WRITING IN THE MAJORS: - University of Nebraska Omaha

Campus Writing Day Presentation, Center for Instructional Design
Nov. 13, 2008 John C. Bean
WRITING IN THE MAJORS:
Designing the Curriculum Backwards to Accelerate Students’
Growth as Disciplinary Thinkers and Writers
University of Nebraska-Omaha
Monday, February 2, 2009, 2:30-4:00
Presenter: John C. Bean, Seattle University
It seems to me, then, that the way to help people become better writers is not to tell them that they must first
learn the rules of grammar, that they must develop a four-part outline, that they must consult the experts
and collect all the useful information. These things may have their place. But none of them is as crucial as
having a good, interesting question.
[Rodney Kilcup, Historian, from a 1980s Puget Sound Writing Project Newsletter]
Introduction to WAC Pedagogy
An introduction to WAC pedagogy: Scenarios for discussion 2
Some general principles for teaching academic writing in the disciplines 3
Issues in Assignment Design
Formal assignment handout for a first-year history seminar assignment (with discussion questions) 4
Rubric for the history assignment 5
Four effective ways to create problem-based assignments 6
Writing in the Majors: A Theory of Student Writing Development
Development of students’ writing skills: Novice to expert 8
Skills/knowledge needed to become a disciplinary insider 9
Introducing New Majors to Disciplinary Research
Teaching research rhetorically: Explaining how your discipline uses evidence
and joins conversations 10
A skill-building research assignment for English majors (with rubric) 11
Example of a backward designed assignment sequence 13
Appendix: More Assignment Examples
Extending WAC pedagogy across the curriculum: Examples of problem-based tasks 14
Powerful Homework: . . . I find it fascinating that in faculty discussions about curriculum and course structure . .
. 90 percent of our discussion focuses on what material and ideas to cover in class. We pay far less attention to the
details of homework assignments. So it is good for faculty to learn from students that the design of homework, and
how we ask students to do that homework, matters a lot . . . (51).
Writing and Student Engagement: . . . The results are stunning. The relationship between the amount of writing for
a course and students’ level of engagement—whether engagement is measured by time spent on the course, or the
intellectual challenge it presents, or students’ level of interest in it—is stronger than the relationship between
students’ engagement and any other course characteristic. . . . (55)
--from Richard J. Light. (2001). Making the Most of College: Students Speak Their Minds. Harvard U. Press

Writing in the Majors University of Nebraska-Omaha, February 2, 2009 John C. Bean 2
AN INTRODUCTION TO WAC PEDAGOGY:
SCENARIOS FOR DISCUSSION
Imagining Students’ Studying and Thinking Processes
Scenario 1 [First-Year Gen Ed Course]
Imagine that you are teaching an “Introduction to Psychology” course, primarily to first year students
early in their college careers. It is Monday. For Wednesday’s class you want them to read the textbook
chapter explaining some of the important modern schools of psychology. How might students’ studying
and thinking processes differ depending on the way you give the homework task?
1. For Wednesday, read Chapter 2.
2. For Wednesday, read Chapter 2 and be prepared for a quiz.
3. For Wednesday, read Chapter 2 and then write a half-page, single spaced “thinking piece”
that addresses the following question: Suppose you are a parent who goes to a child
psychologist for advice on how to get your 10 year old child to practice the piano. It seems
the child rushes out of the room screaming every time you insist he practices. What different
advice would you get if the child psychologist were a behaviorist, a psychoanalyst, or a
humanistic psychologist? Explain your reasoning. Come to class with your completed
thinking piece and be prepared to share your ideas with classmates.
Scenario 2 [Gateway course for novice English majors]
Imagine that you are teaching a 19 th Century British novel course, primarily to students who are just
starting their literature studies. For next Monday’s class you want them to finish Mary Shelley’s
Frankenstein. How might students’ studying and thinking processes differ depending on the way you give
the homework task?
1. For next week, finish Frankenstein. There will be a quiz.
2. For next week, finish Frankenstein and then write a one-page, single spaced “thinking piece”
that addresses the following question: Critic Harold Bloom has said, “The greatest paradox
and most astonishing achievement of Mary Shelley’s novel is that the monster is more human
than his creator.” To what extent do you agree with Bloom’s assertion? Play the believing
and doubting game with Bloom’s thesis. Spend half a page making the case that the monster
is more human than Victor Frankenstein. Then spend a half page arguing against Bloom’s
view. Which view is closest to yours? Come to class with your completed thinking piece and
be prepared to share your ideas with classmates.
Discussion question: If you decided to try out Strategy 3 for either scenario, don’t worry for now what you
would do with all those thinking pieces. We’ll deal with that question later. For now, just focus on how
each of these strategies might alter the way students studied. Please explore with colleagues at your table
how students would read and study differently depending on how the homework task was assigned.

Writing in the Majors University of Nebraska-Omaha, February 2, 2009 John C. Bean 3
SOME GENERAL PRINCIPLES FOR TEACHING ACADEMIC
WRITING IN THE DISCIPLINES
1. Establish your course goals (often stated in syllabus as learning outcomes)
subject matter goals—the new knowledge (facts, concepts, theories methods) that you want
students to learn
critical thinking goals—new ways that you want students to see or think: disciplinary processes of
inquiry, critical reading, analysis, and argument
other goals connected to departmental or general-education/core outcomes or to your own
approach
2. Design critical thinking problems connected to your course goals.
Problems should stimulate interest in the subject matter and provoke inquiry
Problems should engage students with subject matter knowledge while promoting disciplinary
ways of thinking, analyzing, and arguing
Highest level of critical thinking typically comes from “messy,” “ill-structured,” or open-ended
problems with no algorithmically attained “right answer”—problems that lead to a claim with
supporting arguments.
3. Develop a repertoire of ways to give critical thinking problems to students
Thought provokers for exploratory writing (one-page "thinking pieces," in-class freewrites; posts
to course discussion boards; journal entries; other kinds of informal, non-graded writing)
Short (2-3 page) assignments or very short (one-paragraph) microtheme assignments.
Longer, formal writing assignments often requiring research
Tasks for small-group problem solving, debates, or whole-class discussion
Essay exam questions or practice exam questions
4. Think of writing assignments as a crucial part of course design
“Reverse engineer” your course by designing the final assignment first (principle of “backward
design”)
Create earlier assignments that develop the skills needed for the final assignment (sometimes
called “scaffolding assignments”)
Consider adding informal low-stakes writing to help students explore ideas and promote learning
When designing a formal assignment, create or simulate an authentic rhetorical context: purpose,
audience, and genre (avoid “school genres” such as “research paper” or “lab report”)
Help students understand the rhetorical function of titles and introductions by asking them to
assume that their readers haven’t read the assignment
5. When assigning formal writing, treat writing as a process
Provide opportunities for exploration of ideas prior to drafting (thinking pieces, class discussion,
annotated bibliographies, role-playing multiple perspectives)
Encourage imperfect first drafts
Stress substantial revision reflecting increased complexity and elaboration of thought and
increased awareness of readers’ needs
Where possible, allow rewrites; write comments that encourage revision and that emphasize the
higher order concerns of ideas, thought content, organization, and development
Consider instituting peer review workshops and encourage use of writing center
6. Develop scoring criteria and give them to students in advance
simple numerical or +/check/- scales for exploratory writing
rubrics for formal writing

Writing in the Majors University of Nebraska-Omaha, February 2, 2009 John C. Bean 4
A FORMAL ASSIGNMENT HANDOUT
FROM A FIRST-YEAR HISTORY SEMINAR
Freshman Seminar on History of Latin America: (Dr. Marc McLeod, Seattle University)
One of the most prominent topics in the historiography of colonial Latin America has
been the nature of the encounter between Amerindians and Europeans beginning in 1492.
According to a recent review essay by historian Steve J. Stern, one of the three main paradigms
or frameworks for interpreting the conquest has been that of the conquest as an “overwhelming
avalanche of destruction,” characterized by the military defeat and demographic collapse of
indigenous populations, the brutal treatment and ruthless economic exploitation of surviving
natives by rapacious conquistadors, and the forced disappearance of pre-Columbian cultural,
political, and social ways. Based on your reading of Inga Clendinnen, Ambivalent Conquests:
Maya and Spaniard in Yucatán, 1517-1570, would you agree with this view of the conquest as
one of extreme destruction and trauma? If so, why? If not, what is the best way to describe the
nature of the encounter between Spaniards and Amerindians in colonial Latin America?
Using Clendinnen, Ambivalent Conquests, as well as the other readings, lectures, and discussions
we have had in this course, write a 4-6 page (typed, double-spaced, stapled) essay answering
the above question. The assignment is due October 10. Assume that you are writing an
academic paper for an undergraduate conference on Latin America. Also assume that your
audience has NOT read this assignment and will attend your conference session because your
title hooked their interest. Your introduction should explain the problem-at-issue before
presenting your thesis. Because this is an academic paper in history, follow the manuscript form
of the Chicago Manual of Style and Kate L. Turabian, A Manual for Writers of Term Papers,
Theses, and Dissertations. I will grade your paper using the attached scoring rubric.
Discussion Questions:
1. The professor presents the assignment as a disciplinary problem (summarized as a question).
What is the pedagogical advantage, if any, of presenting the assignment as problem or question
rather than as a topic (“Write a paper on a topic of your choice connected to Clendinnen’s
book)?
2. The professor creates a rhetorical context for this assignment by asking students to write an
academic paper for an undergraduate conference on Latin America. He also asks students to
assume that the reader does not know the assignment. How might this rhetorical context affect
the way students compose their papers? What are the “learning” benefits, if any, of specifying a
rhetorical context? Of writing to an audience that doesn’t know the assignment?
3. Students use MLA documentation style in the first-year writing course at Seattle University.
Should McLeod therefore assign MLA for this first-year history course to facilitate “transfer”
4. In designing assignments instructors often wrestle with the dilemma of allowing students to
choose their own topics versus giving everyone in the class the same assignment. For this
course, the professor assigned three 4-6 page papers on assigned problems rather than giving
students a choice of topics. What are the advantages and disadvantages of this strategy?

Writing in the Majors University of Nebraska-Omaha, February 2, 2009 John C. Bean 5
SCORING RUBRIC FOR THE HISTORY ASSIGNMENT
Introduction and Thesis Statement
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Explains problem to be addressed;
provides necessary background;
ends with contestable thesis
statement; thesis answers question
Problem statement missing;
problem poorly focused; thesis
unclear, not contestable, and/or
does not fully answer question
Paper begins without context or
background; paper lacks thesis
statement; reader confused about
what writer is attempting to do
Quality of ideas and argument
20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0
Strong insights; remains
focused on question;
effectively links course
materials to question; good
historical reasoning
Some good insights; loses focus on
question or gaps in argument;
connections between question and
course materials vague; unsupported
generalizations
Fails to adequately answer
question; contains no clear
argument; descriptive rather
than analytical; tends to
summarize course materials
Use of evidence
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Excellent use of different course
materials to support argument;
effectively provides relevant
examples, evidence, and
appropriate quotes
Uneven use of evidence &
examples; evidence not always
directly relevant; over-reliance on a
single source; significance of quotes
not readily apparent
Lack of evidence &
examples; evidence, if
provided, not related to
overall argument; limited
reference to course materials
Organization and clarity
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Clear, well-organized paper;
paragraphs begin with topic
sentences related to thesis; topic
sentences fully developed in
each paragraph; paper flows
logically, reader doesn’t get lost
Generally sound organization; some
topic sentences strong, others weak;
some paragraphs not fully
developed; reader occasionally
confused by awkward organization,
unclear sentences, fuzzy ideas
Poor organization, lacks
clarity; paper not organized
around coherent paragraphs;
paragraphs lack topic
sentences; prose is hard to
follow and understand
Editing and Manuscript Form (5 points each)
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Flawless paper, or an
occasional minor error. Looks
like a professional history
paper; notes follow assigned
format; contains an academic
title.
Distractions due to spelling,
punctuation, grammar errors;
writer seems a bit careless. Varies
from assigned style and format in a
few ways; contains non-academic
title
Paper seriously marred by
mistakes in grammar, spelling,
and punctuation; lack of editing.
Paper does not follow assigned
style and format; papers lacks a
title
COMMENTS:

Writing in the Majors University of Nebraska-Omaha, February 2, 2009 John C. Bean 6
FOUR EFFECTIVE WAYS TO CREATE
PROBLEM-BASED ASSIGNMENTS
1. Give students a problematic thesis to defend or attack
In recent years, advertising has (has not) made enormous gains in portraying women as strong,
independent, and intelligent.
The paper by Baron-Cohen et al. supports (undermines) the nature theory of gender identity
The overriding religious view expressed in Hamlet is (is not) an existential atheism similar to Sartre's.
Prescribing Ritalin and other psychotropic medications is (is not) an appropriate treatment for behavioral
problems of children.
2. Give students a problem-laden question
What should Project Manager Hisako Hirai propose to her supervisor in response to the problems that
have cropped up in Week Three? Role-playing Ms. Hirai, write a memo to your supervisor presenting and
justifying your recommendations [part of a business management case]
Do you believe that the proposed air bearings provide the optimal solution for the circumference-mounted
radiator fan?
How would Person A’s approach to this problem differ from Person B’s? What is at stake?
3. Give students raw data (such as lists, graphs, tables, etc.) and ask them to write an argument or analysis based on
the data
To what extent do the attached economic data support the hypothesis "Social service spending is inversely
related to economic growth"? First create a scattergram as a visual test of the hypothesis. Then create a
verbal argument analyzing whether the data support the hypothesis
Your friend and you are looking over Table 1 [next page of this handout] and note that in 1998 the median
income for all families was $33,400 but the mean income was $53,000. Your friend was confused about
the difference but had to leave for work. Send your friend a coherent, well-structured email message about
one screen in length that explains the difference between “mean income” and “median income” and that
speculates about the economic factors in the United States that lead to such differences between mean and
median incomes. To put it another way: What can we say about the distribution of income in the United
States if we know that mean income is considerably higher than median income?
4. Let students develop their own questions
Now that we have practiced asking interpretive questions about poems, consider Yeats’ “Among School
Children.” Propose your own interpretive question about this poem, and then write an explication of the
poem that tries to answer your question.
What questions about __________ are left unanswered in Hamilton’s article?
.
GENERIC METHOD FOR CONVERTING A “RESEARCH PAPER” INTO
A PROBLEM-BASED DISCIPLINARY PAPER
Task: Write a 7-10 page analytical or argumentative paper on a significant question related to any aspect of
[course subject matter]. The introduction to your paper should pose the question or problem that your paper
will address and engage your reader's interest in it. Your proposed answer to this question (summarized in a
single sentence) will serve as the thesis statement for your paper. Imagine this paper will be delivered at an
undergraduate research conference. Assume that your audience has NOT read this assignment and will attend
your conference session because your title hooked their interest.
Prospectus: Midway through the course, you will submit to the instructor a prospectus that describes the
problem or question that you plan to address and shows why the question is (1) problematic and (2) significant

Writing in the Majors University of Nebraska-Omaha, February 2, 2009 John C. Bean 7
Table 1. Before-tax family income for previous year, by selected
characteristics, of families, 1989, 1992, 1995, and 1998
(Thousands of 1998 dollars, except as noted)
1989 1992 1995 1998
Family Median Mean Percent Median Mean Percent Median Mean Percent Median Mean Percent
Characteristic of families of families of families of families
All families 33.2 52.2 100 30.4 45.6 100 32.7 47.4 100 33.4 53 100
Income ('98$):
Less than 10,000 6.6 6.2 14.7 6.4 6 14.8 6.2 4.7 15.1 6.2 5.2 12.7
10,000 - 24,999 15.9 16.7 23.8 17.5 17.3 27.1 17.4 17.4 25.1 17.2 17.1 24.7
25,000 - 49,999 35.9 36.1 30 36.3 36.7 29.5 37.1 36.5 31.1 35.5 35.9 29
50,000 - 99,999 66.4 68.9 22.7 65.5 68.7 20.9 66.5 69.1 21.3 65.9 68.7 25
100,000 or more 144.8 239.3 8.7 140.4 195.3 7.6 148.3 219.5 7.4 141.9 237 8.7
Age of head (years)
Less than 35 26.6 35.5 28.1 28.1 34.6 25.8 27.3 33.3 24.8 27.4 36.1 23.3
35-44 46.5 63.3 21.5 40.9 53.2 22.8 40.3 51.7 23 42.6 59.8 23.3
45-54 49.2 76.9 15.1 48 64.6 16.2 42.5 70.4 17.9 50.7 69.5 19.2
55-64 33.2 60.7 13.9 33.9 56.4 13.2 36 57.1 12.5 38.5 71.4 12.8
65-74 21.3 45.5 12.6 19.9 33 12.6 20.7 39.8 12 24.3 46.4 11.2
75 and more 17.3 32.5 8.9 15.2 26.6 9.4 17.4 28.2 9.8 16.2 28.9 10.2
Education of head
No high school diploma 17.3 24.9 24.3 14 19.9 20.3 15.3 22.1 18.5 15.2 21.7 16.5
High school diploma 29.2 38.1 32.1 26.9 34.3 30 27.3 37.3 31.7 29.4 37 31.9
Some college 37.2 51.8 15.6 31.6 42.2 17.8 32.7 43.1 19 35.5 50.7 18.5
College degree 53.1 92.3 28 51.5 74.6 31.9 49.1 75.8 30.7 54.7 85.2 33.2
Race or ethnicity of head
White non-Hispanic 38.5 59.9 74.8 35.1 50.4 75.3 34.9 52.1 77.6 37.5 58.6 77.7
Nonwhite or Hispanic 18.6 29.3 25.2 21.1 31.1 24.7 21.8 31 22.4 23.3 33.5 22.3
Work status of head
Working for someone else 41.2 52.3 57 39.8 50 54.8 39.3 51.6 58.3 40.5 53.4 59.2
Self-employed 47.8 120.9 11.1 51.5 86.5 10.9 40.3 84.1 10.3 52.7 108.3 11.3
Retired 18.6 30.7 25.2 17.5 26.1 26 17.4 29.7 25 19.3 32.6 24.4
Other not working 9.3 18 6.7 12.9 23.9 8.3 12 19.8 6.5 11.1 23.2 5.2
Housing status
Own 42.5 65.8 63.9 39.8 55.9 63.9 40.3 58.7 64.7 43.6 66.3 66.3
Rent 17.3 28.2 36.1 19.9 27.5 36.1 19.6 26.7 35.3 20.3 26.7 33.7

Writing in the Majors University of Nebraska-Omaha, February 2, 2009 John C. Bean 8
DEVELOPMENT OF STUDENTS’ WRITING SKILLS:
NOVICE TO EXPERT
MacDonald’s Stages of Development: Novice to Expert
Stage 1 [what students bring from high school]: Nonacademic or pseudo-academic writing
Stage 2 [goal of first-year composition]: Generalized academic writing concerned with stating
claims, offering evidence, respecting others' opinions, and learning how to write with authority.
Stage 3 [early courses in major]: Novice approximations of particular disciplinary ways of making
knowledge.
Stage 4 [advanced courses in major]: Expert, insider prose within a discipline [defined appropriately
for undergraduates]
Adapted from Susan Peck MacDonald, Professional Writing in the Humanities and Social Sciences.
Carbondale, Southern Illinois UP, 1994 (p. 187)
Possible Forms of Expert, Insider Prose for Undergraduates (to be determined by
disciplinary faculty)
Academic or scholarly writing in the discipline (for example, a capstone paper suitable for
presentation at an Undergraduate Research Conference)
Professional workplace writing (proposals, reports, memos, technical papers, or other disciplinary
kinds of professional writing)
Civic or public argument on local or national issues related to the discipline
Other kinds of writing or communication projects specific to a major or discipline (creative projects,
Web sites, multi-media presentations, Power Point presentations, and so forth)
To generate departmental discussion about teaching disciplinary discourse in the major, faculty
can pose the following questions:
1. What kinds of academic or professional papers would demonstrate “expert insider prose” for
undergraduates in your discipline? What might be a typical undergraduate capstone project or
paper in your discipline?
2. What kinds of disciplinary thinking skills and research skills are needed to produce the capstone
paper or project identified in 1 above?
3. Using the principle of backward design, how could faculty more effectively teach the skills of
disciplinary writing, thinking, and research earlier in the major?
Prototype initial assessment project: Examine papers produced for an embedded assignment in a
senior-level course and study characteristic strengths and weaknesses.

Writing in the Majors University of Nebraska-Omaha, February 2, 2009 John C. Bean 9
SKILLS/KNOWLEDGE NEEDED TO BECOME A
DISCIPLINARY INSIDER
Note: Departmental faculty need to define these skills at appropriate levels for undergraduates at their institutions
Subject matter knowledge
Conceptual Knowledge:
Domain knowledge of
discipline’s facts, concepts,
theories, methods
Procedural knowledge:
Domain knowledge of
discipline’s thinking and
problem-solving strategies
combined with generic critical
thinking skills: thoroughness,
openness to alternative views;
logical structure of reasons and
evidence; and so forth
Genre knowledge
Disciplinary conventions for style, format, documentation,
and treatment of subject
Academic genres: Journal articles, conference
presentations, posters, proposals, abstracts
Discipline-specific sub-genres: Experimental reports,
ethnographies, research proposals, interpretive/
hermeneutical essays, problem-solution arguments
Workplace genres: memos, social work intakes, technical
specifications, white papers, recommendations
Alternative genres: personal essays, op-ed pieces
Note: Students often have to unlearn pseudo-academic
genres: lab report, term paper, research paper
Writing process
knowledge
Strategies for invention
(finding problems;
exploratory writing, ideamapping,
imagining
demands of audience/genre)
Strategies for drafting
(lowering expectations,
remaining open to new
ideas, getting something on
paper, searching for points
and meaning)
Strategies for global
revision (writer-based prose
to reader-based prose)
Strategies for editing
(correctness, clarity, style )
Overall knowledge of
standard edited English for
punctuation, grammar, etc.
Driven by “Eros”:
Tipping point
Transformation
Discovery of
voice
Passion for
learning
Deep learning
Rhetorical knowledge
Adapting text to audience,
situation, and goal
Handling old versus new
information
Understanding angle of vision
and framing of evidence
Understanding function of titles
and introductions in engaging
reader interest, setting up
problem, forecasting structure
Understanding features of
effective texts (unity, coherence,
readability)
Understanding persuasive
appeals (logos, ethos, pathos)
Understanding how to frame and
incorporate sources (quotation,
paraphrase, etc.)
Disciplinary discourse
knowledge
Understanding how the
discipline asks questions,
gathers and uses evidence, and
makes arguments
Knowing theoretical
disagreements, major players,
cutting edge versus old
questions, methodological
controversies
Knowing how to position one’s
claim within scholarly
conversations and showing
what is at stake
Knowing the discipline’s
assumptions, warrants
Information literacy
Identifying research questions
Knowing how, when, and why
to search disciplinary databases
for secondary materials
Knowing how, when, and why
to access and use archives,
statistical databases, and other
primary source materials as
required by the field
Understanding different kinds
of sources
Knowing how to read and
evaluate sources rhetorically
This diagram is inspired by and adapted from Anne Beaufort in College Writing and Beyond: A New Framework for
University Writing Instruction. Logan UT: Utah State University Press, 2007: p. 19

Writing in the Majors University of Nebraska-Omaha, February 2, 2009 John C. Bean 10
Teaching Research Rhetorically: Explaining How Your Discipline
Uses Evidence and Joins Conversations
“A surprising number of undergraduates describe learning how to use evidence to resolve controversies in
their field, whatever their field, as a breakthrough idea.”
from Richard J. Light. (2001). Making the Most of College: Students Speak Their Minds. Harvard U. Press.
Background: According to one study, 87 percent of freshmen think of research as “going to the library
and finding books and articles to use in my paper.”* They need to learn how academic inquiry and
argument actually works. Particularly, they need to learn what scholars from different disciplines do
when they do research and what counts as evidence in a field. Richard Light describes the bafflement of
first-year students as they shift from discipline to discipline where they encounter wide differences in the
way questions are posed and the way evidence is used. What follows is a schema that I’ve found
valuable in helping students understand the functions of different research sources. For me, this schema
supplants the less useful distinction of primary versus secondary sources.
*[Kelly Ritter. (2005). The economics of authorship: Online paper mills, student writers, and first year
composition. College Composition and Communication, 56.4: 628].
Kind of
Source
B
Background
sources
E
Evidence or
Exhibit
sources
A
Argument
sources
M
Method or
Theory
sources
Using Bizup’s “BEAM” to teach the function of research sources in your discipline
Explanation
Any source used in a paper to provide
context or background
Observations, data, documents, or other
particulars used to support your argument
The conversation of critical views and
relevant scholarship that you are joining
Usually argument sources are other
scholarly articles or papers
In sciences, often constitutes the
“review of the literature”
References to the theories or methods
the writer is employing (sometimes
implicit but often explicit)
Example from literature
(for undergraduate research on Jane Eyre)
Encyclopedia article on Evangelism
Biography of the Brontes
Victorian Life and Times. (Books or articles on the
history/culture of a literary period)
Quotations, paraphrases, or other textual citations from
Jane Eyre
Books or scholarly articles that have addressed the
writer’s critical problem in Jane Eyre
Argument sources create the critical conversation
that you are joining
Your goal is to add something new or challenging
to this conversation
References to Foucault, Edward Said, Judith
Butler, etc.
Specific references to theory or method—
feminism, post-colonialism, new historicism, etc.
Source: Bizup, Joseph. “Recovering an Intentional Stance: From Natural Kinds to Artifacts in Composition
Pedagogy.” Conference of College Composition and Communication. Chicago March 2006
Explaining your discipline’s research strategies
What do scholars in your discipline or sub-discipline do when they conduct research? Imagine a
prototypical research project in your field and try to explain to a neighbor what the researchers are doing
and why:
What would be a typical question, problem, or unknown that drives the research?
What would be typical kinds of evidence used to support the paper’s claim? (the “evidence/exhibit”
box in Bizup’s BEAM chart)?
To what extent would the paper explicitly join an ongoing scholarly conversation (the “argument
sources” box)

Writing in the Majors University of Nebraska-Omaha, February 2, 2009 John C. Bean 11
A Skill-Building Research Assignment for English Majors
To What Extent Does Paradise Lost Reproduce Renaissance Misogyny?
Situation: Renaissance anti-feminist writers typically use the Genesis story of Eve to justify male
authority over women. We saw this rhetorical strategy in Kate’s last speech in the anonymous Taming of
a Shrew, and we have read about it in Simkin’s overview of the Renaissance social context: “It was
assumed to be part of the natural order that men were superior to women. . . The story of Adam and Eve
was also taken as a warning about women’s seductive and deceitful nature, and the consensus was that
they [women] were to be kept under close surveillance” (38). Now that we are studying Paradise Lost,
you wonder whether Milton has similarly misogynistic views of Eve. To extend your thinking, you have
read the chapter entitled “Milton’s Bogey: Patriarchal Poetry and Women Readers” from Sandra
Gilbert’s and Susan Gubar’s classic feminist study of 19 th Century women novelists, The Mad Woman in
the Attic. It is now time for you to formulate your own argument about the extent of Milton’s misogyny
in Paradise Lost.
Your Task: Write a 3-4 page paper (double-spaced) that provides your answer to the question “Does
Paradise Lost reproduce the misogynist view of Eve frequently encountered in Renaissance anti-feminist
discourse?” Besides providing your own well-supported answer on this question, your paper must be in
conversation with Gilbert and Gubar’s views about Milton’s misogyny in Paradise Lost. (You can either
disagree with Gilbert and Gubar, or you can use their views to support your own view.) Your paper
should thus include the following three features: (1) An introduction that sets up the question you are
going to address (assume that your audience has not read the assignment); (2) a summary of Gilbert and
Gubar’s arguments about the view of Eve in Paradise Lost; and (3) your own argument addressing the
assigned question. Place your thesis statement at the end of your introduction.
Format: Follow the manuscript conventions of the Modern Language Association (MLA).
Purpose and Goals of This Assignment: This assignment will help you develop the following skills
needed for your major research project.
The ability to make your own argument about a literary question and to bring your argument into
conversation with another critic.
The ability to summarize the other critic’s views, to integrate those views purposefully into your own
argument, and to distinguish the source’s ideas from your own through attributive tags such as
"according to Gilbert and Gubar" and "these authors claim further that . . . .”
The ability to cite the source in your text itself (using MLA's parenthetical style) and to give complete
bibliographic information (using MLA conventions) in a separate "Works Cited" page.

Writing in the Majors University of Nebraska-Omaha, February 2, 2009 John C. Bean 12
Scoring Rubric for Paradise Lost Paper
Title and introduction
Criteria 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Has complete academic title forecasting content
Meets all Meets some Meets few
Presents and develops the problem of the poem’s presentation of Eve criteria at criteria; uneven; criteria;
high level; less clear unclear
Briefly summarizes a view being “pushed against”
clear
Ends with contestable thesis showing your position on the problem
Overall quality of ideas, argument, effective evidence
Criteria 30 27 24 21 18 15 12 9 6 3 0
Has well supported argument that addresses question while anticipating Meets all Meets some Meets few
and responding to alternative views
criteria at criteria; uneven; criteria;
Uses “textually dense” evidence (frequent references to specifics in PL high level; less clear; unclear
including brief quotations, paraphrase, or summary of scenes)
clear thinner; less
precise use of
Has strong insights; shows clear wrestling with complexity
evidence
Integration of Gilbert and Gubar
Criteria 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Accurately summarizes Gilbert and Gubar’s arguments about Eve and Meets all Meets some Meets few
misogyny in PL
criteria at criteria; uneven; criteria;
Integrates summary smoothly into writer’s argument
high level; less clear unclear
clear
Uses summary intentionally either as an opposing view to push against
or as support for the writer’s own position
Uses attributive tags effectively to differentiate writer’s view from
G&G’s
Organization and Development
Criteria 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Has clear, easy-to-follow structure (reader doesn’t get lost)
Meets all Meets some Meets few
Has sufficient development so that ideas are fully explored
criteria at criteria; uneven; criteria;
high level; less clear unclear
Follows old/new contract
clear
Has points connected to thesis and developed with textual particulars to
form unified/coherent paragraphs
Uses effective transitions between paragraphs
Sentence Clarity and Grace
Criteria 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Has clear, graceful, grammatically correct sentences
Meets all Meets some Meets few
Maintains focus through effective subordination and coordination criteria at criteria; uneven; criteria;
high level; less clear unclear
Concise (non-wordy) easy-to-follow style
clear
MLA conventions
Criteria 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Looks like a professional critical argument in literature
Meets all Meets some Meets few
Follows MLA conventions for citation and documentation
criteria at criteria; uneven; criteria
high level some deviation
Follows MLA formatting for Works Cited and page design
Penalty for editing errors
+ 5 0 -2 -4 -6 -8 -10 -15 -20
Flawless paper (+5) or an
occasional but minor error. Strong
professional ethos.
Some distracting noise via spelling,
punctuation, or apostrophe errors or
occasional grammar mistakes (subject-verb
agreement; fragments; non-parallel
constructions). Writer seems careless.
Paper seriously marred by editing
errors or grammatical mistakes;
professional “ethos” of writer is
destroyed by errors.

Writing in the Majors University of Nebraska-Omaha, February 2, 2009 John C. Bean 13
Example of a “Backward Designed” Assignment Sequence
Beginning of term___________________________________________________________________________________End of term
Frequently assigned low-stakes
“thinking pieces” along with in-class
discussions and small group tasks
Thinking Piece #3: One of the most
famous pronouncements about Milton
comes from William Blake in 1793:
“The reason Milton wrote in fetters
when he wrote of Angels & God, and at
liberty when of Devils & Hell, is
because he was a true Poet and of the
Devil’s party without knowing it.” To
what extent is Satan an heroic figure in
Books I and II of Paradise Lost?
Thinking Piece #4: Play the believing
and doubting game with the following
thesis: Although Milton’s narrator and
the Angel Raphael occasionally assert
the patriarchal view that man is
superior to women, Milton’s
prelapsarian garden is a desirable
place where the “wedded love” of Adam
and Eve expresses each partner’s full
humanity, equality, and freedom.
Skill-Building
Research
Assignment on
Paradise Lost
See the assignment
on p. 11 of this
handout. The
assignment provides
practice at
integrating a
scholarly article into
the student’s own
argument while
developing the
student’s own
interpretation using
textual detail for
evidence. Students
could revise this
paper for a new
grade.
Prospectus for Major
Researched Literary
Paper
Submit a one-page
(single-spaced)
prospectus that describes
the interpretive problem
or question that you plan
to address. Explain why
you are personally
interested in and
invested in this question.
Show how the problem
or question is rooted in
your chosen literary text.
Show why the question
is both (1) problematic
and (2) significant
Annotated
Bibliography for
Major Paper
Submit an annotated
bibliography that
includes at least five
articles by scholars who
have addressed your
interpretive problem.
For each entry, provide
an abstract of the article
and your reflective
commentary on its
usefulness for your
paper.
Major Researched Literary Paper
Write an 8-12--page literary
argument addressing significant
question related to any of the texts we
have read this term.. The introduction
to your paper should pose the question
or problem that your paper will
address and engage your reader's
interest in it. Within your paper, you
must join in conversation with other
scholars who have addressed your
interpretive problem. Your proposed
answer to this question (summarized
in a single sentence) will serve as the
thesis statement for your paper.
Imagine this paper will be delivered at
an undergraduate research conference.
Assume that your audience has NOT
read this assignment and will attend
your conference session because your
title hooked their interest.
Frequent “thinking pieces” throughout the course
Draft workshops, conferences, peer review

Writing in the Majors University of Nebraska-Omaha, February 2, 2009 John C. Bean 14
EXTENDING WAC PEDAGOGY ACROSS THE CURRICULUM:
EXAMPLES OF PROBLEM-BASED TASKS
INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY:
[In this course students were asked to do a 15 minute thinking piece for part of each day’s homework]
TASK: Suppose you had a theory that laboratory rats fed a steady diet of chicken curry could learn to
find their way through a maze faster than rats fed a steady diet of squash, spinach, and broccoli. How
would you design a scientific experiment to test this hypothesis? In your discussion, use the terms
experimental group, control group, independent variable, dependent variable. Before beginning this task,
review pages 17-23.
TASK: Explain in your own words the difference between a variable interval schedule of reinforcement
and a variable ratio schedule of reinforcement. Then explore this question: Is a skilled trout fisherman on
a variable interval or a variable ratio schedule of reinforcement while fishing? (Developed by Dr. Wes
Lynch, Montana State University)
Formal microtheme for same course
In the morning when Professor Catlove opens a new can of cat food, his cats run into the kitchen purring
and meowing and rubbing their backs against his legs. What examples, if any, of classical conditioning,
operant conditioning, and social learning are at work in this brief scene? Note that both the cats and the
professor might be exhibiting conditioned behavior here.
You and some fellow classmates have been discussing this problem over coffee, and you are convinced
that the other members of your group are confused about the concepts. Write a one-page (single-spaced)
essay that sets them straight.
MATHEMATICS:
Here is a complex quantitative problem that you may or may not be able to solve [problem attached]. Try
to solve it. Then write a thinking piece exploring the process you used in trying to solve the problem.
Describe your use of the various problem-solving tactics we have discussed in class such as "check the
definitions," "restate the problem," "draw a diagram," "argue by analogy," "solve a similar problem,"
"reason backward from the desired conclusion," and so forth.
HISTORY: Your next formal assignment will be to create an argument that supports, rejects, or
modifies one of the following theses and that supports your argument with historical evidence. For this
thinking piece, select one of the theses and explore your initial ideas.
The essential theme of the French Revolution was human freedom; Napoleon Bonaparte killed the
French Revolution by reversing its thrust toward freedom.
The industrial revolution created unprecedented wealth at the expense of brutalizing European labor
and colonial producers.
The ultimate victors in the English Revolution of 1688, the American Revolution, and the French
Revolution were the economically conservative property-owning classes. [Developed by Professor
Al Mann, Seattle U.]
ECONOMICS:
TASK: As illustrated in Figures 1 and 3 in the Goldin and Rouse article, the sex composition of
major symphony orchestras changed dramatically over time. The increase in the percentage of female
musicians corresponded with a change in audition policies. Goldin and Rouse use econometric
analysis to assess the effect of “blind” auditions on female musicians. What do you see as the
advantage of using econometrics over simply examining trends? [Developed by Dr. Bridget
Hiedemann, Seattle University]

Writing in the Majors University of Nebraska-Omaha, February 2, 2009 John C. Bean 15
LITERATURE:
• Freewrite on the poem's title (2-3 minutes). Given this title, what do you think the poem may be
about? What associations does it raise for you? Then read the poem very carefully at least six times.
Circle three significant images that seem most vivid, important, or puzzling to you. Then freewrite
for 2-3 minutes about each image. Describe the image and explore what it means for you. Bring
your exploration to class, where you will share your discoveries with other members of your small
group.
• Othello begins in the conventional, rational world of Venice. Within this world fathers want their
daughters to marry the “wealthy, curled darlings” of their own nation—to preserve Venice from the
threat of “outsiders.” Desdemona chooses to marry an “outsider” in both race and class. Does the
play reveal her choice as foolish or not? To put it another way, does Shakespeare’s Othello
perpetuate Elizabethan stereotypes of the ethnic outsider or does it undermine them? Does it warn
daughters to marry within their race and class or does it serve to critique and undermine the world
view and values of “insiders”?
CHEMISTRY:
Using your understanding of the chemical bond, construct an argument either supporting or refuting
the statement that van der Walls interactions are bonds.
You are a principal investigator on a research project and receive the following e-mail from your
chemical technician, Rogelio:
It’s been a long time since I took general chemistry. I only remember the concepts of the
structure of an atom, electronegativity, and atomic radius. When I did the experiments, I noticed
two tendencies: (1) The chemical reactivity of alkali metals increases down a group. (2) The
chemical reactivity of halogens decreases down a group. Can you explain why these trends
occur?
Reply to Rogilio’s question (2-3 typed pages) [from Jeffrey Kovac and Donna W. Sherwood, Writing
Across the Chemistry Curriculum: An Instructor’s Handbook. Prentice Hall: Upper Saddle River, NJ,
2001, p.68]
PHYSICS:
Suppose that you are Dr. Science, the question-and-answer person for a popular magazine called
Practical Science. Readers of your magazine are invited to submit letters to Dr. Science, who answers
them in "Dear Abby" style in a special section of the magazine. One day you receive the following letter:
Dear Dr. Science:
Please help me settle this argument I am having with a friend. We were watching a baseball game
several weeks ago when the batter hit a high pop-up straight over the catcher's head. When it finally came
down, the catcher caught it standing on home plate. My friend told me that when the ball stopped in midair
just before it started back down, its velocity was zero, but its acceleration was not zero. I told my friend
that he was stupid. If something isn't moving at all, how could it have any acceleration? Ever since then he
has been making a big deal out of this and insists that I don’t have the brains of housefly. I don’t think we
can be buddies again until we settle this argument. We checked some physics books, but they weren't very
clear. We agreed that I would write to you and let you settle the argument. But, Dr. Science, don't just tell
us the answer. You've got to explain it so we both understand because my friend is really stubborn. He
wouldn’t even trust Einstein unless Einstein presented a clear explanation.
Sincerely,
Baseball Blues

Writing in the Majors University of Nebraska-Omaha, February 2, 2009 John C. Bean 16
Can this friendship be saved? Your task is to write an answer to Baseball Blues. Because space in your
magazine is limited, restrict your answer to what can be put on a single-spaced half-page using Times
New Roman 11-point font. Don't confuse Baseball or his buddy by using any special physics terms
unless you explain clearly what they mean.
[Source: Adapted from Bean, Drenk, and Lee, "Microtheme Strategies for Developing Cognitive Skills, in New
Directions For Teaching and Learning: Teaching Writing in All Disciplines, 12 San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1982,
27-38]
Holistic Rubric for Grading the Microthemes
6-5 Microthemes in the category will show a confident understanding of the physics concepts and will
explain those concepts clearly to the intended audience. A 6 theme will be clearly written throughout, will
contain almost no errors in spelling, punctuation, or grammar, and will have enough development to
provide a truly helpful explanation to learners. A 5 theme will still be successful in teaching the physics
concepts to the intended audience but may have more errors or somewhat less development than a 6. The
key to microthemes in the 5-6 category is that they must show a correct understanding of the physics and
explain the concept clearly to a new learner.
4-3 Microthemes in this category will reveal to the instructor that the writer probably understands the
physics concepts, but lack of clarity in the writing or lack of fully developed explanations means that the
microtheme would not teach the concept to new learners. Microthemes in the 4-3 category are usually "you
know what I mean" essays: Someone who already understands the concepts can tell that the writer
probably does too; but someone who does not already understand the concepts would not learn anything
from the explanation. This category is also appropriate for clearly written essays that have minor
misunderstandings of the physics concepts or for accurate essays full of sentence level errors.
2-1 These microthemes will be unsuccessful either because the writer fails to understand the physics
concepts, because the number of errors is so high that the instructor cannot determine how much the writer
understands, or because the explanations lack even minimum development. Give a score of 2 or 1 if the
writer misunderstands the physics, even if the essay is otherwise well written. Also give a score of 2 or 1 to
essays so poorly written that the reader can't understand them.
Suggested Process for Grading Microthemes and Providing Feedback
1. The instructor reads the microthemes rapidly, scoring them on a 6-point scale. The instructor
makes no comments on the papers or very minimal ones.
2. The instructor returns the papers with scores. (Students are already familiar with the grading
scale—they get it when the assignment is handed out.)
3. The instructor provides feedback by reproducing examples of one or more top-scoring
microthemes. The instructor explains what makes them effective.
4. The instructor then discusses representative problems that showed up on the lower scoring
microthemes. This discussion also serves to review the concepts.
SOME GENERIC WRITE-TO-LEARN QUESTIONS USEFUL IN MANY DISCIPLINES:
What confused you in today’s class or today’s readings?
How does your personal experience relate to what you studied today?
What effect is this course having on your personal life, your beliefs, your values, your previous
understanding of things?
How does what we have been studying recently relate to your other courses or to other parts of this
course?