................................................................................................... 20
7 IMPLICATIONS............................................................................................................ 21
7.1 Hydrogeological issues .......................................................................................... 21
7.1.1 Flow................................................................................................................... 21
7.1.2 Recharge ............................................................................................................ 21
7.1.3 Relevance to land management questions ......................................................... 22
REFERENCES........................................................................................................................ 24
APPENDIX 1. ASTER data and interpretation....................................................................... 26
APPENDIX 2. SPOT Data and interpretation........................................................................ 28
APPENDIX 3. DEM data and interpretation........................................................................... 30
APPENDIX 4. Gamma-ray data.............................................................................................. 32
APPENDIX 5. Surface materials ............................................................................................ 33
APPENDIX 6. Site Descriptions and Data.............................................................................. 34
APPENDIX 7: Analytical Results........................................................................................... 55
Appendix 7.1 Lindsay-Wallpolla soil EC and pH data....................................................... 55
Appendix 7.2: Lindsay-Wallpolla Laser Grainsize............................................................. 57
Appendix 7.3: Lindsay-Wallpolla XRF results................................................................... 59
Appendix 7.4: Lindsay-Wallpolla XRD Mineralogy.......................................................... 62
vi

List of Figures
Figure 1. The Lindsay-Wallpolla and Lake Victoria-Darling Anabranch study area ............... 1
Figure 2. Typical landscape close to Murray River on Wallpolla Island .................................. 1
Figure 3. Conceptual model (cross-section) and geophysical targets in the Lindsey – Walpolla
area:................................................................................................................................... 4
Figure 4. Schematic hydrogeological cross-section representing the Lindsay Island reach of
the Murray River Floodplain. ........................................................................................... 4
Figure 5. Coverage of digital elevation model types................................................................. 6
Figure 6. Compartmentalisation of the Murray River incised valley fill into terrace and
floodplain deposits of different ages. .............................................................................. 8
Figure 7. Diagrammatic representation of relationships between geomorphic and stratigraphic
units................................................................................................................................... 9
Figure 8. Oblique projection of part of LIDAR DEM showing geomorphic elements. ......... 10
Figure 9. Vertical view of part of LIDAR DEM showing geomorphic elements. .................. 11
Figure 10. Further vertical view of part of LIDAR DEM showing geomorphic elements...... 12
Figure 11. Terrace vegetation and materials. .......................................................................... 12
Figure 12. Modern floodplain (right) with well developed river red gum forest. Intermediate
floodplain (left) with black box woodland,..................................................................... 13
Figure 13. Oldest floodplain (left) with black box and Lignum-saltbush savannah. Riparian
vegetation (right) of bulrushes, lilies, and macroalgae, Horseshoe Lagoon, .................. 13
Figure 14. Location of soil sample sites western end of Lindsay-Wallpolla and Lake Victoria-
Darling Anabranch.......................................................................................................... 15
Figure 15. Location of soil sample sites eastern end of Lindsay-Wallpolla and Lake Victoria-
Darling Anabranch.......................................................................................................... 15
Figure 16. Sand and clay percentage from each geomorphic unit........................................... 16
Figure 17. Mean pH profiles from each geomorphic unit. ...................................................... 18
Figure 18. Mean EC profiles from each geomorphic unit....................................................... 18
Figure 19. SPOT image of Wallpolla Creek (containing water at time imaged) and clay-lined
nature of dried up channel of Wallpolla Creek as seen at ground level.......................... 22
vii

List of Tables
Table 1. Associations between regolith landform units, vegetation and surface materials ..... 14
Table 2. Range of EC and pH values for different geomorphic units in the Lindsay-Wallpolla
and Lake Victoria-Darling Anabranch study area .......................................................... 19
Table 3. Mean values of selected XRF analyses ..................................................................... 20
viii

1 INTRODUCTION
This study covers the River Murray Corridor (RMC) between Merbein and the South
Australian Border (Figure 1).
Figure 1. The Lindsay-Wallpolla and Lake Victoria-Darling Anabranch study area. Green boxes
from left to right are for Figures 10, 9, 19, and 8, respectively.
The two main areas of interest are Lindsay and Wallpolla “islands”, areas of the floodplain
largely isolated by secondary anastomosing channels branching off from the Murray River,
and the matching floodplain on the New South Wales side of the River. The area was visited
by the authors between the 17 th and 26 th of January (Figure 2). The aim of this visit was to
validate landforms units mapped on the DEM and satellite imagery and to collect soil samples
for ground truthing of the physical and chemical properties of the surface materials..
Figure 2. Typical landscape close to Murray River on Wallpolla Island
1

The main objective of the studies reported here is to provide information for constrained
inversion of AEM data as a first step in interpreting those data to provide answers to land use
questions posed by the Malee and Lower Murray-Darling Catchment Management
Authorities (CMAs) for the area. The studies also provide a materials framework within
which to assess the utility of the airborne electromagnetic (AEM) data to help answer the land
management questions.
2 PREVIOUS STUDIES
There has been a paucity of geomorphic studies undertaken on the Murray Floodplain
downstream Swan Hill. Those which have been undertaken relate largely to the geology and
its evolution in the region, and soils and pedogenesis (Brown and Stephenson 1991; Gill
1973; Macumber 1977; Hills 1975). However, a number of studies have been undertaken in
the Riverine Plain of Victoria and NSW, and extrapolated to the Murray floodplain region due
to similarities in their evolutionary histories (Bowler and Harford 1966; Butler et al. 1973;
Pels 1966). More recently, studies have focused on the ecological or vegetation health (Jolly
et al. 1993; Thoms et al. 1999) of the native vegetation. There have been few highly
integrated studies in which geology, geophysics, soils, and geomorphology have been used to
address questions of land management, with perhaps the study by Rowan and Downes (1963)
being a notable exception. This is particularly important given that the floodplain of the
Murray River in this region acts as an interface between the river and the regional
groundwater systems, with the potential to mobilise large stores of salt under altered
hydrological regimes.
The soils of the Murray Basin are closely related to the Quaternary geology. Grey and brown
soils of the Riverine Plain and solonised brown soils of the Mallee region predominate. The
grey and brown soils overlie mainly the fluvial Shepparton and Coonambidgal Formations,
while the solonised brown soils overlie a variety of aeolian units including the Woorinen
Formation (Brown and Stephenson 1991).
Previous geomorphological studies in the region have identified a number of terraces
(Kotsonis et al. 1999) in the Murray Floodplain. Thoms et al. (1999) recognise that the
present day channels and rivers in this region are inset within intermediate channel systems,
and are therefore associated with relict floodplain surfaces that contain numerous palaeochannels
and oxbow lakes. Gill (1973) named the oldest terrace the Rufus Formation.
While the Riverine Plain consists of thick lacustrine and fluvatile sediments deposited mainly
in the late Tertiary and Quaternary, the Mallee is a semi-arid region with extensive aeolian
deposits overlying Either the Pleistocene lacustrine Blanchetown Clay or intermediate
Cainozoic marine sands of the Loxton-Parilla Formation. The aeolian deposits occur in the
form of two types of dunes in the Mallee. The first is a regular series of linear dunes with an
east-west trend stabilised by vegetation except for the very local active sand patches. The
dunes generally have calcareous B horizons, with buried palaeosols. The material of which
the east-west dunes are composed of a pale to dark reddish-brown calcareous sand with some
clay fraction of the Woorinen Formation (Hills 1975). The second type of dune is a complex
set of parabolic and transverse dunes which are found outside of the study area.
On the New South Wales side of the river Lake Victoria is a giant oxbow system lying on an
anabranch formed by Frenchman’s Creek and the Rufus River, and has acted as sand trap to
form a large lunette on its eastern bank which has been emplaced and remodelled over 20 000
years (Gill 1973) of deflation. The river banks and sides of Lake Victoria are subjected to
erosion with extensive blowouts and sandfalls, while the lunette associated with the lake is
unusually wide with horizontal bedding (Gill 1973). Several salt pans exist in the vicinity of
Lake Victoria, which may be relicts of a former single large lake indicated by a shallow
gypsiferous layer above the Blanchetown Formation, with groundwater occurring within a
2

metre of the ground surface (Chen 1995). The Darling River and its Anabranch also enter the
Murray River in this reach at Wentworth, and approximately 15 km west of Wentworth,
respectively.
3 KEY LAND MANAGEMENT QUESTIONS
The main identified issue in this iconic reach of the Murray River is the downstream impact
of salt mobilisation during flood recessions. Research to date indicates that the Lindsay and
Wallpolla Islands accumulate large amounts of salt during low flow periods and that
significant floods could act to liberate much of this salt, moving it downriver where it could
severely affect agricultural areas in South Australia. Accordingly, the key identified
requirements are the design of an environmental watering regime and planning of
revegetation strategies to optimise floodplain health and limit the salinity impact on the
Murray River. This will entail gaining a more detailed understanding of the floodplain
characteristics, including flush zones and salt stores. Identification of major salt influxes to
the river and possible interception zones is also desired. These concerns can be expressed in
the following questions (from Lawrie 2006), with conceptual geophysical targets shown in
Figure 3. Figure 4 shows a cross-section of the Murray River floodplain and Wallpolla Island.
1. What is the potential for salt mobilisation during Living Murray inundation actions?
This requires identifying holes in the Coonambidgal Formation – target 1. Salt stored
in the sub-surface (targets 2 and 5 in the model below) may be mobilised through
connected pathways to the river and surface (through targets 1 and 3). This question
addresses the act of mobilisation and is therefore concerned with the source or initial
position of the salt and what is causing it to move. This requires identifying high salt
stores that are at risk of being mobilised. Therefore, we need to identify high
conductivity salt stores, particularly in the Coonambidgal Formation and upper
Monoman Formation (target 5), and we need to identify low conductivity zones
where water preferentially feeds into the floodplain sediments to potentially mobilise
these salt stores, namely flush zones (target 3) and floodplain recharge areas (target
1). In the model below. Questions 2 and 3, below, deal with the destination of the
mobilised salt. See Figure 3.
2. Delivery of salt to the river. How salt is being delivered to the river requires
identification of high salinity zones (similar to previous question) and relatively
permeable zones or pathways for groundwater movement back to the river or
anabranches once the flood recedes – targets 5, 4 and 2 in Figure 3. Salt being
delivered to the river now will be interpreted from mapping salt stores (eg targets 2
and 5) and their connection to the river either directly or indirectly through
preferential flow paths. Additionally, salt being delivered to the river will also be
mapped by identifying areas where Blanchetown Clay is thin or absent, giving rise to
potential higher saline influxes to the river from saline groundwaters in the Loxton-
Parilla Sands (target 4 in Figure 3).
3. Understanding of the drivers of floodplain health with respect to groundwater
processes. This is matter of identifying elements of floodplain and groundwater
processes – targets 1, 2, 3 and 4 in the model below. This is a matter of identifying
elements of floodplain composition (including salt), groundwater levels and
groundwater processes. AEM can provide important baseline data in resolving this
question by defining the distribution of fine and coarse grain floodplain lithologies
(target: whole of floodplain, particularly top 5 metres), high salinity zones (target 5),
high recharge zones (target 1), flush zones (target 3), permeable pathways delivering
salt to prone areas such as anabranches and other depressions (target 2) and exposure
to saline fluxes from the Parilla Sand (target 4). Recharge zones (target 1), salt stores
(2 and 5) and flush zones (target 3) are conceptualised in Figure 3.
3

4. Identification of the high recharge areas in the floodplain? This relates to question 1,
and means identifying areas of the floodplain where water can most easily enter from
the surface i.e. high porosity permeability (sand) connected to subsurface – targets 1
and 2 in Figure 3.
5. What is the extent and thickness of the Blanchetown Clay and the Coonambidgal
Formation? Extent and thickness of the Blanchetown Clay can be modelled in areas
adjacent to the incised valley (targets 4 & 6a in Figure 3) and beneath the incised
valley (targets 4 & 6b) where the conductivity contrasts between the Blanchetown
Clay and the overlying Monoman Formation are high enough. Targets 1 and 2
(Figure 3) can assist in the determination of the thickness and extent of
Coonambidgal Formation. Drill-hole and geomorphic information will be used in the
interpretation of the extent and thickness of the Coonambidgal Formation.
6. Where is salt stored in the unsaturated zone? Target 7 in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Conceptual model (cross-section) and proposed geophysical targets in the Lindsey –
Walpolla area: WF = Woorinen Formation, CF = Coonambidgal Formation, MS = Monoman
Sands, BC = Blanchetown Clay, PS = Parilla Sand (Lawrie 2006).
Figure 4. Schematic hydrogeological cross-section representing the Lindsay Island reach of the
Murray River Floodplain (from SKM 2004).
4

4 METHODOLOGY
4.1 Basic method and rationale
Mapping was done on transparent overlays at 1:25,000 scale and digitally converted into
electronic maps. The main presentation of the data was at 1:100,000 scale, mapping at
1:25,000 scale ensured that there was sufficient detail.
Landform mapping was carried out primarily by one of us (JC) using the LIDAR DEM where
possible. This was supplemented by lower resolution DEM data when the LIDAR was not
available, and compared against satellite imagery. DG carried out most of the mapping in the
areas with lower resolution. The landforms provided information on the spatial and
chronological relationships between different surface units.
Surface properties were mapped using ASTER by another one of us (VW), who also mapped
vegetation patterns from SPOT images. Gamma ray ternary radiometric images were used by
JC to differentiate surface material types where interpretation was difficult. Surface materials
provide information in the hydrologic properties, in particular recharge and salt load.
The polygons were field checked by JC and V Wong by vehicular traverses along various
tracks. Soil pits were dug and sampled, with field descriptions providing preliminary data on
soil properties (Appendix 6). These were followed by quantitative analyses (Appendix 7).
The maps were entered into the GIS by HA and JL, and the work was scientifically reviewed
by CP and KL.
4.2 Data Availability and Quality
4.2.1 Satellite imagery
The primary satellite images used to compile surface polygons were those from ASTER and
SPOT. LANDSAT images were used for comparison and infill, but were not normally
interpreted as SPOT and ASTER coverage was generally adequate for the project area.
ASTER interpretation is shown in Appendix 1), while SPOT interpretation is shown in
Appendix 2.
Three ASTER scenes (with 15m resolution) covered most of the Lindsay-Wallpolla and Lake
Victoria-Darling Anabranch area. The scenes, the only ones available, were acquired from
ACRES in GA. Two scenes were dated 14 Jan 2001 and one was dated 20 Nov 2000, with the
last scene unfortunately having a large section of cloud cover. The ASTER is displayed as a
composite RGB image using the visible and near infrared radiation (VNIR) bands 3, 2 and 1.
Four pan-sharpened pseudo natural colour SPOT scenes (with 2.5m resolution) dated 09 Jan
2005, 25 Feb 2005, 5 July 2005 and 24 Nov 2004 were also acquired from GA. Bands 3, 2
and 1 were displayed in a composite RGB image. Two Landsat-7 ETM ortho-corrected
images (30m resolution) used in the project were acquired on the 15 Mar 2002 and 4 April
2001.
4.2.2 Digital Elevation Models
DEM coverages are shown in Figure 5. Three coverages were used:
• LIDAR
• Elevation models fro digitised topographic maps
• SRTM data
5

The SRTM was used as to provide the base DEM where other data was not available. At a
scale of 1:25,000 the vertical and spatial resolution is too low while the noise level is too high
in the Shuttle Radar DEM for mapping purposes, and hence, has been used for infill only.
High resolution (2 and 5 m) LIDAR DEMs were used for the primary interpretation
(Appendix 3). The Lindsay and Wallpolla LIDAR data were supplied by SunRISE 21 in xyz
format (134 & 74 files respectively). These were imported and gridded in Intrepid and then
exported to ERMapper format as 1m and 5m grids. The LIDAR data on the eastern part of the
project area were supplied by MDBC. The tiles, at 2m resolution, were mosaiced together in
Arc Info. There are two DEMs derived from digitised contour maps; one at 10 m resolution
and the other at 20 m resolution (Figure ). The 20 m DEM data was provided by ACRES in
ERMapper format. The 10m DEM data was supplied as 175 xyz ascii files by SunRISE 21 on
behalf of the Mallee CMA. The ascii files were imported into Intrepid, saved in ERMapper
format, and clipped to the project area. The 10m grid has a stated vertical accuracy of 2m
AHD. These were used as infill when other data were not available.
Figure 5. Coverage of digital elevation model types.
4.2.3 Gamma-ray data
Airborne ternary gamma-ray images were used to supplement areas with poor coverage of
high resolution DEM (Appendix 4). This is effective because the materials of the terrace
formed by the Rufus Formation (Gill 1973) are distinct from those of the active floodplain on
ternary gamma-ray images, as described in more detail below. The distribution of this
material was used when absence of LIDAR coverage precluded mapping of the position of
terraces by more accurate means.
4.3 Satellite image Processing
The ASTER level 1B scenes were supplied by ACRES in .hdf format. They were corrected
for crosstalk (caused by signal leakage from band 4 into adjacent bands 5 and 9) and imported
into ERMapper. Importing was carried out in three steps with bands of similar resolution. The
VNIR bands 1-3 at 15m resolution, SWIR (shortwave infrared radiation) bands 5 – 9 at 30m
resolution and TIR (thermal infrared radiation) bands 10 – 14 at 90m resolution. All bands
were rotated, calibrated for radiance, by rescaling digital values to observed top of
atmosphere radiance values, and had dark pixel corrections. Resultant ERMapper datasets
were displayed as composite RGB images.
6

SPOT 5 images were supplied by GA and had already been processed by Geoimage Pty Ltd
for NSW Department of Infrastructure Planning and Natural Resources. LANDSAT 7 data
have passed ACRES Quality Assessment and was supplied with all processing complete.
The ASTER, SPOT and LIDAR images were printed at 1:25,000 scale and interpreted by
mapping unit boundaries onto a registered stable transparent overlay using mapping pens.
The interpreted line work was then digitally scanned and the polygons attributed. The
finished images were then printed for checking.
4.4 Fieldwork
The area was visited by two of the authors (JC and VW) between the 17 th and 26 th of January
(Figure 1). The aim of this visit was to validate interpretations of the DEM and satellite
imagery interpretation and to collect soil samples for ground truthing. Twenty sites for
selected for sampling and 16 actually excavated, some of these lay outside the final study area
as the field trip was done before these have been fully defined. These were all located on
road reserves. Shallow pits 30 cm deep were dug adjacent to roads in the Lindsay-Wallpolla
and Lake Victoria-Darling Anabranch region and sampled at 0-10, 10-20, 20-30 cm intervals.
These pits provided information of the near-surface stratigraphy and characteristics of the
regolith materials and also provided information on the soil structure of the site. The soils
were described according to McDonald and Isbell (1998). Samples were analysed for
mineralogy using X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), for grain size using laser granulometry, and for
elemental chemistry using X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF). The site and the pits were photodocumented
and the soil profiles and samples described in the field. The holes were filled in
on completion. Results of the field tests and soil descriptions are contained in Appendix 6 and
discussed in section 6.
5 RESULTS
5.1 Regolith Landform Units
The incised valley of the Murray River (the upstream equivalent of the Murray River Gorge
of Twidale et al. 1978) contains several mappable geomorphic units and their accompanying
sediments (Figure 6, Figure and Appendix 5). These are the alluvial terrcae, raised several
metres above the modern floodplain, the modern scroll plain inundated by floods, composed
of three mappable meander tracts, and a number of individual features such as dunes, lakes,
and lunettes
Geomorphic differentiation of incised valley fill into terrace and floodplain deposits matches
the distinct airborne gamma patterns which show that the terrace units (Rufus Formation) are
comparatively richer in K than in Th or U, whereas the floodplains (Coonambidgal
Formation) all show an equally strong signal in all three radioelements. The quartz sand dunecovered
uplands showed a very low signature in all three radiogenic elements.
7

Figure 6. Compartmentalisation of the Murray River incised valley fill into terrace and
floodplain deposits of different ages. Upper terrace is composed of Rufus Formation.
5.1.1 Uplands
The uplands have sandy regolith, slightly more clayey in the swales, developed on the dunes
of the Woorinen Formation (Figure , Figure 8). Soils are well-drained and sandy to sandy
loams, with moderate amounts of carbonate in the intermediate dunes. Generally these areas
are cleared for cropping (Figure 1, Figure 8).
5.1.2 Alluvial terrace
This unit consists of clay and fine sandy alluvium, and is composed of the Rufus Formation of
Gill (1973). The terrace surface has a discontinuous cover of sand dunes (~Woorinen
Formation). It is about 60,000 years old (Rogers and Gatehouse 1990). The terrace is very
flat, with local orange sand dunes and sand sheets. Where there is no sand the surface of the
terrace consists of olive-khaki silty clays. Most soils are slightly to moderately saline. Loamy
sands of relict dunes locally overlay the floodplain clays (Figure ).
8

Figure 7. Diagrammatic representation of relationships between geomorphic and stratigraphic
units.
5.1.3 Floodplain
The floodplain is formed on sediments on the Coonambidgal Formation (Butler 1958), and
consists of three discrete meander belts with well developed scroll bars (Appendix 3).
The oldest floodplain meander belt has a degraded scroll bar morphology. Amplitude of the
scroll bars and the meander wavelength is greater for this unit that for the younger meander
belts, indicating different hydraulic conditions during deposition. This unit is characterised by
olive-khaki silty clay drapes over degraded scroll bars with a relief of about 2 m (Figure 8,
Figure, 10). There are thin (>2 m) source bordering dunes of grey sand.
There is an intermediate floodplain meander belt that has rounded morphology, with scroll
bars are not as distinct as on the modern floodplain in the LIDAR DEM. Olive-khaki silty
clay drapes over lower relief (~1 m) scroll bars are found in this unit. Source bordering dunes
also occur on this unit.
The modern floodplain consists of meander belts and high relief (2-3 m) scroll bars with crisp
morphology and little or no clay draped over the surface. Scroll bars are distinct in the
LIDAR DEM. Surface sediments consist largely of yellow sand.
9

Dune on terrace
Alluvial terrace
Youngest floodplain
Oldest floodplain
Uplands
Intermediate floodplain
Figure 8. Oblique projection looking west from the Murray River at Merbein showing part of
LIDAR DEM showing geomorphic elements. Width of image ~5 km.
The floodplain has a number of channels, which consist of several morphological types. The
main Murray River channel sustains active flow and consists of a typical migrating
meandering channel. Abandoned channels of the Murray River consist of broad oxbow
billabongs and sustain semipermanent water. There are also anastomosing channels that are
sinuous and have fixed banks. These channels have been superimposed on the intermediate
floodplain deposits, sometimes exploiting previous abandoned channels, elsewhere cutting
across scroll bar and floodplain deposits. Flow in these is determined by water level, and
during the period of observation some were flowing, others were stagnant or dry, and lined
with clay.
Most soils on the floodplain are slightly to moderately saline (see Section 6.2 and Appendix 7
for details). Loamy sands of relict dunes locally overlie the floodplain clays. Clays within the
floodplain are typically smectitic and sodic. They are highly dispersive and make an
impermeable seal after modest rain. Minor variations in floodplain elevation can significantly
affect soil development. Scroll bars found on the oldest and intermediate floodplain units
(Coonambidgal Formation) exhibit more profile development with heavier textures and are
highly structured in swales compared to the corresponding crest than are those on the
youngest scroll bar sets. Due to the formation of a surface seal, water infiltration is limited to
the upper layer of the soil profile, leading to surface ponding after rainfall and then lost
through evaporation. While in the field we experienced a 50-150 mm rainfall event and
observed only 10-30 cm of moisture penetration below ground surface afterwards.
10

Uplands
Murray River
Alluvial terrace
Oldest floodplain
meander belt
Figure 9. Vertical view of part of LIDAR DEM showing geomorphic elements. Width of image ~5
km. North to top.
The above geomorphic units correlate well with vegetation densities and soil types.
5.2 Vegetation
Billabong
The distribution of different vegetation units and their relative health are critical for the
identification of land management issues, soil types, and indications as to the effectiveness of
management strategies. SPOT, LANDSAT and ASTER satellite imagery proved especially
effective in mapping the distribution of these associations, which also corresponded well with
vegetation structural units described in Specht (1981) and used to map units shown in
Appendix 2. Within the Mallee region, the valleys of the Murray River, Darling River and
Darling Anabranch are comparatively well vegetated with dense stands of trees and shrubs
(Brown and Stephenson 1991).
In the Lindsay-Wallpolla and Lake Victoria-Darling Anabranch region, the following
associations were observed on the equivalent geomorphic units. The regolith landform units
correlate well with vegetation densities, and with soil types (for soil type relationship see
Figure 7).
11

Intermediate floodplain
Modern floodplain
Dune on terrace
Oldest floodplain
Figure 10. Further vertical view of part of LIDAR DEM showing geomorphic elements. Width of
image ~5 km. North to top.
5.2.1 Uplands
The vegetation of the uplands have largely been cleared for cropping. The remaining native
vegetation is predominantly a saltbush (Atriplex sp.) shrubland with isolated Eucalyptus spp.
trees.
5.2.2 Alluvial Terrace
On the terrace the vegetation is predominantly Saltbush (Atriplex sp.) shrubland (Figure 11).
Figure 5. Terrace vegetation and materials. Silty clay and saltbush (left), sand dunes and
saltbush (right), Lindsay-Wallpolla and Lake Victoria-Darling Anabranch reach.
12

5.2.3 Floodplain
Vegetation on the modern floodplain consists of River Red Gum (E. camaldulensis) open
forest or woodland (Figure 5). The intermediate floodplain has Black Box (E. largiflorens)
woodland or low open woodland (Figure 6), while the oldest floodplain has Saltbush-Lignum
(Muehlenbeckia florulenta) shrubland and Black Box savannah (Figure 7).
River Red Gum low open woodland or woodland occurs along most water courses, with
Black Box woodland along smaller, drier courses. Riparian vegetation consists of macroalgae,
water lilies and bull rushes in slower flowing or stagnant water (Figure 7).
Figure 6. Modern floodplain (right) with well developed river red gum forest. Intermediate
floodplain (left) with black box woodland, Lindsay-Wallpolla and Lake Victoria-Darling
Anabranch reach.
Figure 7. Oldest floodplain (left) with black box and Lignum-saltbush savannah. Riparian
vegetation (right) of bulrushes, lilies, and macroalgae, Horseshoe Lagoon, Lindsay – Wallpolla
reach.
Correlations between vegetation, geomorphic unit, and surface materials are shown in
Table 1.
6 ANALYTICAL DATA
16 soil pits were excavated to a depth of 30 cm and sampled at 10 cm intervals in the survey
area. No samples were taken from the northern boundary to Wakool Junction section of this
survey area as units were similar to those already described in the Robinvale-Liparoo,
Lindsay-Walpolla, and Robinvale-Boundary Bend reaches (Clarke et al. 2007a, b. c). The
new geomorphic units mapped south of Wakool Junction were extensively sampled, with a
minimum of five sites from each unit. The soil pits provided qualitative data on the soil
profiles in each unit, shown in Appendix 6. Analytical results are contained in Appendix 7.
13

Locations of sample sites are given in Figure 8 and Figure 9. Location of soil sample sites
eastern end of Lindsay-Wallpolla and Lake Victoria-Darling Anabranch
Table 1. Associations between regolith landform units, vegetation and surface materials
Regolith Landform Unit Vegetation Surface Material
Uplands (U)
Alluvial terrace (Ta, Td))
Oldest floodplain scroll bars
(Fm3)
Intermediate floodplain scroll
bars (Fm2)
Modern floodplain scroll bars
(Fm1)
Native vegetation primarily
cleared for cropping
Saltbush (Atriplex sp.)
shrubland
Saltbush-Lignum
(Muehlenbeckia florulenta)
shrubland and Black Box (E.
largiflorens) savannah
Black Box (E. largiflorens)
woodland or low open
woodland
River Red Gum (E.
camaldensis) open forest or
woodland
Sandy regolith, slightly more
clayey in the swales,
developed on dunes of the
Woorinen Formation
Olive-grey clay-rich silts,
with local veneers and low
dunes of orange-coloured
aeolian sand
Olive-khaki silty clay drapes
~3 m thick over degraded
sandy scroll bars of the
Coonambidgal Formation
Olive-khaki silty clay ~2 m
thick drapes over degraded
sandy scroll bars of the
Coonambidgal Formation
Yellow sand with little or no
clay draped over the sandy
surface of the scroll bars.
These comprise the
Coonambidgal Formation
14

Figure 8. Location of soil sample sites western end of Lindsay-Wallpolla and Lake Victoria-
Darling Anabranch.
Figure 9. Location of soil sample sites eastern end of Lindsay-Wallpolla and Lake Victoria-
Darling Anabranch. Note that some lie outside the defined survey area, as they were collected
prior to the southern limits being finally decided.
15

6.1 Granulometry
6.1.1 Methodology
Granulometrey provides a quantitative measurement of the particle size distribution in a soil
or sediment. As a result much more accurate modelling of parameters such as porosity and
permeability, recharge, and salt load can be made. It also provides a check on the accuracy of
field estimates of soil texture.
The grainsize was determined using a Malvern Instruments Mastersizer 2000 instrument. The
laser diffraction instrument consists of three parts, a laser source (He-Ne gas or diodes
emitter), detectors, and sample chamber that allows suspended particles to recirculate in front
of the laser beam. The Mie theory (Rawle, 2001) was used to solve the equations for
interaction of light with matter and calculates the volume of the particle. This technique
calculates the % volume of a range of particle sizes (0.05 – 2000 μm), and the results are
grouped according to the Wentworth scale. To standardise with other analytical data, SI units
(μm) were reported instead of Phi units.
6.1.2 Results
Samples from each site had fairly similar distributions, indicating that within the sampled
depth range there were only minor differences in grainsize distribution. Some surface
samples were less sandy than those at depth, indicating more abundant silt and clay at the
surface. This is interpreted to be from the draping of older land surfaces by fine-grained
material deposited by flood waters. Overall, however the samples were of silty clays to clayey
silts, usually with minor sand. This is consistent with deposition by overbank flow during
river floods for all geomorphic units including floodplains, levee banks, and channel plugs.
Particle size analysis showed a general trend of fining with distance from the main river
channel within the Murray River Trench (Figure 10). Soils were generally sandier on the Fm1
unit and more clay-rich on the Terrace unit. The particle size distribution of the Uplands unit
is most likely the result of mixing of sediments from a number of sources, including windblown
sand from dunes.
90
Sand (%)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Clay (%)
Fm1
Fm2
Fm3
T
U
Figure 10. Sand and clay percentage from each geomorphic unit.
16

6.2 EC and pH
6.2.1 Methodology
Soil electrical conductivities were measured to determine the conductivity, salt content and
salt load of the surface materials within 30 cm of the surface. Conductivity also provided a
measure of soil development in landform units of different ages. Measuring pH quantitatively
provides a cross check on field determinations and another way of determining soil evolution
in differently aged landform units.
Measuring salinity and pH in soil was carried out using the 1:5 method. With this method,
10ml of distilled water is placed in a measuring container and small soil particles added until
the volume of the contents of the container increased by 5ml to bring the volume to 15ml.
Additional water is then added to bring the total volume to 30ml. the sample is shaken
intermittently for five minutes and allow it to settle for five minutes. EC and pH probes are
dipped into the solution and readings taken.
6.2.2 Results
The measured EC values ranged between 0.036 and 4.4 dS/m, with the majority (all but
seven) falling below 1.0 dS/m. There is no good trend between conductivity and geomorphic
unit relatively high conductivities (>1.0) are found in units Fs, Fm1, Fm3, and T. However,
the terrace (T) units are on average more saline than those of the floodplain and uplands.
Measured pH values range between 4.45 and 9.45, with the majority of the samples being
acidic. There is a clear trend between increasing age of geomorphic unit and increasing pH.
The youngest geomorphic units are almost entirely acidic, including almost all examples of
unit Fm1. Soils from the terrace unit and uplands are near neutral to alkaline (
17

Table 2).
Mean pH and EC profiles are shown in Figure 11 and Figure , respectively. pH was lowest in
the Fm1 unit at all depths, and increased with increasing age of floodplain units. This may be
due to leaching of base cations as a result of the sandier textures of the Fm1 unit. The Uplands
had the highest pH at all depths. EC was highly variable within each geomorphic unit and
between geomorphic units (Figure 3). However, the Terrace unit showed the highest EC at all
depths.
0
pH 1:5
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Depth (m)
0.1
0.2
Fm1
Fm2
Fm3
T
U
0.3
Figure 11. Mean pH profiles from each geomorphic unit. Note: horizontal bars indicate the
standard error or the mean.
0
EC 1:5 (dS/m)
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Depth (m)
0.1
0.2
0.3
Fm1
Fm2
Fm3
T
U
Figure 18. Mean EC profiles from each geomorphic unit. Note: horizontal bars indicate the
standard error of the mean.
18

Table 2. Range of EC and pH values for different geomorphic units in the Lindsay-Wallpolla and
Lake Victoria-Darling Anabranch study area
Geomorphic Unit pH (1:5) EC1:5 (dS/m)
6.3 XRF geochemistry
6.3.1 Methodology
Fm1 4.45-6.03 0.049-1.050
Fm2 4.7-6.54 0.036-0.897
Fm3 6.11-7.71 0.062-1.092
T 6.22-9.45 0.047-5.880
U 7.41-8.95 0.088-1.376
The primary purpose of the XRF analyses was to obtain measurements of the abundances of
K, Th, and U, should detailed interpretation of the gamma-ray radiometric data be required.
The radiometric data was essential in mapping the distribution of different classes of surface
materials, in particular differentiating between floodplain, terrace, and uplands in areas of
poor DEM control.
1. The samples were pulverized using a tungsten carbide mill and the elements were
analyzed by XRF. For major element determination (SiO 2 , TiO 2 , Al 2 O 3 , Fe 2 O 3 , MnO,
MgO, CaO, Na 2 O, K 2 O, P 2 O 5 , and S), samples were prepared as fused discs following
the method of Norrish & Hutton (1964), with the exception that the flux used
consisted of 12 parts lithium tetraborate to 22 parts lithium metaborate. The glass
discs were analyzed on a PW2400 wavelength dispersive X-ray fluorescence (XRF)
spectrometer. The 35 trace elements were determined on pressed powder samples
using a SPECTRO X-Lab energy dispersive XRF spectrometer. The powders were
also measured on a PW1400 wavelength dispersive XRF spectrometer for Sc, V and
Cr, using methods described in Chappell (1991) and Norrish & Chappell (1967).
Tungsten and Co were probably added to the samples during the milling process, and
hence these elements have not been reported. The major elements and minor element
values are shown as % and ppm respectively.
2. The percentage of volatile materials in the samples was determined using a LECO
RC-412 multiphase carbon and water analyzer. Nitrogen was used as the carrier gas
for combustion and the furnace control system allows the temperature of the furnace
to be stepped and subjected to ramping (from 90 to 1040 o C). Water and carbon
dioxide released from the minerals during combustion are detected by means of
infrared absorption cells (IR-cells) and the results are then calculated as CO 2 and H 2 O
respectively.
6.3.2 Results
Only a limited number of comparisons were made because of time limitations and the
departure of the primary source of soil science expertise within the team (VW). Major
elements correlated reasonably well with what can be predicted from the main minerals
present.
The XRF results reflect the high quartz content of the soils with high SiO 2 concentrations
across all geomorphic units and depths. Higher concentrations of CaO found in the Terrace
and Uplands units are most likely due to the presence of CaCO 3 pisoliths, which were noted
19

when sampling. This is also reflected in the higher pH of the Terrace and Uplands units
(Table 3).
The K, U, and Th concentrations generally reflect that seen in airborne gamma ray
radiometric data illustrated in Appendix 4, with higher concentrations of the three
radioelements in the units found within the Murray River Trench, and lower concentrations in
the Uplands.
6.4 XRD mineralogy
6.4.1 Methods
X-Ray defraction is an effective way of accurately determining mineralogy. Mineralogy is
important to the study the mineral suite can influence conductivity and clay types effect
porosity and permeability and surface recharge behaviour.
Samples were analysed using both semi-quantitative XRD and qualitative PIMA methods.
Samples for XRD were scanned on a Siemens D500 Diffractometer, from 2° to 70° 2θ, in 1°
increments, 2 seconds per degree, using a Cu anode X-ray tube. Minerals were identified
using Bruker Diffrac plus and Siroquant V3 was used to quantify minerals. The samples are
characterised by simple scans, containing predominant Quartz peaks with accessory mica
(probably Muscovite), feldspar and clay (probably Kaolin). Specific feldspars have been
identified according to best-fit of peaks. Further petrological work would be required to
conclusively identify feldspars.
6.4.2 Results
XRD shows that the samples all contain quartz, muscovite, and microcline. Kaolinite and
albite are present in almost all. These results are consistent with the samples being composed
of two sediment types, a slightly feldspathic micaceous quartz sand and kaolinitic quartz silt
with very fine-grained detrital muscovite.
The relationship between distribution of clay species and provenance would be worth further
investigation (c.f. Ginegle and de Deckker 2004). However it is beyond the scope of this
investigation as it would require clay-specific mineral separates to be prepared.
Table 3. Mean values of selected XRF analyses
Geomorphic
Unit
Fm1
Fm2
Fm3
T
U
Depth Al2O CaO Cl Fe2O3 K2O Na2O S (%) SiO2 Th (%) U (%)
(m) 3 (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
(%)
0.0-0.1 10.75 0.44 0.548 3.24 2.07 0.46 0.460 72.26 0.01960 0.00722
0.1-0.2 10.13 0.38 0.367 2.83 2.09 0.49 0.281 76.99 0.01160 0.00410
0.2-0.3 9.60 0.36 0.361 2.66 1.97 0.50 0.195 78.64 0.01320 0.00494
0.0-0.1 14.31 0.47 1.296 4.74 2.22 0.50 0.283 64.75 0.01400 0.00670
0.1-0.2 13.91 0.45 0.955 4.51 2.19 0.57 0.206 66.91 0.02050 0.00535
0.2-0.3 14.10 0.45 0.822 4.59 2.18 0.58 0.199 66.44 0.02000 0.00540
0.0-0.1 10.36 0.49 0.172 2.93 2.20 0.58 0.160 75.47 0.01925 0.00708
0.1-0.2 11.02 0.50 0.371 3.23 2.21 0.58 0.151 74.62 0.01325 0.00565
0.2-0.3 11.52 0.53 0.639 3.45 2.24 0.61 0.163 73.54 0.01750 0.00465
0.0-0.1 12.64 1.81 2.440 4.63 1.99 0.51 0.329 66.52 0.01460 0.00084
0.1-0.2 10.99 1.83 2.303 3.98 1.77 0.51 0.300 70.38 0.01720 0.00556
0.2-0.3 10.63 1.67 3.319 3.85 1.74 0.62 0.280 71.86 0.01140 0.00292
0.0-0.1 5.23 3.48 0.082 1.92 0.99 0.00 0.244 79.92 0.01025 0.00243
0.1-0.2 4.97 3.71 0.473 1.81 0.93 0.07 0.209 81.08 0.01375 0.00388
0.2-0.3 4.91 5.65 0.532 1.80 0.87 0.07 0.296 76.15 0.00650 0.00213
20

7 IMPLICATIONS
7.1 Hydrogeological issues
7.1.1 Flow
The geomorphological interpretation of the data suggests that shallow groundwater flow may
be strongly compartmentalised along the Murray River between different aged floodplain
units, and possibly between different sedimentary units within each of the three mapped
floodplain units. At depth, where similar sandy units of different ages may be juxtaposed,
cross flow between meander belts of different ages is possible.
It also appears that materials filling the incised valley of the River Murray are inset within
intermediate Murray basin units (in this reach the Blanchetown Clay, which is covered by
dunes and slope deposits). Similarly, the Coonambigdal Formation is inset within the Rufus
Formation (as suggested by Gill (1973), and shown in cross sections by Rogers and
Gatehouse 1990). Modern, intermediate and oldest floodplain units and deposits
compartmentalise the Coonambigdal Formation, as suggested above. Different ages of the
units mean that they have different properties, especially in the amount of clay at the surface,
which in turn has important implications for recharge (see below). These differences occur
across the axis of the floodplain, because of poor interconnections between morphosedimentary
units, and possibly down axis, within morpho-sedimentary units.
7.1.2 Recharge
As a result of the points discussed in the last section, we predict the following recharge
characteristics:
• All but the youngest floodplain sediments are sealed by dispersive clays; hence there
will be little or no recharge on intermediate floodplain and terrace units.
• Active channels have sand bottoms, but once flow stops and they become inactive,
they become clay-lined (Figure 12), with the result that there is no recharge via
abandoned channels. Cracking clays are of limited extent, and only in abandoned
channel. There is limited bypassing of surface clays by water in initial heavy rainfall
events through these cracks.
• The presence of sand dunes on the terrace means there is localised high infiltration,
which in turn results in local perching of water on underlying floodplain clays. For
the source bordering dunes on the older floodplain meander belts there may be a
direct connection between the dunes and the underlying scroll bars, bypassing the
clay drapes. However, the spatial extent of the dunes is insignificant.
Width of vegetation zones also helps in the assessment of recharge:
• Zones of healthy vegetation (red in ASTER images – Appendix 1) are widest on
modern floodplain units where the scroll bars consist of exposed sand, suggesting
extensive flushing of saline water from runoff, infiltration, and through flowing river
waters.
• These zones are much narrower in abandoned or inset channels (e.g. Wallpolla
Creek), indicating less flushing, possibly due to isolation of water in channels from
surrounding floodplain by the clay seal at the bottom.
21

Figure 12. SPOT image of Wallpolla Creek (containing water at time imaged) and clay-lined
nature of dried up channel of Wallpolla Creek as seen at ground level. Width of image is ~10 km,
north to top.
7.1.3 Relevance to land management questions
The results of the study to date can be compared back against the six land management
questions raised by Lawrie (2006). We make the following conclusions with respect to each.
Question 1: What is the potential for salt mobilisation during Living Murray inundation
actions?
To answer this question will require integration of the surface data (LIDAR DEM, soil pits,
and satellite imagery) with the results of the AEM survey and bore hole data. Integrated
products relating to salt mobilisation potential are found in the GIS and Atlas, in particular the
Flush Zone Thickness, Flush Zone Conductivities, Extent of Flush Zones, Groundwater
Recharge, Conductive Groundwater, Conductive Soils, Surface Salinity, Salinity Hazard, and
Salt Store maps.
Question 2: Delivery of salt to the river
To answer this question will likewise require integration of the surface data (LIDAR DEM,
soil pits, and satellite imagery) with the results of the AEM survey and bore hole data to
identify various potential pathways, in particular the channels along which surface and
groundwater is most likely to flow. Integrated products relating to salt mobilisation potential
are found in the GIS and Atlas again include the Flush Zone Thickness, Flush Zone
Conductivities, Extent of Flush Zones, Groundwater Recharge, Conductive Groundwater,
Conductive Soils, Surface Salinity, Salinity Hazard, and Salt Store maps.
22

Question 3: Understanding of the drivers of floodplain health with respect to groundwater
processes
The combined LIDAR and SPOT/ASTER interpretation assisted in mapping floodplain health
and allowed prediction of the geomorphic, soil, and sedimentologic parameters influencing
associated with salt stores and recharge, important to the health of floodplain vegetation.
Integrated products relating to floodplain health are found in the GIS and Atlas and include
the Conductive Groundwater, Conductive Soils, Surface Salinity, Salinity Hazard, and Salt
Store maps.
Question 4: Identification of the high recharge areas in the floodplain?
ASTER and LIDAR interpretation we predict will identify potential areas on the basis of
abandoned or stagnant river channels or scroll bars lacking an impermeable clay drape. These
will need to be field verified, however, especially as stagnant or abandoned channels may
well have their bottoms sealed by clay. This would leave only the youngest meander scroll
bars which lack the pervasive clay drape, or where the clay drape is very thin, as areas of high
potential recharge on the floodplain. Mapping surface recharge are found in the GIS and
Atlas include the Flush Zone Thickness, Flush Zone Conductivities, Extent of Flush Zones,
and Groundwater Recharge maps.
Question 5: What is the extent and thickness of the Blanchetown Clay and the Coonambidgal
Formation?
We can’t answer this question in this area from surface exposures as imaged by satellites or
scanned to form DEMS. Nor are they visible in preliminary field observations. We regard
this question as answerable only through a combination of AEM and bore hole data, as
showing the Thickness of Quaternary Alluvium, Extent of Quaternary Alluvium, and Depth
to Top of Blanchetown Clay maps in the GIS and Atlas.
Question 6: Where is salt stored in the unsaturated zone?
We predict that contextualised analysis of surface soil samples will help identify these areas
of salt storage, backed up by analysis of shallow (above the water table) borehole samples.
integrated products relating to salt stores Conductive Groundwater, Conductive Soils, Surface
Salinity, Salinity Hazard, and Salt Store maps in the GIS and Atlas.
23

REFERENCES
Bowler, J.M. and Harford, L.B. 1966. Quaternary tectonics and the evolution of the riverine
plain near Echuca, Victoria. Journal of the Geological Society of Australia 13(2), 339-
354.
Brown, C.M. and Stephenson, A.E. 1991. Geology of the Murray Basin, southeastern
Australia. BMR Bulletin 235.
Butler, B.E. 1958. Depositional systems of the riverine plain of south-eastern Australia in
relation to soils. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Soil
Publication 10, 35p.
Butler, B.E., Blackburn, G., Bowler, J.M., Lawrence, C.R., Newell, J.W., Pels, S. 1973. A
Geomorphic Map of the Riverine Plain of South-eastern Australia. Australian National
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24

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25

APPENDIX 1. ASTER data and interpretation
26

Surface properties map interpreted from ASTER data
27

APPENDIX 2. SPOT Data and interpretation
28

Vegetation map interpreted from SPOT data
29

APPENDIX 3. DEM data and interpretation
30

Landforms interpreted from DEM data
31

APPENDIX 4. Gamma-ray data
500000
(m)
100
40
500000
520000
520000
540000
560000
580000
600000
540000
560000
580000
600000
32
6200000
6220000
6240000
6200000
6220000
6240000
Lindsay - Wallpolla
±
Ternary - gamma ray
0 10 20 km

APPENDIX 5. Surface materials
33

APPENDIX 6. Site Descriptions and Data
Site 1
Corner of Keera and Old Mail roads
Coordinates
MGA94 54H 0559602E 6215494N
Location description
Upper terrace. Scattered saltbush (Atriplex spp) and grasses
Site description
Thin residual aeolian sand ~10 cm thick.
Soil Profile
Depth (cm) Munsell Field Texture Structure Comments
colour
0-10 7.5YR 3/4 Loamy sand Angular-blocky Extensive roots
10-20 7.5YR 4/6 Medium clay Massive Compacted red clay;
roots present
20-30 7.5YR 5/6 Medium clay Massive Compacted red clay;
roots present
34

Site 2
Along Keera Road
Coordinates
0559983E 6214068N
Location description
Terrace
Saltbush (Atriplex sp.) shrubland with minor pig face and microbiotic soil crust on surface; Black Box
(Eucalyptus largiflorens) savannah in distance.
Site description
Soil Profile
Depth (cm) Munsell
colour
0-10 7.5YR 5/2 Sandy loam Sub-angular
blocky
Field Texture Structure Comments
10-20 10YR 5/2 Clay loam Sub-angular
blocky
20-30 10YR 5/3 Clay loam Sub-angular
blocky
Cryptogamic crust on
surface; extensive fine
roots; some charcoal
present
Fine roots present
Fine roots present
35

Site 3
South Settlement road, ~20 m S of main highway.
Coordinates
0508922E 6207161N
Location description
Uplands
Low, degraded dunes, grass, herbaceous ephemerals, saltbush shrubland, microbiotic crust
Site description
Sampled 1 day after ~150 mm rain, only top 25 mm is moist.
Soil Profile
Depth (cm) Munsell Field Texture Structure Comments
colour
0-10 5YR 3/4 Loamy sand Weak Extensive roots; calcrete
throughout
10-20 5YR 3/4 Loamy sand Weak Extensive roots; calcrete
throughout
20-30 5YR 4/6 Loamy sand Weak Some roots present;
calcrete throughout
36

Site 4
Corner Irwin road and highway, ~3 km E of Meringur, ~30 m S of highway.
Coordinates
Not collected.
Location description
Uplands. Undulating red dunes, road reserve surrounded by cultivated wheat. Sample collected under
mallee gum with scattered saltbush, microbiotic crust
Site description
Soil Profile
Depth (cm) Munsell Field Texture Structure Comments
colour
0-20 5YR 3/4 Loamy sand Weak Fine roots present; thick
layer of leaf litter; minor
occurrences of charcoal
10-20 10R 3/4 Loamy sand Weak Clear boundary at 16 cm
to possible former soil
topsoil horizon; minor
occurrences of charcoal
20-30 2.5YR 5/1 Loamy sand Sub-angular
blocky
Extensive charcoal
37

Site 5
Western end of Keera Road, south side.
Coordinates
0567539E 6209595N
Location description
Uplands, degraded sand dunes
Site description
Vegetated road reserve surrounded by cultivated wheat. Native vegetation largely cleared for wheat,
remnants along road corridor of mallee with saltbush understorey and microbiotic crust, soil moist to
10 cm
Soil Profile
Depth (cm) Munsell Field Texture Structure Comments
colour
0-10 2.5YR 3/3 Loamy sand Weak Cryptogamic crust on
surface; loamy sand;
roots present; minor
occurrences of charcoal
10-20 7.5YR 5/6 Loamy sand Sub-angular
blocky
10-30 10YR 5/8 Loamy sand Sub-angular
blocky
Clear boundary;
extensive carbonate
pisoliths
Extensive carbonate
pisoliths
38

Site 6
20 E of intersection of highway and Pratt road, south side of road, opposite sand quarry.
Coordinates
0585156E 62909373N
Location description
Uplands, in swale of degraded dunes. Vegetated road reserve; native vegetation largely cleared for
wheat. Mallee gums and scattered salt bush, minor microbiotic crust
Site description
Soil Profile
Depth (cm) Munsell Field Texture Structure Comments
colour
0-20 5YR 3/4 Clay loam Angular blocky Roots throughout; minor
occurrences of charcoal
10-20 2.5YR 3/4 Clay loam Angular blocky Roots present; minor
occurrences of charcoal
20-30 5YR 3/4 Medium clay Angular blocky Diffuse boundary; roots
present
39

Site 7
Eastern end of Old Mail Rd to the north of road edge.
Coordinates
0588350E 6220011N
Location description
Terrace; saltbush shrubland
Site description
Soil Profile
Depth (cm) Munsell Field Texture Structure Comments
colour
0-10 7.5YR 4/2 Sandy loam Weak Fine roots throughout;
weakly structured
10-20 10YR 5/2 Sandy loam Weak Boundary at 10 cm; fine
roots throughout
20-30 2.5Y 5/2 Clay loam Angular-blocky Fewer fine roots than
previous layer
40

Site 8
Along Mail road towards Walpolla Island, about 1 km E of Dedmens Road turnoff, to N of road
Coordinates
0578099E 6218940N
Location description
Terrace. Scattered mallee Eucalyptus trees (savannah-like) with saltbush shrubland and pigface
understorey
Site description
Soil Profile
Depth (cm) Munsell Field Texture Structure Comments
colour
0-10 10YR 4/2 Medium clay Angular-blocky Fine roots throughout
10-20 2.5Y4/2 Medium clay Angular-blocky Fine roots present
20-30 2.5Y 3/2 Medium clay Angular-blocky Fine roots present
41

Site 12
Further to west along Old Mail Rd; west of Dedman’s Track
Coordinates
None collected.
Location description
Terrace, residual aeolian sand, with scattered salt bush and areas of local deflation barren of
vegetation. Scattered saltbush and pigface
Site description
Orange sand on surface formed by winnowing. Site interpreted as a dune over the flood plain clays.
Soil Profile
Depth (cm) Munsell Field Texture Structure Comments
colour
0-10 7.5YR 4/6 Loamy sand Weak Fine roots present
10-20 7.5YR 4/6 Sandy loam Weak Yellow mottles present;
fine roots present
20-30 10YR 4/6 Light clay Sub-angular
blocky
Red mottles; diffuse
boundary; coarse and
fine roots present
42

Site 13
Murray river bank between Lindsay and Wallpolla islands.
Coordinates
0547327E 6213755N
Location description
Modern flood plain abutted against cut bank of upper terrace. Flood plain is very narrow (less than 30
m) and may be an erosional rather than depositional surface. Site lies next to straight stretch of river –
no scroll bars. Open forest of river gums with grassy understorey
Site description
Soil Profile
Depth (cm) Munsell
colour
0-10 10YR 3/3 Sandy loam Sub-angular
blocky
Field Texture Structure Comments
10-20 2.5YR 5/3 Loamy sand Sub-angular
blocky
Boundary between
sandy loam and loamy
sand at 7 cm; fine and
coarse roots present
Slightly bleached layer
7-17 cm; fine and coarse
roots present
20-30 10YR 5/4 Light clay Angular-blocky Fine and coarse roots
present
43

Site 14
Dedmens drive, across abandoned channel near turnoff from mail road.
Coordinates
0577046E 6219157N
Location description
Intermediate flood plain meander belt. Very flat surface of Black Box open woodland, understorey of
saltbush and other small shrubs, and groundcover of herbaceous ephemerals and pigface. Some
microbiotic crusts.
Site description
Soil Profile
Depth (cm) Munsell
colour
0-10 10YR 5/2 Loamy sand Sub-angular
blocky
Field Texture Structure Comments
10-20 10YR 4/3 Clay loam Sub-angular
blocky
10-30 2.5YR 4/4 Clay loam Sub-angular
blocky
Cryptogamic surface
crust; fine roots
throughout
Boundary at 10 cm; fine
roots present; some
coarse roots
Fine roots present; some
coarse roots
44

Site 15
Location known as “River access 10”
Coordinates
05732613E 6224797N
Location description
Modern flood plain meander belt, inside of meander loop, with well developed scroll bars. Well
developed river red gum open forest, trees somewhat smaller than on intermediate scroll bar sites.
Limited ground cover apart from some sedges.
Site description
Youngest scroll bar, no leaf litter on ground, soil sandy micaceous silt. Contacts in pit parallel to
riverward sloping surface.
Soil Profile
Depth (cm) Munsell
colour
0-10 10YR 4/6 Loamy sand Sub-angular
blocky
Field Texture Structure Comments
10-20 2.5Y 6/6 Loamy sand Sub-angular
blocky
20-30 10YR 6/4 Loamy sand Sub-angular
blocky
Sandy; fine roots
throughout; some coarse
roots present; clay layer
3-7 cm; yellow mottles
present
Fine and coarse roots
present; mottling; clay
layer 14-16 cm
Mottling; fine and
coarse roots present;
mottling
45

Site 16
Same area as previous sample
Coordinates
0573642E 6224709N
Location description
Modern flood plain, inside of meander loop, with well developed scroll bars. Well developed River
Red Gum open forest, trees somewhat smaller than on intermediate scroll bar sites. Limited ground
cover apart from some sedges.
Site description
Youngest scroll bar swale, no leaf litter on ground, soil sandy micaceous silt. Contacts in pit parallel
to surface. Soil profile more developed than to Site 15.
Soil Profile
Depth (cm) Munsell
colour
0-10 10YR 6/6 Loamy sand Sub-angular
blocky
Field Texture Structure Comments
Darker organic layer (0-
2 cm); fine and coarse
roots present; lighter
mottles present
10-20 10YR 7/4 Loamy sand Weak Fine roots present; Clay
layer slightly bleached
(15-18 cm)
20-30 10YR 6/4 Clayey sand Sub-angular
blocky
Coarse and fine roots
present
46

Site 17
Sample location as previous two sites
Coordinates
0573613E 6224767N
Location description
Modern flood plain, inside of meander loop, with well developed scroll bars. Well developed river red
gum forest, with large trees. No understorey and ground covered with thick layer of dark, branch and
leaf litter.
Site description
Crest of old scroll bar. Pit wall profile consists of 0-5 cm A horizon, 5-26 cm grey-yellow sand, 26-35
cm orange-grey mottled clayey sand.
Soil Profile
Depth (cm) Munsell
colour
0-10 10YR 5/4 Sandy loam Sub-angular
blocky
Field Texture Structure Comments
10-20 10YR 5/3 Clay loam Sub-angular
blocky
10-30 10YR 5/4 Clay loam Sub-angular
blocky
Darker organic layer to 5
cm; extensive coarse
roots; charcoal present;
organic material
incorporated
Diffuse boundary at 10
cm; mottles present;
some coarse roots;
extensive fine roots
Mottles present; some
coarse roots; extensive
fine roots
47

Site 18
Same location as 17, intermediate swale.
Coordinates
0573619E 6224730N
Location description
Modern flood plain, inside of meander loop, with well developed scroll bars. Well developed river red
gum open forest. No understorey and ground covered thick layer of dark, branches, twigs, and general
litter.
Site description
Intermediate swale to scroll bar of site 17.
Soil Profile
Depth (cm) Munsell
colour
0-10 10YR 6/4 Loamy sand Sub-angular
blocky
Field Texture Structure Comments
10-20 10YR 5/4 Clayey sand Sub-angular
blocky
20-30 10YR 3/6 Clayey sand Sub-angular
blocky
Organic topsoil to 3 cm;
extensive coarse and
fine roots; yellow
mottles
Fine and coarse roots
throughout; red mottles
present
Mottled with grey and
red clay; fine and coarse
roots throughout
48

Site 19
Dedmens Track, just to east of Lily lagoon
Coordinates
0575312E 622426N 35 m
Location description
Intermediate floodplain meander belt, covered by black box woodland and minor river gum.
Understorey of saltbush and prickly shrubs. Groundcover of pigface.
Site description
Wetting front visible in pit at 10 cm depth, with surface 10 cm dry and deeper material moist.
Soil Profile
Depth (cm) Munsell
colour
0-10 10YR 5/3 Clay loam Sub-angular
blocky
Field Texture Structure Comments
10-20 10YR 3/2 Light clay Sub-angular
blocky
20-30 10YR 3/2 Light clay Sub-angular
blocky
Thin layer of litter and
organic layer to depth of
20 cm; extensive fine
and coarse roots; red
mottles
Extensive fine and
coarse roots; red mottles
Red and yellow mottles;
charcoal present
49

Site 20
Adjacent to previous site
Coordinates
0575309E 6223397N 33m
Location description
Swale immediately to South of site 19. Intermediate floodplain meander belt, covered by black box
low woodland with occasional river red gum trees and an understorey of saltbush and prickly shrubs;
groundcover of pigface.
Site description
Wetting front visible at 10 cm depth in pit, with surface 10 cm dry and deeper material moist.
Soil Profile
Depth (cm) Munsell
colour
0-10 10YR 5/2 Sandy loam Sub-angular
blocky
Field Texture Structure Comments
Surface crust; surface
layer of 0-3 cm most
likely depositional
material; extensive fine
and coarse roots present
10-20 10YR 3/2 Medium clay Angular blocky Diffuse boundary at 10
cm; coarse and fine
roots present with some
large roots
20-30 10YR 3/2 Medium clay Angular blocky Coarse and fine roots
present with some large
roots
50

Site 21
1 km east of Finnegans Bridge along Dedmans drive
Coordinates
0577135E 6221589N 32 m
Location description
Oldest floodplain meander belt, abandoned channel to south. Low open woodland of Black Box with
occasional Acacia trees, saltbush understorey and pigface groundcover. Local areas bare of vegetation
– possible salt scalds
Site description
Slight surface rise, possible residual source bordering dune on north side of abandoned channel.
Soil Profile
Depth (cm) Munsell
colour
0-10 10YR 4/3 Loamy sand Sub-angular
blocky
Field Texture Structure Comments
10-20 10YR 6/2 Clay loam Sub-angular
blocky
10-30 10YR 6/2 Clay loam Sub-angular
blocky
Surface crust; extensive
fine roots; some coarse
roots present; loamy
sand; sub-angular
blocky structure
Fine and coarse roots
present
Fine and coarse roots
present
51

Site 22
2 km east of Finnegans bridge along Dedmans drive
Coordinates
05771298E 6220569N 32 m
Location description
Oldest floodplain meander belt with low open woodland of black box with saltbush understorey and
groundcover of ephemeral herbs and pigface. Microbiotic crust.
Site description
Oldest floodplain meander belt, moist at depth.
Soil Profile
Depth (cm) Munsell
colour
0-10 2.5Y 5/2 Sandy loam Sub-angular
blocky
Field Texture Structure Comments
10-20 10YR 4/2 Clay loam Sub-angular
blocky
20-30 10YR 3/2 Clay loam Sub-angular
blocky
Cryptogamic crust on
surface; fine roots
present
Fine roots present
Fine roots present
52

Site 23
3 km east of Finnegans bridge along Dedmans drive
Coordinates
0577110E 6219599N 36 m
Location description
Oldest floodplain meander belt with low open woodland of black box with saltbush understorey and
groundcover of ephemeral herbs and pigface. Microbiotic crust.
Site description
Oldest floodplain meander belt
Soil Profile
Depth (cm) Munsell
colour
0-10 10YR 4/2 Sandy clay
loam
Field Texture Structure Comments
Sub-angular
blocky
Cryptogamic crust on
surface; fine and coarse
roots present
3-10cm 2.5Y 4/2 Clay loam Angular blocky Fine roots present; some
coarse roots
10-30 2.5Y 4/2 Clay loam Angular blocky Slightly bleached clay
loam; fine roots present;
some coarse roots;
53

APPENDIX 7: Analytical Results
Appendix 7.1 Area A soil EC and pH data
Site
No.
Easting Northing Zone Geomorphic Unit Sample no Sample id
Top Depth
(m)
Base
Depth (m)
pH (1:5)
EC1:5
(dS/m)
Moisture
content (%)
Moisture
content
Apparent
Conductivity (mS/m)
1 559602 6215494 54 T 1929545 2007735000003 0.2 0.3 8.07 0.047 1.9 0.019 0.4415
1 559602 6215494 54 T 1929544 2007735000002 0.1 0.2 7.77 0.093 4.3 0.043 1.9859
1 559602 6215494 54 T 1929543 2007735000001 0 0.1 6.87 0.154 8.6 0.086 6.6359
2 559983 6214068 54 T 1929552 2007735002001 0 0.1 7.69 0.141 15.1 0.151 10.6730
2 559983 6214068 54 T 1929553 2007735001001 0 0.1 6.46 3.560 8.2 0.082 146.5999
2 559983 6214068 54 T 1929554 2007735001002 0.1 0.2 6.95 4.400 10.0 0.100 219.9104
3 508922 6207161 54 U 1929557 2007735002003 0.2 0.3 8.23 0.088 4.4 0.044 1.9356
3 508922 6207161 54 U 1929555 2007735001003 0.2 0.3 7.41 0.121 9.6 0.096 5.7950
3 508922 6207161 54 U 1929556 2007735002002 0.1 0.2 7.48 0.143 9.3 0.093 6.6842
4 54 U 1929558 2007735003001 0 0.1 7.77 0.280 12.0 0.120 16.7899
4 54 U 1929559 2007735003002 0.1 0.2 7.85 0.337 5.6 0.056 9.4394
4 54 U 1929560 2007735003003 0.2 0.3 7.9 0.649 4.5 0.045 14.5530
5 567539 6209595 54 U 1929561 2007735004001 0 0.1 8.32 0.172 14.2 0.142 12.1909
5 567539 6209595 54 U 1929562 2007735004002 0.1 0.2 8.24 1.376 7.5 0.075 51.4535
5 567539 6209595 54 U 1929563 2007735004003 0.2 0.3 8.71 1.396 5.0 0.050 34.9336
6 585156 6209373 54 U 1929564 2007735005001 0 0.1 8.3 0.131 12.4 0.124 8.1391
6 585156 6209373 54 U 1929565 2007735005002 0.1 0.2 8.46 0.132 12.4 0.124 8.1628
6 585156 6209373 54 U 1929566 2007735005003 0.2 0.3 8.95 0.146 9.3 0.093 6.7402
7 588350 6220011 54 T 1929567 2007735006001 0 0.1 8.23 0.383 16.5 0.165 31.6738
7 588350 6220011 54 T 1929569 2007735006003 0.2 0.3 7.63 1.958 9.8 0.098 96.3224
7 588350 6220011 54 T 1929568 2007735006002 0.1 0.2 7.44 2.720 8.5 0.085 116.1743
8 578099 6218940 54 T 1929570 2007735007001 0 0.1 7.08 4.430 14.4 0.144 319.6108
8 578099 6218940 54 T 1929571 2007735007002 0.1 0.2 6.48 5.280 12.2 0.122 322.9645
8 578099 6218940 54 T 1929572 2007735007003 0.2 0.3 6.22 5.880 12.8 0.128 377.1160
12 54 T 1929573 2007735008001 0 0.1 8.4 0.136 14.5 0.145 9.8353
12 54 T 1929574 2007735008002 0.1 0.2 9.45 0.313 19.1 0.191 29.8550
12 54 T 1929575 2007735008003 0.2 0.3 9.42 0.644 17.2 0.172 55.5301
13 547327 6213755 54 Fm1 1929578 2007735009003 0.2 0.3 6.03 0.103 7.6 0.076 3.9314
13 547327 6213755 54 Fm1 1929577 2007735009002 0.1 0.2 5.48 0.219 7.4 0.074 8.1425
13 547327 6213755 54 Fm1 1929576 2007735009001 0 0.1 5.78 0.432 17.3 0.173 37.4592
14 577046 6219157 54 Fm2 1929579 2007735010001 0 0.1 6.54 0.036 5.9 0.059 1.0647
14 577046 6219157 54 Fm2 1929581 2007735010003 0.2 0.3 6.54 0.064 4.2 0.042 1.3375
14 577046 6219157 54 Fm2 1929580 2007735010002 0.1 0.2 6.46 0.072 8.5 0.085 3.0321
15 573613 6224797 54 Fm1 1929584 2007735011003 0.2 0.3 5.17 0.049 1.9 0.019 0.4777
15 573613 6224797 54 Fm1 1929583 2007735011002 0.1 0.2 5.17 0.121 4.0 0.040 2.3938
15 573613 6224797 54 Fm1 1929582 2007735011001 0 0.1 5.44 0.274 4.1 0.041 5.5749
16 573642 6224709 54 Fm1 1929586 2007735012002 0.1 0.2 4.96 0.065 1.1 0.011 0.3733
16 573642 6224709 54 Fm1 1929587 2007735012003 0.2 0.3 4.49 0.151 11.8 0.118 8.8813
16 573642 6224709 54 Fm1 1929585 2007735012001 0 0.1 4.96 0.306 7.1 0.071 10.8724
17 573613 6224767 54 Fm1 1929590 2007735013003 0.2 0.3 4.64 0.305 10.7 0.107 16.3014
17 573613 6224767 54 Fm1 1929589 2007735013002 0.1 0.2 4.55 0.319 10.3 0.103 16.4784
17 573613 6224767 54 Fm1 1929588 2007735013001 0 0.1 4.68 0.420 9.2 0.092 19.3826
18 573619 6224730 54 Fm1 1929593 2007735014003 0.2 0.3 5.38 0.837 9.0 0.090 37.6448
18 573619 6224730 54 Fm1 1929592 2007735014002 0.1 0.2 5.12 0.880 10.4 0.104 45.5714
18 573619 6224730 54 Fm1 1929591 2007735014001 0 0.1 4.45 1.050 7.7 0.077 40.2715
55

19 575312 6223426 54 Fm2 1929596 2007735015003 0.2 0.3 5.43 0.655 17.0 0.170 55.7158
19 575312 6223426 54 Fm2 1929595 2007735015002 0.1 0.2 5.02 0.765 14.6 0.146 55.9986
19 575312 6223426 54 Fm2 1929594 2007735015001 0 0.1 4.7 0.897 10.2 0.102 45.5330
20 575309 6223397 54 Fm2 1929598 2007735016002 0.1 0.2 5.5 0.580 14.5 0.145 41.9638
20 575309 6223397 54 Fm2 1929599 2007735016003 0.2 0.3 5.63 0.629 14.2 0.142 44.7195
20 575309 6223397 54 Fm2 1929597 2007735016001 0 0.1 5.04 0.860 14.3 0.143 61.6493
21 577135 6221589 54 Fm3 1929602 2007735017003 0.2 0.3 6.89 0.062 2.7 0.027 0.8520
21 577135 6221589 54 Fm3 1929601 2007735017002 0.1 0.2 6.92 0.120 2.8 0.028 1.7017
21 577135 6221589 54 Fm3 1929600 2007735017001 0 0.1 7.71 0.194 7.3 0.073 7.0851
22 577129 6220569 54 Fm3 1929603 2007735018001 0 0.1 6.12 0.135 10.2 0.102 6.8579
22 577129 6220569 54 Fm3 1929604 2007735018002 0.1 0.2 6.44 0.337 14.9 0.149 25.1013
22 577129 6220569 54 Fm3 1929605 2007735018003 0.2 0.3 7.33 1.092 15.0 0.150 81.7332
23 577110 6219599 54 Fm3 1929606 2007735019001 0 0.1 6.9 0.333 17.0 0.170 28.2659
23 577110 6219599 54 Fm3 1929607 2007735019002 0.1 0.2 6.35 0.633 8.5 0.085 27.0221
23 577110 6219599 54 Fm3 1929608 2007735019003 0.2 0.3 6.11 0.735 7.3 0.073 26.7368
56

Appendix 7.2: Lindsay-Wallpolla Laser Grainsize
Site No. Easting Northing Zone Geomorphic Unit Sample No. Sample ID
Top Depth
(m)
Base Depth
(m)
% Clay (0.01-
3.9um)
% Silt (3.9-
62.5um)
% Sand (62.5-
2000um)
1 559602 6215494 54 T 1929543 2007735000001 0 0.1 49.013625 40.44339 10.542985 sandy silty clay
1 559602 6215494 54 T 1929544 2007735000002 0.1 0.2 31.653135 35.105124 33.241741 clayey sandy silt
1 559602 6215494 54 T 1929545 2007735000003 0.2 0.3 13.170829 28.151205 58.677967 clayey silty sand
2 559983 6214068 54 T 1929553 2007735001001 0 0.1 38.702773 45.744681 15.552547 clayey sandy silt
2 559983 6214068 54 T 1929554 2007735001002 0 0.1 38.812612 42.575983 18.611405 clayey sandy silt
2 559983 6214068 54 T 1929555 2007735001003 0.1 0.2 43.46684 39.548039 16.985121 sandy silty clay
3 508922 6207161 54 U 1929552 2007735002001 0.2 0.3 14.606886 21.289683 64.103431 clayey silty sand
3 508922 6207161 54 U 1929556 2007735002002 0.1 0.2 14.26649 21.401724 64.331786 clayey silty sand
3 508922 6207161 54 U 1929557 2007735002003 0.2 0.3 13.999694 27.122449 58.877858 clayey silty sand
4 54 U 1929558 2007735003001 0 0.1 8.782439 20.907837 70.309724 clayey silty sand
4 54 U 1929559 2007735003002 0.1 0.2 7.258914 13.010814 79.730272 clayey silty sand
4 54 U 1929560 2007735003003 0.2 0.3 11.932722 31.660088 56.40719 clayey silty sand
5 567539 6209595 54 U 1929561 2007735004001 0 0.1 23.622183 38.39483 37.982987 clayey sandy silt
5 567539 6209595 54 U 1929562 2007735004002 0.1 0.2 25.299803 41.459818 33.240379 clayey sandy silt
5 567539 6209595 54 U 1929563 2007735004003 0.2 0.3 19.422158 42.689089 37.888752 clayey sandy silt
6 585156 6209373 54 U 1929564 2007735005001 0 0.1 24.531784 33.777051 41.691165 clayey silty sand
6 585156 6209373 54 U 1929565 2007735005002 0.1 0.2 22.14742 33.67954 44.173041 clayey silty sand
6 585156 6209373 54 U 1929566 2007735005003 0.2 0.3 21.486941 28.196652 50.316407 clayey silty sand
7 588350 6220011 54 T 1929567 2007735006001 0 0.1 34.485996 43.646518 21.867486 sandy clayey silt
7 588350 6220011 54 T 1929568 2007735006002 0.1 0.2 41.640062 35.911533 22.448405 silty sandy clay
7 588350 6220011 54 T 1929569 2007735006003 0.2 0.3 36.858926 37.880844 25.26023 sandy silty clay
8 578099 6218940 54 T 1929570 2007735007001 0 0.1 39.98115 40.63147 19.38738 sandy clayey silt
8 578099 6218940 54 T 1929571 2007735007002 0.1 0.2 48.58403 35.377212 16.038758 sandy silty clay
8 578099 6218940 54 T 1929572 2007735007003 0.2 0.3 49.946529 38.071546 11.981925 sandy silty clay
12 54 T 1929573 2007735008001 0 0.1 32.503183 43.873865 23.622952 sandy clayey silt
12 54 T 1929574 2007735008002 0.1 0.2 38.396651 34.884857 26.718492 sandy silty clay
12 54 T 1929575 2007735008003 0.2 0.3 40.208695 35.400252 24.391052 sandy silty clay
13 547327 6213755 54 Fm1 1929576 2007735009001 0 0.1 23.604778 51.087638 25.307585 clayey sandy silt
13 547327 6213755 54 Fm1 1929577 2007735009002 0.1 0.2 26.125816 50.83291 23.041273 sandy clayey silt
13 547327 6213755 54 Fm1 1929578 2007735009003 0.2 0.3 23.993866 42.181638 33.824496 clayey sandy silt
14 577046 6219157 54 Fm2 1929579 2007735010001 0 0.1 13.202443 35.20898 51.588576 clayey silty sand
14 577046 6219157 54 Fm2 1929580 2007735010002 0.1 0.2 21.584786 38.256587 40.158627 clayey silty sand
14 577046 6219157 54 Fm2 1929581 2007735010003 0.2 0.3 22.047362 42.788564 35.164074 clayey sandy silt
15 573613 6224797 54 Fm1 1929582 2007735011001 0 0.1 12.827616 36.880752 50.291633 clayey silty sand
15 573613 6224797 54 Fm1 1929583 2007735011002 0.1 0.2 8.633833 25.831817 65.53435 silty sand
15 573613 6224797 54 Fm1 1929584 2007735011003 0.2 0.3 5.304469 16.088957 78.606575 clayey silty sand
16 573642 6224709 54 Fm1 1929585 2007735012001 0 0.1 12.012201 37.572623 50.415175 clayey silty sand
16 573642 6224709 54 Fm1 1929586 2007735012002 0.1 0.2 5.071161 15.758901 79.169939 silty sand
16 573642 6224709 54 Fm1 1929587 2007735012003 0.2 0.3 8.886184 26.999305 64.11451 silty sand
17 573613 6224767 54 Fm1 1929588 2007735013001 0 0.1 19.744624 61.107202 19.148174 sandy clayey silt
17 573613 6224767 54 Fm1 1929589 2007735013002 0.1 0.2 22.841994 57.299451 19.858555 sandy clayey silt
17 573613 6224767 54 Fm1 1929590 2007735013003 0.2 0.3 23.722923 56.493711 19.783366 sandy clayey silt
18 573619 6224730 54 Fm1 1929591 2007735014001 0 0.1 21.598942 60.259311 18.141748 sandy clayey silt
18 573619 6224730 54 Fm1 1929592 2007735014002 0.1 0.2 26.21844 59.547105 14.234455 sandy clayey silt
18 573619 6224730 54 Fm1 1929593 2007735014003 0.2 0.3 26.032841 56.585 17.382159 sandy clayey silt
19 575312 6223426 54 Fm2 1929594 2007735015001 0 0.1 26.266812 59.618873 14.114314 sandy clayey silt
19 575312 6223426 54 Fm2 1929595 2007735015002 0.1 0.2 29.631681 62.955823 7.412496 clayey silt
19 575312 6223426 54 Fm2 1929596 2007735015003 0.2 0.3 33.51295 58.110959 8.376091 clayey silt
57

20 575309 6223397 54 Fm2 1929597 2007735016001 0 0.1 40.72107 53.285863 5.993067 clayey silt
20 575309 6223397 54 Fm2 1929598 2007735016002 0.1 0.2 41.608892 50.578808 7.8123 clayey silt
20 575309 6223397 54 Fm2 1929599 2007735016003 0.2 0.3 44.831448 50.20324 4.965313 clayey silt
21 577135 6221589 54 Fm3 1929600 2007735017001 0 0.1 14.861491 44.963318 40.175191 clayey silty sand
21 577135 6221589 54 Fm3 1929601 2007735017002 0.1 0.2 15.2158 41.866588 42.917611 clayey silty sand
21 577135 6221589 54 Fm3 1929602 2007735017003 0.2 0.3 16.566359 40.417336 43.016305 clayey silty sand
22 577129 6220569 54 Fm3 1929603 2007735018001 0 0.1 29.260707 54.712465 16.026827 sandy clayey silt
22 577129 6220569 54 Fm3 1929604 2007735018002 0.1 0.2 36.087475 46.237564 17.674961 clayey silty sand
22 577129 6220569 54 Fm3 1929605 2007735018003 0.2 0.3 48.389037 42.122517 9.488446 silty clay
23 577110 6219599 54 Fm3 1929606 2007735019001 0 0.1 43.872234 46.742235 9.38553 clayey silt
23 577110 6219599 54 Fm3 1929607 2007735019002 0.1 0.2 45.877999 45.28752 8.834482 silty clay
23 577110 6219599 54 Fm3 1929608 2007735019003 0.2 0.3 42.124149 47.852695 10.023157 sandy clayey silt
58

Appendix 7.3: Lindsay-Wallpolla XRF results
Site Batch No Sample ID Depth (cm) Morphology Al2O3 As Ba CaO Ce Cl Co Cr Cu F Fe2O3T K2O La MgO MLOI Calculate MnO W Y
1 200709 1929543 0-10 Terrace 18.103 9.1 344 0.506 72 92 14 78 29 1129 6.989 2.411 39 2.073 11.343 0.063 3 29
1 200709 1929544 10-20 Terrace 9.134 5.7 317 0.266 47 107 7 49 11 779 3.419 1.452 22 0.921 5.71 0.046 2 21
1 200709 1929545 20-30 Terrace 4.963 4.9 224 0.141 35 27 3 35 8 871 1.78 1.041 22 0.352 1.897 0.031 -2 16
2 200709 1929552 0-10 Uplands 5.01 5.2 176 0.293 19 44 3 35 9 703 1.931 0.941 16 0.422 3.142 0.044 -2 15
2 200709 1929553 10-20 Terrace 11.799 7.2 375 0.602 61 145 12 67 15 1024 4.409 1.972 35 1.058 7.652 0.064 9 26
2 200709 1929554 20-30 Terrace 13.435 8.2 340 0.645 65 5269 12 72 20 853 5.089 2.062 37 1.278 8.562 0.076 3 27
3 200709 1929555 0-10 Terrace 12.679 7 483 0.691 63 6148 11 62 19 1098 4.743 1.971 32 1.236 8.094 0.071 4 28
3 200709 1929556 10-20 Uplands 4.8 2 182 0.429 23 78 5 43 -1 744 1.79 0.878 9 0.413 3.84 0.038 -2 8
3 200709 1929557 20-30 Uplands 4.873 4.3 141 3.52 12 54 2 32 7 911 1.805 0.844 14 0.605 4.578 0.034 4 14
4 200709 1929558 0-10 Uplands 3.698 7.2 149 1.171 31 138 3 29 2 678 1.247 0.707 11 0.373 5.644 0.014 -2 12
4 200709 1929559 10-20 Uplands 2.955 3.7 130 0.875 18 209 -1 24 4 748 0.994 0.573 11 0.297 2.246 0.009 -2 10
4 200709 1929560 20-30 Uplands 3.25 6.5 140 5.08 10 469 4 23 8 1073 1.083 0.638 11 1.112 13.468 0.015 2 11
5 200709 1929561 0-10 Uplands 5.817 5.2 206 8.917 45 90 6 44 19 1107 2.187 1.143 28 1.093 11.727 0.073 -2 21
5 200709 1929562 10-20 Uplands 5.716 5.2 179 10.154 27 1517 5 43 17 1118 2.128 1.107 19 1.222 12.408 0.061 -2 19
5 200709 1929563 20-30 Uplands 5.285 5.9 167 13.133 38 1497 2 33 21 1308 1.968 0.959 21 1.694 13.449 0.039 8 17
6 200709 1929564 0-10 Uplands 6.398 5.9 187 3.538 54 54 4 37 13 893 2.321 1.17 30 0.812 8.054 0.052 3 23
6 200709 1929565 10-20 Uplands 6.41 5.6 196 3.376 25 87 5 40 15 857 2.325 1.179 17 0.766 6.049 0.055 5 24
6 200709 1929566 20-30 Uplands 6.222 8.9 170 0.876 29 106 3 43 12 615 2.341 1.031 17 0.538 4.063 0.069 4 18
7 200709 1929567 0-10 Terrace 10.294 6.6 311 3.25 53 225 10 53 19 811 3.738 1.862 33 1.342 8.875 0.064 -2 34
7 200709 1929568 10-20 Terrace 11.394 11.3 383 0.578 61 3670 12 71 18 814 4.173 1.688 32 1.08 7.661 0.084 -2 31
7 200709 1929569 20-30 Terrace 11.526 5.5 364 1.206 56 2677 13 60 19 1082 4.234 1.785 36 1.142 7.468 0.068 -2 30
8 200709 1929570 0-10 Terrace 11.969 9.3 538 0.349 81 5646 13 67 17 1115 3.91 2.037 45 0.999 7.214 0.062 -2 37
8 200709 1929571 10-20 Terrace 13.315 6.9 552 0.293 66 7484 11 66 19 1098 4.389 2.171 37 1.127 7.609 0.043 -2 31
8 200709 1929572 20-30 Terrace 13.811 7 546 0.249 61 8196 12 68 17 928 4.604 2.219 31 1.181 8.003 0.081 -2 32
12 200709 1929573 0-10 Terrace 10.135 5.7 419 4.237 34 89 8 60 21 1180 3.774 1.666 9 2.052 9.681 0.052 -2 23
12 200709 1929574 10-20 Terrace 9.297 7.4 543 7.392 57 111 10 55 18 1200 3.485 1.571 28 1.816 12.032 0.044 -2 20
12 200709 1929575 20-30 Terrace 9.412 8.8 301 6.129 46 428 9 54 26 1359 3.545 1.595 24 1.62 10.082 0.053 6 22
13 200709 1929576 0-10 Fm1 11.091 4.9 379 0.478 58 327 9 74 19 965 3.655 1.858 27 0.783 11.856 0.043 8 28
13 200709 1929577 10-20 Fm1 11.419 7 401 0.387 79 301 12 73 13 1025 3.75 1.847 39 0.805 7.313 0.042 -2 31
13 200709 1929578 20-30 Fm1 8.805 6.3 341 0.302 38 124 5 46 12 668 2.747 1.521 30 0.632 5.484 0.026 3 29
14 200709 1929579 0-10 Fm3 7.817 5.7 356 0.382 75 58 3 60 7 876 1.714 2.122 34 0.393 1.856 0.027 4 38
14 200709 1929580 10-20 Fm3 9.703 4.6 377 0.485 67 106 8 62 11 844 2.773 2.232 39 0.629 5.071 0.07 -2 35
14 200709 1929581 20-30 Fm3 10.04 3.8 367 0.538 66 49 9 54 10 1122 3 2.228 38 0.708 4.773 0.056 5 30
15 200709 1929582 0-10 Fm1 8.099 8.1 379 0.358 58 275 6 56 5 936 2.077 2.055 25 0.418 3.487 0.03 4 27
15 200709 1929583 10-20 Fm1 7.515 9 367 0.332 55 114 6 39 2 975 1.721 2.122 29 0.368 1.591 0.017 -2 26
15 200709 1929584 20-30 Fm1 5.992 7.8 310 0.265 25 79 4 24 -1 754 1.096 1.905 21 0.234 1.988 0.008 -2 25
16 200709 1929585 0-10 Fm1 8.633 7.9 368 0.385 65 320 8 52 11 891 2.375 2.008 31 0.492 5.226 0.043 2 31
16 200709 1929586 10-20 Fm1 5.753 4.1 356 0.267 32 99 4 38 -1 887 0.952 2.013 15 0.204 0.688 0.007 -2 25
16 200709 1929587 20-30 Fm1 7.771 8.1 377 0.348 75 142 2 55 5 951 1.789 2.011 41 0.392 1.482 0.013 19 38
17 200709 1929588 0-10 Fm1 12.666 9 412 0.428 75 449 11 83 12 892 3.958 2.193 39 0.828 10.851 0.051 -2 41
17 200709 1929589 10-20 Fm1 12.776 6.3 434 0.398 77 383 8 70 16 1104 3.734 2.23 37 0.803 8.277 0.034 5 37
17 200709 1929590 20-30 Fm1 12.396 5.5 435 0.382 77 374 9 71 13 1131 3.536 2.21 43 0.784 6.641 0.026 4 39
18 200709 1929591 0-10 Fm1 13.242 8.9 399 0.56 86 1371 11 76 19 1127 4.12 2.225 44 0.921 13.493 0.042 9 35
18 200709 1929592 10-20 Fm1 13.175 7.3 452 0.505 71 939 10 80 11 1029 3.979 2.236 40 0.909 9.504 0.051 10 38
18 200709 1929593 20-30 Fm1 13.034 7.5 468 0.483 90 1086 11 71 16 1280 4.112 2.215 44 0.91 8.006 0.045 6 37
19 200709 1929594 0-10 Fm2 13.706 6.1 477 0.449 76 1392 9 77 18 1162 4.197 2.236 38 0.932 11.41 0.02 10 37
19 200709 1929595 10-20 Fm2 13.258 5.7 534 0.403 80 1039 10 82 21 1047 4.071 2.213 39 0.832 8.594 0.022 4 36
19 200709 1929596 20-30 Fm2 13.716 5.6 407 0.405 80 811 9 71 16 931 4.346 2.202 44 0.868 9.718 0.023 8 35
20 200709 1929597 0-10 Fm2 14.91 9.2 392 0.481 80 1199 15 88 22 1166 5.275 2.194 34 1.025 9.796 0.076 7 38
59

20 200709 1929598 10-20 Fm2 14.562 6.7 366 0.49 86 870 16 82 22 887 4.943 2.163 46 0.982 9.775 0.131 13 38
20 200709 1929599 20-30 Fm2 14.481 7.7 419 0.493 98 833 15 74 17 900 4.842 2.156 53 0.953 9.105 0.104 8 40
21 200709 1929600 0-10 Fm3 9.027 4.7 415 0.596 69 102 7 51 6 888 2.334 2.347 41 0.611 5.882 0.042 4 39
21 200709 1929601 10-20 Fm3 8.519 4.1 428 0.504 63 124 6 57 8 979 1.782 2.399 32 0.493 2.491 0.018 -2 39
21 200709 1929602 20-30 Fm3 8.815 6 444 0.466 81 100 4 57 5 937 1.888 2.448 45 0.533 2.936 0.017 6 37
22 200709 1929603 0-10 Fm3 11.329 4.9 439 0.457 78 156 7 59 15 1019 3.416 2.252 50 0.811 7.445 0.038 10 39
22 200709 1929604 10-20 Fm3 12.078 8.2 369 0.508 74 405 9 78 20 847 3.954 2.197 40 0.959 7.954 0.047 -2 35
22 200709 1929605 20-30 Fm3 13.663 8.9 650 0.623 74 1407 11 76 22 1013 4.647 2.291 45 1.264 8.456 0.059 6 32
23 200709 1929606 0-10 Fm3 13.256 7.4 489 0.518 75 370 11 78 15 1050 4.254 2.08 36 1.025 9.608 0.056 11 35
23 200709 1929607 10-20 Fm3 13.76 6.7 568 0.491 67 848 12 76 15 1060 4.391 2.018 28 0.991 8.553 0.026 3 36
23 200709 1929608 20-30 Fm3 13.56 7.9 515 0.485 71 1001 8 75 13 988 4.283 2.004 41 0.949 8.31 0.016 -2 37
Site Batch No Sample ID Depth (cm) Morphology Mo Na2O Nb Nd Ni P2O5 Pb Rb S Sc SiO2 Sr Th TiO2 U V Zn Zr
1 200709 1929543 0-10 Terrace -1 0.222 10 31 40 0.092 22 109.1 257 15 57.096 111.9 13 0.823 -1 111 95 185
1 200709 1929544 10-20 Terrace 3 0.172 13 22 18 0.053 24 67.8 149 13 78.076 70.2 13 0.545 7.9 61 52 252
1 200709 1929545 20-30 Terrace 5 0.137 8 12 8 0.039 13 45.8 118 11 89.034 44.2 1 0.405 -1 35 33 267
2 200709 1929552 0-10 Uplands 3 -0.01 6 -5 13 0.044 12 40.9 151 3 87.679 52.6 7 0.338 -1 31 28 231
2 200709 1929553 10-20 Terrace -1 0.3 15 29 29 0.05 23 95.2 174 13 71.134 85.3 28 0.696 7.6 78 64 299
2 200709 1929554 20-30 Terrace -1 0.779 15 22 22 0.043 26 102.7 182 16 66.509 93.8 21 0.764 10.7 87 68 264
3 200709 1929555 0-10 Terrace -1 0.877 14 33 20 0.044 29 99.9 271 9 67.97 92 33 0.734 2.1 88 64 256
3 200709 1929556 10-20 Uplands -1 -0.01 9 7 14 0.045 24 40.5 164 3 87.326 54.6 32 0.312 9.7 32 27 202
3 200709 1929557 20-30 Uplands 1 -0.01 7 5 19 0.061 18 40 171 -1 83.167 143 5 0.325 3.2 32 26 215
4 200709 1929558 0-10 Uplands -1 -0.01 4 18 5 0.06 7 33.3 252 11 86.734 77.6 20 0.226 2.5 26 31 104
4 200709 1929559 10-20 Uplands -1 -0.01 5 13 6 0.036 14 26.7 170 8 91.745 61.6 8 0.189 -1 23 24 99
4 200709 1929560 20-30 Uplands -1 -0.01 1 -5 9 0.053 11 32.5 514 -1 74.852 355.8 14 0.191 7.3 26 30 122
5 200709 1929561 0-10 Uplands -1 0.04 6 12 21 0.112 14 46.6 322 8 68.243 296 -1 0.398 1 41 42 196
5 200709 1929562 10-20 Uplands -1 0.25 7 11 18 0.1 15 47.2 317 10 66.066 351.3 8 0.395 3.6 42 40 190
5 200709 1929563 20-30 Uplands -1 0.281 5 16 16 0.076 14 43.9 369 6 62.315 481.1 1 0.372 -1 40 32 195
6 200709 1929564 0-10 Uplands -1 -0.01 8 18 19 0.069 21 46.5 251 9 77.005 127.8 15 0.382 7.2 44 42 168
6 200709 1929565 10-20 Uplands 1 0.034 6 9 19 0.058 17 49.4 186 6 79.169 117.5 7 0.388 3.2 45 39 186
6 200709 1929566 20-30 Uplands 2 0.035 5 10 18 0.046 8 48 128 5 84.255 63.2 6 0.376 -1 41 42 170
7 200709 1929567 0-10 Terrace 1 0.292 15 26 19 0.064 23 92.2 245 11 69.344 188.5 12 0.619 -1 69 57 312
7 200709 1929568 10-20 Terrace 1 0.612 13 22 25 0.036 17 100.4 193 8 71.468 97.1 15 0.631 4.3 77 61 271
7 200709 1929569 20-30 Terrace -1 0.462 12 22 26 0.041 30 100.6 181 13 70.889 124.7 14 0.654 6.9 80 57 293
8 200709 1929570 0-10 Terrace 2 1.011 14 33 21 0.045 21 118.3 616 16 70.801 93.6 16 0.709 2 81 62 329
8 200709 1929571 10-20 Terrace -1 1.211 15 25 24 0.038 24 132.4 621 14 67.993 97.3 14 0.738 5.2 89 65 266
8 200709 1929572 20-30 Terrace 3 1.323 14 34 22 0.038 27 135.3 554 16 66.624 93.5 22 0.752 -1 88 72 253
12 200709 1929573 0-10 Terrace -1 0.157 11 14 22 0.08 20 76.1 258 -1 67.364 137.8 -1 0.532 2.1 55 58 257
12 200709 1929574 10-20 Terrace -1 0.273 11 29 22 0.074 23 72.9 364 10 63.208 189.5 16 0.498 2.8 77 57 235
12 200709 1929575 20-30 Terrace -1 0.413 9 17 25 0.069 21 74.7 366 8 66.251 157.8 -1 0.503 -1 79 55 223
13 200709 1929576 0-10 Fm1 -1 0.361 14 25 13 0.122 34 105 444 14 68.757 73.9 26 0.695 9 72 68 268
13 200709 1929577 10-20 Fm1 2 0.344 14 31 18 0.096 25 102 264 12 72.949 71.2 12 0.752 1.2 79 60 323
13 200709 1929578 20-30 Fm1 -1 0.292 12 13 17 0.05 18 81.5 159 10 79.322 59.1 15 0.615 3.5 57 50 301
14 200709 1929579 0-10 Fm3 4 0.596 12 28 8 0.054 20 102.1 89 6 84.26 65.2 8 0.54 3.1 36 43 475
14 200709 1929580 10-20 Fm3 4 0.488 15 23 19 0.054 23 119.5 114 10 77.673 71 17 0.58 9.4 47 53 413
14 200709 1929581 20-30 Fm3 -1 0.478 17 26 18 0.046 27 120.4 108 -1 77.304 74.7 20 0.57 6.1 42 50 366
15 200709 1929582 0-10 Fm1 4 0.539 14 25 9 0.067 23 102.2 202 9 82.126 62.4 17 0.474 6.9 43 43 419
15 200709 1929583 10-20 Fm1 5 0.604 12 20 10 0.053 16 99.7 136 3 85.027 60.5 5 0.413 3.8 34 34 372
15 200709 1929584 20-30 Fm1 1 0.496 8 10 3 0.037 19 85.1 87 4 87.495 51.5 8 0.302 6.3 27 29 283
16 200709 1929585 0-10 Fm1 2 0.505 14 24 7 0.081 19 100.1 257 11 79.438 64.6 11 0.539 6.6 45 48 397
16 200709 1929586 10-20 Fm1 4 0.485 9 10 3 0.035 24 87.5 84 7 89.117 54 -1 0.28 -1 21 24 269
60

16 200709 1929587 20-30 Fm1 7 0.611 13 26 9 0.052 19 97.8 130 6 84.775 61.5 4 0.491 3.9 41 37 535
17 200709 1929588 0-10 Fm1 2 0.433 16 29 20 0.1 24 132.4 433 17 67.387 71 23 0.778 7.4 79 74 380
17 200709 1929589 10-20 Fm1 2 0.492 17 40 24 0.071 28 136 333 12 70.05 72 22 0.799 6.3 81 77 394
17 200709 1929590 20-30 Fm1 -1 0.531 20 20 22 0.062 28 128.8 250 11 72.307 72.2 24 0.795 4.9 77 67 419
18 200709 1929591 0-10 Fm1 -1 0.443 20 28 23 0.105 27 136.8 963 15 63.573 80.7 21 0.781 6.2 89 82 323
18 200709 1929592 10-20 Fm1 1 0.526 20 20 25 0.083 29 136.4 586 14 67.816 80.2 20 0.806 10.2 82 76 372
18 200709 1929593 20-30 Fm1 2 0.568 17 36 26 0.079 29 130.9 349 10 69.309 77.9 15 0.81 6.1 86 72 383
19 200709 1929594 0-10 Fm2 2 0.536 17 30 15 0.071 26 137 363 19 65.129 78.8 16 0.869 4.6 91 77 316
19 200709 1929595 10-20 Fm2 -1 0.625 20 29 15 0.056 24 137.6 254 18 68.66 78.5 24 0.872 2.5 84 74 336
19 200709 1929596 20-30 Fm2 -1 0.616 19 35 14 0.059 28 142.4 222 17 66.846 78.4 24 0.857 5.6 85 72 315
20 200709 1929597 0-10 Fm2 -1 0.473 18 32 35 0.092 24 143.9 203 16 64.372 79.6 12 0.899 8.8 100 85 303
20 200709 1929598 10-20 Fm2 -1 0.507 20 34 21 0.06 29 145 158 18 65.165 81.4 17 0.883 8.2 100 80 316
20 200709 1929599 20-30 Fm2 -1 0.542 18 43 22 0.054 25 143.3 175 20 66.031 81.2 16 0.892 5.2 99 83 326
21 200709 1929600 0-10 Fm3 2 0.656 17 25 9 0.092 28 106.3 176 8 77.542 78.3 22 0.609 6.4 44 50 488
21 200709 1929601 10-20 Fm3 5 0.655 16 23 10 0.055 24 111 122 11 82.221 74.1 9 0.595 3.9 37 40 512
21 200709 1929602 20-30 Fm3 6 0.624 16 29 8 0.054 20 118.1 100 13 81.343 70.7 19 0.614 5.8 45 42 455
22 200709 1929603 0-10 Fm3 -1 0.547 20 28 14 0.076 33 117 178 8 72.54 87.5 27 0.811 10.1 69 65 319
22 200709 1929604 10-20 Fm3 -1 0.559 17 23 20 0.047 20 115.9 158 11 70.642 88.9 12 0.781 3.9 76 68 296
22 200709 1929605 20-30 Fm3 -1 0.726 18 25 23 0.047 22 127.1 254 13 66.946 115.2 9 0.847 5.4 88 78 275
23 200709 1929606 0-10 Fm3 2 0.519 16 34 23 0.046 23 134.1 198 18 67.535 84.6 20 0.787 8.7 87 67 309
23 200709 1929607 10-20 Fm3 2 0.607 16 32 22 0.04 24 132.1 210 13 67.939 82.9 15 0.813 5.4 90 70 299
23 200709 1929608 20-30 Fm3 2 0.612 17 24 21 0.038 20 132.2 189 17 68.561 87.2 22 0.813 1.3 88 68 305
61

Appendix 7.4: XRD Mineralogy Area A. Note: Halloysite is most likely to be smectite due to method of analysis
Site
Number
Depth LEME ID Sample #
Minerals
Present
Corrected
Weight %
Site
Number
Depth LEME ID Sample #
Minerals
Present
Corrected
Weight %
Site
Number
Depth LEME ID Sample #
1 0-10 2007735000001 1929543 Halloysite 54.8 3 20-30 2007735002003 1929557 Quartz 77 6 0-10 2007735005001 1929564 Quartz 72
Quartz 27.8 Halloysite 10.8 Halloysite 15.1
Muscovite 14 Calcite 10 Calcite 7
Microcline 3.4 Microcline 1.7 Albite 3.4
100 Muscovite 0.5 Muscovite 1.5
100 Orthoclase 1.1
1 10-20 2007735000002 1929544 Quartz 67.3 100.1
Halloysite 21.4 4 0-10 2007735003001 1929558 Quartz 83.3
Muscovite 7.3 Halloysite 12.9 6 10-20 2007735005002 1929565 Quartz 74.4
Microcline 4 Calcite 2.5 Halloysite 14.7
100 Microcline 1.1 Calcite 6.6
Muscovite 0.2 Microcline 3.7
1 20-30 2007735000003 1929545 Quartz 90.2 100 Muscovite 0.6
Albite 4.5 100
Halloysite 4.4 4 10-20 2007735003002 1929559 Quartz 90.4
Microcline 1 Halloysite 5.3 6 20-30 2007735005003 1929566 Quartz 78.7
100.1 Microcline 3 Halloysite 16.8
Calcite 0.9 Albite 2.1
2 0-10 2007735002001 1929552 Quartz 86.7 Muscovite 0.5 Calcite 1
Halloysite 10 100.1 Microcline 0.8
Albite 2.3 Muscovite 0.6
Microcline 1 4 20-30 2007735003003 1929560 Quartz 81.7 100
100 Halloysite 8.9
Calcite 5.5 7 0-10 2007735006001 1929567 Quartz 56.2
2 10-20 2007735001001 1929553 Quartz 54.2 Dolomite 2.6 Halloysite 25.3
Halloysite 29.3 Muscovite 1.3 Muscovite 10.2
Muscovite 11 100 Calcite 5.6
Albite 5.6 Orthoclase 2.8
100.1 5 0-10 2007735004001 1929561 Quartz 57.7 100.1
Calcite 23.3
2 20-30 2007735001002 1929554 Quartz 48 Halloysite 15.5 7 10-20 2007735006002 1929568 Quartz 52.6
Halloysite 30.4 Microcline 3.2 Halloysite 24.9
Muscovite 11.7 Muscovite 0.4 Microcline 9.8
Microcline 5.6 100.1 Muscovite 8.4
Albite 4.3 Albite 4.2
100 5 10-20 2007735004002 1929562 Quartz 56.6 99.9
Calcite 25.7
3 0-10 2007735001003 1929555 Quartz 47.2 Halloysite 14.4 7 20-30 2007735006003 1929569 Quartz 61
Halloysite 31.3 Microcline 3 Halloysite 25.2
Muscovite 10.4 Muscovite 0.3 Muscovite 8.1
Microcline 7.7 100 Albite 3.5
Albite 3.3 Calcite 1.5
99.9 5 20-30 2007735004003 1929563 Quartz 52.4 Microcline 0.7
Calcite 32.1 100
3 10-20 2007735002002 1929556 Quartz 84.1 Halloysite 13.8
Halloysite 9.2 Albite 1.6 8 0-10 2007735007001 1929570 Quartz 54.5
Microcline 5 Microcline 0.1 Halloysite 23.6
Muscovite 1.7 100 Muscovite 9.4
100 Microcline 7.3
Albite 5.2
100
Minerals
Present
Corrected
Weight %
62

Site
Number
Depth LEME ID Sample #
Minerals
Present
Corrected
Weight %
Site
Number
Depth LEME ID Sample #
Minerals
Present
Corrected
Weight %
Site
Number
Depth LEME ID Sample #
8 10-20 2007735007002 1929571 Quartz 48.5 13 10-20 2007735009002 1929577 Quartz 60 15 20-30 2007735011003 1929584 Quartz 70.5
Halloysite 28.7 Halloysite 23.7 Microcline 15.3
Muscovite 11.9 Muscovite 6.6 Albite 5.8
Albite 6.2 Orthoclase 5.1 Halloysite 5.3
Orthoclase 4.7 Albite 4.6 Muscovite 3.2
100 100 100.1
Minerals
Present
Corrected
Weight %
8 20-30 2007735007003 1929572 Quartz 48.2 13 20-30 2007735009003 1929578 Quartz 73.6 16 0-10 2007735015001 1929594 Quartz 50.9
Halloysite 29.6 Halloysite 20.6 Halloysite 25.8
Muscovite 12.1 Albite 4.3 Muscovite 12.4
Microcline 4.9 Microcline 1.6 Albite 5.7
Albite 4.4 100.1 Microcline 5.3
Sodium
Chloride 0.8 100.1
100 14 0-10 2007735010001 1929579 Quartz 65.7
Halloysite 11.4 16 10-20 2007735012002 1929586 Quartz 72.7
12 0-10 2007735008001 1929573 Quartz 50.2 Microcline 10.6 Microcline 11.2
Halloysite 26.7 Muscovite 6.6 Halloysite 7.4
Calcite 8.9 Albite 5.8 Albite 5.9
Muscovite 8.4 100.1 Muscovite 2.7
Microcline 5.8 99.9
100 14 10-20 2007735010002 1929580 Quartz 63.2
Halloysite 14.1 1929587 Quartz 70.8
12 10-20 2007735008002 1929574 Quartz 49.4 Muscovite 8.4 16 20-30 2007735012003 Microcline 9.2
Halloysite 22.7 Microcline 8.1 Muscovite 7.3
Calcite 19.9 Albite 6.3 Halloysite 7.1
Muscovite 4.4 100.1 Albite 5.6
Albite 2.2 100
Orthoclase 1.5 14 20-30 2007735010003 1929581 Quartz 58.4
100.1 Halloysite 15 17 0-10 2007735013001 1929588 Quartz 52.2
Microcline 14.6 Halloysite 22.9
12 20-30 2007735008003 1929575 Quartz 53 Muscovite 6.3 Muscovite 11.3
Halloysite 23.3 Albite 5.7 Microcline 8.5
Calcite 14.9 100 Albite 5.1
Muscovite 3.8 100
Albite 3.4 15 0-10 2007735012001 1929585 Quartz 67.3
Orthoclase 1.6 Halloysite 10.7 17 10-20 2007735013002 1929589 Quartz 55.3
100 Microcline 9.9 Halloysite 22.3
Muscovite 7.5 Muscovite 10.5
13 0-10 2007735009001 1929576 Quartz 55.8 Albite 4.7 Microcline 6.4
Halloysite 26.1 100.1 Albite 5.5
Muscovite 9.1 100
Albite 5.2 15 10-20 2007735011002 1929583 Quartz 70.7
Orthoclase 3.7 Microcline 9.3
99.9 Albite 8.6
Muscovite 6.6
Halloysite 4.8
100
63

Site
Number
Depth LEME ID Sample #
Minerals
Present
Corrected
Weight %
Site
Number
Depth LEME ID Sample #
Minerals
Present
Corrected
Weight %
Site
Number
Depth LEME ID Sample #
17 20-30 2007735013003 1929590 Quartz 59.7 19 0-10 2007735016001 1929597 Quartz 45.4 22 0-10 2007735018001 1929603 Quartz 61.8
Halloysite 18.5 Halloysite 32.3 Halloysite 13.3
Muscovite 11 Muscovite 13.6 Muscovite 10.6
Microcline 6.4 Albite 5 Microcline 7.6
Albite 4.3 Microcline 3.7 Albite 6.6
99.9 100 99.9
Minerals
Present
Corrected
Weight %
18 0-10 2007735014001 1929591 Quartz 52.3 20 10-20 2007735016002 1929598 Quartz 50 22 10-20 2007735018002 1929604 Quartz 57.5
Halloysite 24.4 Halloysite 27.2 Halloysite 17.3
Muscovite 12.4 Muscovite 13.3 Muscovite 11.4
Microcline 6.5 Albite 5.6 Microcline 9
Albite 4.3 Microcline 4 Albite 4.8
99.9 100.1 100
18 10-20 2007735014002 1929592 Quartz 56.4 20 20-30 2007735016003 1929599 Quartz 47.9 22 20-30 2007735018003 1929605 Quartz 54.1
Muscovite 10.9 Albite 6.9 Muscovite 13.8
Albite 5.4 Microcline 2.8 Albite 5.1
Microcline 4.9 Muscovite 12.9 Microcline 4.2
100 100 100
18 20-30 2007735014003 1929593 Quartz 59.5 21 0-10 2007735017001 1929600 Quartz 63.9 23 0-10 2007735019001 1929606 Quartz 48.3
Halloysite 24.1 Microcline 10.7 Halloysite 28.6
Muscovite 10.5 Halloysite 10.2 Muscovite 12.8
Albite 4.6 Albite 8.6 Microcline 5.2
Microcline 1.4 Muscovite 6.6 Albite 5.1
100.1 100 100
19 10-20 2007735015002 1929595 Quartz 51.5 21 10-20 2007735017002 1929601 Quartz 70.4 23 10-20 2007735019002 1929607 Quartz 47.3
Halloysite 23.1 Albite 8.6 Halloysite 31.1
Muscovite 12.1 Muscovite 7.3 Muscovite 10.5
Albite 8 Halloysite 7 Albite 5.6
Microcline 5.3 Microcline 6.7 Microcline 5.5
100 100 100
19 20-30 2007735015003 1929596 Quartz 48.4 21 20-30 2007735017003 1929602 Quartz 67.4 23 20-30 2007735019003 1929608 Quartz 46.5
Halloysite 25.2 Microcline 11.1 Halloysite 31.1
Muscovite 12.8 Halloysite 8.3 Muscovite 10.8
Albite 8.6 Albite 6.8 Microcline 6.7
Microcline 5 Muscovite 6.4 Albite 5
100 100 100.1
64