Crime and Development in Africa - United Nations Office on Drugs ...
Crime and Development in Africa - United Nations Office on Drugs ...
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CRIME AND DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA<br />
June 2005
Acknowledgements<br />
This Report was prepared by the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g staff of the Research Secti<strong>on</strong> of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<strong>on</strong> <strong>Drugs</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g>, under the supervisi<strong>on</strong> of Thibault le Pich<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Ted Leggett, Research <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Draft<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Anna Alvazzi del Frate, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> Data Analysis<br />
Thomas Pietschmann, Drug Data Analysis<br />
Suzanne Kunnen, Graphic Design <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Desktop Publish<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Ayako Kagawa, cartography<br />
The preparati<strong>on</strong> of this Report would not have been possible without the c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> of several<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> secti<strong>on</strong>s of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Drugs</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g>, especially the Field <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<br />
situated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. The staff of the Institute for Security Studies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> participated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> early<br />
research that led to this Report. Drafts were also reviewed by a number of external commentators,<br />
whose <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>put is greatly appreciated. The present study is part of a broader <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiative <strong>on</strong> "<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
drugs as impediments to security <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> development <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>: Strengthen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the rule of law", which has<br />
received the f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ancial support of the governments of France <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> K<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gdom.<br />
Disclaimer<br />
This report has been reproduced without formal edit<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
The designati<strong>on</strong>s employed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the presentati<strong>on</strong> of the material <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this publicati<strong>on</strong> do not imply the<br />
expressi<strong>on</strong> of any op<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>i<strong>on</strong> whatsoever <strong>on</strong> the part of the Secretariat of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>cern<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or c<strong>on</strong>cern<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the delimitati<strong>on</strong><br />
of its fr<strong>on</strong>tiers or boundaries.
CRIME AND DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA<br />
June 2005
CONTENTS<br />
LIST OF ACRONYMS.........................................................................................................III<br />
PREFACE ................................................................................................................................V<br />
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY................................................................................................... IX<br />
INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................XVII<br />
I. THE STATE OF CRIME IN AFRICA.............................................................................. 1<br />
1.1 SOCIAL FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH CRIME.............................................................. 2<br />
1.2 CRIME, CONFLICT, AND TRANSITION....................................................................... 15<br />
1.3 ORGANIZED CRIME .................................................................................................. 29<br />
1.4 CORRUPTION............................................................................................................ 42<br />
1.5 CONVENTIONAL CRIME............................................................................................ 49<br />
II. HOW CRIME HINDERS AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT ............................................ 67<br />
2.1 THE IMPACT OF CRIME ON SOCIETY......................................................................... 67<br />
2.2 THE IMPACT OF CRIME ON THE ECONOMY............................................................... 76<br />
2.3 THE IMPACT OF CRIME ON GOVERNANCE ................................................................ 87<br />
III. PROGRESS AND PROSPECTS ............................................................................. 93<br />
CONCLUSION.................................................................................................................... 101<br />
ANNEX A: AFRICAN COMMON POSITION ON CRIME PREVENTION AND<br />
CRIMINAL JUSTICE....................................................................................................... 102<br />
ANNEX B: DECLARATION ON CONTROL OF ILLICIT DRUG TRAFFICKING AND<br />
ABUSE IN AFRICA (2002-2006) .................................................................................... 109<br />
ANNEX C: CRIME DATA ISSUES ................................................................................ 121<br />
ANNEX D: DRUGS AND CRIME CONVENTIONS..................................................... 125<br />
i
LIST OF ACRONYMS<br />
The follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g abbreviati<strong>on</strong>s have been used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this report:<br />
ARQ<br />
AU<br />
CTS<br />
ECOWAS<br />
FDI<br />
GDP<br />
ICVS<br />
IGAD<br />
ILO<br />
IMF<br />
INCB<br />
INTERPOL<br />
NEPAD<br />
SADC<br />
UNDP<br />
UNICEF<br />
UNECA<br />
UNICRI<br />
UNODC<br />
WHO<br />
UNODC Annual Reports Questi<strong>on</strong>naire<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Uni<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> Trends Survey<br />
The Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Community of West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n States<br />
Foreign Direct Investment<br />
Gross Domestic Product<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> Victim Surveys<br />
The Intergovernmental Agency <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>al Labour Organisati<strong>on</strong><br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>al M<strong>on</strong>etary Fund<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>al Narcotics C<strong>on</strong>trol Board<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>al Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al Police Organizati<strong>on</strong><br />
The New Partnership for <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
The Southern <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> Community<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> Programme<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Children’s Fund<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Commissi<strong>on</strong> for <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Inter-regi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Justice Research Institute<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Drugs</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
World Health Organizati<strong>on</strong><br />
iii
PREFACE<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> seems to have entered, at last, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to a period of hope.<br />
Throughout the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent signals multiply that matters are chang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for the better. Military<br />
coups are now rare, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> democratically elected governments are <strong>on</strong> the rise. More <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<br />
states are experienc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ec<strong>on</strong>omic growth <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social recovery. Once irresolvable c<strong>on</strong>flicts,<br />
such as the North-South war <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Sudan, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the civil wars <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Angola <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>e,<br />
have dw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dled or ended, while serious efforts are be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g made to resolve other, seem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tractable <strong>on</strong>es. New leaders seem driven by empowerment by their people <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pressure by<br />
their peers, with a renewed commitment to meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g>’ Millennium<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> Goals. Bold statements by developed nati<strong>on</strong>s show greater read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess to help<br />
support these collective efforts to atta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> global goals.<br />
Pan-<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiatives are multiply<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. More than ever before, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n states now view<br />
themselves as shareholders <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a collective dest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>y, partners <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent-wide <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>s like<br />
the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Uni<strong>on</strong> (AU) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> its programme, the New Partnership for <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
(NEPAD).<br />
These positive developments are most welcome <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>deed, timely. Yet, after centuries of<br />
exploitati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> so many decades of promis<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g slogans <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> disappo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g realities, the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n people rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> sceptical about the likelihood of better liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> greater<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al aid. “Current events may po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t to a promis<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g near future,” ord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ary people may<br />
say, “but we still face huge obstacles <strong>on</strong> the road to a better life for all.” Structural<br />
impediments rooted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent’s col<strong>on</strong>ial past, its <strong>on</strong>go<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g exploitati<strong>on</strong>, the killer<br />
p<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>emics <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> massive poverty, still loom large.<br />
Thus, the development challenge <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s great, perhaps greater than anywhere else<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the world. This Report, part of renewed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al efforts to help meet this challenge,<br />
calls attenti<strong>on</strong> to a forgotten aspect of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s development situati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
A moral challenge<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s poverty has been documented, studied, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> analysed many times over. Am<strong>on</strong>g the<br />
underly<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g factors are:<br />
• Historical causes. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> has suffered a l<strong>on</strong>g history of exploitati<strong>on</strong>, with the successive<br />
impacts of the slave trade, col<strong>on</strong>izati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, more recently, Cold War manipulati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Current nati<strong>on</strong>al borders were imposed by the col<strong>on</strong>ial powers without reference to<br />
culture, language, ethnicity, or to the ec<strong>on</strong>omic viability of the states thus created.<br />
• Ec<strong>on</strong>omic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> trade barriers. Much of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is geographically separated from the major<br />
northern markets, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> suffers from terms of trade that are to the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent’s disadvantage.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n ec<strong>on</strong>omies are also hampered by primary resource dependence. Agricultural<br />
productivity is low, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> afflicted by periodic drought. Many <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n nati<strong>on</strong>s are<br />
struggl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to recover from difficult periods of structural adjustment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crippl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g debt<br />
burdens.<br />
• Health c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s. Malaria, tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a host of less widespread<br />
afflicti<strong>on</strong>s greatly impact <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s peoples <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ec<strong>on</strong>omies.<br />
All these factors provide a c<strong>on</strong>v<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>c<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g account of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s failure to develop. Yet, there is<br />
more that holds back <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s ec<strong>on</strong>omic performance. These additi<strong>on</strong>al impediments are<br />
mostly disregarded by development aid providers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> humanitarian agencies, though they are<br />
well known to <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n leaders: “…cross-border crime, illicit proliferati<strong>on</strong>, circulati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of small arms <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> light weap<strong>on</strong>s, drug traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, corrupti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> terrorism<br />
c<strong>on</strong>stitute serious threats to security <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> stability. They hamper the harm<strong>on</strong>ious ec<strong>on</strong>omic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
social development of the C<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent,” (Lome Declarati<strong>on</strong> of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Uni<strong>on</strong> Assembly, 12<br />
v
July 2000). This view was reiterated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> April 2005 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Comm<strong>on</strong> Positi<strong>on</strong> presented<br />
at the 11 th <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> C<strong>on</strong>gress <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> Preventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al Justice <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Bangkok<br />
(Annex A of this Report).<br />
Acknowledg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the role these factors play <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s under-development is not easy.<br />
Underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ably, there are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>hibiti<strong>on</strong>s about discuss<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> security issues. In additi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
there is often a paucity of data <strong>on</strong> which discussi<strong>on</strong> can be based. The bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess of crime is<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ducted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> secret, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> everywhere <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the world victims all too often suffer <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> silence, their<br />
troubles mostly unrecorded by government agencies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> unreported by the media.<br />
Yet, these unspoken development c<strong>on</strong>stra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts – more than many others – aggravate the<br />
suffer<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n people, make the poor even more vulnerable, distort ec<strong>on</strong>omic values,<br />
rob nati<strong>on</strong>al budgets, dampen the entrepreneurial spirit, discourage foreign <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestment,<br />
promote capital flight, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> perpetuate human suffer<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. They are at the very heart of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s<br />
development challenges.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n leaders have recognized that mass poverty <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> under-development <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract with, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
exacerbate, crime. In the words of South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s former President Nels<strong>on</strong> M<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ela, “…crime<br />
can <strong>on</strong>ly be effectively dealt with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>text of successful socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic programmes.<br />
But ec<strong>on</strong>omic growth <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> programmes which will banish poverty are themselves subverted<br />
by crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> corrupti<strong>on</strong>.” 1 This is a clari<strong>on</strong> call to both the providers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the recipients of<br />
development aid to <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>: promot<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the well be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of people <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> good governance can<br />
together create a virtuous circle of c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>uous improvement.<br />
Ec<strong>on</strong>omic renaissance <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> therefore depends <strong>on</strong>:<br />
• the realizati<strong>on</strong> of the hardware traditi<strong>on</strong>ally needed to create <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>comes, jobs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> services,<br />
such as roads, factories, schools <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> hospitals;<br />
• the improvement of the software up<strong>on</strong> which development is based, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g efficient<br />
adm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>istrati<strong>on</strong>, the rule of the law, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrity <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> governance, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> promoti<strong>on</strong> of social<br />
cohesi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the security of citizens.<br />
This Report was designed to call the world’s attenti<strong>on</strong> to the support needed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> to meet<br />
this sec<strong>on</strong>d objective – namely the provisi<strong>on</strong> of development resources for the less tangible<br />
dimensi<strong>on</strong>s of ec<strong>on</strong>omic performance: the respect of laws, the culture of legality, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrity of government.<br />
Stars aligned as never before<br />
Today the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds itself at a favourable juncture. Effective adm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>istrati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
respect for human rights, rule of law, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> promoti<strong>on</strong> of entrepreneurship are now central<br />
policy themes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. There is a mood of renewal throughout the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent, witnessed by<br />
efforts to:<br />
• unite fellow nati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the framework of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Uni<strong>on</strong>, so as to transcend the artifice<br />
of col<strong>on</strong>ial borders;<br />
• pursue domestic development agendas <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> NEPAD, with a renovated sense of ownership;<br />
• stop c<strong>on</strong>flicts with <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n peacekeep<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g troops, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> br<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the violence m<strong>on</strong>gers to trial <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
courts of law;<br />
• promote h<strong>on</strong>est adm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>istrati<strong>on</strong>, as evidenced by new leaders elected <strong>on</strong> str<strong>on</strong>g anticorrupti<strong>on</strong><br />
platforms;<br />
• defend the poor, made ever more vulnerable by violence, corrupti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flicts;<br />
• rid the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent of the scourge of human traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> slavery <strong>on</strong>ce <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for all;<br />
• br<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to justice the kleptocrats, public <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> private, resp<strong>on</strong>sible for fraud <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cheat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g;<br />
vi
• recover <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n assets from abroad, to rega<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trol of treasuries now hidden <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> rich<br />
countries’ banks.<br />
In c<strong>on</strong>duct<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this research project, the crime dimensi<strong>on</strong>s of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s development challenge<br />
were hard to assess <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> even more difficult to document <strong>on</strong> paper. The risks of be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
misunderstood, of be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g perceived as blam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> for its problems, were great. Like people<br />
anywhere <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the world, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their leaders do not relish public discussi<strong>on</strong> of domestic<br />
difficulties.<br />
While this attitude is underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>able, high levels of corrupti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crime, even when caused<br />
by <strong>on</strong>ly a h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>-full of wr<strong>on</strong>gdoers, do hold back the development potential of the rest of<br />
society, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> everywhere else <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the world. Open discussi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n c<strong>on</strong>text is<br />
especially urgent, because widespread poverty c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ues to leave the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent less well<br />
equipped to deal with these ubiquitous problems than many other regi<strong>on</strong>s. Hence there is an<br />
urgency to act, now.<br />
The less<strong>on</strong>s learned from this review are straightforward, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> as applicable to other nati<strong>on</strong>s as<br />
to <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n nati<strong>on</strong>s. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Drugs</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> (UNODC) underscores the<br />
importance of:<br />
• assist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> encourag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n leaders to persevere <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their current drive towards<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrity <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> public affairs, security for their people, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> peace-build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at home <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
abroad;<br />
• <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>corporat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g attenti<strong>on</strong> to the rule of law, crime preventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> victim assistance <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
development plann<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> aid allocati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>; <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
• <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> punish<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g those outsiders who profit from crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> corrupti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> at the expense of its people.<br />
This third po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t is crucial, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> not new. As stated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the recent report of the Commissi<strong>on</strong> for<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>:<br />
…the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al community has a role to play <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g high<br />
st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards of governance [<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>]. If it does so <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> its own activities – <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s it <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the activities of mult<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>al companies … then it will be<br />
better positi<strong>on</strong>ed to encourage similar high st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the way <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<br />
countries manage the cash from their natural resources.<br />
Prime M<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ister T<strong>on</strong>y Blair referred to <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s poverty as a “scar <strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>science of the<br />
world” <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> made it a priority dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> K<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gdom’s chairmanship of the G8 this year.<br />
The special needs of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> lie at the heart of every part of the report recently issued by the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Secretary-General (In Larger Freedom, March 2005). There is a grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al momentum to ease the suffer<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n people, by support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>nled<br />
development efforts. Fight<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g crime, violence <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> corrupti<strong>on</strong> is not just a moral duty. It is<br />
a very tangible <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dispensable c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> to build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the future of prosperity deserved by<br />
some of the most vulnerable <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> poorest peoples <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the world.<br />
Ant<strong>on</strong>io Maria Costa<br />
Executive Director<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Drugs</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
vii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY<br />
This Report does not attempt to expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> why <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> suffers from crime or under-development<br />
– such a project could easily fill many volumes. It does not argue that under-development or<br />
poverty cause crime, nor that development al<strong>on</strong>e can resolve crime problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Rather,<br />
it focuses <strong>on</strong> establish<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g two simple po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts:<br />
• All available evidence suggests that <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> has a serious crime problem (Chapter One).<br />
• There is good reas<strong>on</strong> to believe that this crime problem is underm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g development<br />
efforts (Chapter Two).<br />
The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tent of this Report is to make the case for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g crime preventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> development<br />
plann<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, as discussed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Chapter Three.<br />
The social factors associated with crime<br />
Our knowledge <strong>on</strong> the state of crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is limited. Given the many development<br />
challenges fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent, it is not surpris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that little attenti<strong>on</strong> has been given to crime.<br />
But <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s development challenges are precisely the social factors found to be associated<br />
with high crime situati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>ally. For example:<br />
• Income <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>equality is <strong>on</strong>e of the most robust quantitative correlates of official crime rates,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> hosts some of the most unequal countries <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the world: <strong>on</strong> average, the richest<br />
10% earn 31 times more than the poorest 10%.<br />
• Throughout the world, teenaged <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> young adult males commit most of the crime, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s youthful populati<strong>on</strong> (43% under the age of 15) means that a greater part of the<br />
society falls <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to this pool of potential offenders. Many of these young people are not<br />
enrolled <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong>al programmes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cannot f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d employment.<br />
• Rapid rates of urbanisati<strong>on</strong>, a factor that comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es elements of populati<strong>on</strong> density,<br />
cultural clash, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> populati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stability, is also a str<strong>on</strong>g correlate of crime rates. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is<br />
urbanis<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at about 4% a year, about twice the global average.<br />
• Poor countries have poorly-resourced crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice systems, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> suffers from<br />
the world’s least favourable police- <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> judge-to-populati<strong>on</strong> ratios. This ultimately<br />
impacts <strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>victi<strong>on</strong> rates; even if the police perform optimally, offenders <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> are<br />
much less likely to be punished for their wr<strong>on</strong>gdo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs than those <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the rest of the world.<br />
Such a system cannot effectively deter, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>capacitate, or rehabilitate crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>als.<br />
• The proliferati<strong>on</strong> of firearms, related <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> part to the recurrence of c<strong>on</strong>flict <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> all regi<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> part to a grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sense of public <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>security, enables <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> aggravates<br />
violent crime.<br />
While n<strong>on</strong>e of these factors al<strong>on</strong>e causes crime, their presence together does make it more<br />
probable that crime will occur, all other th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g equal. This does not mean that the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent is doomed to crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ality. Rather, it means that crime needs to be anticipated <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
that development plann<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g should proceed with these dynamics <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>flict fuels crime, crime feeds c<strong>on</strong>flict<br />
While these social factors would <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate that high crime levels <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> are likely, an even<br />
more important <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicator is the widespread c<strong>on</strong>flict that plagues the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> has<br />
suffered greatly from war <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> recent decades: at the turn of the century, half of all the people<br />
who lost their lives to war were <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns. Violent c<strong>on</strong>flict <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crime are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ked <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> at least<br />
two broad ways. First, the nature of war has changed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> recent years, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>temporary<br />
c<strong>on</strong>flicts have substantial overlaps with crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> organized crime. Sec<strong>on</strong>d, countries<br />
recover<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from war can anticipate elevated levels of crime due to the profound effects<br />
ix
modern war has <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals, the social structure, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the state.<br />
The nature of c<strong>on</strong>flict is chang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g globally, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> it is becom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly difficult to draw<br />
the l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e between acts of war <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> acts of organized crime. Most c<strong>on</strong>temporary wars are civil<br />
wars, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the post-Cold War world, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>surgencies often fund themselves through crime.<br />
This is evident <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the ‘resource wars’ fought over access to <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s natural wealth,<br />
particularly diam<strong>on</strong>ds <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> oil. Recent c<strong>on</strong>flicts <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>e, Angola, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Democratic<br />
Republic of the C<strong>on</strong>go all illustrate the ways war, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al organized crime, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> terrorism<br />
can <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> destabilised z<strong>on</strong>es. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Uni<strong>on</strong> Commissi<strong>on</strong> asserts that these c<strong>on</strong>flicts<br />
are often fuelled by outside <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terests, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the emergence of the Internati<strong>on</strong>al Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al Court<br />
illustrates the grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al awareness that the dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cti<strong>on</strong> between war <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crime is<br />
no l<strong>on</strong>ger clear-cut.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong> to be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g closely related to crime itself, c<strong>on</strong>temporary wars seem to generate<br />
crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ality <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the post-c<strong>on</strong>flict period. The mechanisms beh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d this effect are multiple <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
complex, but it is clear that societies disrupted by war do not immediately return to their<br />
former state of peace <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> stability. The World Bank f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds that homicide rates <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease by 25%<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the five years follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a civil war. Some of the factors that lead to an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
post-c<strong>on</strong>flict period are:<br />
• Psychological trauma. The traumatis<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g effects of c<strong>on</strong>temporary warfare <strong>on</strong> both the<br />
perpetrators <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the victims may result <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ‘cycles of violence’, reverberat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for<br />
generati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
• <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> as a post-c<strong>on</strong>flict livelihood. The educati<strong>on</strong> of young people <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the skills of<br />
violence, without alternative livelihoods or educati<strong>on</strong>al opportunities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the post-c<strong>on</strong>flict<br />
era, can result <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> extended careers as predators; the creati<strong>on</strong> of profitable smuggl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
routes, which may not be suspended with the sign<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of peace treaties, can provide the<br />
basis for organized crime.<br />
• Disaster <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> displacement. The humanitarian disasters follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the end of the war can<br />
feed violence <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> enable organized crime, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the displacement of populati<strong>on</strong>s can result<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> further community c<strong>on</strong>flict.<br />
• Loss of authority to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercede. The weaken<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the state <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the entrench<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of<br />
corrupti<strong>on</strong> can derail attempts at re-establish<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g order.<br />
More than ever before, c<strong>on</strong>flicts today aim at psychologically destroy<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g whole populati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
through terror <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> public atrocities. The impact of exposure to this brutality is profound,<br />
especially for children. In the UN Report <strong>on</strong> the Impact of Armed C<strong>on</strong>flict <strong>on</strong> Children, two<br />
thirds of the Angolan children <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terviewed had seen people murdered. In Rw<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a, 56% had<br />
seen other children kill people, nearly 80% had lost immediate family members, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 16% had<br />
been forced to hide under dead bodies. More than 60% of the Rw<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>an children <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terviewed<br />
said they did not care whether they ever grew up. While it would be crass to assert that<br />
victims of brutality are mechanistically fated to visit it up<strong>on</strong> others, exposure to violence has<br />
been found by crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ologists to be a comm<strong>on</strong> feature <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the upbr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs of violent crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>als.<br />
Aside from the psychological impact of war, more practical factors may fuel crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ality <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
post-c<strong>on</strong>flict period. People, especially young men, fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g trauma, loss of livelihoods, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
social displacement may f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d that the <strong>on</strong>ly marketable skills they possess are the skills of war,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their <strong>on</strong>ly productive asset, a gun. S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce smuggl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g has become an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly important<br />
source of fund<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>surgent groups, c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued opportunities may exist <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
organized crime. As the case of oil bunker<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Nigeria attests, full-scale civil war is not a<br />
prec<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> for the illegal extracti<strong>on</strong> of natural resources.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>flict also destroys the social fabric, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the upheaval surround<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g war can be more<br />
damag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g than the war itself. In many <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n c<strong>on</strong>flicts, battlefield deaths comprise a<br />
m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ority of total casualties – most occur as a result of the breakdown of society. The World<br />
x
Health Organisati<strong>on</strong> cites studies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that domestic violence, child abuse, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sexual<br />
offences are all <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased by a humanitarian disaster, as communities suffer from the loss of<br />
livelihoods, post-traumatic stress, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the breakdown of law enforcement. Refugees may face<br />
social exclusi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> even xenophobic violence <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their host countries, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> refugee camps are<br />
well-known sources of crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al victimisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> political extremism.<br />
F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally, state structures weakened by years of war, underm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> credibility due to brutal acts<br />
of counter<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>surgency, or manned by a new <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>experienced political leadership, cannot<br />
effectively service or secure the populati<strong>on</strong>. Political reforms may be seen as a sign of<br />
weakness, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> law enforcement authorities may struggle to learn the skills of democratic<br />
polic<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Overall, the state may not be able to fully perform its role <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> crime preventi<strong>on</strong> for<br />
some time after the cessati<strong>on</strong> of hostilities.<br />
All these factors – weak states, established smuggl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g routes, loss of livelihoods, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a large<br />
pool of men experienced <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the use of violence – makes vulnerability to organized crime<br />
higher <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> countries caught up <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, or recover<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from, c<strong>on</strong>flict.<br />
The emergence of organized crime<br />
The growth <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al commerce <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> transport has made <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, with its weak<br />
enforcement capacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> underpaid officials, an ideal c<strong>on</strong>duit through which to extract <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
tranship a range of illicit commodities. Increas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g used to route drugs<br />
dest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed for other markets, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, c<strong>on</strong>sequently, it is becom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a dest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> site with a grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sumer base. Human be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs tend to be trafficked from less to more developed countries,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n women <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> children are vulnerable to this abuse. M<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>erals, petroleum, timber,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ivory are also illegally extracted from the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict areas are dest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong><br />
sites for firearms traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
Outside the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent, organized crime networks of West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns have made a global mark.<br />
Particularly known for their role <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al drug traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, human traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
fraud <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> corrupti<strong>on</strong>, West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n networks have proven difficult for law enforcement to<br />
counter, due to their highly flexible structure <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> shallow hierarchies. Diaspora populati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
most drug produc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> drug c<strong>on</strong>sum<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g countries allow the easy <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terchange of c<strong>on</strong>trolled<br />
substances, often <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> relatively small amounts.<br />
Organized crime cannot thrive without corrupti<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the fuell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of corrupti<strong>on</strong> may be the<br />
most damag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g effect of organized crime. While the gr<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> corrupti<strong>on</strong> of despots such as Sani<br />
Abacha <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Mobutu Sese Seko receives most of the press, ord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ary <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns suffer daily from<br />
dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s for bribes to access basic services, accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to household surveys. Percepti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
victim surveys of bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess leaders support the c<strong>on</strong>tenti<strong>on</strong> that corrupti<strong>on</strong> afflicts many<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n societies at all levels.<br />
The empirical data <strong>on</strong> crime<br />
While all these factors would lead us to expect high crime levels <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, dem<strong>on</strong>strat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this<br />
quantitatively is c<strong>on</strong>founded by a lack of data. Official crime figures are not available for<br />
about half of all <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> those that do exist are rarely released <strong>on</strong> a regular<br />
basis. There are also problems with the reliability of police-recorded crime statistics, both <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>ally. Many people do not report their victimisati<strong>on</strong> to the police, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
those crimes that are reported are not always recorded by the authorities.<br />
Where figures are available, it is likely that they greatly underestimate the scale of crime. Due<br />
to problems related to access to justice, <strong>on</strong>ly a fracti<strong>on</strong> of the crime experienced <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is<br />
reported to the police, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g particularly at serious crimes, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries have<br />
some of the lowest report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g rates when compared <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>ally. But even based <strong>on</strong> these<br />
deficient figures, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> appears to suffer from more police-recorded violent crime than other<br />
xi
egi<strong>on</strong>s. Figures are much lower for property crime accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the police statistics but, when<br />
survey f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs are added to the analysis, this picture also changes.<br />
Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to both public health sources <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> police statistics, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> suffers from more<br />
homicides per capita than any other regi<strong>on</strong>. High murder levels are generally accompanied by<br />
high levels of other forms of violent crime, but these crimes are far less likely to be reported<br />
to the police than homicides. Still, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n police agencies record more assaults <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sexual<br />
assaults than their counterparts elsewhere, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, when surveyed, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns are more likely to<br />
say they were assaulted <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sexually assaulted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the previous year than the people of any<br />
other regi<strong>on</strong> of the world. Both police <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> survey data show robbery to be less comm<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> South America, but levels are still very high.<br />
In terms of property crime, the police recorded rates are low, but surveys <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate that <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
14% of victims of property crime reported the relevant <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cident to the police, the lowest rate<br />
of report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the world. In c<strong>on</strong>trast to the police figures, surveys <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate that property crime<br />
affects <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns at a higher rate than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other regi<strong>on</strong>s, by quite a wide marg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some<br />
categories. More <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns suffer from burglary, for example, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> expect to be burglarised <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the next year. C<strong>on</strong>sumer fraud is also a major issue, though less so than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Eastern Europe,<br />
with nearly 30% of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns polled say<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g they had experienced this crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the previous<br />
year.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> underm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es development<br />
The sec<strong>on</strong>d part of this Report looks at how crime might be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terfer<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s<br />
development. Three broad impacts of crime are discussed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this paper:<br />
• <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> erodes <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s social <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> human capital: <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> degrades quality of life <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> can<br />
force skilled workers overseas, while the direct impacts of victimisati<strong>on</strong>, as well as fear of<br />
crime, may impede the development of those that rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>. By limit<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g movement, crime<br />
impedes access to possible employment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong>al opportunities, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> it discourages<br />
the accumulati<strong>on</strong> of assets. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> is also more “expensive” for poor people <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> poor<br />
countries, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> disadvantaged households may struggle to cope with the shock of<br />
victimisati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
• <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> drives bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess away from <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>: Both foreign <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> domestic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestors see crime<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> as sign of social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stability, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crime drives up the cost of do<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess.<br />
Corrupti<strong>on</strong> is perhaps even more damag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g – the World Bank says corrupti<strong>on</strong> is the s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle<br />
greatest obstacle to development globally. Further, tourism is a sector especially sensitive<br />
to crime issues, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> it is <strong>on</strong>e of large <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g importance for <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
• <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> underm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es the ability of the state to promote development: Most profoundly,<br />
crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> corrupti<strong>on</strong> destroy the trust relati<strong>on</strong>ship between the people <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the state,<br />
underm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g democracy. Aside from direct losses to nati<strong>on</strong>al funds due to corrupti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
crime can erode the tax base as the rich bribe tax officials <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the poor recede <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the<br />
shadow ec<strong>on</strong>omy. Unfair tax regimes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> bribe-seek<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g officials fuel <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>equality <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formality, both of which are associated with crime. The revenue that does<br />
manage to f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d its way <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the nati<strong>on</strong>al coffers may be diverted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to graft-rich public<br />
works projects, at a cost to educati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> health services. When people lose c<strong>on</strong>fidence <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice system, they may engage <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> vigilantism, which further underm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es the<br />
state.<br />
The social costs of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n crime<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> underm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es social <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> human capital by destroy<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the trust relati<strong>on</strong>s between citizens<br />
<strong>on</strong> which functi<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g societies are based. Fear of crime can restrict movement <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> deter<br />
accumulati<strong>on</strong> of assets. When liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s become difficult, those who are able to<br />
emigrate do so, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the World Bank estimates that some <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries have lost as much<br />
xii
as <strong>on</strong>e third of their skilled workers. While the l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ks between crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> human movement <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> are unclear, crime c<strong>on</strong>tributes to the poor social c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s that are a recognised<br />
“push” factor beh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d emigrati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> has direct human costs to victims. Violent crime can lead to medical costs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> loss of<br />
productivity that poor people <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> poor countries are ill equipped to bear. And given the lower<br />
level of medical services available, the same <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>jury will have more serious implicati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> than it would <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> better-resourced countries. An <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>jury that could be healed with proper<br />
attenti<strong>on</strong> could be crippl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or life-threaten<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some parts of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. In aggregate, these<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>juries can pose a serious dra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> public health funds.<br />
With regard to property crime, even small losses of property can be debilitat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for poor<br />
households, especially if the items lost are productive assets, such as vehicles or livestock.<br />
While resp<strong>on</strong>dents <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> most developed countries regard violent crimes as more serious than<br />
property crimes, the opposite is the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g countries. This is not because<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns value their lives less than other people. Rather, the impact of los<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g productive assets,<br />
such as a vehicle, can be so devastat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the livelihoods of an extended group of people that<br />
it is regarded as more serious than an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>jury to an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual al<strong>on</strong>e.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong> to these direct costs, crime impedes ec<strong>on</strong>omic development by limit<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g movement<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> access to possible employment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong>al opportunities. By mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g people riskaverse,<br />
it retards entrepreneurial <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other ec<strong>on</strong>omic activity. Survey data show that <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<br />
people feel more afraid walk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g al<strong>on</strong>e at night than people of any other regi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> this poses<br />
a serious problem <strong>on</strong> a c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent where walk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g may often be the <strong>on</strong>ly means of transport.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n small bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess people regard crime as a more serious impediment than those of other<br />
regi<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a recent survey <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> found that over a quarter of resp<strong>on</strong>dents would<br />
not c<strong>on</strong>sider start<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess due to fear of crime.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> drives bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess away from <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> is bad for bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> suffers from unusually low foreign <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> domestic<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestor c<strong>on</strong>fidence. Total private <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>flows to sub-Saharan <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> as a percentage of GDP are<br />
lower than for all other develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g regi<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Uni<strong>on</strong> Commissi<strong>on</strong> says that less<br />
than 1% of global Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) comes to <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. This has not always been<br />
the case. In the early 1970s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> attracted a higher percentage of world FDI than Asia or<br />
Lat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> America. By the turn of the century, flows <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to Lat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> America were 5.5 times higher,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> those <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to Asia were n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e times higher, than flows <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, despite the fact that rates<br />
of return have generally been higher <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other regi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Foreign attitudes reflect those of local <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestors. While most <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns are simply too poor to<br />
save, those that do <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vest tend to do so elsewhere. Sub-Saharan <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> has <strong>on</strong>e of the world’s<br />
highest rates of capital flight, with 40% of private portfolios be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g held outside the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent.<br />
This is estimated to reduce c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ental GDP by some 16%. If <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns themselves are<br />
unwill<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vest <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent, it is difficult to persuade foreign <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestors to do so.<br />
The experts agree that c<strong>on</strong>fidence <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is lower than is justified by the fundamentals.<br />
While the reas<strong>on</strong>s beh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d this are debatable, low levels of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestment can largely be expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
by the percepti<strong>on</strong> that rule of law does not prevail <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
Commissi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> has identified “rule of law” as <strong>on</strong>e of the most robust correlates of<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic growth, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries are generally rated toward the bottom of the scale <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
terms of this percepti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicator.<br />
Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to World Bank Investment Climate survey data from n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries, over<br />
29% of bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess people <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> reported that crime was a major c<strong>on</strong>stra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestment,<br />
about 50% more than the global average. Those report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g direct losses to crime varied from<br />
11%-80% of resp<strong>on</strong>dents <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> each country, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the cost of these losses varied between 2%-<br />
12% of total sales. Expenditure <strong>on</strong> security ran at about 3% of gross sales <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> several countries<br />
xiii
polled. These direct costs can pose a significant challenge to emerg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>esses <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> those<br />
that operate <strong>on</strong> slim marg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s. As the World Bank argues:<br />
crime … <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creases the costs of bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess, whether through the direct loss of<br />
goods or the costs of tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g precauti<strong>on</strong>s such as hir<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g security guards,<br />
build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g fences, or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stall<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g alarm systems. In the extreme, foreign firms<br />
will decl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vest, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> domestic <strong>on</strong>es will flee the country for a more<br />
peaceful locale.<br />
The World Bank argues that corrupti<strong>on</strong> is the s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle greatest obstacle to social <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
development, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Investment Climate surveys menti<strong>on</strong>ed above, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n resp<strong>on</strong>dents<br />
rated corrupti<strong>on</strong> as the number <strong>on</strong>e impediment to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestment, before taxes, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>frastructure,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>flati<strong>on</strong>. Corrupti<strong>on</strong> may also be beh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d another major barrier to direct <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestment <strong>on</strong> the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent: red tape. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the World Bank, “In many countries restrictive regulati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> practices, often aimed at generat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g rents for officials <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> favoured groups, c<strong>on</strong>stra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess activity, affect<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g both agriculture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dustry.” Much of the structure of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<br />
government was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>herited from col<strong>on</strong>ial regimes, but reform efforts may be hampered where<br />
they threaten the patr<strong>on</strong>age networks of corrupt officials.<br />
The World Bank Investment Climate surveys found that 38% of Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>an firms, 46% of<br />
Zambian firms, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 73% of Kenyan firms said corrupti<strong>on</strong> was a major or very severe<br />
c<strong>on</strong>stra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t <strong>on</strong> bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess. In Zambia, about 2% of total revenues are spent <strong>on</strong> bribes, compared<br />
to about 3% of gross sales <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a. A government c<strong>on</strong>tract is said to cost 3.7% of the value<br />
of the c<strong>on</strong>tract <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> bribes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Zambia. Look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at ec<strong>on</strong>omic crimes more broadly (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
corrupti<strong>on</strong>, embezzlement, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> extorti<strong>on</strong>), a survey of 189 organisati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kenya, Tanzania,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Zambia found that, between them, US$206 milli<strong>on</strong> was lost over two years.<br />
An emerg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g opportunity exists <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the exp<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g tourism sector, but crime, particularly<br />
aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st tourists, has a negative impact <strong>on</strong> this <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dustry. Tourism is presently estimated to be<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>sible for 6% of employment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> over 7% of GDP <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Tourism GDP was<br />
expected to grow nearly 10% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2004, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> employment just under 9%, far outpac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g total<br />
growth <strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent. Tourism makes up between 10% <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 20% of some of the most<br />
successful ec<strong>on</strong>omies <strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> provides a large number of unskilled jobs. While<br />
the direct impact of crime <strong>on</strong> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dustry is difficult to determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e with precisi<strong>on</strong>, the Kenya<br />
Tourism Board estimates that adverse travel advisories cost the country nearly US$200<br />
milli<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> recent years.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g>, corrupti<strong>on</strong>, public trust, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> public spend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> especially corrupti<strong>on</strong>, directly underm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es democracy by destroy<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the trust<br />
relati<strong>on</strong>ship between the people <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the state. The most basic obligati<strong>on</strong> of the state is to<br />
ensure the safety of its citizens. When the state fails to fulfil this obligati<strong>on</strong> or, worse,<br />
provides protecti<strong>on</strong> to some groups but not to others, the people effectively reclaim their right<br />
to use force <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the resoluti<strong>on</strong> of disputes, often with disastrous c<strong>on</strong>sequences.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong> to be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g greatly under-resourced, the police are generally rated as the most corrupt<br />
w<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of government <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n polls. When the public lose c<strong>on</strong>fidence <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> law enforcement,<br />
the rich turn to private security, while the poor must rely <strong>on</strong> self-protecti<strong>on</strong>. In areas where<br />
cultural communities rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> str<strong>on</strong>g, this may mean a return to traditi<strong>on</strong>al justice, but where<br />
social change makes this impossible, it often results <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> vigilantism. In additi<strong>on</strong> to perpetrat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
human rights abuses, vigilante groups typical degenerate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to protecti<strong>on</strong> rackets, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> may<br />
eventually become predatory gangs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their own right.<br />
Other forms of official corrupti<strong>on</strong> also <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terfere with the ability of the state to promote<br />
development. A corrupt government does not serve all the people, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> turn, is not<br />
supported by them. In this way, corrupti<strong>on</strong> subverts democracy. At the most basic level,<br />
corrupti<strong>on</strong> may <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terfere with the ability of citizens to access basic public services, as corrupt<br />
officials dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> bribes before deliver<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g entitlements. The 2004 Global Corrupti<strong>on</strong><br />
xiv
Barometer survey covered 64 countries, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g five <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n <strong>on</strong>es. Resp<strong>on</strong>dents were asked<br />
whether <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the last 12 m<strong>on</strong>ths they had been asked to pay bribes. The three countries with the<br />
highest positive resp<strong>on</strong>se rates were all <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n: Camero<strong>on</strong> (52%), Kenya (36%), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Nigeria<br />
(32%, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a three-way tie for third). In another study, Transparency Internati<strong>on</strong>al found that<br />
average urban Kenyan pays 16 bribes a m<strong>on</strong>th, 99% of which are to public officials. Luckily,<br />
most of these bribes are small, but they are estimated to add about 15% to the cost of liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, a<br />
significant dra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> for a populace earn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an average of US$393 a year. Those who do not pay<br />
do not receive the services necessary to advance development, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> thus the relatively<br />
advantaged benefit from programmes aimed at the poorest. This aggravates social exclusi<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a sense of resentment am<strong>on</strong>g the disadvantaged.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> corrupti<strong>on</strong> can underm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e nati<strong>on</strong>al revenue <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a number of ways. Natural resources<br />
that are smuggled with the complicity of state actors can deprive the public of the benefits of<br />
their country’s wealth. This is particularly problematic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, where many ec<strong>on</strong>omies have<br />
been reliant <strong>on</strong> natural resource extracti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Bribe-seek<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g officials, an unfair tax regime, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> excessive, corrupti<strong>on</strong>-tied regulati<strong>on</strong> can<br />
drive bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formality, which further reduces tax revenue <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is associated with<br />
greater crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ality <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> retarded growth. Estimates of the size of the shadow ec<strong>on</strong>omy <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries, which <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cludes crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al activity, generally range between a third <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> two<br />
thirds of GDP, all of which is untaxed. Favouritism leads to greater <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>come <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>equality, also<br />
associated with crime.<br />
The direct costs of corrupti<strong>on</strong> to the nati<strong>on</strong>al accounts are c<strong>on</strong>siderable, as value diverted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to<br />
the pockets of corrupt officials is not realised <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> benefit to the public. Corrupti<strong>on</strong> also<br />
promotes excessive spend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> large public procurements <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> works projects, where graft<br />
opportunities are plentiful, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the quality of delivery <strong>on</strong> these projects is often poor, as<br />
corrupt c<strong>on</strong>tractors do not feel compelled to stick to specificati<strong>on</strong>s. This excessive<br />
expenditure can come at a cost to important development services.<br />
F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally, all this graft could have some benefit to the ec<strong>on</strong>omy if it were, at least, re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vested <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. But, as was noted above, this is often not the case with legitimate earn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, let al<strong>on</strong>e<br />
the proceeds of corrupti<strong>on</strong>. Capital flight applies to the crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al ec<strong>on</strong>omy as well.<br />
In the end, the cumulative effect of public corrupti<strong>on</strong> is to destroy respect for the law <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
state. This profoundly underm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es democracy, as many citizens come to regard the state as an<br />
adversary rather than a representative body. It also fuels broader crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ality. When privileged<br />
classes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals are allowed to flout the law, the disadvantaged feel very little moral<br />
imperative to obey it.<br />
Progress <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> opportunities<br />
To this po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t, the Report has focused <strong>on</strong> diagnos<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the problem. This f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al secti<strong>on</strong> looks at<br />
what has been d<strong>on</strong>e by <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n governments to address the problem to date, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> identifies a<br />
few of the possible areas for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g crime preventi<strong>on</strong> th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to development plann<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
Remarkable progress has been made by many <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n states, regi<strong>on</strong>al ec<strong>on</strong>omic communities,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Uni<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> creat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the legislative <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> organizati<strong>on</strong>al framework for combat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> prevent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g crime, but the capacity for implementati<strong>on</strong> may be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> need of support <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stances. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Comm<strong>on</strong> Positi<strong>on</strong> released <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> at 2005 World <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> C<strong>on</strong>gress provides<br />
c<strong>on</strong>siderable directi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> identify<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g priorities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the sorts of programmes that might be used<br />
to address them.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong><br />
While it appears that <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> may have <strong>on</strong>e of the most serious crime problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the world, it<br />
is the crime problem about which the least is known. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> figures, especially survey-based<br />
statistics, need to be seen as important development <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicators, both <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> themselves <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> as<br />
xv
possible impediments to ec<strong>on</strong>omic progress. Once the crime situati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is better<br />
understood, good practices that have worked <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> prevent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other areas can be<br />
appropriately adapted to the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> should be prom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds of development planners, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crime preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g should <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence all aspects of development projects. Some of this is happen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
already, through the acknowledgement that rule of law <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> governance are vital to ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
growth. But even at grassroots level, the impact of crime <strong>on</strong> educati<strong>on</strong>, health, hous<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
social services needs to be addressed.<br />
The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al community rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s committed to help<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n people overcome the<br />
barriers that c<strong>on</strong>fr<strong>on</strong>t them. Underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the dynamics between c<strong>on</strong>flict, crime, corrupti<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> development c<strong>on</strong>stitutes an important part of this process, with a view to address<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g what<br />
appears to be an under-appreciated source of suffer<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
xvi
INTRODUCTION<br />
“<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> has been identified as <strong>on</strong>e of the major obstacles to development.”<br />
- <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Comm<strong>on</strong> Positi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> Preventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al Justice 2<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is a large <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> diverse c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent, apt to defy easy generalisati<strong>on</strong>s. But while there are<br />
several countries with moderately high nati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>comes, the majority of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns across the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent are very poor. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Uni<strong>on</strong> Commissi<strong>on</strong>, over 40% of the<br />
populati<strong>on</strong> of sub-Saharan <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> live below the poverty threshold of US$1 per day.<br />
The lack of development extends bey<strong>on</strong>d <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>come to touch <strong>on</strong> other areas of human potential.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns suffer from poor health – almost half of all children <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the world who die before their<br />
fifth birthday are born <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Malnutriti<strong>on</strong>, disease, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> violence shorten lives, so that the<br />
people of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> can expect to live far fewer years than the people of other regi<strong>on</strong>s. In<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> too, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n people are deprived. In many <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n nati<strong>on</strong>s, less than half the school<br />
age populati<strong>on</strong> is able to attend primary school. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> Program’s Human <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> Index rank<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs for 2004, 32 of the 35 lowest<br />
positi<strong>on</strong>s are occupied by <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n nati<strong>on</strong>s, all of them <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the sub-Saharan regi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
More disquiet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g still is the fact that many <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n nati<strong>on</strong>s have been gett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g poorer over the<br />
last 30 years. Despite widespread governmental reform <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> decades of development<br />
assistance, aggregate GDP per capita decl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed slightly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> sub-Saharan countries between 1975<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2002, by 0.8% per annum, while <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g world as a whole it <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased by 2.3%<br />
per annum. Eight countries, all <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> sub-Saharan <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> together home to <strong>on</strong>e third of the<br />
populati<strong>on</strong> of the regi<strong>on</strong>, have seen their per capita <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>comes fall by over half dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that<br />
period.<br />
This Report looks at a factor that is often overlooked <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s persistent underdevelopment:<br />
crime. Limited government capacity has meant that official data <strong>on</strong> crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> are sparse, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent research has also been limited. But all available <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicators<br />
suggest that the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent does have a very serious crime problem.<br />
On reflecti<strong>on</strong>, this should come as no surprise. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> rarely occurs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> isolati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is <strong>on</strong>e of<br />
a range of co-factors associated with under-development. High levels of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>come <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>equality,<br />
rapid urbanisati<strong>on</strong>, a high share of unemployed youth <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the populati<strong>on</strong>, poorly resourced<br />
crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice systems, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the proliferati<strong>on</strong> of firearms are all str<strong>on</strong>gly associated with<br />
crime. Furthermore, c<strong>on</strong>temporary forms of c<strong>on</strong>flict fuel crime, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> recent decades the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent has suffered more from civil wars than any other part of the world. Thus, even if no<br />
crime data were available, high levels of crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> would be expected.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong> to the human suffer<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g caused by crime itself, there is good reas<strong>on</strong> to believe that,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a number of ways, crime is hurt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the development process. Investment levels <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
are lower than they should be, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> much of this can be attributed to the percepti<strong>on</strong> that the<br />
rule of law does not prevail <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> destroys human <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social capital <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> can have a<br />
far greater impact <strong>on</strong> the lives of citizens of poor countries than of rich <strong>on</strong>es. Perhaps most<br />
importantly, crime, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> especially corrupti<strong>on</strong>, damages the relati<strong>on</strong>ship between citizens <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the state, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> thus underm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es both democracy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the ability of the state to promote<br />
development.<br />
There is presently great <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al momentum around development <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<br />
leaders have been promot<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g projects for democratic reform <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ec<strong>on</strong>omic growth for the<br />
people of their countries, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> there are signs of progress <strong>on</strong> many fr<strong>on</strong>ts. This was m<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ated<br />
by a 2004 resoluti<strong>on</strong> of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ec<strong>on</strong>omic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Social Council, based <strong>on</strong> the special<br />
commitment made by member states to the development of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Millennium<br />
Declarati<strong>on</strong>. It also represents part of a broader <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> objective of prob<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ks<br />
between security <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> development, as explored <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the March 2005 report of the Secretary<br />
xvii
General, In Larger Freedom. Similar exercises are be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>sidered for other regi<strong>on</strong>s of the<br />
world, such as the Balkans <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Central Asia.<br />
This Report simply assembles the available research <strong>on</strong> the extent of crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
assesses the ways that this crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terferes with the process of development. It thus c<strong>on</strong>curs<br />
with <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> provides documentati<strong>on</strong> to support the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Comm<strong>on</strong> Positi<strong>on</strong> cited above. It is<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tended to stimulate debate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is a summary of a larger Report <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> progress that c<strong>on</strong>siders<br />
these issues <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> greater detail. It represents an attempt to br<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a new angle to a l<strong>on</strong>gst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
problem, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>ly briefly touches <strong>on</strong> present <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> possible <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Part Three). It<br />
does not profess to be the f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al word <strong>on</strong> the topic; <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>deed, <strong>on</strong>e key issue highlighted is the<br />
limited amount of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> available at present <strong>on</strong> these issues. More data <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> research are<br />
clearly <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> urgently needed. But the available <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> str<strong>on</strong>gly suggests that crime<br />
preventi<strong>on</strong> needs to be c<strong>on</strong>sidered <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> development policy <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. It is hoped that, together<br />
with the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Drugs</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g>, others can take this work forward <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>crete operati<strong>on</strong>al terms, so as to improve the lives of the people of the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent.<br />
xviii
I. The State of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
I. THE STATE OF CRIME IN AFRICA<br />
This Report does not attempt to probe the reas<strong>on</strong>s beh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s crime or development<br />
situati<strong>on</strong>s. Such an endeavour could easily fill many volumes. The more modest goal of<br />
Chapter One is simply to assemble the limited data <strong>on</strong> crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to make some<br />
sense of this picture. Chapter Two then looks at the way this crime situati<strong>on</strong> may be<br />
impact<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> development <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
Chapter One opens with a discussi<strong>on</strong> of the social circumstances that have been found,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>ally, to be associated with crime, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the extent of their presence <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. But<br />
associati<strong>on</strong> is not causati<strong>on</strong>. Even dem<strong>on</strong>strat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g statistical correlati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this area is<br />
c<strong>on</strong>founded by data weakness, as will be discussed. There rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> greatly under-developed<br />
countries where crime is not a major issue, as well as developed areas where crime is rampant.<br />
The relati<strong>on</strong>ship between crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> development is not simple, nor is it determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>istic.<br />
Nowhere <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this Report is the argument made that under-development or poverty cause crime,<br />
nor that development al<strong>on</strong>e can resolve crime problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
That hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g been said, there exist certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> social factors that, when present, would lead us to<br />
predict a crime problem. Although police statistics are of dubious value <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al comparis<strong>on</strong>s, numerous studies have correlated these figures with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>come<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>equality, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> there are sound theoretical reas<strong>on</strong>s for believ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this associati<strong>on</strong> is real.<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>ally, most crime is committed by males between the ages of 15 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 30, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> so<br />
hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a large share of the populati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this demographic group could be c<strong>on</strong>sidered a risk<br />
factor, particularly if these young people are not employed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ful ec<strong>on</strong>omic or educati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
activity. Urbanisati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> particularly the rate of urbanisati<strong>on</strong>, is another social factor that<br />
seems to be associated with ris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g crime levels. Insofar as the crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice system provides<br />
a check <strong>on</strong> crime, weak state capacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this area could be a po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t of vulnerability. F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally,<br />
while the presence of firearms al<strong>on</strong>e does not cause crime, some forms of crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ality would<br />
be difficult without them, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> they certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease the lethality of the assaults where they<br />
are used.<br />
Look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n situati<strong>on</strong> through this lens, high crime levels are predictable. The most<br />
unequal countries <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the world are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. In terms of populati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is the world’s<br />
youngest c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent, with high levels of unemployment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> low levels of educati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
enrolment. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is urbanis<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at about twice the global rate, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> suffers from the most<br />
under-resourced crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice systems. And there is a f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al factor that has even more direct<br />
l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>kages to crime: war. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> has suffered more from war than any other regi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> recent<br />
decades, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> provides some the best illustrati<strong>on</strong>s of how the l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e between crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict<br />
can become blurred. C<strong>on</strong>temporary wars tend to be brutal civil wars, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the impact of this<br />
violence <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals, social structures, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the state can have l<strong>on</strong>g-last<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g repercussi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Thus, if <strong>on</strong>e were to attempt to create a crime situati<strong>on</strong> from social variables <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a laboratory, it<br />
might look very much like <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. This does not mean the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent is doomed to crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ality,<br />
but it does <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate that we should anticipate challenges <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this area, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> plan for them.<br />
Chapter One then looks at the available police <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> survey data <strong>on</strong> crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Given the<br />
many issues c<strong>on</strong>fr<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent, it is not surpris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that relatively little has been d<strong>on</strong>e to<br />
assess the extent to which <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns actually suffer from crime. Most <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n governments<br />
have not yet begun to fully participate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al shar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of official crime statistics,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> little direct research has been d<strong>on</strong>e <strong>on</strong> crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Where data do exist, however,<br />
they seem to support the c<strong>on</strong>tenti<strong>on</strong> that many countries <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> are experienc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a very<br />
serious crime problem, both <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al crime (murder, robbery, burglary, etc.)<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> organized crime (traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of drugs, other illicit commodities, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> even human be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs).<br />
There are also str<strong>on</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicati<strong>on</strong>s that both gr<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> petty corrupti<strong>on</strong> are significant issues <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
many <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries.<br />
1
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
1.1 Social factors associated with crime<br />
Under-development does not, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> any determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>istic way, cause crime. The poorest are often the<br />
most law-abid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> those who have suffered most are perhaps most reluctant to visit<br />
suffer<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> others. There are no social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicators that universally predict the extent of crime<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a country. The evoluti<strong>on</strong> of a crime problem is not so simple as that.<br />
It is true, however, that the symptoms of social malaise tend to travel as a pack.<br />
Unemployment, low household <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>comes, poor nutriti<strong>on</strong>, high educati<strong>on</strong>al drop-out rates,<br />
unplanned pregnancies, s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle-parented households, substance abuse, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other forms of<br />
crime seem to impact more <strong>on</strong> socially marg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>alised communities than <strong>on</strong> others. The<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terrelati<strong>on</strong>ship between these troubles is complex, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> it is likely that they re-enforce <strong>on</strong>e<br />
another <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many ways.<br />
The associati<strong>on</strong> between social marg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>alisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crime has been well dem<strong>on</strong>strated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
disadvantaged areas of the developed world. Geographic mapp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of murders <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many cities<br />
show a high c<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ner city areas, more than would be predicted <strong>on</strong> the basis of<br />
populati<strong>on</strong> density al<strong>on</strong>e. Major drug distributi<strong>on</strong> po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts are usually located <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the most<br />
neglected secti<strong>on</strong>s of a metropolis. Gang warfare rarely occurs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> affluent neighbourhoods,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> “career crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>als” are more likely than average to come from disadvantaged backgrounds<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> marg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>alised populati<strong>on</strong> groups.<br />
Unfortunately, the ghettos of the developed world have much <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> comm<strong>on</strong> with many of the<br />
countries of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>come <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>equality, youth unemployment, populati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stability,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> access to justice issues. While n<strong>on</strong>e of these factors al<strong>on</strong>e causes crime, their presence<br />
together does make it more probable that crime will occur, all other th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g equal. This<br />
does not mean that the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent is doomed to crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ality. Rather, it means that crime needs<br />
to be anticipated <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that development plann<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g should proceed with these dynamics <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d.<br />
One of the biggest barriers to prob<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ks between crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicators is<br />
the extremely poor quality of the crime data, especially for <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. This matter is explored at<br />
length <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Annex C of this Report. While this key weakness precludes complex statistical<br />
analysis, there are social factors that many theorists have argued <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence the extent of<br />
crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al activity. Some of these are discussed below.<br />
Poverty <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>equality<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is the world’s poorest c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s total GDP is smaller than that of Spa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, while<br />
its populati<strong>on</strong> is 20 times larger. Even calculated <strong>on</strong> a purchas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g power parity (PPP) basis,<br />
GDP per capita is substantially less <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other regi<strong>on</strong>s. Half the people of sub-<br />
Saharan <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> live <strong>on</strong> less than the equivalent of 65 US cents per day. And while there are<br />
early <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicati<strong>on</strong>s that the situati<strong>on</strong> is improv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> has actually been gett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g poorer <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
recent decades. GDP per capita decl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> sub-Saharan <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> by 0.8% per annum over the<br />
1975-2002 period, while <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g countries as a whole, it <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased by 2.3% per annum.<br />
Thus, if poverty were a direct cause of crime, we would expect unprecedented levels of crime<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Luckily, the impact of poverty <strong>on</strong> crime seems to be more subtle than that. There<br />
have been many attempts to correlate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>come levels <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crime statistics, although results have<br />
been mixed . 3 While a small share of global crime is committed to satisfy basic human needs,<br />
the effects of material deprivati<strong>on</strong> generally are usually mediated through other social factors.<br />
As South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n President Thabo Mbeki has argued, cit<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the 2000 UNDP Human<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> report, “poverty is not <strong>on</strong>ly expressed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> shortage of food, shelter <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cloth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
It is also expressed … <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> high levels of crime, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g violence am<strong>on</strong>g the poor themselves,<br />
especially aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st women <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> children, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stances accompanied by substance abuse.” 4<br />
Income <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>equality, <strong>on</strong> the other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, has been argued to be <strong>on</strong>e of the most robust<br />
quantitative correlates of police-recorded crime rates, 5 although there are studies to the<br />
2
I. The State of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>trary. 6 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> hosts the most unequal countries <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the world. On aggregate, the richest 10%<br />
earn <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <strong>on</strong> average, 31 times more than the poorest 10%. Only South America has an<br />
even more skewed aggregate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>come distributi<strong>on</strong> (Map <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Figure). The seven countries with<br />
the most unequal distributi<strong>on</strong>s of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>come <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the world for which data exist are, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> descend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
order: Namibia, Lesotho, Botswana, Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>e, Central <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Republic, Swazil<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
Figure 1: Gross domestic product per capita <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2002 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> US$ (PPP)<br />
25,000<br />
24,904<br />
20,000<br />
US-$ <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> PPP<br />
15,000<br />
10,000<br />
7,804 7,223 7,192<br />
5,069 4,768 4,054<br />
2,658 1,790<br />
5,000<br />
0<br />
OECD<br />
WORLD average<br />
Lat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> America & Caribbean<br />
Central & Eastern Europe<br />
Arab States<br />
East Asia & Pacific<br />
Develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g countries<br />
South Asia<br />
Subsaharan <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Source: UNDP, Human <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> Report 2004<br />
Figure 2: Income <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>equality: Income ratio of the richest <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> poorest deciles (un-weighted<br />
averages), 2002 or most recent year<br />
50<br />
40<br />
40<br />
30<br />
20<br />
10<br />
7<br />
9<br />
13<br />
16<br />
21<br />
24<br />
31<br />
0<br />
Western Europe<br />
Central & Eastern Europe<br />
Asia<br />
Oceania<br />
GLOBAL<br />
North America<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
South America<br />
Source: UNDP (2004)<br />
3
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
The World Bank argues that relative deprivati<strong>on</strong> “breeds social tensi<strong>on</strong>s as the less well-off<br />
feel dispossessed when compared to wealthier people,” <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> thus, “the poor seek compensati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> satisfacti<strong>on</strong> by all means, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g committ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g crimes aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st both poor <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rich.” 7<br />
Those who feel themselves to be the victims of social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>justice may not feel compelled to<br />
obey the laws of the system that marg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>alises them. In fact, s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce compliance with the law<br />
may be seen as enabl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g exploitati<strong>on</strong>, defiance of the law may be seen as courageous <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
marg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>alised communities. The l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e between ‘civil disobedience’ <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> profit-seek<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ality may become blurred <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds of some.<br />
Studies of the impact of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>come <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>equality have chosen cities or countries as their frames of<br />
reference, but, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly globalized world, the reference frameworks of the<br />
disadvantaged may not be limited by municipal or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al boundaries. With the<br />
globalisati<strong>on</strong> of the Western media, poor people everywhere are exposed to the lifestyles of<br />
the rich <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> famous. They are also exposed to the c<strong>on</strong>sumerist ethic, which is seen as the<br />
creed of global sophisticates.<br />
Ir<strong>on</strong>ically, democratisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the open<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of markets can place c<strong>on</strong>siderable stress <strong>on</strong><br />
disadvantaged youth. With the removal of the formal barriers to advancement, poor people<br />
may feel the <strong>on</strong>us for material advancement has shifted to their shoulders. Failure to advance<br />
can be perceived as a pers<strong>on</strong>al failure, rather than a societal <strong>on</strong>e. The pressure to achieve<br />
material success, by any means possible, can be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tense for young people.<br />
Tanzanian President Benjam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Mkapa recently addressed the causes of crime as co-Chair of<br />
the World Commissi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the Social Dimensi<strong>on</strong> of Globalisati<strong>on</strong>. He said crime was<br />
exacerbated by the “cultural aspect of globalizati<strong>on</strong>, which engenders desire for the beck<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
western lifestyle portrayed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the electr<strong>on</strong>ic, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t media.” 8 The desire to acquire wealth<br />
despite unemployment may also fuel enterprise crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, ultimately, organized crime.<br />
It has also been argued that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>equality may also breed violent crime, as expressive “frustrati<strong>on</strong><br />
violence” is vented aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st vulnerable targets. 9 As President Mbeki argues, these are often<br />
women <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> children. Inability to provide for dependants can be a tremendous source of<br />
frustrati<strong>on</strong>, especially when others appear to be more successful. The rage that this engenders<br />
can have tragic c<strong>on</strong>sequences.<br />
4
I. The State of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Global <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>come <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>equality as measured by the G<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>i coefficient<br />
Legend<br />
Ratio of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>come enjoyed by the richest 20% to the poorest 20%<br />
3 to 5 times as much<br />
5.1 to 10 times as much<br />
more than 10 times as much<br />
no data available<br />
Source: UNDP (2004) Human <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> Report 2004: Cultural Liberty <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Today’s Diverse World, UNDP: New York.<br />
Note: The boundaries <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> names shown <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the designati<strong>on</strong>s used <strong>on</strong> this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
Rob<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<strong>on</strong> Projecti<strong>on</strong><br />
Datum: WGS 84<br />
Scale 1: 100,000,000¯<br />
5
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Share of youth <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the populati<strong>on</strong><br />
A youthful populati<strong>on</strong> is a great asset, but it can also be a source of social vulnerability.<br />
Throughout the world, perhaps the most important s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle fact about crime is that it is<br />
committed ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ly by teenagers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> young adults 10 At least 140 studies c<strong>on</strong>ducted<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>ally look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at a range of offences <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a variety of methodologies have found<br />
that people are most likely to commit crime between the ages of 12 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 30. No known study<br />
has ever failed to f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d this relati<strong>on</strong>ship. Compar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g between countries, the ages of peak<br />
vulnerability <strong>on</strong>ly vary by three or four years, fall<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the teens <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> early 20s, with the exact<br />
age depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> the offence studied. 11<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> hosts the world’s youngest populati<strong>on</strong> – 43% of the populati<strong>on</strong> of the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent is<br />
under the age of 15. In most <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries, the median age is 16-19 years, while <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many<br />
developed nati<strong>on</strong>s it is twice that. 12 This means a greater part of the society is vulnerable to<br />
becom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al activity.<br />
In defiance of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tuiti<strong>on</strong>, the l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>kages between high unemployment rates <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crime have not<br />
been unequivocally established, although a number of studies have found a l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k. 13 The<br />
c<strong>on</strong>fus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g data around unemployment levels <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> illustrate the difficulties <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> secur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
reliable <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al comparis<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent. The Internati<strong>on</strong>al Labour<br />
Organizati<strong>on</strong> reports a wide range of values for <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries from a range of different<br />
years us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a range of methodologies, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, surpris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly, poorer countries often report much<br />
lower levels of unemployment than more affluent <strong>on</strong>es. Data for 2003 are available for<br />
Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a (3%), Mauritius (10%), Egypt (11%), Morocco (12%), Tunisia (14%), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> South<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> (28%). In developed countries, youth unemployment is typically two to three times as<br />
high as general unemployment.<br />
Data <strong>on</strong> educati<strong>on</strong>al enrolment are more predictable, with sub-Saharan <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
lowest levels <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>ally (Figure 3), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> with girls generally be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the worst affected. Low<br />
educati<strong>on</strong>al enrolment is due to a number of factors, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g limited public resources for<br />
educati<strong>on</strong>, the need for child labour to ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> viable households, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a large number of<br />
children grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g up unsupervised or under-supervised, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g street children. The loss of<br />
parents to HIV/AIDS is expected to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease the number of children grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g up without their<br />
parents’ care.<br />
Figure 3: Comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed primary, sec<strong>on</strong>dary <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tertiary enrolment<br />
% of total eligible students<br />
100<br />
90<br />
80<br />
70<br />
60<br />
50<br />
40<br />
30<br />
20<br />
10<br />
0<br />
44<br />
54<br />
60<br />
65<br />
79 81<br />
87<br />
Sub-Saharan <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
South Asia<br />
Arab States<br />
East Asia <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Pacific<br />
Central <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Eastern Europe<br />
Lat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> America <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
Caribbean<br />
OECD<br />
Source: UNESCO<br />
6
I. The State of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Proporti<strong>on</strong> of populati<strong>on</strong> under 14 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2002<br />
Legend<br />
Proporti<strong>on</strong> of populati<strong>on</strong> under 14<br />
12.6 - 25.0<br />
25.1 - 33.0<br />
33.1 - 50.1<br />
no data available<br />
Source: UNDP (2004) Human <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> Report 2004: Cultural Liberty <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Today’s Diverse World, UNDP: New York.<br />
Note: The boundaries <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> names shown <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the designati<strong>on</strong>s used <strong>on</strong> this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
Rob<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<strong>on</strong> Projecti<strong>on</strong><br />
Datum: WGS 84<br />
Scale 1: 100,000,000¯<br />
7
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Urbanisati<strong>on</strong><br />
At present, about half of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s populati<strong>on</strong> resides <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cities, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rates of urbanisati<strong>on</strong> are<br />
high. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n cities are expected to grow at about 4% a year over the next 15 years, about<br />
twice as fast as the global average. 14 While urbanisati<strong>on</strong> is an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>evitable side effect of<br />
development <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> may be essential for ec<strong>on</strong>omic growth to occur, it also presents problems of<br />
its own, especially if allowed to proceed unmanaged. Given the general capacity challenges<br />
c<strong>on</strong>fr<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g many <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n governments, the ability of the state to mediate these effects may<br />
be limited. This is why many <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n cities c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> large <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal settlements <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> overcrowded<br />
slums, where there is little access to services, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g law enforcement services.<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>ally, crime rates are higher <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cities than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> rural areas, with the rate generally<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to city size. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> does not seem to be any excepti<strong>on</strong>. For example, an<br />
analysis of risk factors for victimisati<strong>on</strong> based <strong>on</strong> nati<strong>on</strong>al victim survey c<strong>on</strong>ducted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2003 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, illustrates the prevalence of crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> major cities. Those liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g outside<br />
metropolitan areas were found to be 45% to 50% less at risk of theft. The same trends applied<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the case of robbery <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> assault. 15<br />
This means that as more <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns move to cities, especially large cities, crime rates can be<br />
expected to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease. The sizes of the potential offender <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> victim pools are simply<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. The growth of mega-cities like Lagos <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> K<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>shasa <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>text of negative<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic growth has particularly serious implicati<strong>on</strong>s for crime rates.<br />
The rate at which urbanisati<strong>on</strong> occurs is also relevant, as populati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stability, or the rate at<br />
which people change their households, is str<strong>on</strong>gly associated with crime, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> urban<br />
populati<strong>on</strong>s are typically areas of high turnover. S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal social c<strong>on</strong>trols are the most<br />
effective means of prevent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g crime, areas with little sense of community coherence are<br />
vulnerable to crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ality. The an<strong>on</strong>ymity associated with transient populati<strong>on</strong>s is an enabl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
factor for a wide range of organised, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> not so organised, crime activities. Illegal immigrants,<br />
runaways, drug dealers, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sex workers tend to c<strong>on</strong>gregate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> urban areas.<br />
Another str<strong>on</strong>g associate is the share of people who rent, rather than own, their homes, s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce<br />
this both proxies for populati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stability <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> represents the level of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestment residents<br />
have <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> keep<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the area liveable. The need to pay rent, absent from many rural <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n areas,<br />
forces residents to come up with cash, regardless of their employment status. Subsistence<br />
agriculture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> extended k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> networks, ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stays of rural livelihoods, are difficult to ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the urban c<strong>on</strong>text. Alternative livelihood strategies must be found, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>side or outside the law.<br />
Populati<strong>on</strong> density, obviously associated with urban envir<strong>on</strong>ments, is less str<strong>on</strong>gly associated<br />
statistically than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stability or rental rates – there are some very high density/low crime areas,<br />
such as Tokyo. But the tensi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural clashes likely to result <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>gested <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> highly<br />
diverse communities are predictable. 16 When <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>door spaces become too crowded, street life<br />
develops, which can be both a bless<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a curse. Unsupervised young people grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g up<br />
<strong>on</strong> the street corners may form defensive packs that can evolve <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to street gangs, 17 a<br />
phenomen<strong>on</strong> rarely seen <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> more rural sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs but a fact of life <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n cities.<br />
Defensive group<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs can also form around ethnic l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es or am<strong>on</strong>g urbanites shar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a comm<strong>on</strong><br />
rural orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
Informal peri-urban settlements are an issue <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n cities, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> these areas represent<br />
a security challenge. Makeshift structures provide little barrier to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>truders, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> lack of street<br />
light<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g gives cover of darkness to crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>als. One victim survey <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n shack area<br />
found the crime most feared by residents was robbery <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their own homes. 18 Police may be<br />
hesitant to enter these areas, as many can <strong>on</strong>ly be accessed <strong>on</strong> foot <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their maze-like<br />
organisati<strong>on</strong> can be very c<strong>on</strong>fus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for outsiders. Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>tact with witnesses <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
victims <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> squatter areas can be difficult, so the prospects for prosecuti<strong>on</strong> are dim.<br />
8
I. The State of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Annual rate of urban growth <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries (%)<br />
Gibraltar<br />
Morocco<br />
Tunisia<br />
Western Sahara<br />
Algeria<br />
Libya<br />
Egypt<br />
Mauritania<br />
Mali<br />
Cape Verde<br />
Senegal<br />
Gambia<br />
Gu<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ea-Bissau<br />
Burk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a Faso<br />
Gu<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ea<br />
Ben<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>e<br />
Togo<br />
Cote d’Ivory<br />
Ghana<br />
Liberia<br />
Niger<br />
Chad<br />
Nigeria<br />
Central <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Republic<br />
Camero<strong>on</strong><br />
Sudan<br />
Eritrea<br />
Ethiopia<br />
Djibouti<br />
Somalia<br />
Equatorial Gu<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ea<br />
Sao Tome & Pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cipe<br />
Gab<strong>on</strong><br />
C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
Democratic Republic<br />
of C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a<br />
Rw<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a<br />
Burundi<br />
Kenya<br />
Tanzania<br />
Seychelles<br />
Comoros<br />
St. Helena<br />
Angola<br />
Malawi<br />
Zambia<br />
Mozambique<br />
Zimbabwe<br />
Madagascar<br />
Mauritius<br />
Namibia<br />
Botswana<br />
Swazil<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Lesotho<br />
Legend<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>al boundaries<br />
Annual rate of growth (%)<br />
Below 2.5%<br />
2.6% - 5.0%<br />
5.1% - 10.0%<br />
Above 10%<br />
no data available<br />
0 500 1,000<br />
¯<br />
Kilometers<br />
1:46,000,000<br />
Map Projecti<strong>on</strong>: Geographic<br />
Datum: WGS 84<br />
Source: <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> (****) <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Department of Ec<strong>on</strong>omic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Social Affairs,<br />
Populati<strong>on</strong> Divisi<strong>on</strong>, UN: New York.<br />
Note: The boundaries <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> names shown <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the designati<strong>on</strong>s used <strong>on</strong> this map do not imply<br />
official endorsement or acceptance by the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
9
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice resources<br />
As might be expected, there is a significant relati<strong>on</strong>ship between the amount a country spends<br />
<strong>on</strong> crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> its nati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>come. 19 Poor countries simply cannot afford to spend as<br />
much <strong>on</strong> the protecti<strong>on</strong> of their citizens as rich countries spend. While the relati<strong>on</strong>ship<br />
between law enforcement spend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> public security is unlikely to be l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ear, there must be<br />
some threshold below which the crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice system cannot effectively deter future<br />
offenders, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>capacitate serial offenders, or rehabilitate past offenders. There is reas<strong>on</strong> to<br />
believe that many <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries reside below this threshold.<br />
For example, the extent to which a str<strong>on</strong>g police presence can actually prevent crime is hotly<br />
debated, 20 but most would agree that access to the police is an important aspect of public<br />
security. On aggregate, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> has significantly lower police to public ratios than any other<br />
regi<strong>on</strong> of the world, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some countries, the numbers of police are extremely small<br />
(Figures 4 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 5).<br />
Figure 4: Number of police officers per 100,000 citizens<br />
Asia<br />
Europe<br />
America (North)<br />
Oceania<br />
America (Lat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>)<br />
363<br />
346<br />
325<br />
304<br />
285<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
180<br />
0 100 200 300 400<br />
Source: UNODC CTS, 2002 or most recent year<br />
Figure 5: Police officers per 100,000 (Various years)<br />
900<br />
800<br />
700<br />
600<br />
500<br />
400<br />
300<br />
200<br />
100<br />
0<br />
774<br />
755<br />
363<br />
346<br />
305<br />
304<br />
276<br />
231<br />
224<br />
162<br />
146<br />
142<br />
136<br />
129<br />
102<br />
100<br />
80<br />
71<br />
38<br />
24<br />
8<br />
2<br />
Seychelles (1990)<br />
Mauritius (2000)<br />
Asia (2002)<br />
Europe (2002)<br />
Americas (2002)<br />
Oceania (2002)<br />
Botswana (1990)<br />
Swazil<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (2000)<br />
South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> (2002)<br />
Zimbabwe (2000)<br />
Nigeria (1994)<br />
Morocco (2002)<br />
São T. & Pr. (1994)<br />
Zambia (2000)<br />
Lesotho (1997)<br />
Weighted average<br />
Tanzania (1997)<br />
Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a (1995)<br />
Egypt (1994)<br />
Madagascar (1994)<br />
Rw<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a (1990)<br />
Ethiopia (1990)<br />
Source: UNODC CTS, 2002 or most recent year<br />
10
I. The State of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
As will be discussed below, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n societies also face more crime than the better policed<br />
societies of Europe, Asia <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Americas. S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce they have fewer police, this means greater<br />
caseloads per police officer. For example, murder is a crime that requires c<strong>on</strong>siderable police<br />
time to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> prosecute effectively. While the average for the 78 n<strong>on</strong>-<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<br />
countries for which data are available is 188 police officers per recorded homicide, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
median for these countries was 118, the average for the 10 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries for which data<br />
were available was <strong>on</strong>ly 84 police officers per recorded homicide, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the median value was<br />
22. As <strong>on</strong>ly a small share of these police officers are detectives who <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigate serious crime,<br />
this can result <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> unmanageable caseloads <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> reduced c<strong>on</strong>victi<strong>on</strong> rates.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice challenges do not stop with the police. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> also has fewer judges<br />
per capita than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> any other area of the world (Figure 6). Fewer judges mean that crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al<br />
cases are processed more slowly. This is important because the rate at which a case is<br />
processed is directly related to its prospects of success. Over time, victims lose their<br />
commitment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> witnesses disappear, particularly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> areas where they can be difficult to<br />
locate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the first place, as is often the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
Figure 6: Number of judges per 100,000 populati<strong>on</strong><br />
Europe<br />
18<br />
North America<br />
10<br />
Lat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> America &<br />
Caribbean<br />
8<br />
Asia<br />
6<br />
Oceania<br />
4<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
3<br />
0 5 10 15 20<br />
Source: UNODC CTS, 2002<br />
Given the low numbers of police <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> judges, it is somewhat surpris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> has nearly<br />
as large a share of its populati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> pris<strong>on</strong> as do other regi<strong>on</strong>s of the world (Figure 7).<br />
However, a large share of this populati<strong>on</strong> is resident not by design, but by <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>efficiency, as<br />
many of these pris<strong>on</strong>ers have not yet been c<strong>on</strong>victed of anyth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. In <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> (<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Asia), about<br />
<strong>on</strong>e third of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>mates are ‘await<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g trial’ (<strong>on</strong> rem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>), much higher rates than are seen <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
rest of the world. 21 This is, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many cases, tied to delays <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the courts, due to the lack of<br />
judges <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other factors. High await<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g trial rates may also be l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ked to the poverty of the<br />
accused <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> of the society, as bail systems <strong>on</strong>ly work when people can be traced to fixed<br />
addresses <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> assets can be used as surety.<br />
11
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Figure 7: Inmates per 100,000 populati<strong>on</strong><br />
America (North)<br />
643<br />
Europe<br />
152<br />
America (Lat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>)<br />
149<br />
Asia<br />
141<br />
Oceania<br />
135<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
141<br />
0 200 400 600 800<br />
Source: UNODC CTS, various years<br />
S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n nati<strong>on</strong>s are impris<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g more people than they really can afford to house,<br />
overcrowd<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>evitable. As Figure 8 shows, Asia, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Lat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> America show very<br />
high occupancy rates. Individual pris<strong>on</strong>s, however, can suffer from even greater overcrowd<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
Both the large share of rem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pris<strong>on</strong>ers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> overcrowd<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terfere with rehabilitati<strong>on</strong><br />
efforts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> may be sources of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>justice <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> themselves. Pris<strong>on</strong>ers await<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g trial are not eligible<br />
for rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> programmes because they have not yet been c<strong>on</strong>victed of anyth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their<br />
presence draws resources away from work with c<strong>on</strong>victed pris<strong>on</strong>ers. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Commissi<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>on</strong> Human <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> People’s Rights Special Rapporteur <strong>on</strong> Pris<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> C<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s of Detenti<strong>on</strong><br />
has c<strong>on</strong>ducted several evaluati<strong>on</strong>s of pris<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual countries over the years.<br />
These <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong>s documented pris<strong>on</strong>ers await<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g trial for periods <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> excess of five years 22<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mass hold<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g cells so overcrowded that the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>mates did not have sufficient space even to<br />
sit down comfortably. 23 These c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s represent violati<strong>on</strong>s of human rights, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> serve to<br />
fuel crime problems, rather than ameliorate them.<br />
Figure 8: Pris<strong>on</strong>s overcrowd<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: ratio of pris<strong>on</strong>ers to pris<strong>on</strong> berths<br />
South Asia<br />
191<br />
Sub-Saharan <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Lat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> America <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Caribbean<br />
154<br />
151<br />
Arab States<br />
Asia <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Pacific<br />
Europe<br />
North America<br />
Southern Europe<br />
Central-Eastern Europe <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> CIS<br />
125<br />
120<br />
107<br />
100<br />
99<br />
95<br />
0 50 100 150 200<br />
%<br />
Source: CTS <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> World Pris<strong>on</strong> Populati<strong>on</strong> List<br />
12
I. The State of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
As suggested above, crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice shortcom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs also manifest themselves <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> low c<strong>on</strong>victi<strong>on</strong><br />
rates. Murder, a crime taken seriously everywhere <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the world, <strong>on</strong>ce aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> provides a good<br />
example. The chances of a murder result<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a c<strong>on</strong>victi<strong>on</strong> are much lower for murders <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other regi<strong>on</strong>s: around 11% (Figure 9). In South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, which has <strong>on</strong>e of the<br />
best police to public ratios <strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent, the share of murders that result <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a c<strong>on</strong>victi<strong>on</strong> is<br />
about 18%, compared to 56% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 61% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the UK. 24 In c<strong>on</strong>trast Ethiopia, with <strong>on</strong>e<br />
of the lowest police to public ratios <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, recorded 4893 murders <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2001 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 8660 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
2002, but returned just 224 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 310 murder c<strong>on</strong>victi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> those two years, respectively.<br />
While it is difficult to come up with credible rates when the number of offences is vary so<br />
drastically from year to year, this would <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate a murder c<strong>on</strong>victi<strong>on</strong> rate of less than 5%. If<br />
the chances of a murder result<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a c<strong>on</strong>victi<strong>on</strong> are less than <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 20, the deterrent effect<br />
of the crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice system is likely to be very weak, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> serial offenders may have l<strong>on</strong>g<br />
careers before be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g apprehended.<br />
Figure 9: Homicide c<strong>on</strong>victi<strong>on</strong> rates<br />
Europe<br />
69<br />
Oceania<br />
66<br />
Asia<br />
63<br />
America (Lat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>)<br />
46<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
11<br />
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80<br />
Source: UNODC CTS, various years<br />
Poor resource levels can manifest themselves <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other basic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>efficiencies. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to<br />
Schaerf, “In Malawi, the police <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many rural areas do not have the transport to collect<br />
suspects, the courts often run out of paper half way through the m<strong>on</strong>th <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> then can’t hear<br />
cases until more paper arrives, parties have to pay marshals to serve summ<strong>on</strong>ses, court<br />
records are written <strong>on</strong> already used documents <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> folders, some of the court build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs leak<br />
so badly that dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the ra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>y seas<strong>on</strong> court records get damaged.” 25<br />
Aside from the questi<strong>on</strong> of adequate numbers of pers<strong>on</strong>nel <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other resources, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n law<br />
enforcement faces a range of additi<strong>on</strong>al challenges. Many <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n nati<strong>on</strong>s are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the early<br />
years of democracy, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> time is needed for the crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice system to improve its image <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the eyes of the public. Without public support <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cooperati<strong>on</strong>, little progress will be made <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
reduc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g crime. In additi<strong>on</strong>, crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice agencies accustomed to an authoritarian approach<br />
require time to learn new tactics for deal<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with crime issues. There will necessarily be a<br />
period of reduced effectiveness as the system adjusts to democracy. Part of this process will<br />
mean extend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g service to communities neglected <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the past, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g rural residents,<br />
although this may be difficult given resource levels. For the police <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> particular, a wholesale<br />
reassessment of strategy is required. Many <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Kenya, Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, have taken this process very seriously.<br />
In c<strong>on</strong>trast to the grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g body of work <strong>on</strong> the military, very little research has been d<strong>on</strong>e <strong>on</strong><br />
polic<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Despite this, a few broad generalisati<strong>on</strong>s are possible: <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s police<br />
forces tend to be quasi-military <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>s, their work is not perceived as hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g much status,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n police officers tend to use more violence than their colleagues <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other parts of<br />
13
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the world. Police officers are also paid extremely poorly <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> this, comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed with their wide<br />
discreti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the weakness of the justice system’s checks <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> balances, tends to result <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
high levels of corrupti<strong>on</strong>. 26<br />
In the Transparency Internati<strong>on</strong>al Global Corrupti<strong>on</strong> Barometer surveys, resp<strong>on</strong>dents rated the<br />
various sectors of society <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of their percepti<strong>on</strong> of corrupti<strong>on</strong>. In all five <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<br />
countries polled <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2003 (Camero<strong>on</strong>, Nigeria, Kenya, Ghana, South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>), the police<br />
received the highest corrupti<strong>on</strong> rat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. This was true <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>ly n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e of the 57 n<strong>on</strong>-<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<br />
countries polled (16%), suggest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that the police are held <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> lower esteem <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
most other regi<strong>on</strong>s of the world. 27 In TI’s Kenya Urban Bribery Index, resp<strong>on</strong>dents claimed<br />
78% of their transacti<strong>on</strong>s with the police <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved requests for bribes, the highest <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cidence of<br />
any sector. In Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a, CIET<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al found the police were cited most often <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a<br />
corrupti<strong>on</strong> survey there (63%). 28 They also found that 35% of over 4500 households polled <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Tanzania had paid bribes to police officials. 29 In the latest Afrobarometer survey, 70% of<br />
Nigerians said they thought most or all of the police <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their country were corrupt. 30<br />
Police corrupti<strong>on</strong> impacts directly <strong>on</strong> the police’s ability to prevent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigate crime:<br />
corrupt members will, for example, devote time <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> energy to pursu<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g graft rather than to the<br />
fulfilment of their legal resp<strong>on</strong>sibilities. Police corrupti<strong>on</strong> also facilitates the commissi<strong>on</strong> of<br />
crime or the escape from justice by others, lead<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to more crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ality <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the society.<br />
Where the police are deemed corrupt, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ept, or under-resourced, people take measures to<br />
protect themselves. For the rich, this generally means <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestment <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> private security. For the<br />
poor, this can mean a return to traditi<strong>on</strong>al forms of justice.<br />
Traditi<strong>on</strong>al justice is not <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>herently <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ferior to Western justice, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> can be a quite effective<br />
way of reduc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the burden <strong>on</strong> the official crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice system, if well managed. But <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
areas experienc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g rapid social change, as is the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> much of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, it can quickly<br />
devolve <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to mere vigilantism. This is also true of official “neighbourhood watch”<br />
programmes. When poor people volunteer their time to protect their communities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stead of<br />
pursu<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>come-generat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g activities, they may eventually want someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> return. What<br />
starts out as an earnest drive to defend the community can devolve <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to a protecti<strong>on</strong> racket.<br />
And <strong>on</strong>ce a s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle group has the m<strong>on</strong>opoly <strong>on</strong> security <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an area, it may even become a<br />
predatory gang. 31 This phenomen<strong>on</strong> is discussed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Secti<strong>on</strong> 3.2 below.<br />
Thus, weak or corrupt law enforcement agencies can actually generate an additi<strong>on</strong>al crime<br />
problem when members of the public take the law <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to their own h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s. This is another way<br />
poorly resourced crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice systems can become a marker for underly<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g crime issues.<br />
Firearms<br />
The proliferati<strong>on</strong> of firearms, related <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> part to the recurrence of c<strong>on</strong>flict <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> all regi<strong>on</strong>s of the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> part to a grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sense of public <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>security, enables <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> aggravates violent<br />
crime. Globally, n<strong>on</strong>-c<strong>on</strong>flict related firearm deaths, such as from suicide or homicide, are<br />
estimated at approximately 200,000 per year. 32 There are sharp regi<strong>on</strong>al variati<strong>on</strong>s, however,<br />
with Lat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> America <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Caribbean show<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the highest number of recorded deaths. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
is generally rated the sec<strong>on</strong>d highest regi<strong>on</strong> for n<strong>on</strong>-c<strong>on</strong>flict-related firearm deaths, carry<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
18% of the global burden, with an estimated 4.2 to 6.5 firearm deaths per 100,000. 33 The<br />
WHO estimates that approximately 35% of homicides <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> are committed with a<br />
firearm. 34<br />
In terms of n<strong>on</strong>-fatal violent crime, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is affected also by the use of firearms <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> robbery,<br />
assaults <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> threats <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sexual offences, although at a lower level than homicides. Based <strong>on</strong><br />
an analysis of relevant resp<strong>on</strong>ses to ICVS, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> ranks sec<strong>on</strong>d <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the use of firearms <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
robberies (12.9%) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> first <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the use of firearms <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> assaults <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> threats (8.7%).<br />
14
I. The State of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
As will be elaborated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the discussi<strong>on</strong> of arms traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g below, not all firearms used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> are military weap<strong>on</strong>s, but the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased availability of guns, as well as the<br />
expertise to use them, is <strong>on</strong>e of the ways c<strong>on</strong>flict is associated with high crime levels. Others<br />
are discussed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g secti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
1.2 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g>, c<strong>on</strong>flict, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> transiti<strong>on</strong><br />
This secti<strong>on</strong> gives special attenti<strong>on</strong> to <strong>on</strong>e very important correlate of crime: c<strong>on</strong>flict. C<strong>on</strong>flict<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crime are associated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> at least two dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ct ways. First, the nature of war has changed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
recent years, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>temporary c<strong>on</strong>flicts have substantial overlaps with crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> organized<br />
crime. Sec<strong>on</strong>d, countries recover<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from war can anticipate elevated levels of crime due to<br />
the profound effects modern war has <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals, the social structure, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the state.<br />
There may have been a time when crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict were easy to differentiate, when wars<br />
were c<strong>on</strong>ducted between the professi<strong>on</strong>al armies of rival nati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> clearly del<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>eated<br />
battlefields <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crime was strictly a civilian matter. If so, those days are l<strong>on</strong>g past. Most wars<br />
today are civil wars, c<strong>on</strong>ducted by <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>surgent movements aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st the state, but <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
widespread loot<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> large numbers of civilian casualties.<br />
In these ‘new wars’, rebel groups face several challenges. In the post-Cold War world,<br />
f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ance for rebelli<strong>on</strong> is not as easy to come by as it <strong>on</strong>ce was, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crime is often the <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
source of fund<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. In the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n c<strong>on</strong>text, this has often meant natural resource smuggl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
Sell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g these commodities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> acquir<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g firearms despite embargoes requires deal<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs with<br />
transnati<strong>on</strong>al organized crime. Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>trol over wide areas despite the lack of str<strong>on</strong>g<br />
central leadership often leads to the commissi<strong>on</strong> of human rights violati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>temporary wars are also likely to generate crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ality <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the post-c<strong>on</strong>flict period. The<br />
mechanisms beh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d this effect are multiple <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> complex, but it is clear that societies disrupted<br />
by war do not immediately return to their former state of peace <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> stability. This means that<br />
areas suffer<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from widespread c<strong>on</strong>flict, such as <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, are also likely to experience high<br />
levels of crime of various sorts. Some of the possible ways c<strong>on</strong>flict can feed crime, even after<br />
the cessati<strong>on</strong> of active hostilities, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
• Psychological trauma. The traumatis<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g effects of violence <strong>on</strong> both the perpetrators <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the victims may result <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ‘cycles of violence’, reverberat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for generati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
• Disaster <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> displacement. The humanitarian disasters follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the end of the war can<br />
feed violence <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> enable organized crime, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the displacement of populati<strong>on</strong>s can result<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> further community c<strong>on</strong>flict, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the marg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>alisati<strong>on</strong> of refugees <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their host<br />
countries.<br />
• <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> as a post-c<strong>on</strong>flict livelihood. The educati<strong>on</strong> of young people <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the skills of<br />
violence, without alternative livelihoods <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the post-c<strong>on</strong>flict era, can result <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> extended<br />
careers as predators, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the creati<strong>on</strong> of profitable smuggl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g routes, which may not be<br />
suspended with the sign<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of peace treaties, can provide the basis for organized crime.<br />
• Loss of authority to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercede. The weaken<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the state <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the entrench<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of<br />
corrupti<strong>on</strong> can derail attempts at re-establish<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g order.<br />
Each of these effects is discussed further below.<br />
15
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s civil wars<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> has paid an enormous cost to wars. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the Protocol Relat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the<br />
Establishment of the Peace <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Security Council of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Uni<strong>on</strong>, “… no s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternal<br />
factor has c<strong>on</strong>tributed more to socioec<strong>on</strong>omic decl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e <strong>on</strong> the C<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the suffer<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of<br />
the civilian populati<strong>on</strong> than the scourge of c<strong>on</strong>flict…” Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the Strategic Plan of the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Uni<strong>on</strong> Commissi<strong>on</strong>, “Not less than 26 armed c<strong>on</strong>flicts erupted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> between<br />
1963 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1968 affect<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the lives of 474 milli<strong>on</strong> people represent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g 61% of the populati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
the C<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> claim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g over seven milli<strong>on</strong> lives.” 35<br />
Even if wars of liberati<strong>on</strong> are excluded, 20 countries <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sub-Saharan <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> have experienced<br />
at least <strong>on</strong>e period of war s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce 1960. 36 And while <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n peacekeep<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g has started to have<br />
real impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the last decade, c<strong>on</strong>flict still impacts <strong>on</strong> a disproporti<strong>on</strong>ate number of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns.<br />
At the turn of the century, <strong>on</strong>e fifth of all <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns lived <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> countries <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which severe c<strong>on</strong>flict<br />
was underway, 37 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> half of all the people who lost their lives to war were <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns. 38<br />
But there is also no deny<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> has made remarkable progress <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict resoluti<strong>on</strong><br />
very recently. Successful, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n-led, peace processes have helped to reduce c<strong>on</strong>flict across<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. For example:<br />
• After the deployment of a South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n-led <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n peace missi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Burundi (AMIB) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
2003 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the sign<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of a power shar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g agreement with the government <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Forces<br />
pour la Défense de la Démocratie (FDD), c<strong>on</strong>flict has subsided <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> all areas of the country<br />
besides Bujumbura Rurale, allow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g thous<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s of Burundian refugees to return to their<br />
homes. 39<br />
• While fight<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ues <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> several areas of the Democratic Republic of the C<strong>on</strong>go, the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n-led <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ter-C<strong>on</strong>golese dialogue culm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>at<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the sign<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the all-<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive peace<br />
agreement <strong>on</strong> 17 December 2002 was a major step toward restor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g order <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this vast<br />
country. 40<br />
These successes can be expected to c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ue with the ref<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ement of regi<strong>on</strong>al peacekeep<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
groups <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the applicati<strong>on</strong> of the NEPAD <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Peer Review Mechanism, which should<br />
help circumvent c<strong>on</strong>flict before it starts.<br />
All this will be happen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a world where c<strong>on</strong>flict has been <strong>on</strong> the decl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e. Globally, the<br />
number of c<strong>on</strong>flicts has reduced drastically s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce the end of the Cold War. The exact number<br />
of c<strong>on</strong>flicts depends <strong>on</strong> how they are def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed, but accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the Uppsala C<strong>on</strong>flict Data<br />
Programme (UCDP), there were 29 c<strong>on</strong>flicts globally <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2003, the lowest number s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce the<br />
early 1970s.<br />
Until recently, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> appeared to be buck<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this trend, but sub-Saharan <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> saw a sharp<br />
decl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> war <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2003, with <strong>on</strong>ly 10 recorded c<strong>on</strong>flicts (just over a third of the global total).<br />
This was a dramatic reducti<strong>on</strong> from previous six years, dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g which c<strong>on</strong>flicts had plateaued<br />
at about 15, affect<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g over a quarter of all <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n states. Table 1 below shows c<strong>on</strong>flicts s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce<br />
the end of the Cold War <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. This table is based <strong>on</strong> UCDP’s most recent annual report<br />
(2004) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> therefore does not reflect, for example, the c<strong>on</strong>flict <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Darfur <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sudan or the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued violence <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ituri <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Democratic Republic of the C<strong>on</strong>go.<br />
16
I. The State of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Table 1: <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n c<strong>on</strong>flicts <strong>on</strong>go<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g 1989-2003<br />
Opp<strong>on</strong>ent Started Ended<br />
Algeria Internal 1990 Ongo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Angola Internal with foreign <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volvement 1975 2002<br />
Burundi Internal 1991 Ongo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Camero<strong>on</strong> Nigeria 1994 1996<br />
CAR Internal 2001 2002<br />
Chad Internal 1987 2002<br />
Comoros Internal 1989, 1997 1989, 1997<br />
C<strong>on</strong>go Internal with foreign <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volvement 1993 2002<br />
Côte d'Ivoire Internal 2002 Ongo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Djibouti Internal 1991 1999<br />
DRC Internal with foreign <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volvement 1996 2001<br />
Egypt Internal 1981 1998<br />
Eritrea Internal 1993 Ongo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Eritrea Ethiopia 1998 2000<br />
Ethiopia Internal 1961 Ongo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Gu<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ea Internal 2000 2001<br />
Gu<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ea-Bissau Internal with foreign <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volvement 1998 1999<br />
Lesotho Internal with foreign <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volvement 1998 1998<br />
Liberia Internal 1989 2003<br />
Mali Internal 1990 1994<br />
Morocco Internal 1975 1989<br />
Mozambique Internal 1976 1992<br />
Niger Internal 1992 1997<br />
Nigeria Camero<strong>on</strong> 1994 1996<br />
Rw<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a Internal with foreign <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volvement 1990 Ongo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Senegal Internal 1982 Ongo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>e Internal with foreign <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volvement 1991 2000<br />
Somalia Internal 1981 2002<br />
Sudan Internal 1983 2003<br />
Togo Internal 1991 1991<br />
Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a Internal 1987 2002<br />
Source: Uppsala C<strong>on</strong>flict Data Programme<br />
17
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
The ambiguity of the new wars<br />
The nature of war has changed. At the beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the 20 th century, most wars were between<br />
states, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> few were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternal. Today, the opposite is the case. Of 116 c<strong>on</strong>flicts recorded by<br />
UCDP s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce the end of the Cold War (1989), <strong>on</strong>ly seven were between states – 109 were<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternal. 41<br />
Traditi<strong>on</strong>ally, war deaths are seen as dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ct from murders, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> loot<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is seen as different<br />
from garden-variety robbery <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> theft. But the emergence <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the post-Cold War era of the socalled<br />
‘new wars’, described by Kaldor as mixture between war, organized crime, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
massive human rights violati<strong>on</strong>s, has blurred this dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cti<strong>on</strong>. 42 While they are not unique to<br />
the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> has suffered more of these ‘new wars’ than any other regi<strong>on</strong> of the<br />
globe. The primary characteristics of the new wars <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude:<br />
• Civilians may be directly targeted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terror campaigns <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tended to assert political<br />
authority over wide areas. Public atrocities may be committed to force populati<strong>on</strong>s to<br />
submit.<br />
• Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to Kaldor, “the units that fight these wars <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude a disparate range of different<br />
types of groups, such as paramilitary units, local warlords, crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al gangs, police forces,<br />
mercenary groups <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> regular armies, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g breakaway units of regular armies.” 43<br />
• Combatant groups are often funded through crime, especially the deal<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of natural<br />
resources, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>erals <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> oil, poached wildlife, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> drugs.<br />
In a sense, these new wars represent the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formalisati<strong>on</strong> of warfare. Kaldor argues that the<br />
new wars “could almost be seen as a model for the c<strong>on</strong>temporary <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal ec<strong>on</strong>omy, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which<br />
privatised violence <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> unregulated social relati<strong>on</strong>s feed <strong>on</strong> each other.” 44 Without the formal<br />
structures of sovereign states pitt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g uniformed, hierarchically-c<strong>on</strong>trolled, professi<strong>on</strong>al armies<br />
aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st <strong>on</strong>e another, the l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es between war, crime, terrorism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess become blurred.<br />
The view that current forms of war have more <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> comm<strong>on</strong> with crime than those of the past<br />
has g<strong>on</strong>e bey<strong>on</strong>d theory <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> found purchase <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al law. The Internati<strong>on</strong>al Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al<br />
Court was created by the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2003 based <strong>on</strong> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>sensus that<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals should be held accountable for certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> egregious acts of war. In <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, the Special<br />
Court for Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Internati<strong>on</strong>al Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al Tribunal for Rw<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a were created<br />
al<strong>on</strong>gside the truth <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rec<strong>on</strong>ciliati<strong>on</strong> processes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> those countries.<br />
In the end, political <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al groups may be difficult to dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guish, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> both have an<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stability found <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> much of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. As Makarenko recently put it <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> her<br />
article “The crime-terror c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>uum”:<br />
“Instability is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest of terrorists because it dim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ishes the legitimacy<br />
of governments <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the eyes of the mass populati<strong>on</strong>s – the very group<br />
terrorists seek to ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> support from; <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> it is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest of crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al<br />
groups seek<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to maximise crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al operati<strong>on</strong>s. This is especially true for<br />
groups engaged <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> wide-scale smuggl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of licit or illicit commodities.” 45<br />
Wars for the wealth of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Debate around the role of natural resources <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> war first became widespread <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2000 with the<br />
publicati<strong>on</strong> of two documents: the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> report <strong>on</strong> the role of diam<strong>on</strong>d smuggl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the war <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Angola, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e of several papers by Paul Collier of the World Bank <strong>on</strong> the<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic causes of civil wars. 46 Collier, with Anke Hoeffler of Oxford, has argued that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries where 25% of the nati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>come is generated by natural resource exports,<br />
the risk of rebelli<strong>on</strong> is five times higher than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> countries where this is not the case. 47 Collier<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Hoeffler’s analysis of the correlates of civil war has become a po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t of departure for much<br />
of the subsequent debate, although many today questi<strong>on</strong> his c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> that ‘greed’ is more<br />
important than ‘grievance’ <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g rebelli<strong>on</strong>. 48 The most recent analysis has looked at<br />
18
I. The State of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the many mechanisms by which natural resource wealth <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict can <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract, 49 as well as<br />
at the role of natural resources <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> specific c<strong>on</strong>flicts. 50 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n c<strong>on</strong>flicts feature prom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ently <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
this debate, particularly the civil wars <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Angola (oil, diam<strong>on</strong>ds), C<strong>on</strong>go-Brazzaville (oil), the<br />
Democratic Republic of the C<strong>on</strong>go (copper, coltan, diam<strong>on</strong>ds, gold, cobalt), Liberia (timber,<br />
diam<strong>on</strong>ds, ir<strong>on</strong>, palm oil, cocoa, coffee, cannabis, rubber, gold), Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>e (diam<strong>on</strong>ds) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the Sudan (oil). 51<br />
The <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Uni<strong>on</strong> Commissi<strong>on</strong> believes that the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent’s wealth is an important factor <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
its vulnerability to war, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> its strategic plan notes, “…at the root of c<strong>on</strong>flicts are ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
stakes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cidental to exploitati<strong>on</strong> of natural or strategic wealth, at times with the<br />
encouragement of external sources.” 52 And the World Bank c<strong>on</strong>curs:<br />
“In many cases the warr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g facti<strong>on</strong>s are not try<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to take over the state<br />
apparatus, or resolve political <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social grievances—but try<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
later ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trol over export-based resources, such as diam<strong>on</strong>ds (e.g.,<br />
UNITA <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Angola, RUF <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>e), drugs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> logg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sometimes<br />
humanitarian aid. C<strong>on</strong>flicts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al activities are therefore closely<br />
l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ked. In some cases, such as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go, the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trol of export resources by foreign armies is allegedly a major cause for<br />
the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>uati<strong>on</strong> of the c<strong>on</strong>flict… C<strong>on</strong>flicts that have developed because of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternal political rivalries may… ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a momentum of their own. C<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>u<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic plunder may become both a key military objective <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a major<br />
source of resources to c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ue fight<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>e). Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al<br />
activities are at the core of the civil war ec<strong>on</strong>omy <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>.” 53 (emphasis<br />
added)<br />
One l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k between wealth <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> war is obvious: armed c<strong>on</strong>flict cannot occur where there is no<br />
m<strong>on</strong>ey for arms. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the Cold War, there was plentiful fund<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>surgency, but the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>temporary rebel must have someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to trade other than his professed adherence to an<br />
ideology <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> promises of future loyalty to a superpower. S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce most <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns are poor,<br />
loot<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g opportunities are likely to be limited to food acquisiti<strong>on</strong>. In countries where some<br />
porti<strong>on</strong> of the populati<strong>on</strong> is relatively wealthy, traditi<strong>on</strong>al crime is an opti<strong>on</strong>. 54 But <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many<br />
countries, the viability of an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>surrecti<strong>on</strong> may be directly tied to the availability of natural<br />
resources to plunder. This, it has been argued, makes states rich <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> natural resources<br />
especially unstable.<br />
But there is a big difference between see<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g natural resource wealth as an enabl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g factor <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
see<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al greed as a primary cause of c<strong>on</strong>flict. It would appear that most <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<br />
revoluti<strong>on</strong>s historically have had some root <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ideology or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ter-group c<strong>on</strong>flict, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> are<br />
someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g more than armed robbery writ large. The l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e can be blurred, however, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> human<br />
motivati<strong>on</strong>s are rarely clear-cut, particularly when discuss<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g large, unruly groups like rebel<br />
movements.<br />
The matter is complicated by the fact that the motivati<strong>on</strong>s of outside groups can be as<br />
important as those of the local cadres. Ross co<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s the term “booty futures” to describe the way<br />
rebel groups sell future extracti<strong>on</strong> rights to corporati<strong>on</strong>s or foreign governments <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> exchange<br />
for support <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> weap<strong>on</strong>ry. 55 This allows rebel groups to become viable even before they seize<br />
the resource produc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g areas of the country. Just as dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the Cold War, outside <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terests can<br />
turn a small group of disc<strong>on</strong>tents <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to a revoluti<strong>on</strong>ary army with c<strong>on</strong>siderable resources at its<br />
disposal. S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce this fund<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g enables violence that otherwise would never have occurred, the<br />
will<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gness of outside entities to engage <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> these transacti<strong>on</strong>s can be seen as a direct cause of<br />
c<strong>on</strong>flict <strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent. Pay<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an agent to commit violence <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order to acquire f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ancial<br />
benefits would be c<strong>on</strong>sidered a crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> most systems of justice.<br />
Insurgents can succeed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> acquir<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g access to nati<strong>on</strong>al wealth <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a number of ways. The most<br />
obvious is to murder the President <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> assume his office. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Uni<strong>on</strong><br />
19
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Commissi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> experienced 186 coups d’état between 1956 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2001, half of which<br />
occurred <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the 1980s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 90s. 56<br />
Another form of rebelli<strong>on</strong> is secessi<strong>on</strong>, where the disadvantaged group attempts to form an<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent state – from the perspective of the state, a massive theft of l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> resources. In<br />
order for a secessi<strong>on</strong>ist movement to succeed, the disadvantaged populati<strong>on</strong> must believe that<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s would be better under self-rule than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the present dispensati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> this is a far<br />
easier case to make when the proposed new nati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s vast resources. S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce these<br />
commodities are generally extracted far from the centres of power, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the poorer areas of the<br />
country, it requires little persuasi<strong>on</strong> to c<strong>on</strong>v<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce the resident populati<strong>on</strong> that this is a violati<strong>on</strong><br />
of their property rights, especially if they are ethnically different from the group <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> power.<br />
And s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce the divisi<strong>on</strong> of states is rooted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> col<strong>on</strong>ialism <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> any case, there is little moral<br />
impediment to repudiat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g these borders.<br />
Public corrupti<strong>on</strong> can also <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease the likelihood of a civil war, as the percepti<strong>on</strong> of<br />
corrupti<strong>on</strong> makes it easier to mobilise the public aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st the government. The case for<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>surgency is bolstered by the percepti<strong>on</strong> that the country’s elite is directly pocket<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
proceeds of the resource extracti<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> this too is often the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> natural resource<br />
dependent countries. The World Bank asserts, “Rent seek<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g behaviour can be especially<br />
pr<strong>on</strong>ounced <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> countries that have a high level of dependence <strong>on</strong> exports of m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>erals, oil, or<br />
other natural resources.” 57 Transparency Internati<strong>on</strong>al (TI) notes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> its most recent corrupti<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dex that oil-produc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g states are far more likely to suffer from corrupti<strong>on</strong>. Oil-rich Angola,<br />
Azerbaijan, Chad, Ecuador, Ind<strong>on</strong>esia, Iran, Iraq, Kazakhstan, Libya, Nigeria, Russia, Sudan,<br />
Venezuela <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Yemen all have extremely low scores <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the 2004 TI rank<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. 58 There are<br />
excepti<strong>on</strong>s, of course, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent’s model of stability <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> good governance,<br />
Botswana, which is highly dependent <strong>on</strong> diam<strong>on</strong>ds. Skimm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g some largesse off the top of<br />
massive cash flows <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> countries with low capacity for state or civil society oversight is easy.<br />
The fact that this m<strong>on</strong>ey is, essentially, grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> trees may make embezzlement more<br />
palatable for corrupt officials.<br />
Thus, natural resources can provide fuel for both greed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> grievance, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> they provide a vital<br />
source of fund<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for rebel groups. The extent to which these motivati<strong>on</strong>s become blurred <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds of participants is unclear. The smuggl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sale of the stolen resources is,<br />
essentially, an organized crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al activity, whatever the political legitimacy of the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>surrecti<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> often <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volves the use of established organized crime networks, particularly<br />
for market<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the c<strong>on</strong>trab<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> overseas. What starts out as a liberati<strong>on</strong> struggle can be<br />
subverted by the massive pers<strong>on</strong>al wealth available to rebel leaders. In the end, human<br />
motivati<strong>on</strong> is rarely clear cut, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> whether the refusal of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>surgents to come to the negotiat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
table is rooted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cipled differences or because democratic peace threatens the<br />
accumulati<strong>on</strong> of pers<strong>on</strong>al fortunes is debatable <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> each case. Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenti<strong>on</strong>s can thus<br />
prol<strong>on</strong>g what may have started out as a political war.<br />
In his paper ‘Rebelli<strong>on</strong> as a quasi-crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al activity’, Collier argues that there is a “c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>uum<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the scale of crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al violence, from the violent robbery committed by <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual <strong>on</strong><br />
another through gangs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mafias, up to large scale c<strong>on</strong>flicts with the state.” 59 Here <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
elsewhere, 60 Collier goes <strong>on</strong> to argue that the dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cti<strong>on</strong> between street crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rebelli<strong>on</strong> is<br />
more than a matter of scale, however. The extent to which this is true is likely to vary from<br />
case to case. A look at three emblematic case studies is helpful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this regard: Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>e,<br />
Angola, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Democratic Republic of the C<strong>on</strong>go.<br />
Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>e<br />
Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>e provides an excellent example of how what is ostensibly a civil war can<br />
substantially overlap with organized crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract with the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terests of terrorists. When a<br />
country is so deprived that the government does not c<strong>on</strong>trol large parts of its own territory,<br />
this l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> area can become a stag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ground for organized crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> terror activities. This is<br />
especially true <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the presence of m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>eral, oil, or drug wealth.<br />
20
I. The State of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Thus when the President of Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>e, Ahmed Tejan Kabbah, described the war <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> his<br />
country as a crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al enterprise <strong>on</strong> a nati<strong>on</strong>al scale, he was not necessarily engag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
hyperbole. 61 The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al community seems to agree with him <strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>e level, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> has<br />
taken acti<strong>on</strong> accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly. The Special Court for Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>e describes the activities of the<br />
primary rebel group – the Revoluti<strong>on</strong>ary <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> Fr<strong>on</strong>t (RUF) as a “jo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al enterprise”<br />
to seize c<strong>on</strong>trol of the diam<strong>on</strong>d wealth of the country, employ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a range of brutal tactics to<br />
do so, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, “unlawful kill<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, abducti<strong>on</strong>s, forced labour, physical <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sexual violence,<br />
use of child soldiers, burn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> loot<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of civilian structures…” The Court holds specific<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the former President of Liberia, Charles Taylor, pers<strong>on</strong>ally crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>sible for their part <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> these crimes. 62<br />
How did crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>e? From the outset, the war was somewhat<br />
c<strong>on</strong>fus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for outside observers, due to its diffuse nature, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sp<strong>on</strong>taneous acts of loot<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
violence were difficult to discern from the official <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>surgency. Here as everywhere, the<br />
disorder of war facilitated much sp<strong>on</strong>taneous crime. While the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itial wave of RUF cadres,<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a Northern <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n country, might have had an ideological case for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>surrecti<strong>on</strong><br />
given the widespread percepti<strong>on</strong> that the government of the day was corrupt, they were small<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> number <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> were unlikely to succeed without substantial fund<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. The obvious source, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the key reas<strong>on</strong> they were backed by former Liberian President Charles Taylor, was the<br />
country’s diam<strong>on</strong>d wealth.<br />
The illicit market <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>ean diam<strong>on</strong>ds was not generated by the c<strong>on</strong>flict, however,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> had existed s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce at least the 1950s, 63 with the diam<strong>on</strong>d produc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g areas of the country<br />
hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g been l<strong>on</strong>g plagued by crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al gangs. As a result, the country’s official diam<strong>on</strong>d<br />
export figures have historically born little resemblance to the real value of the st<strong>on</strong>es that<br />
show up at the Antwerp diam<strong>on</strong>d exchange. 64 This un-regulated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dustry, with all its<br />
organized crime c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong>s, was ripe to be plucked by an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>surgent movement. It would<br />
appear that the focus <strong>on</strong> diam<strong>on</strong>ds <strong>on</strong>ly came relatively late <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>flict, however.<br />
Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the UN Panel of Experts Report:<br />
“Until 1995, RUF diam<strong>on</strong>d m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> digg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g was probably d<strong>on</strong>e <strong>on</strong> a<br />
sporadic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual basis. By 1995, however, the RUF <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> its patr<strong>on</strong>s<br />
were clearly tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a much greater <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the diam<strong>on</strong>d fields of K<strong>on</strong>o<br />
District, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> had to be removed forcefully at that time by the private military<br />
company, Executive Outcomes. From then <strong>on</strong>, the RUF <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> diam<strong>on</strong>ds<br />
became more focused, especially with the 1997 impris<strong>on</strong>ment of Foday<br />
Sankoh <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Nigeria. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g his impris<strong>on</strong>ment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> subsequently, the diam<strong>on</strong>d<br />
areas of K<strong>on</strong>o <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> T<strong>on</strong>go Field became a primary military focus of the RUF,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> diam<strong>on</strong>d m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g became a major fund-rais<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g exercise.” 65<br />
The Panel goes <strong>on</strong> to review claims that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual RUF leaders embezzled large amounts of<br />
diam<strong>on</strong>d wealth, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g allegati<strong>on</strong>s that at least <strong>on</strong>e rebel leader bought himself houses <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Liberia <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> France, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>cludes:<br />
“While the total generated by the RUF, whether it is $25 milli<strong>on</strong>, $70 milli<strong>on</strong><br />
or $125 milli<strong>on</strong>, is very small <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> relati<strong>on</strong> to the global annual output of<br />
diam<strong>on</strong>ds, it nevertheless represents a major <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> primary source of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>come<br />
to the RUF, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is more than enough to susta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> its military effort.” 66<br />
Of course, movements like the RUF would not be able to capitalise <strong>on</strong> natural resources<br />
without a market for their produce. This market is readily found <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al organized<br />
crime. Aside from evad<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g taxes, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al organized crime has a str<strong>on</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
smuggl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g diam<strong>on</strong>ds for a range of reas<strong>on</strong>s. They are a perfect way of launder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g m<strong>on</strong>ey,<br />
s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce, unlike many other m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>eral commodities, they are valued <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividually, not by weight.<br />
This opens an area of ambiguity <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> value through which funds can be laundered. They are<br />
readily c<strong>on</strong>vertible to cash but are lighter <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> easier to c<strong>on</strong>ceal than just about any other<br />
21
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
commodity. This facilitates cross border movement of value. An unregulated supply of<br />
diam<strong>on</strong>ds is thus of great <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest to organized crime, as well as terrorist, groups.<br />
The RUF got <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved with organized crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> terrorism <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a wide range of ways:<br />
• The RUF bought guns from the Russian Mafia, as documented <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the prosecuti<strong>on</strong> of gun<br />
trafficker Le<strong>on</strong>id M<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>. 67<br />
• Al-Qaeda affiliates bought huge amounts of c<strong>on</strong>flict diam<strong>on</strong>ds prior to the September 11<br />
bomb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, perhaps anticipat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the worldwide seizure of funds that the Americans<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>se. 68<br />
• Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>e’s civil war (1991-2002), ECOWAS peacekeepers allegedly imported<br />
drugs illegally to sell to their ostensible enemies, members of the rebel RUF. 69<br />
• The Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>e police report that members of the Armed Forces Rul<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Council, the<br />
junta that had power <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1997-8, themselves pi<strong>on</strong>eered the use of Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>e as a transit<br />
po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al drug trade. 70<br />
Established states could be expected to c<strong>on</strong>fr<strong>on</strong>t c<strong>on</strong>siderable <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al pressure if they<br />
were known to be deal<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with the Russian Mafia, Al-Qaeda, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> drug lords, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> so the<br />
disorder of rebelli<strong>on</strong> may be required for crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>als <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> terrorists to access desired resources.<br />
War funds crime, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>als fund the war.<br />
Angola<br />
Angola has both diam<strong>on</strong>d <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> oil wealth, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is highly dependent <strong>on</strong> these resources <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an<br />
otherwise under-developed country. Although the civil war <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that country had ideological<br />
orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the end it came down to the leadership of <strong>on</strong>e man: J<strong>on</strong>as Malheiro Savimbi. The<br />
best evidence of this is that when Savimbi was killed, the war came to an end very quickly.<br />
Savimbi rejected the 1992 electi<strong>on</strong> results <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> reneged <strong>on</strong> peace agreements time <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>;<br />
obviously, he had more to ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> from a nati<strong>on</strong> at war than a nati<strong>on</strong> at peace. He was the ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
reas<strong>on</strong> that, for the first time <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> history, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Security Council imposed<br />
sancti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> a political movement. 71 He was also br<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed a war crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al by the Southern<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> Community, 72 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> his crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ality allegedly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved more than crimes<br />
aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st humanity. The M<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Mechanism <strong>on</strong> Angola Sancti<strong>on</strong>s had little luck <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> trac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
funds associated with the war, but noted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> October 2002:<br />
“The crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al networks who greedily profited from this c<strong>on</strong>flict, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> whose<br />
participati<strong>on</strong> was essential, have not been fully identified, prosecuted or<br />
elim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ated. Rather, they have merely g<strong>on</strong>e underground, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the likelihood is<br />
that they are operat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from countries still embroiled <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict.” 73<br />
Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the Cold War, Savimbi was supported by the US, Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the apartheid<br />
government <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. 74 When this fund<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g dried up, he fought to occupy the diam<strong>on</strong>d<br />
rich areas of the country, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> allegedly harvested milli<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> perhaps billi<strong>on</strong>s, of dollars <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
resources <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this way. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al Report of the M<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Mechanism <strong>on</strong> Angola<br />
Sancti<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
“The closest <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dustry estimate for UNITA’s m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g output for 1996 was $800<br />
milli<strong>on</strong> out of the total output from Angola of $1.2 billi<strong>on</strong>. In 1997 UNITA’s<br />
output was worth $600 milli<strong>on</strong>, from a total known Angola producti<strong>on</strong> of<br />
$960 milli<strong>on</strong>.” 75<br />
As was the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>e, this brought the rebel leadership <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to c<strong>on</strong>tact with great<br />
wealth <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> organized crime c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong>s. As <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>e, Angola’s diam<strong>on</strong>d trade has<br />
been l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ked to Russian organized crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the pers<strong>on</strong> of Victor Bout, the owner of Air Cess, a<br />
company that features prom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ently <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Supplementary Report of the<br />
M<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Mechanism <strong>on</strong> Sancti<strong>on</strong>s aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st UNITA. 76<br />
22
I. The State of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Today, crime is seen as be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a major impediment to development <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the country. Angola is<br />
perceived to suffer from high levels of corrupti<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to an IMF report, almost<br />
US$1 billi<strong>on</strong> disappeared from Angolan government funds <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2001 al<strong>on</strong>e, about 10% of the<br />
country’s GDP. 77 Angola has become a transit po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al coca<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, due<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> part to its language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong>s to Brazil. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to Jane’s:<br />
“…Organized crime is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated as a serious problem <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
of, am<strong>on</strong>g other commodities, diam<strong>on</strong>ds, narcotics <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> war surplus small<br />
arms. To a c<strong>on</strong>siderable extent, such crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al activity was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>alised<br />
by UNITA as part of its war ec<strong>on</strong>omy, which placed Angola at the hub of a<br />
network of crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al enterprise, work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g symbiotically with crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al elements<br />
of regi<strong>on</strong>al governments <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> security forces. C<strong>on</strong>flict <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the two C<strong>on</strong>gos <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
served to deepen crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al penetrati<strong>on</strong> across their remote fr<strong>on</strong>tiers with<br />
Angola. While UNITA was defeated <strong>on</strong> the battlefield <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2001-02, this also<br />
provided an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>centive for some elements to complete the transiti<strong>on</strong> from<br />
military to transnati<strong>on</strong>al crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al activity.” 78<br />
The Democratic Republic of the C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
The role of natural resources <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>flict <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Democratic Republic of the C<strong>on</strong>go is<br />
documented <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> two reports to the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Security Council. These reports argue that<br />
follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the outbreak of war <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1998, rebels, backed by some of the country’s neighbours,<br />
seized stockpiles of m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>erals, coffee, timber <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> livestock. Follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this period of “massscale<br />
loot<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,” exploitati<strong>on</strong> of resources became more “systemic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> systematic,” tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
form of outright c<strong>on</strong>fiscati<strong>on</strong>, extracti<strong>on</strong>, forced m<strong>on</strong>opoly <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> price-fix<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. 79 These<br />
approaches dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> high levels of organisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sometimes access to expensive capital<br />
equipment. They were possible, therefore, <strong>on</strong>ly with the collusi<strong>on</strong> or negligence of senior<br />
military, political <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> adm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>istrative figures <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Democratic Republic of the C<strong>on</strong>go <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
some of its neighbours. This further illustrates the relati<strong>on</strong>ship between the illegal exploitati<strong>on</strong><br />
of natural resources <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> public sector corrupti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
While m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>eral wealth has been the primary source of rebel <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>comes, there are also other<br />
illegal commodities that can be dealt through organized crime channels. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the<br />
2003 Report of the Internati<strong>on</strong>al Narcotics C<strong>on</strong>trol Board:<br />
“Informati<strong>on</strong> gathered from war-torn countries <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Western <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Central<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> particular <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Central <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Republic, Côte d’Ivoire <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Liberia, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicates that the arms <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ammuniti<strong>on</strong>s used by rebel groups <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al organizati<strong>on</strong>s to destabilize those subregi<strong>on</strong>s may have been partly<br />
procured with the proceeds of illicit drug traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.” 80<br />
It is also alleged that both RENAMO <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Mozambique <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> UNITA <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Angola engaged <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ivory<br />
smuggl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, with the assistance of the apartheid government <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
1980s, an estimated 60 000 to 100 000 elephants were killed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> UNITA-c<strong>on</strong>trolled areas. Both<br />
RENAMO <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Mozambican army troops have been charged with poach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the elephant<br />
populati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that country down from 65 000 to 7 000 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the 1980s. Ivory poach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is also<br />
alleged to have funded the Sudanese People’s Liberati<strong>on</strong> Army, through poach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g safaris <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to<br />
the neighbour<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Central <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Republic, where the elephant populati<strong>on</strong> dropped from 80<br />
000 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1975 to 15 000 a decade later. Cross-border poach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g safaris were also claimed as part<br />
of “ec<strong>on</strong>omic warfare” c<strong>on</strong>ducted by the Barre regime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Somalia <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> reacti<strong>on</strong> to a border<br />
dispute with neighbour<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Kenya. Rh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>o horn was also targeted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some of these <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stances. 81<br />
In the end, it becomes very difficult to locate the po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t at which rebels stop collect<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for the<br />
cause <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> start collect<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for themselves. As Bangura has commented <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> relati<strong>on</strong> to the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>flict <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>e, “<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> countries rich <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> natural resources … the political goals of wars<br />
often <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract with the multiple logics of resource appropriati<strong>on</strong>.” 82 S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce their movements are<br />
illegal <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their home countries, they are left with little choice but to f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ance themselves by<br />
23
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
crime. In the case of smuggl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g natural resources, this means establish<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong>s, the use of which may spill over <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to peacetime, as discussed below.<br />
Regardless of the extent to which the c<strong>on</strong>flict is politically or crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally motivated, war has a<br />
devastat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g effect <strong>on</strong> societies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> peoples. Some of the ways that c<strong>on</strong>flict impacts <strong>on</strong> crime<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the post-c<strong>on</strong>flict period are discussed below.<br />
Cycles of violence<br />
“In some countries, c<strong>on</strong>flicts have raged for so l<strong>on</strong>g that children have<br />
grown <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to adults without ever know<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g peace. I have spoken to a child who<br />
was raped by soldiers when she was just n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e years old. I have witnessed the<br />
anguish of a mother who saw her children blown to pieces by l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>-m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
their fields, just when she believed they had made it home safely after the<br />
war. I have listened to children forced to watch while their families were<br />
brutally slaughtered. I have heard the bitter remorse of 15-year-old exsoldiers<br />
mourn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g their lost childhood <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>nocence, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> I have been<br />
chilled listen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to children who have been so manipulated by adults <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> so<br />
corrupted by their experiences of c<strong>on</strong>flict that they could not recognize the<br />
evil of which they had been a part.”<br />
- Graça Machel, Pers<strong>on</strong>al Note to the UN Report <strong>on</strong> the Impact of Armed C<strong>on</strong>flict <strong>on</strong><br />
Children, 1996 (emphasis added)<br />
It is characteristic of the new wars that civilians are far more likely to be targeted than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
past. As Kaldor notes, “the goal is to capture territory through political c<strong>on</strong>trol rather than<br />
military success. And political c<strong>on</strong>trol is ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed through terror … Populati<strong>on</strong><br />
displacement, massacres, widespread atrocities are not just the side effects of war; they are a<br />
deliberate strategy for political c<strong>on</strong>trol.” 83 This is true <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> recent c<strong>on</strong>flicts both outside <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
The psychological impact of be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g exposed to these horrors, either as a perpetrator or as a<br />
victim, is <strong>on</strong>ly now be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g fully explored. While it is offensive to assume that those<br />
traumatised by violence will determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>istically visit it up others, it is equally unwise to ignore<br />
the impact that widespread exposure to brutality is likely to have <strong>on</strong> a populati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Increas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly, the civilian populati<strong>on</strong> is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenti<strong>on</strong>ally traumatised by horrific violence,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g systematic rape, child rape, mutilati<strong>on</strong>, torture, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g forced to perform violent<br />
or sexually violent acts aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st loved <strong>on</strong>es. These crimes are seen <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> new wars worldwide,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>flicts <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Lat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> America, Eastern Europe, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
As the World Bank argues <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> its October 2004 paper “Post-c<strong>on</strong>flict Peace Build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>”:<br />
“By engender<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g impunity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> thus c<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g serious crimes (murder,<br />
b<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>itry, rape), civil war corrupts the fabric of the society, with the overall<br />
effect of lower<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of ethical st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards, creat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an envir<strong>on</strong>ment that breeds<br />
crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> corrupti<strong>on</strong>.” 84<br />
In a review of the relati<strong>on</strong>ship between civil wars <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> homicide rates, Collier <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Hoeffler<br />
found that the experience of civil war appears to raise the per capita rate of homicide by about<br />
25% for a period of five years after the end of combat, irrespective of other changes such as to<br />
the level of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>come, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>equality or the nature of state <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>s. 85 Look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at the postc<strong>on</strong>flict<br />
situati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Central America, Rogers notes, “… crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al violence is now so prevalent<br />
that levels of violence are comparable, or even higher than dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the decade of war that<br />
affected the regi<strong>on</strong> dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the 1980s.” 86<br />
The impact of this trauma is clearly much greater for children. In the UN Report <strong>on</strong> the<br />
Impact of Armed C<strong>on</strong>flict <strong>on</strong> Children, two thirds of the Angolan children <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terviewed had<br />
seen people murdered. In Rw<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a, 56% had seen children kill people, nearly 80% had lost<br />
immediate family members, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 16% had been forced to hide under dead bodies. More than<br />
24
I. The State of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
60% of the Rw<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>an children <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terviewed said they did not care whether they ever grew up. 87<br />
Exposure to violence has been found by crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ologists to be a comm<strong>on</strong> feature <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
upbr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs of violent crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>als.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong> to this extreme victimisati<strong>on</strong>, numerous studies have found that human be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs are<br />
not, by nature, killers, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that even the majority of tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed combat troops do not will<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly<br />
fire at the enemy. 88 Overcom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g these <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cts can be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>credibly stressful for those forced to<br />
kill by duress or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> self-defence. Aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, the impact of be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g forced to kill is likely to be much<br />
greater when the perpetrator is a child. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to Gray:<br />
“Because of frequently truncated moral development, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> psychological<br />
effects suffered, child soldiers risk <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volvement <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>u<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g cycles of<br />
violence. Violence becomes a way of life…They may also become more<br />
susceptible to later recruitment <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to armed groups. In cases where children<br />
view c<strong>on</strong>flict as normal, waves of crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al violence are likely to follow<br />
political violence because youths have been socialised <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to such a<br />
system…” 89<br />
Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the Coaliti<strong>on</strong> to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers, up to 100,000 children, some as<br />
young as n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, were estimated to be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> armed c<strong>on</strong>flict <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> mid-2004 across <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. 90<br />
The Coaliti<strong>on</strong> notes that <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is the worst affected area of the world <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this regard, with<br />
about a third of global child soldiers be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n. Child soldiers have been used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>flicts <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Angola, Burundi, C<strong>on</strong>go-Brazzaville, the Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go (DRC),<br />
Ethiopia, Liberia, Rw<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a, Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>e, Sudan <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a.<br />
The widespread use of children <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> combat <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is partly a result of the demographics of<br />
the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent – <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many countries, the majority of the populati<strong>on</strong> is under 18. But this does not<br />
change the fact that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict-ridden areas of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, many young people have killed at an<br />
age at which they would not be allowed to view violence <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a movie theatre <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> developed<br />
countries. Too often, some of the first victims were their own neighbours <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> loved <strong>on</strong>es,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g other children.<br />
In some <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stances, girls are also abducted as soldiers or as sex-slaves for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>surgent groups.<br />
The impact of this <strong>on</strong>go<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g victimisati<strong>on</strong> goes bey<strong>on</strong>d the psychological. Some cultures<br />
regard raped girls as “ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ted” <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> thus unmarriageable. As a result, the social impact of<br />
victimisati<strong>on</strong> can be quite extended. Boys too may have trouble re-<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> communities<br />
where they are viewed with suspici<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> fear. Children who cannot f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d a home may w<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<br />
up <strong>on</strong> the streets, with few other opti<strong>on</strong>s for survival than begg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, prostituti<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> petty<br />
crime. 91<br />
Child soldiers are also subjected to the abuse of alcohol <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> drugs, which can have l<strong>on</strong>glast<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
repercussi<strong>on</strong>s. Substance dependency may become a way of self-medicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to<br />
alleviate the pa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> of past trauma. The creati<strong>on</strong> of a market for drugs dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the c<strong>on</strong>flict<br />
ensures a role for organized crime after the peace treaties have been signed.<br />
The c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued use of the skills of war<br />
The effects of dislocati<strong>on</strong> caused by war can be l<strong>on</strong>g last<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. The use of l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es can<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terfere with the resumpti<strong>on</strong> of agriculture. Disrupted communities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> markets may take a<br />
l<strong>on</strong>g time to recover, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> disputes over l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, property, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> positi<strong>on</strong> are likely. Educati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
disrupti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> loss of parents may mean young people possess few if any skills bey<strong>on</strong>d those<br />
of warfare. The most obvious peacetime applicati<strong>on</strong> for these skills is crime.<br />
Soldiers may recognise this dilemma even before hostilities end. “Many soldiers would rather<br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ue to fight than to face unemployment, homelessness, loss of social status, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a highly<br />
uncerta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> political future <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an uncerta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> post-war era.” 92 If ‘forced’ <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to peace, their <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
productive assets may be their guns. Violence may be their most viable livelihood strategy.<br />
25
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g specifically about recovery from c<strong>on</strong>flict <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, the World Bank asserts, “The<br />
civil war creates a cadre of young people experienced <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the use of deadly weap<strong>on</strong>s who, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the process of unc<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al terroriz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g war, develop a ‘mercenary mentality’ that would<br />
underp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ality …” 93 And there is evidence that employment opportunities do exist.<br />
Over two-thirds of the Liberian ex-combatants recently <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terviewed by Human Rights Watch<br />
said they had been asked to jo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fight<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g “missi<strong>on</strong>s” <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Gu<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ea <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Côte d’Ivoire. 94<br />
As crime is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly a form of fund<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for wars, the opti<strong>on</strong>s for ex-combatants may be<br />
wider than just c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued pillag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong>s ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> natural resource<br />
smuggl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g may provide an alternative way of mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, especially if the resource base<br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ues to be vulnerable.<br />
For example, the Nigerian Civil War was fought when m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ority groups situated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
Southeast of the country attempted to secede from Nigeria, tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the oil-produc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g areas of<br />
the country with them. The state’s resp<strong>on</strong>se was to lay siege to the area, starv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the rebels<br />
out. Smuggl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g became a lifel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e under these c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
While the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>surgency was eventually defeated, the smuggl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the form of ‘oil<br />
bunker<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g’. In today’s Nigeria, crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al gangs steal large amounts of crude oil from pipel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ship it <strong>on</strong> river barges to larger craft offshore. It is a massive <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dustry, with high end<br />
estimates of its value rang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from US$4 billi<strong>on</strong> 95 to US$6 billi<strong>on</strong> 96 a year, or over 10% of<br />
Nigeria’s oil producti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
These operati<strong>on</strong>s are <strong>on</strong>ly possible because the Niger Delta rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s a highly unstable part of<br />
the country. The violence there is not c<strong>on</strong>sidered a civil war, although it arguably meets the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al criteria of 1000 battle deaths a year. 97 It comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es elements of political dissent<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ethnic c<strong>on</strong>flict with crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> corrupti<strong>on</strong>. It highlights the way that natural resources theft<br />
can fuel both political <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stability <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> transnati<strong>on</strong>al organized crime.<br />
Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to V<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es:<br />
“[The Delta] provides these illicit networks with an envir<strong>on</strong>ment which has a<br />
pool of unemployed youth <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> armed ethnic militias who know the terra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
well. They also face a corrupt or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>effective law enforcement effort, coupled<br />
[with] a weak judicial process. These networks also enjoy patr<strong>on</strong>age from<br />
senior government officials <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> politicians, who use bunker<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g as a source<br />
for political campaign<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.” 98<br />
In September 2004, the leader of the Niger Delta People’s Volunteer Force (NDPVF), Alhaji<br />
Asari, threatened to launch an “all out war” aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st the Nigerian government unless more<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trol over the oil <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dustry was given to the local Ijaw people. The NDPVF was already “at<br />
war” at that time with a rival Ijaw armed group, the Niger Delta Vigilante (NDV), for c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
of illegal oil revenues. The Nigerian government <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itially dismissed the threat, labell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Asari<br />
a “gangster,” but later he was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vited by President Obasanjo with his counterpart <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the NDV<br />
to negotiate a ceasefire that resulted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a quell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of hostilities. 99<br />
Violence am<strong>on</strong>g rival gangs fight<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for “bunker<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g turf” <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trol of local towns <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
villages is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terfer<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with development <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the area. Schools <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>esses have been closed<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> milli<strong>on</strong>s of dollars worth of property destroyed. The latest war between the NDPVF <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the NDV is <strong>on</strong>ly the most recent <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a series of c<strong>on</strong>flicts <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the area: while the present c<strong>on</strong>flict<br />
is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rivers State between two Ijaw groups, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2003 violence between Ijaw <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Itsekeri<br />
groups <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the neighbour<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Delta State also resulted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> hundreds of casualties. 100 And the<br />
ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> protag<strong>on</strong>ists are <strong>on</strong>ly the largest of more than 100 smaller groups, known locally as<br />
‘cults’, with names like the KKK, the Germans, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Mafia Lords. These groups trade oil<br />
for guns, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> also claim to have received weap<strong>on</strong>ry from local political leaders. Whatever<br />
political grievances or l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ks may be cited, the violence is largely a product of hundreds of<br />
small operators engaged <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> what Human Rights Watch calls “Nigeria’s most profitable private<br />
bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess.” 101<br />
26
I. The State of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Of course, oil-theft would be impossible if it were not for will<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g buyers, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volvement<br />
of outsiders <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the trade is well-documented. The oil bunker<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g syndicates are highly<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g not <strong>on</strong>ly other West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns, but also Moroccans, Venezuelans,<br />
Lebanese, French <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Russians, for example. By these means, oil bunker<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ks to wider<br />
patterns of organized crime, with cash, drugs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> weap<strong>on</strong>s all be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g traded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> exchange for<br />
illegal oil. A typical oil-bunker<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g case was reported <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a Nigerian newspaper <strong>on</strong> 22 April<br />
2004, report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the arrest by the Nigerian navy of a ship loaded with 8,000 metric t<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
crude oil without valid papers. Its crew of eight foreigners was also arrested. 102<br />
South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> also provides good evidence that smuggl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g routes established dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>flict<br />
times c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ue to be used <strong>on</strong>ce relative stability returns. Both the resistance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the sancti<strong>on</strong>sbust<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
apartheid state smuggled people, arms, m<strong>on</strong>ey, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other c<strong>on</strong>trab<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> out of the<br />
country dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the struggle for democracy. These routes are presently be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g used to move<br />
drugs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> stolen vehicles, am<strong>on</strong>g other th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, out of the country. 103<br />
Thus, what had been a fund<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g source for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>surgency can quickly be c<strong>on</strong>verted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to an<br />
organized crime activity, with new commodities dealt to exist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g crime c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong>s or al<strong>on</strong>g<br />
exist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g channels, as will be discussed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g secti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Disaster, displacement, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crime<br />
The l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ks between humanitarian disasters, whether they are natural or man-made, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crime<br />
are presently the subject of research. It would appear that the disorder caused by war, with its<br />
loss of livelihoods, possible fam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> spread of disease, can be as stressful as the c<strong>on</strong>flict<br />
itself. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to Lac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Gleditsch, “…many c<strong>on</strong>flicts are characterized by numbers of<br />
n<strong>on</strong>-violent deaths due to humanitarian crisis that far surpass the lives lost <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> combat.” These<br />
deaths can occur dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the war or after the cessati<strong>on</strong> of hostilities. Lac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Gleditsch list<br />
n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e recent wars <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which less than 30% of the deaths were due to combat, all of them <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. 104 In the Democratic Republic of the C<strong>on</strong>go, survey work by the Internati<strong>on</strong>al Rescue<br />
Committee <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated that battle deaths c<strong>on</strong>stituted <strong>on</strong>ly 6% of the deaths due to the war<br />
between 1998 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2001. 105<br />
The impact of this stress can generate crime. The World Health Organisati<strong>on</strong> reports the<br />
f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs of studies that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate that domestic violence, child abuse, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sexual violence all<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the aftermath of a natural disaster. These can lead to l<strong>on</strong>g-term <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creases <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> crime<br />
rates. WHO lists several reas<strong>on</strong>s for this effect, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g post-traumatic stress, the<br />
breakdown of law enforcement, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the loss of livelihoods, all of which apply to man-made<br />
disasters as well. 106<br />
War <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> its aftermath can also have l<strong>on</strong>g rang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g impact <strong>on</strong> the envir<strong>on</strong>ment. Forest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g may<br />
be accelerated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the post-c<strong>on</strong>flict period as countries struggle to kick start their ec<strong>on</strong>omies<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> harvest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g activities progress at a rate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> excess of the ability of the state to regulate them,<br />
as is predicted to be the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Democratic Republic of the C<strong>on</strong>go <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Liberia. 107<br />
Envir<strong>on</strong>mental degradati<strong>on</strong> can have a l<strong>on</strong>g-term impact <strong>on</strong> the feasibility of susta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>able<br />
livelihoods.<br />
UNODC Executive Director Ant<strong>on</strong>io Maria Costa has argued, “Organized crime is key to<br />
susta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> promot<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g humanitarian crises <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> disaster <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict z<strong>on</strong>es,” as it profits most<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> envir<strong>on</strong>ments of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stability <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> chaos. 108 For example, research <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicates that c<strong>on</strong>flict areas<br />
are especially vulnerable to human traffickers. 109 Costa goes <strong>on</strong> to add, “Many fragile<br />
societies are trapped <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a vicious cycle, where organized crime creates the c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s for its<br />
own growth, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> countries are gradually weakened <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their ability both to fight crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ality,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to achieve decent levels of security <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> development.” 110<br />
When threatened by war or other crises, populati<strong>on</strong>s become displaced. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Uni<strong>on</strong><br />
Commissi<strong>on</strong> Strategic Plan emphasises the importance of the refugee problem, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
numbers of refugees <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> are alarm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> High<br />
Commissi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Refugees, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2004 there were over 2 milli<strong>on</strong> refugees <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> sub-Saharan <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
27
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g 1 milli<strong>on</strong> refugees <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Central <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Great Lakes regi<strong>on</strong>, 670 000 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Eastern<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Horn of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 220 000 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Southern <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 330 000 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Western <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. 111<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n refugees comprised about 37% of the global total.<br />
Even a relatively small number of war casualties can result <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> mass relocati<strong>on</strong>s. The impact of<br />
displacement is immense, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> well bey<strong>on</strong>d the scope of this brief secti<strong>on</strong>. These people leave<br />
beh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d much of their lifetime assets, represent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many cases their <strong>on</strong>ly livelihoods. Widescale<br />
violence can create large numbers of cross-border refugees. Just as with street children,<br />
displaced populati<strong>on</strong>s of low-skilled people, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g farmers who no l<strong>on</strong>ger have l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to<br />
farm, are especially vulnerable to becom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g both victims <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> perpetrators of crime.<br />
The World Bank argues that c<strong>on</strong>flicts are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> a regi<strong>on</strong>al character <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. “Civil c<strong>on</strong>flicts often behave as cancers do <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a human body, with c<strong>on</strong>flict areas<br />
metastasiz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the form of weap<strong>on</strong>s, b<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>itry, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>security) to neighbor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g regi<strong>on</strong>s.” 112 One<br />
of the vectors of this <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stability are refugee flows.<br />
The extent to which a receiv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g country provides for refugees varies greatly, but most <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<br />
nati<strong>on</strong>s are too poor to provide for their own populati<strong>on</strong>s, let al<strong>on</strong>e for masses of dependent<br />
outsiders. Employment opportunities are likely to be m<strong>on</strong>opolised by local <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terests. With no<br />
other means to feed themselves, the legal opti<strong>on</strong>s for displaced people are limited.<br />
The World Bank says the flow of refugees “…negatively affects liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
security <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the host communities, even when substantial humanitarian assistance is<br />
provided.” 113 For example, refugee camps can generate crime. As Jacobs<strong>on</strong> argues:<br />
“Camp c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s often lead to high rates of c<strong>on</strong>flict <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> violence aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st<br />
women <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> children. The presence of weap<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creases the combustibility<br />
of the situati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> around the camps, as does the problem of bored <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
frustrated young men. These are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gredients for crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> violence, the rise<br />
of political <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ethnic facti<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased likelihood of recruitment<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to militias or organized crime. In recent years, petty <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> organized crime<br />
have flourished <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> refugee camps, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> several, notably <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the Thai-Burmese border, have become z<strong>on</strong>es of drug smuggl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, human<br />
traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, illegal logg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> gun runn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Few camps are organized to<br />
address these problems, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> most camps lack an effective system of law <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
order. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g>s go unpunished because there is no adequate force to back up<br />
what rule of law does exist. Perpetrators are able to elude justice by hid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
am<strong>on</strong>gst the refugee populati<strong>on</strong>, or camps fall under the c<strong>on</strong>trol of political<br />
or military elements, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> civilian authority <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sources of law <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> order are<br />
underm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed. Refugees are then more likely to be deprived of their rights, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
subject to violence <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>timidati<strong>on</strong>.” 114<br />
In many places <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, refugees are not encamped, but spread <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the wider society. Here<br />
the local populace may resent the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cursi<strong>on</strong> of foreigners, as they are viewed as sources of<br />
crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> disease. The World Bank states, “For every 1000 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al refugees, the host<br />
country sees around 1400 additi<strong>on</strong>al cases of malaria.” 115 The World Bank also says that<br />
c<strong>on</strong>flict is a vector of HIV/AIDS. 116 Populati<strong>on</strong>s flee<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>flict may also br<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g their guns.<br />
Despite be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g poor, Tanzania has traditi<strong>on</strong>ally been a major receiver of refugees, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to Tanzanian President Benjam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Mkapa, “The truth is that the proliferati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
small arms is a result of refugees enter<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g our country, a problem which is bey<strong>on</strong>d our<br />
capacity to solve.” 117<br />
Because they have no local c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> do not underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> local <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>s, refugees are<br />
easy targets of crime. In extreme cases, refugees may even be exposed to xenophobic<br />
violence. This may precipitate the formati<strong>on</strong> of self-protecti<strong>on</strong> groups, which have a tendency<br />
to mutate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to predatory gangs, as described <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the secti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> police failure <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> vigilantism<br />
above.<br />
28
I. The State of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
What is left of the state?<br />
C<strong>on</strong>flict <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is often rooted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> weak states, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> civil war can weaken states further still.<br />
Physical <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>frastructure may be decimated, access to l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> markets disrupted, massive debt<br />
accumulated, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the civil service may actually collapse altogether. 118 The World Bank says,<br />
“Civil war, a challenge of the authority of the regime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> power, erodes the legitimacy of the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong> of government, damages public facilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> weakens the provisi<strong>on</strong> of public<br />
services.” 119 State <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>capacity means weak law enforcement, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> few checks <strong>on</strong> corrupti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>flict can also reverse progress made prior to the hostilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the area of governance. The<br />
reacti<strong>on</strong> to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>surgency can result <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a significant curtail<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of civil liberties <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> otherwise<br />
damage the relati<strong>on</strong>ship between the people <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the state. In many <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stances <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, war<br />
atrocities are not the exclusive prov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce of rebel groups. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the World Bank, “Civil<br />
wars severely damage nati<strong>on</strong>al social <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ec<strong>on</strong>omic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>al transformati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the areas of<br />
public governance, trade <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> commerce, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s, human rights, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
its enforcement.” 120<br />
Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g civil war, compliance with the law is often secured through brute force, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> when<br />
these c<strong>on</strong>trols are dropped as the country democratises, the risk of crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creases. As<br />
discussed above, adjust<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to a peacetime envir<strong>on</strong>ment is also difficult for the security forces,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the police <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> particular have to learn a new set of skills to be effective. As military rather<br />
than civil police techniques are used to ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g civil war, a period of adjustment<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the post-c<strong>on</strong>flict period should be expected as law enforcement adopts a more democratic<br />
approach. This period reflects a w<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dow of opportunity for organized crime, which can take<br />
advantage of a weaken<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of c<strong>on</strong>trols before the police can rega<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the trust <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cooperati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
the public. 121<br />
Political groups that wrest c<strong>on</strong>trol of the government by force may seek to compensate<br />
themselves for the sacrifices made dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the struggle. Government offices may be re-staffed<br />
with political cr<strong>on</strong>ies. Previously disadvantaged groups may seek to benefit their<br />
c<strong>on</strong>stituency. In revoluti<strong>on</strong>, the “spoils of war” are public office, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>on</strong>ly way to collect<br />
is through corrupti<strong>on</strong>. It is not surpris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, then, that many of the countries perceived as be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the most corrupt <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the world have recently experienced, or are experienc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, c<strong>on</strong>flict.<br />
The follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g secti<strong>on</strong> will deal with the c<strong>on</strong>sequences of political <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stability <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> state<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>capacity, especially the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased risk of traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> unprotected areas.<br />
1.3 Organized crime<br />
Transnati<strong>on</strong>al organized crime is a virulent phenomen<strong>on</strong> that readily exploits any weakness<br />
found <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> global law enforcement capacity. Due to the resource challenges it faces, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
seems to be particularly vulnerable to this <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cursi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is rapidly becom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a base for a<br />
wide range of operati<strong>on</strong>s. Detect<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g organized crime <strong>on</strong> the basis of crime statistics is difficult,<br />
because organized crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>als have traditi<strong>on</strong>ally engaged <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> “bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess-like” activities, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> these<br />
are unlikely to be detected without the proactive work of the police. Organized crime is<br />
especially active <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>sensual crimes (such as the sale of drugs, prostituti<strong>on</strong>, gambl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
loan shark<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> official corrupti<strong>on</strong>), as well as semi-c<strong>on</strong>sensual protecti<strong>on</strong> rackets, sale of<br />
stolen property, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> forms of official corrupti<strong>on</strong>. The use of police statistics is complicated<br />
further by the fact that classificati<strong>on</strong> of a particular crime as part of organized activity is a<br />
matter of judgment.<br />
It is therefore difficult to establish the existence of organized crime <strong>on</strong> the basis of official<br />
data, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> or elsewhere. But percepti<strong>on</strong> surveys, as well as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al crime<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>telligence <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> seizures of c<strong>on</strong>trab<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, suggest that <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> may have become the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent<br />
most targeted by organized crime. The growth <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al commerce <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> transport has<br />
made <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, with its weak enforcement capacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> underpaid officials, an ideal c<strong>on</strong>duit<br />
through which to extract <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>/or tranship a range of illicit commodities, such as drugs,<br />
29
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
firearms, m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>erals <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> oil, timber, wildlife, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> even human be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. Lack of official c<strong>on</strong>trols<br />
also makes the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent vulnerable to m<strong>on</strong>ey launder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> corrupti<strong>on</strong> activities, both of<br />
which are vital to the expansi<strong>on</strong> of organized crime.<br />
Drug traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to drug abuse<br />
While 45 out of 53 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries have signed all three <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al drug c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s, 122 it<br />
traditi<strong>on</strong>ally has been believed that <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> lacks the resources to support major drug markets,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that <strong>on</strong>ly local herbal drugs (such as cannabis <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> khat) pose much of a threat. In keep<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
with this view, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n police statistics reflect relatively few drug arrests. But drug crimes are<br />
not the sort of offences that are reported to the police, as n<strong>on</strong>e of the parties to the transacti<strong>on</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>sider themselves victimised. As a result, drug enforcement is almost entirely reliant <strong>on</strong><br />
proactive police work, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> overstretched officials may have other priorities. In other words,<br />
just because few drug arrests are made doesn’t mean there is no drug problem.<br />
Figure 10: Illicit traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> sub-Saharan <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Figure 11: Drug-related crime, by regi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Source: UNODC<br />
rate x 100,000 populati<strong>on</strong><br />
350<br />
300<br />
250<br />
200<br />
150<br />
100<br />
50<br />
0<br />
297<br />
285<br />
262258<br />
153<br />
87<br />
47 41<br />
26<br />
15<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> Americas Asia Europe Oceania<br />
Drug-related crime recorded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> police statistics<br />
Pers<strong>on</strong>s brought <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to formal c<strong>on</strong>tact with the police - Drugrelated<br />
crime<br />
Source: CTS, 2002 or latest available year<br />
30
I. The State of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
There is now ample evidence that the drug situati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is chang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g rapidly.<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>al drug seizures <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate that <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g used to route drugs<br />
dest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed for other markets, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, c<strong>on</strong>sequently, it is becom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a dest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> site with a grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sumer base of its own.<br />
Seizures of all drugs – expressed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> unit equivalents 123 – amounted to 4.1 billi<strong>on</strong> units <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2003 or 13.3% of the world’s total seizures that year (31 billi<strong>on</strong> units). This<br />
proporti<strong>on</strong> was almost identical to the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent’s share <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the world’s populati<strong>on</strong> (13.5%).<br />
While they vary c<strong>on</strong>siderably from year to year, drug seizures <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> have been <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce the early 1980s.<br />
Figure 12: Drug seizures made <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> milli<strong>on</strong> units equivalents, 1980-2003<br />
7,000<br />
seizures <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> billi<strong>on</strong> units<br />
6,000<br />
5,000<br />
4,000<br />
3,000<br />
2,000<br />
1,000<br />
0<br />
1980<br />
1981<br />
1982<br />
1983<br />
1984<br />
1985<br />
1986<br />
1987<br />
1988<br />
1989<br />
1990<br />
1991<br />
1992<br />
1993<br />
1994<br />
1995<br />
1996<br />
1997<br />
1998<br />
1999<br />
2000<br />
2001<br />
2002<br />
2003<br />
Seizures<br />
Trend<br />
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questi<strong>on</strong>naire Data.<br />
Cannabis rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s primary problem drug, resp<strong>on</strong>sible for more admissi<strong>on</strong>s to<br />
treatment than any other substance, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is a major cannabis exporter, resp<strong>on</strong>sible for a<br />
quarter of global seizures. Over the 2000-2003 period, the bulk of the cannabis herb <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
was seized <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Nigeria (32%), Tanzania (21%), South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> (19%), Kenya (9%) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Malawi<br />
(7%). These five countries were also am<strong>on</strong>g the top ten countries worldwide for seizures of<br />
herbal cannabis (as opposed to cannabis res<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, or hashish) over the 2000-2003 period. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
this time, most cannabis res<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> was seized <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Morocco (83% of all seizures made <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>).<br />
Morocco is the world’s largest cannabis res<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> producer <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> accounts for the third largest<br />
cannabis res<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> seizures worldwide.<br />
But while cannabis rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s key, there are many <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicati<strong>on</strong>s that the drug market is chang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
For example, the locati<strong>on</strong> of seizures has fluctuated str<strong>on</strong>gly over the last two decades. As<br />
Figure 50 shows, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the early 1980s most drugs were seized <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Northern <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Drug seizures<br />
shifted to Southern <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> from the mid 1980s to the mid 1990s. Over the last few years,<br />
drugs seizures have <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Eastern, Western, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Central <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. In 2003, most drugs<br />
were seized <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Eastern <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> (37%) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Western/Central <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> (31%), followed by Northern<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> (24%). Seizures <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Southern <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> (8%) were rather moderate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2003. The very<br />
volatility of these seizure patterns suggests that <strong>on</strong>ly the surface is be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g scratched by <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<br />
enforcement agencies.<br />
31
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Figure 13: Drug seizures made <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> – sub-regi<strong>on</strong>al breakdown – <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> milli<strong>on</strong> units<br />
equivalents, 1980-2003<br />
7,000<br />
6,000<br />
5,000<br />
milli<strong>on</strong> units<br />
4,000<br />
3,000<br />
2,000<br />
1,000<br />
0<br />
1980<br />
1981<br />
1982<br />
1983<br />
1984<br />
1985<br />
1986<br />
1987<br />
1988<br />
1989<br />
1990<br />
1991<br />
1992<br />
1993<br />
1994<br />
1995<br />
1996<br />
1997<br />
1998<br />
1999<br />
2000<br />
2001<br />
2002<br />
2003<br />
East <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> West <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Central <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> Southern <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> North <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questi<strong>on</strong>naire Data<br />
It is now clear that large amounts of coca<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> hero<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> are be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g trans-shipped across <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
to dest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> markets <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the developed world. S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce the drugs w<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d up <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other markets, this<br />
may appear to be ‘some<strong>on</strong>e else’s problem’, but experience shows that transhipment countries<br />
seem <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>evitably to develop c<strong>on</strong>sumer markets of their own. As a c<strong>on</strong>sequence of these<br />
spillovers, drugs other than cannabis have already found their way <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n market.<br />
While over the 1980-89 period just 22 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries reported seizures of coca<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, this<br />
number went up to 42 over the 1990-2003 period. Similarly, the number of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries<br />
report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g hero<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> seizures <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased from 27 to 43 over the same period.<br />
The presence of hero<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> East <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is probably attributable to transhipment, as hero<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> is<br />
shipped from Pakistan down the East <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n coast (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Mozambique) to South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, the UK, France, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the USA. A recent seizure of 1500 kg of<br />
coca<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kenya, <strong>on</strong> route from South America to Europe, illustrates how Eastern <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> can<br />
be used to move this commodity as well. 124 West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n nati<strong>on</strong>s, such as Nigeria <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Cote<br />
d’Ivoire, are also used to trans-ship hero<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly, coca<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e. Western <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Southern<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Nigeria, Angola <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, have been identified as “major<br />
transit countries” for syndicates traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g coca<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e from South America to the UK, Spa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US. 125 Recently, new traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g routes via several countries of Western <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Northern<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Senegal, Mauritania <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Morocco) to Spa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> have been developed, mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
use of exist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g cannabis traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g networks.<br />
There is evidence that the situati<strong>on</strong> has become quite severe <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some urban areas of Western,<br />
Eastern, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Southern <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. A recent survey of 299 youth <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Old St<strong>on</strong>e Town <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Tanzania<br />
found lifetime use of hero<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> at an alarm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g 9%, annual use at 4%, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> past m<strong>on</strong>th use at 3%,<br />
while 29% described the substance as ‘easy to obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>’. 126<br />
The use of hero<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> is particularly frighten<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>text of HIV. In South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, most of<br />
the hero<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> is smoked, but about half of hero<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> users <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> treatment at the end of 2003 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Gauteng<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Cape Town said they had experimented with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>jecti<strong>on</strong>, up under a third a few years back.<br />
And <strong>on</strong>ce they have started <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ject<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, users are unlikely to switch back: <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Cape Town, 87%<br />
of those who had tried <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ject<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2003 c<strong>on</strong>sidered it their primary means of c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong>. 127<br />
The rate at which a drug problem can develop is well illustrated by the emergence of crystal<br />
methamphetam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e use am<strong>on</strong>g youth <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> over the last two years. In the last half of<br />
2002, n<strong>on</strong>e of the under 20-year-olds admitted to treatment <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Cape Town menti<strong>on</strong>ed<br />
32
I. The State of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
methamphetam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e as their primary or sec<strong>on</strong>dary drug of abuse. By the sec<strong>on</strong>d half of 2004,<br />
42% did so. 128<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong> to generat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a local drug problem, trans-shipment produces other forms of<br />
collateral damage. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the Southern <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> Community Protocol <strong>on</strong><br />
Combat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Illicit <strong>Drugs</strong>:<br />
…the regi<strong>on</strong> is be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly used as a c<strong>on</strong>duit for illicit drugs dest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al markets … illicit drug traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g generates large f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ancial<br />
ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> wealth enabl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g trans-nati<strong>on</strong>al crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>als <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> organizati<strong>on</strong>s to<br />
penetrate, c<strong>on</strong>tam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> corrupt the structures of governments, legitimate<br />
commercial <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ancial bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> society at all levels.<br />
But while these macro effects are frighten<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, the greatest damage caused by drugs is pers<strong>on</strong>al.<br />
And while the emergence of coca<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, hero<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> amphetam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es pose a major threat, legally<br />
available substances can be equally devastat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. For example, the use of glue or other<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>halants am<strong>on</strong>g street children is a major problem <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a number of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n cities.<br />
Traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> human be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
Human traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is a form of trans-nati<strong>on</strong>al organized crime that has <strong>on</strong>ly recently been<br />
brought to the attenti<strong>on</strong> of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al community, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> data sources are still <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
process of development. It is by no means unique to <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> it is seen <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> various forms <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
countries all around the world. It is def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al protocol as the:<br />
… recruitment, transportati<strong>on</strong>, transfer, harbour<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or receipt of pers<strong>on</strong>s, by<br />
means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coerci<strong>on</strong>, of abducti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
of fraud, of decepti<strong>on</strong>, of the abuse of power or of a positi<strong>on</strong> of vulnerability<br />
or of the giv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or receiv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of payments or benefits to achieve the c<strong>on</strong>sent of<br />
a pers<strong>on</strong> hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>trol over another pers<strong>on</strong>, for the purpose of exploitati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Exploitati<strong>on</strong> shall <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude, at a m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>imum, the exploitati<strong>on</strong> of the prostituti<strong>on</strong><br />
of others or other forms of sexual exploitati<strong>on</strong>, forced labour or services,<br />
slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs. 129<br />
As with other forms of organized crime, it is likely <strong>on</strong>ly to come to the attenti<strong>on</strong> of authorities<br />
through proactive work <strong>on</strong> the part of the police, as victims are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>timidated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a variety of<br />
ways, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g threats aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st the families they leave beh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d. In general, countries of orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
tend to be poor, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> countries of dest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude the most affluent countries <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the world.<br />
Despite the lack of formal data, human traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> has been documented by<br />
numerous sources. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to UNICEF, human traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is a recognised problem <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> about<br />
half of all <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries. The number of countries report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> children is twice<br />
those report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of women. In Western <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Central <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, human traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is a<br />
recognised problem <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 70% of the countries of the regi<strong>on</strong>. In more than <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> three of these,<br />
the problem is regarded as severe. In Southern <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is recognised as an issue <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
a third of countries, but it is generally not regarded as severe. 130<br />
In total, 89% of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries are affected by human traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g flows, either as source,<br />
dest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>, or receiv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g countries, accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to UNICEF survey work. There is no clear-cut<br />
dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cti<strong>on</strong> between countries of orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>: <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 58% of countries flows are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> both<br />
directi<strong>on</strong>s. Cote d’Ivoire, Nigeria, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Gab<strong>on</strong> are the best-known dest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> countries for<br />
traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g victims, but over half of Western <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Central <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries are believed to<br />
receive victims. In additi<strong>on</strong> to traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to Europe is a problem for<br />
34% of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the Middle East for 26%. With<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 91% of<br />
traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g occurs between countries of the same regi<strong>on</strong>. 131<br />
Victims are trafficked for three ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> purposes: forced labour, commercial sexual exploitati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> forced enlistment <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> militaries <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rebel groups. The issue of child soldiers is discussed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
33
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Secti<strong>on</strong> 1.2 above. Awareness about human traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for labour or prostituti<strong>on</strong> is highest <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Western <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> 132 . Estimates are that 40% of the street children <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> hawkers <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Nigeria were<br />
traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g victims. 133 Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the ILO, 200,000 to 300,000 children are trafficked each<br />
year for forced labour <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sexual exploitati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Western <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Central <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. 134 West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<br />
woman are trafficked to Europe for commercial sexual exploitati<strong>on</strong>, particularly members of<br />
<strong>on</strong>e Nigerian m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ority group. 135<br />
Traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Patterns <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ben<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, Nigeria <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Togo<br />
Ben<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Internal traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g occurs with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ben<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, but Ben<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese children are also trafficked to Nigeria, Ghana, Gab<strong>on</strong>,<br />
Côte d’Ivoire, Camero<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Gu<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ea. They are lured with promises of employment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> then forced <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to<br />
domestic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> agricultural labour. Ben<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> also serves as a dest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> country for children trafficked <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to<br />
labour exploitati<strong>on</strong> from Niger, Togo <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Burk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a Faso. Adult women trafficked from Niger, Nigeria <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Togo are forced <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to prostituti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ben<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, while Ben<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese women are trafficked to Belgium, France <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Germany.<br />
Nigeria<br />
Nigeria is a source, transit <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> country for trafficked children <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> serves predom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>antly as a<br />
source country for trafficked women.<br />
Victims of child traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>at<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Nigeria are usually between 13 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 15 years of age. Foreign<br />
children trafficked to Nigeria come ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ly from Ben<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Togo, Côte d’Ivoire <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Niger. Children as<br />
young as five <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> six trafficked from Ben<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> have been found work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> exploitive c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Nigerian<br />
m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Western part of the country. Trafficked girls are used for domestic service or street trad<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g as<br />
well as commercial sexual exploitati<strong>on</strong> while boys are generally forced to work <strong>on</strong> plantati<strong>on</strong>s or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
commercial farm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>, quarries/m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es, or engage <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> petty crimes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the drug trade.<br />
With respect to women trafficked for commercial sexual exploitati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Europe, a large share are from Edo<br />
State <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Nigeria while the rest are from Delta, Kano <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Borno States. Nigerian women trafficked abroad are<br />
sent to different dest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Europe (Italy, Spa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, France); with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> (Ben<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, Coted’Ivoire,);<br />
Central <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> (Gab<strong>on</strong>, Camero<strong>on</strong>) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Middle East (Saudi Arabia). Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the religious<br />
pilgrimage, the Hajj, young Nigerian children <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> older Nigerian women travel to Saudi Arabia <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> are<br />
forced <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to street begg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, domestic service <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> prostituti<strong>on</strong>. In terms of flows go<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the opposite directi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
foreign women are reported to have been trafficked to Nigeria from as far away as Moldova, Belarus,<br />
Ukra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Philipp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es.<br />
Togo<br />
Togo serves as a source country for children trafficked to Nigeria <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Gab<strong>on</strong> for forced domestic labour <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
prostituti<strong>on</strong>, while Ghanaian children are trafficked to Togo <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to forced domestic servitude. Adult Togolese<br />
women have been reportedly trafficked to Leban<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> European countries for sexual exploitati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Source: “Measures to combat traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> human be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ben<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, Nigeria <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Togo” UNODC 2005<br />
Firearms<br />
As was discussed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Secti<strong>on</strong> 1.2 above, crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict are highly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terrelated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many<br />
cases <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> this is nowhere clearer than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the case of arms traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Guns<br />
imported for war, legally or illegally, can be used for crime, both dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> after the c<strong>on</strong>flict.<br />
They are also highly negotiable commodities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al commerce, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> can be<br />
exchanged for a range of c<strong>on</strong>trab<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>erals <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> oil, wildlife, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> drugs.<br />
It is nearly impossible to estimate the number of small arms circulat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
attempts to do so are complicated by the fact that weap<strong>on</strong>s are “recycled” <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flicts<br />
throughout the regi<strong>on</strong>. Gamba <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Chachiua po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t out that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Mozambique al<strong>on</strong>e, estimates of<br />
weap<strong>on</strong>s imported dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the civil war range from half a milli<strong>on</strong> to six milli<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that<br />
estimates of the number of illegal weap<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> use <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> range from 400,000 to eight<br />
milli<strong>on</strong>. 136<br />
34
I. The State of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
In 2003, the Small Arms Survey drastically revised down past estimates <strong>on</strong> the number of<br />
small arms <strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent, from 100 milli<strong>on</strong> to 30 milli<strong>on</strong> weap<strong>on</strong>s, which highlights the<br />
level of uncerta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ty that exists <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this area. The Survey estimates that most of these weap<strong>on</strong>s<br />
are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> civilian h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s (79%), with much smaller shares be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g held by the military (16%),<br />
police (3%) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>surgents (2%). 137 The Survey also estimated that:<br />
• Kenya, Tanzania <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a each have an estimated nati<strong>on</strong>al stockpile of between<br />
500,000 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e milli<strong>on</strong> small arms;<br />
• There are about 77,000 small arms <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s of the major West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>surgent<br />
groups;<br />
• The total number of illicit military-style guns is unlikely to surpass <strong>on</strong>e milli<strong>on</strong> for all of<br />
sub-Saharan <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> may be c<strong>on</strong>siderably lower;<br />
• While most of the arms that plague <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> are imported from the outside, at least 10<br />
countries <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> sub-Saharan <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Kenya, Tanzania <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a, have some<br />
domestic capacity to produce small arms <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>/or ammuniti<strong>on</strong>. Illicit producti<strong>on</strong> of small<br />
arms occurs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a number of countries <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> sub-Saharan <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Ghana <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> South<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. 138<br />
Weap<strong>on</strong>s have traditi<strong>on</strong>ally been trafficked between countries <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, as c<strong>on</strong>flict spreads<br />
through whole regi<strong>on</strong>s, or imported from overseas. The Ukra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e is said to be <strong>on</strong>e major source<br />
of former Soviet arms. 139 The impact of these weap<strong>on</strong>s is discussed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Secti<strong>on</strong> 1.1 above.<br />
While a comprehensive discussi<strong>on</strong> of gun traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> its effects is bey<strong>on</strong>d the scope of<br />
this report, a few examples are illustrative:<br />
• Member countries of the Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Community of West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n States (ECOWAS)<br />
pledged not to import, export, or manufacture small arms <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1998, but there is evidence<br />
that weap<strong>on</strong>s have still been f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g their way <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the regi<strong>on</strong>, both <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to countries<br />
enmeshed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> civil c<strong>on</strong>flict <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> those nom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally at peace. For example, the Nigerian<br />
Customs Service reported that it had <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercepted small arms <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ammuniti<strong>on</strong> worth more<br />
than US$30 milli<strong>on</strong> at border posts <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a six-m<strong>on</strong>th period <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2003. In a s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle haul <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
November 2003, it took <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a c<strong>on</strong>signment of 170,000 rounds of ammuniti<strong>on</strong>. These<br />
weap<strong>on</strong>s are used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ethnic, religious, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> political violence, as well as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al activity,<br />
such as that surround<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the illicit oil trade <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Niger Delta . 140<br />
• The c<strong>on</strong>flict <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Democratic Republic of the C<strong>on</strong>go is fuelled by weap<strong>on</strong>s flows from<br />
all over the regi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> foreign bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>essmen <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terested <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the import <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> export of raw<br />
goods are allegedly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> supply<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the rebels with arms. 141<br />
Not all firearms used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> are trafficked across borders, however. As is the case<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many other parts of the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent, the most comm<strong>on</strong>ly used small arms <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> are<br />
not military weap<strong>on</strong>s but h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>guns, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> much of the crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al market is supplied through<br />
robbery <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> burglary of licensed guns. Between 1995 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mid-2003, almost 200,000 guns<br />
were reported lost or stolen <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Docket research has <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated that both legal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
illegal firearms are used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that country. 142<br />
There are also persistent anecdotes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rumours <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a range of countries that the crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>als rent<br />
their weap<strong>on</strong>s from the local police. For example, Small Arms Survey 2003 reported that the<br />
majority of firearm crimes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Douala <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Camero<strong>on</strong> are committed with pistols, 75% of which<br />
are alleged to come from the police themselves. Indeed, the Survey notes that “When the<br />
Secretary of State for Defence recalled 300 gendarme officers who had been assigned to<br />
m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>isters <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> senior state officials as bodyguards, more than 50% (169) could not account for<br />
their weap<strong>on</strong>s.” 143<br />
35
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Resource smuggl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, wildlife poach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> envir<strong>on</strong>mental crime<br />
The smuggl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of natural resources is an activity <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g both local <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
organized crime groups. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is rich <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> natural resources, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g oil, diam<strong>on</strong>ds, other<br />
precious <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> strategic m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>erals, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> timber. Ir<strong>on</strong>ically, it has been theorised that this wealth<br />
may be beh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d the political <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stability <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> poor ec<strong>on</strong>omic performance of several nati<strong>on</strong>s, as<br />
discussed above. The theft <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> smuggl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of these resources is a major organized crime<br />
activity, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> countries at war as well as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> countries at peace.<br />
For example, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Nigeria, crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al gangs steal large amounts of crude oil from pipel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
ship it <strong>on</strong> river barges to larger craft offshore <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a practice referred to as ‘bunker<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g’. It is a<br />
massive <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dustry, with high end estimates of its value rang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from US$4 billi<strong>on</strong> 144 to US$6<br />
billi<strong>on</strong> 145 a year, or over 10% of Nigeria’s oil producti<strong>on</strong>. Violence occurs between rival<br />
gangs fight<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for ‘bunker<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g turf’, known locally as ‘cults’, with names like the KKK, the<br />
Germans, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Mafia Lords. These groups trade oil for guns, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> also claim to have<br />
received weap<strong>on</strong>ry from local political leaders. 146<br />
Of course, oil-theft would be impossible if it were not for will<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g buyers, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volvement<br />
of outsiders <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the trade is well-documented. The oil bunker<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g syndicates are highly<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g not <strong>on</strong>ly other West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns, but also Moroccans, Venezuelans,<br />
Lebanese, French <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Russians, for example. By these means, oil bunker<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ks to wider<br />
patterns of organized crime, with cash, drugs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> weap<strong>on</strong>s all be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g traded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> exchange for<br />
illegal oil. A typical oil-bunker<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g case, reported <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a Nigerian newspaper <strong>on</strong> 22 April 2004,<br />
menti<strong>on</strong>ed the arrest by the Nigerian navy of a ship loaded with 8,000 metric t<strong>on</strong>s of crude oil<br />
without valid papers. Its crew of eight foreigners was also arrested. 147<br />
The poach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of wildlife, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g endangered species, is an organized crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al activity with<br />
direct impact <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s development prospects, as it underm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es tourism. Few <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns buy<br />
ivory, rh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>o horn, or other expensive animal products, so this slaughter is almost entirely<br />
driven by outside dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>. The poachers themselves may be diffuse, but the markets for<br />
wildlife parts are very much a part of traditi<strong>on</strong>al organized crime, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g local gangs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
well-known groups such as the Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese Triads.<br />
Elephant ivory is probably <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s best-known wildlife commodity, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> its illegal extracti<strong>on</strong><br />
has been tied to both c<strong>on</strong>flict <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> organized crime. It is estimated that at least 12,500<br />
elephants were poached <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 95.3 metric t<strong>on</strong>s of ivory were seized globally between<br />
1998 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2004. 148 While the largest elephant populati<strong>on</strong>s are found <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Eastern <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Southern<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, ivory is also openly marketed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> to tourists, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Americans, Asians,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Europeans. 149<br />
A good deal of ivory is also smuggled out of the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent to foreign markets. For example,<br />
between 1997 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2002, French Authorities made at least 809 c<strong>on</strong>fiscati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g 18,248<br />
elephant products, weigh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g 4.1 t<strong>on</strong>nes. 150 As with other poached wildlife parts, Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a<br />
appears to be a major dest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>, with 13,000 kg be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g seized <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 41 seizures <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Beij<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
2001 al<strong>on</strong>e. 151 In additi<strong>on</strong>, S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gapore, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> through it, Japan, is another large market: <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> June<br />
2002, a c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er with 532 elephant tusks <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> over 40,000 blank hankos (traditi<strong>on</strong>al Japanese<br />
name seals) was seized <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gapore, equivalent to as many as 600 elephants. 152<br />
Rh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>o horn is sold <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Far East as an aphrodisiac. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the World C<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong><br />
Uni<strong>on</strong>, <strong>on</strong>e half the world’s Northern White Rh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>o populati<strong>on</strong>, resident <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle park <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
Democratic Republic of the C<strong>on</strong>go, was wiped out <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the course of just 14 m<strong>on</strong>ths by<br />
organized poachers, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g cross-border groups from Sudan. 153 Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese Triad groups have<br />
been <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the extracti<strong>on</strong> of this resource from <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce the 1970s. 154<br />
Abal<strong>on</strong>e, a mar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e snail, is regarded as a delicacy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> an aphrodisiac <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Far East. Massive<br />
poach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of this ocean resource is predicted to render the species ext<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ct <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
36
I. The State of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
three to four years. 155 This extracti<strong>on</strong> has been tied to South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n organized crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>als<br />
work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese Triad gangs. 156<br />
Weak c<strong>on</strong>trols <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> local corrupti<strong>on</strong> teamed with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al corporate greed leave <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
vulnerable to other forms of crime aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st the envir<strong>on</strong>ment. Unregulated logg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, for example,<br />
feeds erosi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> can deplete a resource that should, if managed, be renewable. Equipment<br />
that does not meet the envir<strong>on</strong>mental or safety st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> developed countries may be<br />
exported to <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> trans-nati<strong>on</strong>al corporati<strong>on</strong>s may allow their <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n workforce to be<br />
exposed to c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s prohibited <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their own countries. The illegal dump<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of toxic wastes<br />
by foreign countries also endangers the health of the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent.<br />
M<strong>on</strong>ey launder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Organized crime requires m<strong>on</strong>ey launder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is vulnerable to this abuse. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> has<br />
poorly regulated bank<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g system al<strong>on</strong>gside a large <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal cash ec<strong>on</strong>omy. Thus, large cash<br />
deposits are the norm, not the excepti<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> there is little capacity to trace or even questi<strong>on</strong><br />
these funds. On a larger scale, natural resource extracti<strong>on</strong> is an area of key importance to the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent, but <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which producti<strong>on</strong> is difficult to m<strong>on</strong>itor <strong>on</strong> the basis of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>puts al<strong>on</strong>e. This<br />
allows shady account<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g by corrupt officials <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (often foreign) bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess leaders alike, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
opens gaps through which illicitly ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed funds can be laundered.<br />
Fortunately, it does not appear that this crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al opportunity has been fully realized yet. The<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> States government evaluates the risk of m<strong>on</strong>ey launder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> over 200 countries <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> its<br />
annual Internati<strong>on</strong>al Narcotics C<strong>on</strong>trol Strategy Report. In 2005, Nigeria was the <strong>on</strong>ly <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<br />
country deemed to be seriously affected by m<strong>on</strong>ey launder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Eight others were identified as<br />
“jurisdicti<strong>on</strong>s of c<strong>on</strong>cern”: Cote d’Ivoire, Egypt, Kenya, Morocco, Seychelles, Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>e,<br />
South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Tanzania.<br />
As will be discussed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Secti<strong>on</strong> 3 below, the resp<strong>on</strong>se of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s sub-regi<strong>on</strong>al ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
communities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual states to the m<strong>on</strong>ey launder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g threat has been dynamic. Only <strong>on</strong>e<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n country is presently <strong>on</strong> the F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ancial Acti<strong>on</strong> Task Force (FATF) of the OECD as n<strong>on</strong>cooperat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g:<br />
Nigeria. But Nigeria was specially commended at the last plenary of the FATF<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> February 2005 for it progress <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> strengthen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g its anti-m<strong>on</strong>ey launder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g regime.<br />
Of course, the importance of crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ancial flows is relative to the size of the local<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omies. It is estimated that US$22 billi<strong>on</strong> was laundered through the f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ancial systems of<br />
members of the Southern <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> Community (SADC) 157 between 1999 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
2001 al<strong>on</strong>e. Of this, US$15 billi<strong>on</strong> was generated with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the SADC sub-regi<strong>on</strong>. An estimated<br />
US$7 billi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>filtrated the sub-regi<strong>on</strong> from other regi<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g East Asia (US$1 billi<strong>on</strong>),<br />
North America (US$5 billi<strong>on</strong>) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Europe (US$1 billi<strong>on</strong>). 158 For perspective, US$22 billi<strong>on</strong> is<br />
more than the comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed annual GDPs of eight of the 14 SADC member states.<br />
The proceeds of crime committed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> are also laundered abroad, most notably the<br />
m<strong>on</strong>ies stolen by a few notorious “kleptocrats”, such as Mobutu Sese Seko <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sani Abacha.<br />
With the help of the German, Swiss <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> British Governments, Nigeria was able to recover<br />
US$240 milli<strong>on</strong> from the late Abacha's family <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2004. A report from the Commissi<strong>on</strong> of the<br />
European Communities estimates that stolen <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n assets held <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> foreign bank accounts are<br />
equivalent to more than half of the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent’s external debt. 159 The resp<strong>on</strong>sibility of foreign<br />
banks to ensure the legitimacy of m<strong>on</strong>ies deposited <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> overseas accounts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the importance<br />
of repatriat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g these funds is discussed further <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> of this Report.<br />
Most <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n nati<strong>on</strong>s are signatories to, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> many have ratified, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g>’<br />
C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st Transnati<strong>on</strong>al organized <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> (see Annex C), which requires<br />
crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>alizati<strong>on</strong> of m<strong>on</strong>ey launder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, but the ability to implement it may be lack<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to Goredema, as of October 2004, half of all members of the Southern <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> Community, probably the best-resourced regi<strong>on</strong> of the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent, had not yet<br />
crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>alized m<strong>on</strong>ey launder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. 160<br />
37
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Organised <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> 161<br />
While much of the organised crime discussed above <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volves organised crime groups<br />
orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>at<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g outside <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent has produced formidable crime networks of its own.<br />
The best known of these are West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Outside the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent, organized crime<br />
networks of West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns have made a global mark. Particularly known for their role <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al drug traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, human traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> fraud <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> corrupti<strong>on</strong>, West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<br />
networks have proven difficult for law enforcement to counter, due to their highly flexible<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> de-centralised structure. Diaspora populati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> most drug produc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> drug<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sum<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g countries allow the easy <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terchange of c<strong>on</strong>trolled substances, often <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> relatively<br />
small amounts.<br />
Organized crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> its c<strong>on</strong>temporary form is generally perceived to have<br />
emerged <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the 1970s, c<strong>on</strong>temporaneous with the oil price rises of that decade, the del<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
of the dollar from gold, high <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>flati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the rapid spread of debt <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g world.<br />
More recently, the chaos <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Liberia <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>e, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> widespread civil c<strong>on</strong>flict <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> several<br />
other parts of the regi<strong>on</strong>, exacerbated this process. Whatever its causes, transnati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
organized crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, or perpetrated by West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns elsewhere <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the world, has<br />
become a matter of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>cern. This has been perhaps most noticeable <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> regard to<br />
drug-traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, people-traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> fraud, as will be discussed below.<br />
West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n organised crime groups have proven to be very difficult for law enforcement to<br />
combat for several reas<strong>on</strong>s. West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>als tend not to organise themselves <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> largescale,<br />
hierarchical organisati<strong>on</strong>s. Rather, the term ‘network’ is probably more appropriate.<br />
Individual players, with their own assets <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> skills, form transacti<strong>on</strong>-oriented coaliti<strong>on</strong>s that<br />
can exp<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> or dissolve <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>se to market dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> enforcement efforts. If possible,<br />
high risk operati<strong>on</strong>s, such as drug courier<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, are c<strong>on</strong>tracted to outsiders, who, if apprehended,<br />
may have very little knowledge of the operati<strong>on</strong>s of the group. Some degree of hierarchy does<br />
exist, for example, between drug wholesalers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> street dealers, organised al<strong>on</strong>g the<br />
traditi<strong>on</strong>al l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es of master <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> apprentice, but these hierarchies are generally very shallow.<br />
This is not to say that all players are equal or that large <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>on</strong>gst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g groups cannot form<br />
if lax enforcement allows to this to occur, but a high degree of aut<strong>on</strong>omy allows these<br />
networks to be extremely flexible <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> resilient, able to address niche markets neglected by<br />
larger <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> more unweildy crime organisati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
One of the reas<strong>on</strong>s these networks can ab<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>on</strong> traditi<strong>on</strong>al comm<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>-<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>-c<strong>on</strong>trol relati<strong>on</strong>s is<br />
that many of these networks are grounded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a comm<strong>on</strong> ethnicity, often <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g blood-ties.<br />
West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>'s extreme ethnic diversity (over 250 language groups <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Nigeria al<strong>on</strong>e) means<br />
that members may base their identity <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a relatively small community. Betray<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g compatriots<br />
is not <strong>on</strong>ly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> violati<strong>on</strong> of deeply <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed values, it can result <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> exclusi<strong>on</strong> from this vital<br />
support base. Networks based <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ethnicity also allow the use of languages between<br />
c<strong>on</strong>spirators that are understood by very few outsiders, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural practices may be<br />
employed to secure illegal bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess transacti<strong>on</strong>s. For example, Nigerian victims of human<br />
traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g have reported to have been subjected to traditi<strong>on</strong>al magical cerem<strong>on</strong>ies, destroy<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
their will to escape their b<strong>on</strong>dage, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess transacti<strong>on</strong>s may be secured by oaths<br />
c<strong>on</strong>secrated by traditi<strong>on</strong>al religious practiti<strong>on</strong>ers. This makes these organizati<strong>on</strong>s extremely<br />
difficult to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>filtrate.<br />
Operat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g al<strong>on</strong>g the same logic as legitimate bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>esses, West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al networks will<br />
quickly ab<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>on</strong> a commodity or a technique that is no l<strong>on</strong>ger profitable <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> favour of a new<br />
approach. They also freely <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>termix legitimate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>esses, diversify<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g their<br />
operati<strong>on</strong>s wherever a profit is to be made. They have also managed to f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d a place for<br />
themselves <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> foreign markets traditi<strong>on</strong>ally c<strong>on</strong>trolled by local organised crime groups simply<br />
by subc<strong>on</strong>tract<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to perform tasks or address niches that the locals would rather avoid. In this<br />
way they tend to work al<strong>on</strong>gside, rather than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict with, crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al groups from around the<br />
world, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rarely have to resort to violence.<br />
38
I. The State of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Drug traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n networks have taken over the cannabis, coca<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> hero<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> retail markets <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
several West European cities, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> have str<strong>on</strong>g market hubs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> both producer countries (Brazil,<br />
Thail<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, Pakistan, South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> countries, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the US. Law<br />
enforcement is c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ually discover<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g cells <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> unexpected places.<br />
Southern Nigerian drug traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g groups are perhaps the best known manifestati<strong>on</strong> of West<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n organised crime. While they travel under many passports, the Igbo <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some<br />
areas, Yoruba ethnic groups are found <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> both drug producti<strong>on</strong> areas <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong><br />
markets around the world.<br />
There is a small amount of traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the regi<strong>on</strong>. For the most part, drug c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong><br />
levels are not c<strong>on</strong>sidered high <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, although this does seem to be chang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some<br />
areas. Given higher profit makets outside the regi<strong>on</strong>, most of the drugs that enter West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
are <strong>on</strong> their way somewhere else. One excepti<strong>on</strong> is cannabis, which is widely c<strong>on</strong>sumed<br />
throughout the regi<strong>on</strong>. In Senegal, the gendarmerie reports the export of marijuana from the<br />
Casamance regi<strong>on</strong>, favoured by c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s of low-<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tensity c<strong>on</strong>flict, towards other parts of the<br />
regi<strong>on</strong>. Nigeria is always am<strong>on</strong>g the top rank<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g countries <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> amount of cannabis seized<br />
with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> its borders annually, most of it grown for local c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Coca<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> has come to play a significant role as a po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t of trans-shipment for cargoes of<br />
hero<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> coca<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e that are produced <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> south Asia <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> South America respectively, dest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
for markets <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Europe <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> North America. Most of these traffickers are themselves West<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns, or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the employ of West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns. Of couriers <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercepted with drugs transitt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
through West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to statistics compiled s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce 2000, 92% were West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> no less than 56% were Nigerians. Moreover, a few of the rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g 8% were West<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns who had acquired a sec<strong>on</strong>d nati<strong>on</strong>ality through naturalizati<strong>on</strong>. Very large shipments<br />
via West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, to judge from the evidence of a h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ful of major seizures, tend to be<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trolled by n<strong>on</strong>-<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>e or more local accomplices. Most purely West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<br />
shipments tend to be smaller, often carried by body couriers – the so-called ‘stuffers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
swallowers’, who secrete narcotics <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their bodily orifices or swallow them wrapped <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>doms, for later retrieval.<br />
Much of the coca<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e pass<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g through the regi<strong>on</strong> transits Cape Verde, Nigeria, Togo <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>/or<br />
Ghana, <strong>on</strong> its way to Spa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, Portugal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> K<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gdom. In seizure reports gathered by<br />
UNODC over the period 2000-2004, more than 1.4 t<strong>on</strong>s of coca<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e had been seized en route<br />
to West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> or from West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> to Europe, not <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g two unusually large seizures of<br />
2.29 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 7.5 t<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
For example, there were 15 seizures of smuggled coca<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2003 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which there was a<br />
c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong> with Cape Verde. Several such seizures were made at Fortaleza airport <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Brazil of<br />
cargoes dest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed for Cape Verde, each <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the range of two to six kilos. One of the most<br />
impressive examples was the seizure by Spanish authorities of no less than 7.5 t<strong>on</strong>s of coca<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
<strong>on</strong> 11 October 2003 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a ship <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al waters 128 km off the coast of Portugal, en route<br />
to Spa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>. This is the sec<strong>on</strong>d-largest drug seizure ever made <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Spa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>. The drug was c<strong>on</strong>cealed<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a Spanish fish<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g vessel, South Sea, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> had probably been loaded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al waters<br />
after the ship had anchored <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Cape Verde. The South Sea had also spent some time anchored<br />
off the port of Dakar.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong>, many Nigerian <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> networks seem to be work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g through Casablanca,<br />
us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g it as a stag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g-post for cargoes of coca<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e from South America. There appear to be two<br />
ways <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which couriers can use a north-south detour to m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>imize the risk of detecti<strong>on</strong>. The<br />
first way is for a courier to travel from South America, transit for example via L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
disembark <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Casablanca, Bamako or Accra. The law enforcement capacities for a thorough<br />
check at <strong>on</strong>e of these latter airports are a lot weaker than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> therefore the risk of<br />
39
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
detecti<strong>on</strong> is less. A sec<strong>on</strong>d method is for a courier to travel from South America via a<br />
relatively low-risk country, such as Senegal, en route to Amsterdam. On arrival, there is much<br />
less attenti<strong>on</strong> paid to passengers disembark<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from Senegal <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> comparis<strong>on</strong> to those com<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
from the Dutch Antilles, for example.<br />
Hero<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Ethiopian Airl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es is an airl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e favoured by hero<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> couriers, probably s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce it has c<strong>on</strong>venient<br />
routes from Asia to West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. South Asian hero<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> enters <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> via Ethiopia or Kenya, or<br />
Egypt to a lesser extent. Cargoes are then trafficked by air courier to Côte d’Ivoire. However,<br />
s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce the outbreak of war <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Côte d’Ivoire <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2002, there may have been a decl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> hero<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g through that country, with a corresp<strong>on</strong>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g rise <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> neighbour<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g countries. Hero<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g routes are clearly l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ked to the routes of commercial passenger flights, notably<br />
Ethiopian Airl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es flights from Bangkok, Mumbai <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Karachi, transitt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g via Addis Ababa,<br />
Beirut <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Dubai en route to West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>; Kenya Airways, which flies from south Asian<br />
airports via Nairobi <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Dubai; Emirates; Air Gab<strong>on</strong>, which runs a service from Dubai to<br />
Cot<strong>on</strong>ou; <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Middle East Airl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es, which runs services from several Middle Eastern<br />
locati<strong>on</strong>s to West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Virtually all the hero<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficked to West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> seems to orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ate<br />
from Pakistan <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> India, with just <strong>on</strong>e seizure reported of hero<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> from Thail<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the period<br />
2000-2004.<br />
Typical cases would <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude for example the 26-year old Nigerian woman who had acquired<br />
815 grams of hero<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pakistan, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> flew from Karachi via Dubai <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Libreville before be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
arrested at Cot<strong>on</strong>ou airport <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ben<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> 30 December 2003 as she left an Air Gab<strong>on</strong> flight.<br />
Another case was the 28-year old Nigerian man arrested <strong>on</strong> 25 July 2003 at Addis Ababa<br />
airport, Ethiopia, en route from Karachi to Abidjan, hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g swallowed no less than 1.266<br />
kilos of hero<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns outside West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Knowledge of drug traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g through the regi<strong>on</strong> is limited because it is based <strong>on</strong> seizures by<br />
local authorities. S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce it is unclear how much of the flow they are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercept<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, it is unclear<br />
how much is actually transitt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the area. Given the challenges faced by local law<br />
enforcement <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> much of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, it is probably safe to say they are just skimm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the surface.<br />
Outside the area, however, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>telligence of better-resourced polic<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g agencies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> developed<br />
countries is available. The role of West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Nigerians <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> particular, is highlighted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<strong>on</strong>e experiment c<strong>on</strong>ducted at Amsterdam’s Schiphol Airport. Passengers arriv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from Aruba<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Dutch Antilles, a favourite drug-smuggl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g route used by some of the 1,200 couriers<br />
arrested at Schiphol <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2001, were screened. When Dutch customs officers noticed the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g numbers of Nigerians us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the route, they experimented by check<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g every s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle<br />
Nigerian arriv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at Schiphol from Aruba or the Dutch Antilles for a period of ten days, rather<br />
than operat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the usual spot-checks <strong>on</strong>ly. They found that of 83 Nigerian passengers us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the route over those ten days, no less than 63 were carry<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g drugs.<br />
In the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> States, the Drug Enforcement Adm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>istrati<strong>on</strong> (DEA) f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds that:<br />
‘Traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g groups composed of West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>als...smuggle [southeast<br />
Asian] hero<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> to the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> States. Nigerian crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>als have been most<br />
active <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> US cities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> areas with well-established Nigerian populati<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
such as Atlanta, Baltimore, Houst<strong>on</strong>, Dallas, New York City, Newark,<br />
Chicago, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Wash<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gt<strong>on</strong>, D.C. Over the past several years, Chicago has<br />
become a hub for hero<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>trolled by Nigerian crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>als who<br />
primarily deal <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> [Asian] hero<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>.’<br />
Human traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Human traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g has already been discussed above, but a few words about the West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<br />
situati<strong>on</strong> are relevant here. A particularly flourish<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g trade <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> prostitutes exists from Nigeria.<br />
40
I. The State of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Many of the girls or young women <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved are from Edo State <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ben<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> City because those<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals who pi<strong>on</strong>eered the trade have kept it <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s of networks of k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
associates, thus exclud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g outsiders. The ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> dest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>s are Europe – especially Italy – <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the Middle East. Nigeria’s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al trade <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> prostitutes is believed by analysts to have<br />
grown <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the 1990s as prospects for employment <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Nigeria deteriorated. The organizers of<br />
the trade are often women, sometimes former prostitutes themselves, who have succeeded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g m<strong>on</strong>ey <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> graduat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the status of madams, although they depend <strong>on</strong> men for<br />
forg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g travel documents <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> escort<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the girls to their dest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>. The networks through<br />
which girls <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> young women are recruited are reported to be well organized <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to be<br />
relatively solid <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> durable, rather than merely ad hoc. Many girls <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to prostituti<strong>on</strong><br />
are obliged to undergo quasi-traditi<strong>on</strong>al religious rituals that b<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d them to secrecy, before<br />
be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g provided with forged papers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sent abroad, often via other West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries. It<br />
is also reported that girls may be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to their new trade through rape <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other<br />
violence.<br />
In Côte d’Ivoire, it is reported that some of the immigrants from Burk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a Faso who work <strong>on</strong><br />
cocoa plantati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the west of the country are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> effect slaves. Cases of imported slave<br />
labour are also reported from Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>e, notably of Indians, imported by Lebanese or<br />
Indian bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>essmen. The traditi<strong>on</strong>al system <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, whereby an adult may place a<br />
child or other young dependent <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a distant part of an extended family as a ward or apprentice<br />
is abused for purposes of m<strong>on</strong>etary ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
In Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>e, it is reported that members of the country’s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluential Lebanese community<br />
have taken local girls to Leban<strong>on</strong>, mostly under 18 years of age, ostensibly to work as maids.<br />
In fact, they are allegedly put <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the prostituti<strong>on</strong> bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Leban<strong>on</strong>. The traffickers pay<br />
m<strong>on</strong>ey to the girls’ families ‘so as to divert their attenti<strong>on</strong> from their children’. There was a<br />
noticeable <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease of human traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of various types <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>e dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the war of<br />
1991-2002, as young people went abroad to Libya, Burk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a Faso <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Côte d’Ivoire for<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g as fighters, often lured with false promises of educati<strong>on</strong> or employment. Others were<br />
obliged to work for armed movements as forced labourers or sex slaves.<br />
Fraud <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> corrupti<strong>on</strong><br />
Fraud <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> corrupti<strong>on</strong> are often associated with West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Maurice Ibekwe, a member of<br />
Nigeria’s Federal House of Representatives, provided a k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of object-less<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this regard<br />
when he was arrested for f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ancial fraud, forgery <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>spiracy. He had served as Chairman<br />
of the House sub-committee <strong>on</strong> Police Affairs.<br />
In the mid-1990s, the US authorities estimated that 58% of fraudulent <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>surance claims <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
their country were made by Nigerians, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that Nigerian fraudsters were resp<strong>on</strong>sible for some<br />
20-26 billi<strong>on</strong> dollars' worth of fraud each year <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> States al<strong>on</strong>e. The notorious<br />
Nigerian advance-fee frauds known as '419' after the relevant article of the Nigerian crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al<br />
code are estimated to be worth several hundred milli<strong>on</strong> dollars a year. British police <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1997<br />
received from members of the public 68,000 reports of '419' letters sent by Nigerian gangs,<br />
with very many more be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g circulated but never made known to the police. S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce then, the<br />
spread of e-mail has led to a massive <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease. Occasi<strong>on</strong>al figures like these suggest little<br />
more than that fraud of various types is apparently carried out by West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n gangs<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>ally <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> a substantial scale. Some <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual cases can certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volve huge<br />
amounts of m<strong>on</strong>ey, as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated by the prosecuti<strong>on</strong> of Emmanuel Nwude <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> others <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
a fraud of no less than US$240 milli<strong>on</strong>.<br />
A Ghanaian analyst notes two modes of operati<strong>on</strong> that are typical of computer fraud. In the<br />
more hierarchical of the two, an experienced operator provides the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itial resources to a small<br />
number of apprentices, notably <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g access to the Internet. In the sec<strong>on</strong>d mode, an<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual operator sends out his or her own ‘419’ messages to potential victims. If the<br />
operative succeeds <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> attract<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a resp<strong>on</strong>se, he then engages other partners for this particular<br />
scheme, tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the lead role for the durati<strong>on</strong>. Thereafter, he may revert to solitary work.<br />
41
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Music/video piracy<br />
The UNODC office <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Senegal notes the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g facts about music/video piracy <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
regi<strong>on</strong>. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> general <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> particular are c<strong>on</strong>sidered by piracy/counterfeit<br />
specialist as “grey area ” used by organized piracy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> counterfeit<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g networks based <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Asia<br />
(i.e. Pakistan, Malaysia, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> PR of Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a) for both launder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g revenues from other crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al<br />
operati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> facilitat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the logistic of other activities such as traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> human be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or<br />
terrorist activities 162 .<br />
Intelligence ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed from Interpol 163 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong>s has also uncovered c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong>s between<br />
organized crime gangs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> music/video piracy <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ghana, Gu<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ea (C<strong>on</strong>akry), Liberia<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Nigeria <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> suspected Middle Eastern terrorist organizati<strong>on</strong>s. Examples of CDs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
CDRs carry<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g propag<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a messages from extremist groups have been found <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Mali,<br />
Mauritania, Nigeria, Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>e.<br />
F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally, accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the World Bank Institute 164 producti<strong>on</strong> of music represents the third<br />
most important comp<strong>on</strong>ent of annual ec<strong>on</strong>omic growth <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> revenue <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> GDP terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Senegal,<br />
Mali, Ghana <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other countries <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n sub-regi<strong>on</strong>. In this c<strong>on</strong>text it is worth<br />
highlight<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Senegal, the crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al procedure code, the crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al code <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other relevant<br />
laws do not appear to c<strong>on</strong>template piracy as a punishable offence. The same situati<strong>on</strong> appears<br />
to susta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Gambia, Ghana, Gu<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ea (C<strong>on</strong>akry), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Mali.<br />
M<strong>on</strong>ey launder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally, the launder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the proceeds of crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> appears to occur through a<br />
wide variety of methods. There are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicati<strong>on</strong>s that some of the wealthiest <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g those who have ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed wealth through massive corrupti<strong>on</strong>, such as the late Sani<br />
Abacha, may enjoy the complicity of major <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al companies to move their wealth to<br />
bank accounts outside <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Some of the world’s largest banks are known to have been<br />
complicit <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> such schemes, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the notorious Bank of Credit <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Commerce<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>al (BCCI), which had more branches <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> any other c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent, as well<br />
as some private bank<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g operati<strong>on</strong>s. Seas<strong>on</strong>ed observers of Nigeria c<strong>on</strong>sider that m<strong>on</strong>eylaunder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
was greatly facilitated, at a time when the drug trade <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> particular was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> rapid<br />
expansi<strong>on</strong>, by the growth of unlicensed f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ance houses, especially <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the period 1988-91.<br />
Other bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>esses regarded as particularly suitable for m<strong>on</strong>ey-launder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude sec<strong>on</strong>d-h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
car deal<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> fashi<strong>on</strong>able clothes’ boutiques, the latter favoured particularly by female<br />
entrepreneurs.<br />
Throughout West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, almost all car purchases are of sec<strong>on</strong>d-h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> vehicles, often with few<br />
or no documents attached. This clearly offers possibilities for m<strong>on</strong>ey-launder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g through the<br />
motor trade. The diam<strong>on</strong>d trade is also widely regarded as a particularly suitable medium for<br />
m<strong>on</strong>ey launder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. A report issued <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> March 2004 by the US State Department’s Bureau for<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>al Narcotics <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Law Enforcement Affairs lists several countries as ‘vulnerable’ to<br />
m<strong>on</strong>ey launder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g via the diam<strong>on</strong>d trade, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Liberia <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>e.<br />
1.4 Corrupti<strong>on</strong><br />
The term “corrupti<strong>on</strong>” <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cludes a wide range of offences, from high-level embezzlement of<br />
public funds to the petty sales of documents <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> licenses. The most comm<strong>on</strong>ly encountered<br />
form of corrupti<strong>on</strong> is the transfer of bribes to public officials to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence their acti<strong>on</strong>s. The<br />
parties <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved can be trans-nati<strong>on</strong>al, as is often the case when foreign bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>esses seek a<br />
competitive advantage <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n operati<strong>on</strong>s, or entirely local, as seen, for example,<br />
when traffic police accept a bribe to ignore an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fracti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Statistics based <strong>on</strong> the number of police-recorded cases provide little assistance <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> assess<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the true <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cidence of corrupti<strong>on</strong>, because neither the pers<strong>on</strong> pay<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or receiv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the bribe is<br />
likely to go to the police about the matter. Survey work is aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the best supplement to the<br />
deficiencies of the official statistics, but most surveys focus <strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong>e k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of corrupti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
42
I. The State of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
This can lead to a great deal of c<strong>on</strong>fusi<strong>on</strong> when results of surveys <strong>on</strong> the percepti<strong>on</strong> of<br />
corrupti<strong>on</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g foreign bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess leaders are compared to surveys of ord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ary <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns <strong>on</strong><br />
how often they are asked to pay a bribe, for example.<br />
Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to ICVS results, 16.7% of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns polled <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their homes said they had been asked<br />
to pay a bribe to a public official <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the previous year, more than any other regi<strong>on</strong>. In c<strong>on</strong>trast,<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly a small amount of bribery cases are reported to the police (0.002% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>). This is not<br />
surpris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g because, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> most surveys <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, the police are generally rated as the public<br />
officials most likely to ask for a bribe. As <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the case with many other crimes, there is thus a<br />
major discrepancy between citizens’ experiences <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the official figures for corrupti<strong>on</strong>, both<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> elsewhere.<br />
Figure 14: Survey resp<strong>on</strong>dents who suffered from corrupti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the previous year<br />
South-East Europe<br />
East Europe<br />
Sub-Saharan <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Asia<br />
South-Central America<br />
New EU Members<br />
Eu-15<br />
Oceania<br />
North America<br />
0 5 10 15 20 25 30<br />
% victims<br />
Source: ICVS 2000 or most recent year available<br />
This aggregate figure c<strong>on</strong>ceals great divergence <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the victimisati<strong>on</strong> rates between countries,<br />
however. Look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at the ICVS data for specific cities, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n cities are clustered <strong>on</strong> both<br />
ends of the spectrum (Figure 15). The Figure, however, omits 20 countries that have<br />
corrupti<strong>on</strong> rates of less than 5%. Thus, the “low” corrupti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries shown are <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
relatively so, with all of them clustered <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Angloph<strong>on</strong>e Southern <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Mozambique,<br />
Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Nigeria show very high victimisati<strong>on</strong> rates, with levels of 30% or more.<br />
This rank<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is roughly c<strong>on</strong>sistent with survey data <strong>on</strong> bribe tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g collected <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Transparency<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>al’s Global Corrupti<strong>on</strong> Barometer 2004, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which five sub-Saharan <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<br />
countries were featured. Resp<strong>on</strong>dents were asked whether they had paid bribes, as well as a<br />
range of op<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>i<strong>on</strong> questi<strong>on</strong>s about the nature of corrupti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their countries. Camero<strong>on</strong>, Kenya<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Nigeria edged out Albania <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the top three victimisati<strong>on</strong> rates <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the world<br />
(Figure 16, <strong>on</strong>ly countries with more than 10% positive resp<strong>on</strong>se shown), while South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
reported a rate comparable to many European countries (3%).<br />
43
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Figure 15: Survey resp<strong>on</strong>dents who were asked to pay bribes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the previous year<br />
Tirana (Albania)<br />
Beirut (Leban<strong>on</strong>)<br />
Kampala (Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a)<br />
Maputo (Mozambique)<br />
Tblisi (Georgia)<br />
Lagos (Nigeria)<br />
Pnom Penh (Cambodia)<br />
La Paz (Bolivia)<br />
Mumbay (India)<br />
Vilnius (Lithuania)<br />
Nairobi (Kenya)<br />
Jakarta (Ind<strong>on</strong>esia)<br />
Ulanbaataar (M<strong>on</strong>golia)<br />
Bishkek (Kyrgyzstan)<br />
Baku (Azerbaijan)<br />
M<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sk (Belarus)<br />
Maseru (Lesotho)<br />
Bucharest (Romania)<br />
Rio de Janeiro (Brazil)<br />
Belgrade (Serbia &<br />
Mbabane (Swazil<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>)<br />
Bogota (Colombia)<br />
Moscow (Russia)<br />
Sofia (Bulgaria)<br />
Kiev (Ukra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e)<br />
Riga (Latvia)<br />
Bratislava (Slovak Republic)<br />
Asunci<strong>on</strong> (Paraguay)<br />
Warsaw / cities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pol<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
San Jose (Costa Rica)<br />
Panama<br />
Lusaka (Zambia)<br />
Budapest (Hungary)<br />
Zagreb (Croatia)<br />
Tall<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n/Est<strong>on</strong>ia<br />
Skopje (FYR Maced<strong>on</strong>ia)<br />
Harare (Zimbabwe)<br />
Buenos Aires (Argent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a)<br />
Gabor<strong>on</strong>e (Botswana)<br />
Prague (Czech Republic)<br />
Malawi<br />
South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
W<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dohek (Namibia)<br />
31<br />
30<br />
30<br />
29<br />
26<br />
23<br />
23<br />
22<br />
22<br />
21<br />
21<br />
21<br />
21<br />
19<br />
19<br />
18<br />
17<br />
17<br />
17<br />
17<br />
16<br />
16<br />
15<br />
14<br />
14<br />
12<br />
11<br />
11<br />
10<br />
10<br />
9<br />
9<br />
8<br />
7<br />
7<br />
6<br />
6<br />
6<br />
6<br />
5<br />
37<br />
35<br />
59<br />
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70<br />
Percentage<br />
Sources: ICVS 2000 or latest available year <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other victim surveys<br />
Figure 16: Have you or any<strong>on</strong>e who lives with you paid a bribe <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the last 12 m<strong>on</strong>ths?<br />
60<br />
50<br />
52<br />
percent<br />
40<br />
30<br />
20<br />
10<br />
11 11 11 13 13 14 14 16 17 17 18 19 19 21 21 21 25 25 27 27 29 30 32 32 32 36<br />
0<br />
Brazil<br />
Greece<br />
Kosovo<br />
Bosnia<br />
Ind<strong>on</strong>esia<br />
Costa Rica<br />
Peru<br />
India<br />
Egypt<br />
Guatamala<br />
Latvia<br />
Mexico<br />
Pakistan<br />
Czech Republic<br />
Philipp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es<br />
Russia<br />
Romania<br />
Ukra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
Ecuador<br />
Ghana<br />
Bolivia<br />
Albania<br />
Lithuania<br />
Moldova<br />
Nigeria<br />
Kenya<br />
Camero<strong>on</strong><br />
Source: TI, Report <strong>on</strong> the Global Corrupti<strong>on</strong> Barometer 2004<br />
44
I. The State of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
This rank<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g differs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some respects from the results of a World Bank Survey d<strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1996<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> preparati<strong>on</strong> for the 1997 World <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> Report, which focused <strong>on</strong> the experiences of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess people. Survey resp<strong>on</strong>dents were 3600 entrepreneurs from 22 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<br />
countries, who were asked to evaluate the statement “It is comm<strong>on</strong> for firms <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> my l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e of<br />
bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess to have to pay irregular ‘additi<strong>on</strong>al payments’ to get th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs d<strong>on</strong>e.” Though dated, this<br />
survey also sheds light <strong>on</strong> a number of countries that are often left out of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n survey<br />
samples, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, alarm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly, these countries showed even higher levels than the better-known<br />
situati<strong>on</strong>s. South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Malawi aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ranked well, Botswana, Lesotho, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Namibia<br />
were not <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded, but Kenya <strong>on</strong>ly ranked 9th, Mozambique 13th, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a 14th of the 22<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries. Survey resp<strong>on</strong>dents said they had to pay these ‘irregular payments’ more<br />
frequently <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> C<strong>on</strong>go-Brazzaville than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> any other country, followed by Camero<strong>on</strong>, Gu<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ea,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Madagascar. 165<br />
Percepti<strong>on</strong>s surveys are clearly more c<strong>on</strong>troversial. The most prom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent of these is<br />
Transparency Internati<strong>on</strong>al’s Corrupti<strong>on</strong> Percepti<strong>on</strong> Index, which focuses <strong>on</strong> the op<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>i<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess leaders. This is thus an entirely different measure than the household surveys, but<br />
aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries scored lower as a group than any other regi<strong>on</strong> of the world <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2004<br />
(Map). 166 Even if <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is compared to sub-regi<strong>on</strong>s of other c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ents where corrupti<strong>on</strong> is<br />
widespread, such as South America (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Central America <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Caribbean) or Eastern<br />
Europe, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> still fares slightly worse <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> perceived corrupti<strong>on</strong>. Out of 36 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries<br />
evaluated, <strong>on</strong>ly four (Botswana, Tunisia, South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Seychelles) received more<br />
favourable rat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs than the global average (4.2). Botswana <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> also score<br />
relatively low <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the household survey f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. Corrupti<strong>on</strong> is perceived as be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g particularly<br />
widespread <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Western <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Central <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
Whatever the merits of the percepti<strong>on</strong> data, it is perhaps not surpris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that corrupti<strong>on</strong> would<br />
exist <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, as some have argued that it is deeply related to poverty. Sachs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> his<br />
collaborators at the Millennium Project argue that the quality of governance is proporti<strong>on</strong>ate<br />
to the amount of m<strong>on</strong>ey available for it. Adjust<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a number of corrupti<strong>on</strong>-related <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicators<br />
for poverty, they found that, if poverty is c<strong>on</strong>trolled for, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n governance is not bad by<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards. 167 Poor countries presumably cannot afford the corrupti<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trols<br />
available <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> better-resourced <strong>on</strong>es, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> public corrupti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is often attributed to the<br />
low pay received by officials, which is obviously tied to nati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>come. In some <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stances,<br />
public servants are paid very irregularly, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their ability to resist temptati<strong>on</strong> may be<br />
weakened when try<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to support a family under these circumstances.<br />
Another way of look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at this is to rank countries not by percepti<strong>on</strong>s of corrupti<strong>on</strong>, but by<br />
their perceived level of c<strong>on</strong>trol of corrupti<strong>on</strong>, as the World Bank has d<strong>on</strong>e. The World Bank<br />
puts the majority of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the lower half of the world rank<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs (Map).<br />
Of course, there would be no bribe tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g if there were no bribe pay<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mult<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
corporati<strong>on</strong>s have taken advantage of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s weak c<strong>on</strong>trols <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> under-paid officials to ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
a competitive advantage, if not outright crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s. As will be discussed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong><br />
of this report, solv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s corrupti<strong>on</strong> problems will require the participati<strong>on</strong> of corporate<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terests committed to transparency.<br />
F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally, no discussi<strong>on</strong> of corrupti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> would be complete without an<br />
acknowledgement of the great progress that has been made by many nati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> this fr<strong>on</strong>t.<br />
Most recently, acti<strong>on</strong> has been taken aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st high-level government officials <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Nigeria,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g serv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g M<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>isters <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the former nati<strong>on</strong>al chief of police, send<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a signal to the<br />
world that a new generati<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n leaders are serious about ridd<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent of<br />
corrupti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
45
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Global corrupti<strong>on</strong> percepti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dex<br />
Legend<br />
Corrupti<strong>on</strong> percepti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dex<br />
(Scale: 10=no corrupti<strong>on</strong>; 1=complete corrupti<strong>on</strong>)<br />
Less than 2.5<br />
2.6 - 5.0<br />
5.1 - 7.5<br />
More than 7.5<br />
no data available<br />
Source: Transparency Internati<strong>on</strong>al (2004) Transparency Internati<strong>on</strong>al Corrupti<strong>on</strong> Percepti<strong>on</strong> Index, Passau: Germany [http://www.transparency.org/cpi/2004/cpi2004.en.html#cpi2004]<br />
Note: The boundaries <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> names shown <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the designati<strong>on</strong>s used <strong>on</strong> this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
¯<br />
Rob<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<strong>on</strong> Projecti<strong>on</strong><br />
Datum: WGS 84<br />
Scale 1: 100,000,000<br />
46
I. The State of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Global c<strong>on</strong>trol of corrupti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2002<br />
Legend<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trol of corrupti<strong>on</strong><br />
(Scale: -1.89=low; 2.39=high)<br />
-1.89 - -1.30<br />
-1.29 - -0.76<br />
-0.75 - 0.00<br />
0.01 - 0.75<br />
0.76 - 1.50<br />
1.51 - 3.00<br />
no data available<br />
Source: Source: Kaufmann, D., Kraay, A. & Mastruzzi, M. (2004) Governance Matters III: Governance Indicators for 1996-2002, World Bank: Wash<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gt<strong>on</strong> DC.<br />
World Bank (2005) World Bank Aggregate Governance Indicators 1996-2002 [http://<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fo.worldbank.org/governance/kkz2002/<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicator_report.asp?<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicatorid=5 - Last access date: 23rd February 2005]<br />
Note: The boundaries <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> names shown <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the designati<strong>on</strong>s used <strong>on</strong> this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
Rob<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<strong>on</strong> Projecti<strong>on</strong><br />
Datum: WGS 84<br />
Scale 1: 100,000,000¯<br />
47
I. The State of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
1.5 C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al crime<br />
Hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g looked at the associates of crime, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>flict, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the evidence <strong>on</strong> organised<br />
crime, there rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s the questi<strong>on</strong> of how all this impacts <strong>on</strong> the ord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ary <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n citizen. Are<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns truly more at risk of fall<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g victim to crime than people from other parts of the world?<br />
The word “crime” calls to m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d a range of offences, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g murder, rape, burglary <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
robbery. These are termed “c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al crime” to differentiate them from crimes that have<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly emerged more recently <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the public discourse <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> have been crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>alised through<br />
specialised legislati<strong>on</strong>, such as the various forms of organized crime. Our knowledge of the<br />
state of c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al crime is primarily based <strong>on</strong> two sources, both seriously deficient <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
case of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>:<br />
• The statistics recorded by the police;<br />
• Data from specialised household surveys (victim surveys).<br />
A more comprehensive discussi<strong>on</strong> of the weaknesses of these <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> sources is found <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Annex C of this Report.<br />
Police-recorded crime figures are not available for about half of all <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries. There<br />
are also problems with the reliability of such statistics. Def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>iti<strong>on</strong>s of crimes vary greatly<br />
between countries. Many people do not report their victimisati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> reported crimes are not<br />
always recorded by the resp<strong>on</strong>sible authorities (usually the police). There are two primary<br />
sources for police statistics at the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al level: the UNODC <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Interpol. Member<br />
States submit police statistics to the UNODC <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>se to its <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> Trends Surveys<br />
(CTS). 168<br />
The Internati<strong>on</strong>al Victims of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> Surveys programme (ICVS) has c<strong>on</strong>ducted surveys <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
major urban centres all over the globe, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a number of nati<strong>on</strong>s have participated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> nati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
victim surveys as well. In either case, pollsters visit representative samples of households <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
ask resp<strong>on</strong>dents directly about their experiences of crime. In additi<strong>on</strong> to provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g direct<br />
evidence of crime levels, these surveys also reflect <strong>on</strong> the accuracy of the police statistics, as<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>dents are asked whether they reported the crimes they have suffered to the police.<br />
The ICVS has c<strong>on</strong>ducted surveys <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> thirteen <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n nati<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> it appears that the police<br />
statistics greatly underestimate the scale of crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. When asked whether they<br />
reported their crime experiences to the police, there was a great deal of variati<strong>on</strong> between<br />
rates of report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> different <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries, from 17% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a to 59% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Tanzania<br />
(Figure 17). On average, 37% said they reported the crime to the police. While this suggests<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly a fracti<strong>on</strong> of crime is reported, it still looks good by <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al comparis<strong>on</strong> (Figure 18).<br />
49
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Figure 17: Share of crime victims who reported the offence to the police<br />
70<br />
Percent report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
60<br />
50<br />
40<br />
30<br />
20<br />
17 19 25<br />
30 32 32 39 41 45 46 48 49 59<br />
10<br />
0<br />
Tanzania<br />
Botswana<br />
Tunisia<br />
Swazil<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Namibia<br />
Zambia<br />
Zimbabwe<br />
Lesotho<br />
Egypt<br />
Nigeria<br />
Mozambique<br />
Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a<br />
Source: ICVS , 2000 or latest available year<br />
Figure 18: Share of crime victims who reported the offence to the police<br />
North America<br />
55<br />
Oceania<br />
52<br />
West-Central Europe<br />
46<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
37<br />
South-East Europe<br />
31<br />
Asia<br />
26<br />
East Europe<br />
26<br />
South-Central<br />
America<br />
23<br />
0 10 20 30 40 50 60<br />
Source: ICVS, various years<br />
But people <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> developed countries are more likely to report less serious crime, both to the<br />
police <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to pollsters. Look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at specific types of serious offences, rates of report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g were<br />
lower <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> most develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g areas, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> (Figure 19). This is not surpris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g given<br />
weak <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>al capacity, access to justice issues, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> an often-troubled relati<strong>on</strong>ship<br />
between the police <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the public.<br />
50
I. The State of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Figure 19: Share of crime victims who reported the offence to the police<br />
Sub-Saharan <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
22<br />
30<br />
55<br />
South-Central<br />
America<br />
24<br />
28<br />
39<br />
Asia<br />
23<br />
33<br />
43<br />
South-East Europe<br />
22<br />
35<br />
64<br />
East Europe<br />
23<br />
36<br />
64<br />
North America<br />
44<br />
55<br />
73<br />
West-Central Europe<br />
32<br />
52<br />
76<br />
Oceania<br />
43<br />
52<br />
82<br />
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90<br />
% reported to the police<br />
burglary robbery assault/threat<br />
Source: ICVS 2000 or most recent data<br />
The surveys highlight the deficiencies of the police figures, but too few have been c<strong>on</strong>ducted<br />
to st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> as a complete data source <strong>on</strong> their own. In additi<strong>on</strong> to <strong>on</strong>ly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g thirteen<br />
countries, these surveys have occurred <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> different years, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> most are not nati<strong>on</strong>ally<br />
representative. 169 Keep<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g these deficiencies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d, it is possible to comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e these two<br />
major sources with other <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> to generate a coherent picture of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s crime<br />
situati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
ICVS survey data suggest that <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n urban areas polled show the highest rate of burglaries<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> assaults <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the sec<strong>on</strong>d highest rate of robberies compared to other urban areas<br />
worldwide. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n victimizati<strong>on</strong> rates were 8% for burglary, 6% for assault, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 4% for<br />
robbery. Add<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g together these three major crime types, which are resp<strong>on</strong>sible for a large<br />
share of total recorded serious crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> any country, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries have the highest total<br />
figure.<br />
Us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g both UNODC <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Interpol police figures, it is possible to divide <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries by<br />
their levels of overall recorded crime (Table 2). Rates vary enormously – if taken at face<br />
value, wealthy Southern <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries would appear to have more 50 times the crime of<br />
poor West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n nati<strong>on</strong>s. But as discussed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Annex C of this report, low crime rates <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
poorer countries may be related to the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>capacity of the state to record this <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
as the report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g rate figures above dem<strong>on</strong>strate, report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g rates <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries are<br />
twice those of other countries. This effect is not small – bear <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d that the best developed<br />
countries <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the world have overall total recorded crime rates four times those of highest<br />
category listed below, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the neighbourhood of 20,000 crimes per 100,000 per annum. Clearly,<br />
better-resourced countries are more likely to have the capacity to record m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>or offences, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
these overall figures do not capture the seriousness of crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a country.<br />
51
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Table 2 Total recorded crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n regi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Total recorded<br />
crime per<br />
100,000<br />
High<br />
(More than<br />
5000)<br />
North<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Western <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Central <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Eastern <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Southern <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
Botswana Zimbabwe<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Swazil<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Average<br />
(1000-5000)<br />
Tunisia<br />
Gab<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ghana<br />
Mauritius, the<br />
Seychelles, Sudan,<br />
Tanzania<br />
Lesotho, Namibia<br />
Below average<br />
(500-1000)<br />
Libya<br />
Côte d'Ivoire ;<br />
SãoTomé <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cipe<br />
Malawi, Zambia<br />
Low<br />
(100-500)<br />
Ben<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, Nigeria,<br />
Senegal, Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a,<br />
Djibouti, Ethiopia,<br />
Eritrea<br />
Very low<br />
(Less than 100)<br />
Mauritania,<br />
Egypt<br />
Niger, Camero<strong>on</strong><br />
Mali,<br />
Burk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a Faso<br />
Madagascar<br />
Source: CTS, latest available data<br />
The Internati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> Victim Surveys (ICVS) data <strong>on</strong> urban areas do not support the<br />
extreme variati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> crime rates between countries seen <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the police figures. Overall<br />
victimisati<strong>on</strong> rates vary from 24% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Egypt to 47% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Zimbabwe (Figure). Note too that the<br />
order<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of specific countries differs dramatically. Egypt, for example, shows up at the<br />
bottom of both rank<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, while Botswana has a high level of police recorded crime, but a low<br />
level of survey victimisati<strong>on</strong>, as would be expected from a relatively well-developed country.<br />
Swazil<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ranks highly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> both data sets, while <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a the police record little crime,<br />
despite the fact that a large share of citizens report be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g victimised <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> surveys. By weigh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
both sources of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>, a clearer picture emerges.<br />
Figure 20: Overall victimizati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the year preced<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the survey<br />
Zimbabwe<br />
Swazil<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Mozambique<br />
Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a<br />
Tanzania<br />
South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Namibia<br />
Tunisia<br />
Zambia<br />
Nigeria<br />
Lesotho<br />
Botswana<br />
Egypt<br />
0 10 20 30 40 50<br />
% victims any crime<br />
Source: ICVS 2000 or latest available year<br />
52
I. The State of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Differences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the extent of crime am<strong>on</strong>g towns of various countries are often less important<br />
than differences am<strong>on</strong>g towns with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the same country. In Mozambique, for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stance, 28%<br />
(City of Nampula) to 49% (City of Quelimane) of the resp<strong>on</strong>dents <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> different towns claimed<br />
to have been a victim of crime. 170 High levels of crime reported from urban areas are also not<br />
necessarily representative for the country as a whole. In South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stance, the 2003<br />
nati<strong>on</strong>al crime victim survey found a victimizati<strong>on</strong> rate of 23% for the country as a whole,<br />
which is 40% less than the victimizati<strong>on</strong> rate found <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> urban areas (39% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Johannesburg). A<br />
clearer picture can be derived from both police statistics <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> victim survey data <strong>on</strong> specific<br />
violent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> property offences.<br />
Given the prom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ence given to <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n c<strong>on</strong>flicts <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the media, few people would be surprised<br />
to hear that the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent suffers from high rates of violent crime. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to police<br />
statistics provided to the UNODC by <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n member states, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s violent crime rates are<br />
am<strong>on</strong>g the highest <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the world. In additi<strong>on</strong>, when polled, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns are more likely to say they<br />
have been victims of a range of violent crimes than people from other parts of the world.<br />
On the other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, it might be assumed that most <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns, be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g poor, would be less subject<br />
to property crime than people from more affluent countries. This is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>deed what the police<br />
statistics reflect. But surveys have showed that very few citizens from develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g countries<br />
report to the police when they have been the victims of property crime. In surveys, <strong>on</strong> the<br />
other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns are more likely to say they have had their property taken by various<br />
unlawful means than survey resp<strong>on</strong>dents <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other regi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Violent crime<br />
Police statistics gathered by the UN show that, overall, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> suffers from the highest rates of<br />
violent crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the world, with a 1.1% victimisati<strong>on</strong> rate. This places <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> slightly ahead of<br />
the Oceania regi<strong>on</strong> or the Americas (0.9%), accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the police figures. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the<br />
victim surveys c<strong>on</strong>ducted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> urban areas under the ICVS, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> also ranks highest (11.3%),<br />
narrowly edg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g out the Americas (10.8%). If North America is removed from the analysis,<br />
South <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Central America score slightly higher than <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> (11.9%) (Figure 21).<br />
Figure 21: Violent crime, by regi<strong>on</strong>s 171<br />
C<strong>on</strong>tact crime<br />
14<br />
1200<br />
% victims<br />
12<br />
10<br />
8<br />
6<br />
4<br />
2<br />
1000<br />
800<br />
600<br />
400<br />
200<br />
rate x 100,000 populati<strong>on</strong><br />
0<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
North<br />
America<br />
South-<br />
Central<br />
America<br />
Asia Europe Oceania<br />
0<br />
ICVS<br />
recorded<br />
Source: CTS, 2002 or latest available data <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ICVS, 2000<br />
53
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
However, def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>iti<strong>on</strong>s of violent crime vary between these two data sets. For the police figures<br />
gathered by the UN, the category “violent crime” c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s recorded robbery, major assault<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rape. For the victim surveys c<strong>on</strong>ducted under the ICVS, it <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cludes robbery, assault with<br />
force <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sexual assault.<br />
Intenti<strong>on</strong>al homicide (murder) is <strong>on</strong>e crime category that should be fairly accurately<br />
captured <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the police statistics, due to relatively c<strong>on</strong>sistent def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>iti<strong>on</strong>s around which many<br />
countries are able to provide <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> high rates of report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Informati<strong>on</strong> can also be<br />
gathered through mortuary surveillance projects aimed at gather<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> causes of<br />
death for public health purposes. Murder is usually excluded from victim surveys, as no <strong>on</strong>e<br />
can pers<strong>on</strong>ally report be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the victim of this crime, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, given limited sample sizes, the<br />
number of positive resp<strong>on</strong>ses from households are usually so small that the figures are subject<br />
to error.<br />
Though highly limited, public health data from the World Health Organizati<strong>on</strong> places <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
at the top <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of both war deaths <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> homicides (Figure 22), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> aggregated police<br />
statistics from across the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent support this rank<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: homicide rates – as reported by<br />
official sources to UN – were highest <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> (followed by the Americas, while other<br />
regi<strong>on</strong>s showed much lower rates. But there were a large number of countries that did not<br />
report <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, so the basis for this f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
Figure 22: Homicides <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> war causalities<br />
60<br />
54<br />
Incidence per 100,000 populati<strong>on</strong><br />
50<br />
40<br />
30<br />
20<br />
10<br />
22<br />
20 19<br />
10<br />
6<br />
13<br />
15<br />
8 7<br />
4<br />
3<br />
0<br />
Western<br />
Pacific<br />
Eastern<br />
Mediterranean<br />
Europe<br />
South East<br />
Asia<br />
Regi<strong>on</strong> of the<br />
Americas<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n regi<strong>on</strong><br />
Homicide <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> war casualties<br />
Homicide<br />
Source: WHO, World Report <strong>on</strong> Violence <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Health, 2002<br />
A sub-regi<strong>on</strong>al analysis, however, places the Caribbean slightly above Southern, Western, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Central <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, with Eastern <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n appear<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with a much lower rate (Figure 23).<br />
54
I. The State of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Figure 23: Police-recorded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenti<strong>on</strong>al homicide, by sub-regi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Intenti<strong>on</strong>al homicide, completed<br />
Caribbean<br />
Southern, West <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Central <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
South America<br />
East <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> South-East Asia<br />
Central America<br />
East Europe<br />
Central Asia <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Transcaucasian countries<br />
East <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
North America<br />
South Asia<br />
Southeast Europe<br />
Oceania<br />
West & Central Europe<br />
North <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Near <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Middle East /South-West Asia<br />
4<br />
3<br />
3<br />
2<br />
1<br />
1<br />
7<br />
8<br />
9<br />
17<br />
22<br />
22<br />
26<br />
29<br />
30<br />
- 10 20 30 40<br />
recorded crimes x 100,000 populati<strong>on</strong><br />
Source: CTS, 2002 or latest available year<br />
Thus, it would appear that homicide is not uniformly distributed throughout the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent,<br />
with some countries report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g relatively low rates <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> some report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the highest rates <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
world. If the data set used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this paper is extended to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude Interpol figures, these police<br />
statistics <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate that 20 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Nigeria, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Tanzania<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Zambia, seem to have lower police-recorded murder rates than the global average. The<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a homicide rate above the global average to either the UN or<br />
Interpol have been Angola, Botswana, Ethiopia, Lesotho, Namibia, South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, Swazil<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Zimbabwe.<br />
It would appear that, accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the police figures, the highest murder rates <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> are<br />
found <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Southern <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. The highest rates <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> recent years have been reported from<br />
Swazil<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> – though apparently us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a different def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>iti<strong>on</strong> (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g attempted murder cases<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stead of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenti<strong>on</strong>al homicides <strong>on</strong>ly). The rate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Swazil<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> amounted to 89 per 100,000<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>habitants <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2000 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> thus topped the world’s rank<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of homicides, even exceed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
rates reported from Colombia (63 per 100,000 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>habitants <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2000) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> (50 per<br />
100,000 people). Exclud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g attempted murder cases, the highest rate am<strong>on</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries<br />
is probably found <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. But South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s figures have also been improv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce<br />
the c<strong>on</strong>solidati<strong>on</strong> of democracy, decl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from 68 per 100,000 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>habitants <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1995, to 50 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
2000, 48 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2002 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 44 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2003/04.<br />
At the same time, some of the very low figures are possibly also a record<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g issue rather than<br />
a true reflecti<strong>on</strong> of the level of violence <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a country. A recent UNICEF report found that less<br />
than half of all children born <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> sub-Saharan <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> are officially registered. 172 It is not likely,<br />
then that all violent deaths that occur <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some countries are properly captured by the<br />
authorities. For example, Nigeria’s extremely low recorded murder rate, comparable with<br />
many wealthy European countries with ag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g populati<strong>on</strong>s, seems unlikely to be an accurate<br />
55
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
reflecti<strong>on</strong> of reality today given the well-publicised civil strife <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that country. This is<br />
discussed further below.<br />
In some countries, violent kill<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs may be attributed to political violence rather than<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenti<strong>on</strong>al homicide. In Sudan, for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stance, <strong>on</strong>ly 0.3 murders per 100,000 citizens have been<br />
reported (1994), while most estimates place the number of people killed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> civil war <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that<br />
country at more than two milli<strong>on</strong> s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce 1983. As was discussed above, the l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e between crime<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict is not always clear.<br />
There are visible <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>c<strong>on</strong>sistencies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the figures reported by the UN <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Interpol. On occasi<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
data may corresp<strong>on</strong>d (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the countries where data are produced accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the same<br />
def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>iti<strong>on</strong> for the two sources), otherwise major discrepancies may be observed, as was the<br />
case, for example, with regard to data reported by Namibia, Swazil<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a (see Table<br />
2). This further draws <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to questi<strong>on</strong> the accuracy of the police-recorded figures.<br />
Table 2: Homicide rates for <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries where data are available<br />
Source<br />
UNODC<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> Trends<br />
Survey,<br />
various years<br />
Interpol,<br />
latest<br />
available<br />
Source<br />
UNODC <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Trends Survey,<br />
various years<br />
Interpol,<br />
latest<br />
available<br />
Algeria 1.0 Mauritius 2.2 3.5<br />
Angola 9.4 Morocco 0.5<br />
Ben<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 4.5 Namibia 6.3 26.3<br />
Botswana 12.9 Níger 0.9<br />
Burk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a<br />
Faso<br />
0.4 Nigeria 1.5<br />
Camero<strong>on</strong> 0.4 Rw<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a 4.5<br />
Côte d'Ivoire 4.1 2.4<br />
São Tomé <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cipe<br />
Djibouti 3.5 Sénégal 1.2<br />
Egypt 0.4 Seychelles 7.4 1.3<br />
Eritrea 2 South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> 47.5 42.5<br />
Ethiopia 5.5 Sudan 0.3<br />
Ghana 2.1 Swazil<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 88.6 13.2<br />
Lesotho 50.7 50.5 Tanzania 7.5 8.1<br />
Libya 2.3 Tunisia 1.2 1.2<br />
Madagascar 0.5 Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a 9.0 32.8<br />
Mali 0.7 Zambia 8.1<br />
Mauritania 0.8 Zimbabwe 7.2 7.2<br />
6.2<br />
High levels of murder are usually associated with high levels of other forms of violence, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
both the police statistics <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the survey data show that rates of assault <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> are higher<br />
than <strong>on</strong> other c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ents. Look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at sub-regi<strong>on</strong>s, police <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Southern, Western, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Central<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> record more assaults than police elsewhere (Figure 24). When polled, the people of<br />
56
I. The State of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
sub-Saharan <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> are more likely to report hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g been assaulted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the previous year than<br />
other people (Figure 25).<br />
Figure 24: Police-recorded assault<br />
Southern, West <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Central <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Caribbean<br />
North America<br />
South America<br />
Oceania<br />
Central America<br />
North <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
West & Central Europe<br />
East Europe<br />
Near <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Middle East /South-West Asia<br />
Southeast Europe<br />
East <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
South Asia<br />
East <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> South-East Asia<br />
Central Asia <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Transcaucasian countries<br />
63<br />
58<br />
55<br />
45<br />
25<br />
8<br />
8<br />
7<br />
5<br />
5<br />
4<br />
131<br />
258<br />
340<br />
409<br />
- 100 200 300 400 500<br />
Source: CTS, 2002 or latest available year<br />
Recorded crimes x 100,000 populati<strong>on</strong><br />
Figure 25: Survey resp<strong>on</strong>dents assaulted with force <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the previous year<br />
Sub-Saharan <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
3.1<br />
North America<br />
West-Central Europe<br />
Oceania<br />
South-Central America<br />
2.3<br />
2.3<br />
2.2<br />
2.2<br />
East Europe<br />
1.7<br />
Asia<br />
1.1<br />
South-East Europe<br />
0.8<br />
0 1 2 3 4<br />
% victims<br />
Source: ICVS 2000 or most recent year<br />
The most recent “Afrobarometer” survey <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded two victimizati<strong>on</strong> questi<strong>on</strong>s, thus provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
some <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> crime experienced by <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n citizens <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fifteen countries. Data from the<br />
Afrobarometer cannot be compared with other survey data because of the different<br />
methodology, but they provide <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> a number of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries from which<br />
crime data are hardly available. Results <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated that resp<strong>on</strong>dents <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Nigeria, Kenya, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a were at the highest risk of assault.<br />
57
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Both the Afrobarometer <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the ICVS <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate that South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, a c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ental leader <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
police-recorded murder, did not rank highest <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> assault. This is surpris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, because high levels<br />
of assault <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> murder tend to go together. Nigeria, which has very low murder rates accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
to the police (less than a twentieth of South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>), scores highest <strong>on</strong> the Afrobarometer <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
equally high as South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the ICVS survey for assault. One possible explanati<strong>on</strong> is that<br />
some kill<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs are c<strong>on</strong>flict-related <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> thus do not show up as murders, whereas victim surveys<br />
do not dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guish politically motivated assaults (Figure 26).<br />
Figure 26: Over the past year, how often (if ever) have you or a member of your family been<br />
physically attacked?<br />
Average 15 countries<br />
10<br />
2<br />
Nigeria<br />
Kenya<br />
Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a<br />
South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Namibia<br />
Lesotho<br />
Zambia<br />
Botswana<br />
Tanzania<br />
Mozambique<br />
Ghana<br />
Cape Vert<br />
Senegal<br />
Malawi<br />
Mali<br />
7<br />
7<br />
7<br />
6<br />
6<br />
5<br />
11<br />
11<br />
10<br />
10<br />
9<br />
17<br />
16<br />
15<br />
14<br />
1<br />
2<br />
1<br />
4<br />
1<br />
3<br />
2<br />
1<br />
2<br />
2<br />
2<br />
2<br />
1<br />
2<br />
2<br />
0 5 10 15 20<br />
%<br />
Once or twice/several times<br />
Many times/Always<br />
Source: Afrobarometer, 2003<br />
Globally, data <strong>on</strong> rape <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sexual assault are especially dubious, because of low rates of<br />
report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the difficulty <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> discuss<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the topic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>text of a household survey. But<br />
there is no reas<strong>on</strong> to believe that <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n women are more likely than women <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other parts of<br />
the world to report this crime to either the police or to pollsters. It is therefore disturb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
though not c<strong>on</strong>clusive, that more rape per capita is reported to the police <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
other regi<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that more women polled said they had recently been sexually assaulted<br />
(Figures 27 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 28).<br />
There have been other surveys <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g high levels of sexual violence <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<br />
c<strong>on</strong>texts. In a survey of 269 705 South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n school pupils aged 10-19 years <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> grades 6-11,<br />
CIETafrica found 11% of males <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 4% of females claimed to have forced some<strong>on</strong>e else to<br />
have sex, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 66% of these males <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 71% of these females had themselves been forced to<br />
have sex. 173<br />
58
I. The State of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Figure 27: Police-recorded rape<br />
Southern, West <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Central <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Oceania<br />
Caribbean<br />
North America<br />
South America<br />
West & Central Europe<br />
Central America<br />
Central Asia <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Transcaucasian countries<br />
East Europe<br />
East <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
North <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Southeast Europe<br />
East <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> South-East Asia<br />
South Asia<br />
Near <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Middle East /South-West Asia<br />
5<br />
4<br />
4<br />
3<br />
3<br />
3<br />
2<br />
0<br />
8<br />
11<br />
11<br />
32<br />
55<br />
62<br />
69<br />
- 20 40 60 80<br />
Recorded crimes x 100,000 populati<strong>on</strong><br />
Source: CTS, 2002 or latest available year<br />
Figure 28: Share of survey resp<strong>on</strong>dents sexually assaulted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the previous year<br />
Sub-Saharan <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
2.8<br />
South-Central America<br />
2.2<br />
West-Central Europe<br />
East Europe<br />
1.5<br />
1.4<br />
South-East Europe<br />
Oceania<br />
North America<br />
Asia<br />
0.9<br />
0.9<br />
0.9<br />
0.7<br />
0 1 2 3 4<br />
% victims<br />
Source: ICVS 2000 or most recent year<br />
Robbery is the crime of tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g property by force or threat of force. It is therefore arguably<br />
both a violent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a property crime. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cidence of this crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> ranks sec<strong>on</strong>d after<br />
South <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Central America, accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to both the police <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> survey statistics. Look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at subregi<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
Southern <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s sec<strong>on</strong>d to South <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Central America (Figures 29 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 30).<br />
Robbery rates <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some urban areas can be much higher, though – <strong>on</strong>e large survey <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> central<br />
Johannesburg found robbery rates close to 30%. This figure would be unbelievable if it did<br />
not c<strong>on</strong>form to the police statistics <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the area. 174<br />
59
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Figure 29: Police-recorded robbery<br />
South America<br />
Southern <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
West & Central Europe<br />
Central America<br />
North America<br />
Caribbean<br />
Oceania<br />
East Europe<br />
Central Asia <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Transcaucasian countries<br />
North <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
East <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> South-East Asia<br />
East <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Southeast Europe<br />
South Asia<br />
Near <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Middle East /South-West Asia<br />
27<br />
25<br />
22<br />
20<br />
10<br />
3<br />
2<br />
189<br />
164<br />
142<br />
117<br />
101<br />
76<br />
349<br />
442<br />
- 100 200 300 400 500<br />
Recorded crimes x 100,000 populati<strong>on</strong><br />
Source: CTS, 2002 or latest available year<br />
Figure 30: Share of resp<strong>on</strong>dents robbed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the previous year<br />
South-Central America<br />
6.3<br />
Sub-Saharan <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
4.1<br />
East Europe<br />
West-Central Europe<br />
Asia<br />
Oceania<br />
South-East Europe<br />
North America<br />
2.1<br />
2.0<br />
1.7<br />
1.4<br />
1.4<br />
1.4<br />
0 2 4 6 8<br />
% victims<br />
Source: ICVS 2000 or most recent year<br />
Another type of violent crime relatively prom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is kidnapp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Based <strong>on</strong> police<br />
statistics supplied to the UN (comprehensive survey data are not available), <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> appears to<br />
be the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent most affected by kidnapp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, ahead of the Americas. However, <strong>on</strong>ly thirtyfive<br />
countries have supplied data <strong>on</strong> kidnapp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs to the UN, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> some key countries known<br />
for high levels of kidnapp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> South America did not supply a report. Thus, as is always the<br />
case with crime data, the picture may not be complete, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sub-regi<strong>on</strong>al analysis is impossible.<br />
N<strong>on</strong>etheless, exist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g data are sufficient to establish that this crime could be a serious problem<br />
for <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
60
I. The State of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Figure 31: Kidnapp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, by regi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
rate x 100,000 populati<strong>on</strong><br />
6<br />
5<br />
4<br />
3<br />
2<br />
1<br />
0<br />
5.2<br />
3.8<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
2.6<br />
2.1<br />
North<br />
America<br />
(Canada &<br />
Mexico)<br />
2.4<br />
1.9<br />
South-<br />
Central<br />
America <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Caribbean<br />
0.2 0.3<br />
Asia<br />
1.0 1.0<br />
Europe<br />
2001 2002<br />
Source: Eighth CTS <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> UNODC, Internati<strong>on</strong>al cooperati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the preventi<strong>on</strong>, combat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> elim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> of kidnapp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g assistance to victims<br />
Figure 32: Car theft <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> car hijack<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n cities<br />
Johannesburg (South<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>)<br />
2.2<br />
3.4<br />
Mbabane (Swazil<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>)<br />
2.2<br />
2.8<br />
Lusaka (Zambia)<br />
0.8<br />
1.4<br />
Maputo (Mozambique)<br />
1.3<br />
1.9<br />
Kampala (Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a)<br />
0.3<br />
1.0<br />
Maseru (Lesotho)<br />
Gabor<strong>on</strong>e (Botswana)<br />
0.3<br />
0.3<br />
0.3<br />
0.7<br />
W<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dhoeck (Namibia)<br />
0.1<br />
1<br />
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5<br />
car hijack<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g % victims car theft<br />
Source: ICVS 2000 or most recent year<br />
It would also appear that car hijack<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, or the tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of a pers<strong>on</strong>al vehicle by force (usually<br />
at gunpo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t), is a relatively serious problem <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. In some large <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n cities, car<br />
hijack<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g may be even more comm<strong>on</strong> than stealthy theft of vehicles (Figure 32). This<br />
61
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
suggests the impunity with which crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>als can commit violent crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, as it is easier<br />
for them to use force than to overcome vehicular security.<br />
In summary, all available <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicators suggest that <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> suffers from serious levels of crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al<br />
violence. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to at least <strong>on</strong>e source, it has the highest levels of murder (police figures),<br />
assault (police figures <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> victim survey data), sexual assault (police figures <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> victim<br />
survey data), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> kidnapp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (police figures), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the sec<strong>on</strong>d highest levels of robbery (police<br />
figures <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> victim survey data). In those categories where a data source does not place <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
highest, it comes sec<strong>on</strong>d. While neither data source is perfect, the fact that they agree <strong>on</strong> the<br />
state of crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> violent crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> should be taken seriously.<br />
Property crime<br />
Police statistics <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate low levels of property crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, with a victimisati<strong>on</strong> rate of<br />
less than 1% per annum. This is undoubtedly a result of under-report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, related to issues of<br />
access to justice, as the survey data highlight. In the urban ICVS surveys, <strong>on</strong>ly 14% of those<br />
who said they had been victims of property crime said they had reported it to the government<br />
authorities. In c<strong>on</strong>trast, victims of property crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the regi<strong>on</strong>s where developed countries<br />
predom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ate were much more likely to report: 94% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Oceania <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 53% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Europe. Other<br />
areas c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g large number of develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g countries showed low report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g rates for<br />
property crime, but not as low as <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>: 23% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Americas <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 18% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Asia.<br />
The case of theft provides an example. Figure 33 shows both the police recorded <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
survey f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs with regard to this crime. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> scores <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the middle <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of the police<br />
statistics (green bars) but highest <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the survey f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs (grey bars). For this reas<strong>on</strong>, the<br />
discussi<strong>on</strong> of property crime is best based <strong>on</strong> the survey f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs exclusively.<br />
Figure 33: Theft, police-recorded <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> survey resp<strong>on</strong>se rates<br />
4000<br />
16<br />
rate x 100,000 populati<strong>on</strong><br />
3500<br />
3000<br />
2500<br />
2000<br />
1500<br />
1000<br />
500<br />
0<br />
13.4<br />
1261<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
2421<br />
4.5<br />
10.3<br />
449<br />
North South-<br />
America Central<br />
America<br />
7.6<br />
230<br />
Asia<br />
3518<br />
1902<br />
6.3<br />
5.0<br />
Europe Oceania<br />
14<br />
12<br />
10<br />
8<br />
6<br />
4<br />
2<br />
-<br />
rate x 100 survey resp<strong>on</strong>dents<br />
police-recorded major theft<br />
ICVS victims of theft<br />
Source: CTS, 2002 or latest available data, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ICVS, 2000 175<br />
It might be expected that as the majority of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns have little to steal, they might be spared<br />
the experience of hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g their homes burgled, but unfortunately this is not the case. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns<br />
report be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g burglarised more than people of other areas – over twice the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
average (Figure 34). This is reflected <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> public percepti<strong>on</strong>s, as measured by the ICVS surveys.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns are more likely than people from other regi<strong>on</strong>s to believe that they will fall victim to<br />
burglary <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the next year. While the value of the goods taken is generally small, the impact of<br />
this crime <strong>on</strong> poor households can be great. Just over half (55%) of these <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cidents are<br />
62
I. The State of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
reported to the police, compared to 84% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Oceania, 72% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Europe, 59% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Americas,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 40% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Asia.<br />
Figure 34: Survey resp<strong>on</strong>dents who suffered burglary <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the previous year<br />
Sub-Saharan <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
8.1<br />
Asia<br />
5.3<br />
Oceania<br />
4.6<br />
South-Central America<br />
4.0<br />
West-Central Europe<br />
3.1<br />
South-East Europe<br />
North America<br />
East Europe<br />
2.3<br />
2.1<br />
2.6<br />
0 2 4 6 8 10<br />
% victims<br />
Source: ICVS 2000 or most recent year<br />
Figure 35: Share th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g burglary is likely <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the next year<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
56<br />
Americas<br />
45<br />
Europe<br />
42<br />
Oceania<br />
37<br />
Asia<br />
28<br />
0 20 40 60<br />
Source: ICVS 2000 or most recent year<br />
Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to ICVS surveys, levels of burglary are most acute <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Southern <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. The<br />
Afrobarometer also asks “over the past year, how often (if ever) have you or a member of<br />
your family had someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g stolen from your house?” Here, the rank<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs change, with the<br />
highest levels appear<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kenya, Zambia, Nigeria, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Tanzania.<br />
63
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Figure 36: Survey resp<strong>on</strong>dents who suffered burglary <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the previous year<br />
Mozambique<br />
13<br />
Zambia<br />
Zimbabwe<br />
11<br />
11<br />
Swazil<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
9<br />
Namibia<br />
South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
8<br />
8<br />
Tunisia<br />
7<br />
Botswana<br />
Lesotho<br />
7<br />
7<br />
Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a<br />
6<br />
Nigeria<br />
5<br />
Egypt<br />
3<br />
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14<br />
% victims<br />
Source: ICVS, 2000 or latest available year<br />
Car theft rates <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> are <strong>on</strong>ly 1.4%, which is about the same as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Europe. While the<br />
overall rate is not high, the crime is c<strong>on</strong>sidered very significant <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, because it can<br />
represent the loss of a livelihood. The recovery rate of stolen cars <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is also low – just<br />
43%, the lowest rate worldwide. This is particularly problematic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, as many of these<br />
vehicles are likely to be un<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sured. On average, 87% of the stolen cars are recovered <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Oceania <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> approximately half of the cars stolen are retrieved <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Americas, Europe <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Asia (Figure 38). 176<br />
Figure 37: Survey resp<strong>on</strong>dents who suffered car theft <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the previous year<br />
Car theft<br />
Oceania<br />
South-Central America<br />
1.9<br />
1.8<br />
Sub-Saharan <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
West-Central Europe<br />
North America<br />
1.2<br />
1.3<br />
1.4<br />
South-East Europe<br />
1.0<br />
East Europe<br />
0.8<br />
Asia<br />
0.3<br />
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5<br />
% victims<br />
64
I. The State of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Figure 38: Share of car theft victims who had their vehicle recovered<br />
Oceania<br />
North America<br />
79<br />
83<br />
West-Central Europe<br />
East Europe<br />
Asia<br />
59<br />
62<br />
64<br />
South-East Europe<br />
54<br />
South-Central America<br />
Sub-Saharan <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
45<br />
48<br />
0 20 40 60 80 100<br />
% victims of car theft who had their car recovered<br />
Source: ICVS 2000 or most recent year<br />
Another apparent problem for <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is fraud. Compar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> fraud from the<br />
various data sources may suffer from slightly differ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>iti<strong>on</strong>s to describe the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cident.<br />
The police statistics compiled by the UN def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e fraud as the acquisiti<strong>on</strong> of another pers<strong>on</strong>’s<br />
property by decepti<strong>on</strong>, while the ICVS def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>iti<strong>on</strong> refers to cheat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Fraud is a highly underreported<br />
crime everywhere, because the victim is often somewhat complicit, but the general<br />
issues around under-report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g countries also apply here. For these reas<strong>on</strong>s, it is<br />
not surpris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that the police statistics do not show a high rate of annual victimizati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> (0.07% of total populati<strong>on</strong> per annum).<br />
Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the victim survey data, however, fraud would appear to be more comm<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent than anyplace else besides Eastern Europe, with nearly 30% of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns polled<br />
say<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g they had been defrauded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the previous year (Figure 39).<br />
Figure 39: Survey resp<strong>on</strong>dents who suffered fraud <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the previous year<br />
East Europe<br />
49.9<br />
South-East Europe<br />
38.2<br />
Sub-Saharan <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
28.6<br />
Asia<br />
22.8<br />
South-Central America<br />
22.5<br />
West-Central Europe<br />
19.5<br />
North America<br />
9.5<br />
Oceania<br />
9.0<br />
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55<br />
% victims<br />
Source: ICVS 2000 or most recent year<br />
65
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
How much crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>?<br />
In summary, the limited data available support the c<strong>on</strong>tenti<strong>on</strong> that <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> has a serious crime<br />
problem. Both police statistics <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> survey figures show high levels of both violent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
property crime. Tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to account the earlier discussi<strong>on</strong>s about the social c<strong>on</strong>text of crime<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the data <strong>on</strong> organised crime, it can be said with some c<strong>on</strong>fidence that <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s crime<br />
situati<strong>on</strong> should be c<strong>on</strong>sidered <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> development plann<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
But how might crime be affect<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n development? The follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Chapter explores this<br />
issue <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some detail.<br />
66
II. How <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> H<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ders <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
II. HOW CRIME HINDERS AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT<br />
The previous chapter showed that <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> suffers from high rates of crime, am<strong>on</strong>g the highest<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the world. It also showed that many of the social factors associated with <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s poverty<br />
are precisely those associated with high crime areas <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>ally. These facts raise a most<br />
important questi<strong>on</strong>: is <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s crime problem partly resp<strong>on</strong>sible for its persistent poverty?<br />
Three possible impacts of crime are discussed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this paper:<br />
• <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> destroys <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s social <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> human capital: <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> degrades quality of life <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
can force skilled workers overseas; victimisati<strong>on</strong>, as well as fear of crime, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terferes with<br />
the development of those who rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> impedes access to possible employment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
educati<strong>on</strong>al opportunities, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> it discourages the accumulati<strong>on</strong> of assets.<br />
• <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> drives bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess away from <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>: Investors see crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> as sign of social<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stability, driv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g up the cost of do<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess. Corrupti<strong>on</strong> is even more damag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
perhaps the s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle greatest obstacle to development. Further, tourism, of large <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g importance for <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, is an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dustry especially sensitive to crime.<br />
• <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> underm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es the state: <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> corrupti<strong>on</strong> destroy the trust relati<strong>on</strong>ship between<br />
the people <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the state, underm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g democracy. Aside from direct losses of nati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
funds due to corrupti<strong>on</strong>, crime can erode the tax base as the rich bribe tax officials <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
poor recede <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the shadow ec<strong>on</strong>omy. Corrupti<strong>on</strong> diverts resources <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to graft-rich public<br />
works projects, at a cost to educati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> health services.<br />
2.1 The impact of crime <strong>on</strong> society<br />
The most profound impacts of crime are pers<strong>on</strong>al. Becom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a victim to crime can change<br />
people’s lives forever. Cop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with the emoti<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> practical costs of victimisati<strong>on</strong> can be<br />
extremely burdensome <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, where access to health <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social services is limited <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
governments cannot afford to lend a h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>. The effects of a s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cident of victimisati<strong>on</strong> can<br />
ripple outward through households to affect whole communities. Fear of crime can paralyse<br />
development at the grass roots. If development is the process of build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g societies that work,<br />
crime acts as a k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of ‘anti-development’, destroy<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the trust relati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> which society is<br />
based.<br />
To aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> adopt the language of development ec<strong>on</strong>omics, crime erodes social <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> human<br />
capital. The World Bank def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es “social capital” as “the norms <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> networks that enable<br />
collective acti<strong>on</strong>.” 177 World Bank research suggests that social capital is essential for<br />
development 178 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that crime can destroy social capital. 179 In essence, this work shows that<br />
crime is a major source of unfreedom <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g societies that directly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>hibits the efforts<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals to better themselves. In Lat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> America <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Caribbean, <strong>on</strong>e analysis found<br />
that the “net accumulati<strong>on</strong> of human capital” had been cut <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> half <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the past 15 years because<br />
of crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> violence. 180<br />
Fear of crime restricts mobility, which <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terferes with social <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ec<strong>on</strong>omic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>, as well<br />
as educati<strong>on</strong>. Even more c<strong>on</strong>cretely, crime may prevent the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stallati<strong>on</strong> or ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>frastructure, as crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al groups depend <strong>on</strong> the disempowerment of local communities. 181 At<br />
its most extreme, social relati<strong>on</strong>s break down altogether, as people m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>imise their exposure to<br />
possible victimisati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The human costs of violent crime<br />
Violent crime can have a disproporti<strong>on</strong>ately large impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Death <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> disability can<br />
rob households of their <strong>on</strong>ly breadw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ners, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> government supports are limited. In 2004, the<br />
World Health Organisati<strong>on</strong> released a report <strong>on</strong> the ec<strong>on</strong>omic effects of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpers<strong>on</strong>al violence<br />
which sought to document <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> quantify the ec<strong>on</strong>omic impact that exposure to violence has <strong>on</strong><br />
67
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals as well as the impact of violence <strong>on</strong> the rest of the ec<strong>on</strong>omy. 182 Based <strong>on</strong> an<br />
extensive review of the literature deal<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with the costs of violence, the report argued that<br />
there were a number of ways <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which the experience of violent crime resulted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a victim’s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>curr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g direct <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>direct f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ancial losses. These costs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude the loss of productivity<br />
associated with death or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>jury, the costs of medical care <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> legal services, as well as the<br />
n<strong>on</strong>-m<strong>on</strong>etary losses such as the lost <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestment <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> human capital, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the impact of the<br />
psychological harm <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>flicted <strong>on</strong> the victim. 183<br />
Plac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a dollar value <strong>on</strong> the cost of violent crime is extremely problematic, not the least<br />
because any attempt to do will have to factor <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> lost earn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> this will have the<br />
unfortunate c<strong>on</strong>sequence of plac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a lower value <strong>on</strong> life <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g world. One<br />
example of this k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of problem is reflected <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the fact that an estimate of the ec<strong>on</strong>omic costs<br />
of a homicide based <strong>on</strong> the discounted value of the lost productivity of the typical victim <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Cape Town, South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> suggested an average ec<strong>on</strong>omic cost of $15,319. Us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g similar<br />
assumpti<strong>on</strong>s, the cost of the typical homicide <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> New Zeal<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> was calculated to be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
order of $829,000. The difference between the two arose because the predicted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>come of the<br />
typical victim of a homicide <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> New Zeal<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> was much higher than was that of the typical<br />
murder victim <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Cape Town. 184<br />
On the c<strong>on</strong>trary, loss or disablement of a breadw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ner can have far greater impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the developed world. For <strong>on</strong>e th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, more people are affected: given the shape of the<br />
age curve <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the level of unemployment <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, dependency ratios are substantially higher.<br />
Sec<strong>on</strong>dly, few <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns have life <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>surance or other private safety nets, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the level of public<br />
provisi<strong>on</strong> is much weaker. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the ILO’s Social Security Index, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns are offered<br />
lower levels of social protecti<strong>on</strong> than other people. 185<br />
The impact of physical <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>jury is obviously greater for those who rely <strong>on</strong> physical labour to<br />
make a liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, such as farmers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ers, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> many <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns fall <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this category. And the<br />
same <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>jury can have very different l<strong>on</strong>g-term c<strong>on</strong>sequences when experienced <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a<br />
develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g country than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a developed <strong>on</strong>e, due to the accessibility of medical services. The<br />
Small Arms Survey 2003 reports, for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stance, that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> northern Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a, “most victims of<br />
gunshot <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>juries take hours, sometimes days, to reach a health facility. More than 24% of all<br />
gunshot victims <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a recent survey did not receive medical treatment with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the first seven<br />
hours of their <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>jury, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> more than 34% had to wait two days or never reached a medical<br />
facility.” 186 Thus, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>juries that might mean a few days off work <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> developed countries can<br />
end a career <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> poorer areas, or even be life-threaten<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
The cumulative impact of this trauma also has implicati<strong>on</strong>s for the state. Given <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s many<br />
health challenges, it can scarcely afford the additi<strong>on</strong>al burden imposed by <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenti<strong>on</strong>ally<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>flicted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>juries. For most <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries, data <strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> of violence to the<br />
public health burden do not exist. The World Heath Organisati<strong>on</strong> is work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with the<br />
governments of Ethiopia <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Mozambique to develop systems for m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the causes of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>juries, but data <strong>on</strong> the causes of death <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> trauma are not collected <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> most <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<br />
countries.<br />
South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is an excepti<strong>on</strong>, as it has a well-developed Nati<strong>on</strong>al Injury Mortality<br />
Surveillance System (NIMSS), which produces annual nati<strong>on</strong>al estimates. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to<br />
NIMSS, murder is the number <strong>on</strong>e cause of n<strong>on</strong>-natural death <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, outpac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
suicide, vehicular accidents, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other accidents. Similarly, trauma unit studies show that<br />
violence is resp<strong>on</strong>sible for about half of all n<strong>on</strong>-lethal <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>juries present<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at trauma units, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
suggest that South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n public hospitals treat over <strong>on</strong>e milli<strong>on</strong> violence related <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>juries a<br />
year. 187 Treat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle gunshot wound can cost nearly $US1500, 188 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> over half of all<br />
murders <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> are due to firearms. 189 Gunshot wounds are more likely to be lethal<br />
than other forms of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>jury, however, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> small pilot studies suggest that less than a fifth of<br />
n<strong>on</strong>-lethal <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>juries present<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g are due to firearms. 190 Look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g just at this share, treat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
firearms-related <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>juries at public hospitals could cost the South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n taxpayer $US300<br />
68
II. How <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> H<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ders <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
milli<strong>on</strong> a year, or SAR 1.8 billi<strong>on</strong>. This is more than the entire 2004/5 budget of the South<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Department of L<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Affairs.<br />
In c<strong>on</strong>trast, data from a mortuary surveillance pilot project <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ghana showed much lower<br />
levels of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenti<strong>on</strong>al violent death. Violence accounted for <strong>on</strong>ly 47 of the 1898 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>jury deaths<br />
analysed by the project (3%). The vast majority (84%) were due to motor vehicle crashes (650)<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pedestrian accidents (953). This low level of violence is suggested by the country’s<br />
official crime statistics (as recorded by Interpol), which recorded a murder rate of 2.48 per<br />
100,000 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2000. 191 South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s official rate is some 20 times this figure.<br />
Thus, while levels of violence <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> vary, they can pose a significant dra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> public funds<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some areas. The extent to which this is true is unclear, but give the fact that <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> as a<br />
whole has the highest levels of violence <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> homicide <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the world, these costs are likely to be<br />
c<strong>on</strong>siderable <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many parts of the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent.<br />
69
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Physicians per 100,000 people <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2002<br />
Legend<br />
number of physicians per 100,000 people<br />
1 - 20<br />
21 - 100<br />
above 100<br />
no data available<br />
Source: UNDP (2004) Human <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> Report 2004: Cultural Liberty <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Today’s Diverse World, UNDP: New York.<br />
Note: The boundaries <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> names shown <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the designati<strong>on</strong>s used <strong>on</strong> this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
Rob<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<strong>on</strong> Projecti<strong>on</strong><br />
Datum: WGS 84<br />
Scale 1: 100,000,000¯<br />
70
II. How <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> H<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ders <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
The human costs of property crime<br />
Assess<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the larger impact of property crime is difficult, because the asset itself is rarely<br />
destroyed, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> it is hard to say to what extent its redistributi<strong>on</strong> results <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a net social loss. But<br />
<strong>on</strong> a household level, it can be devastat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, particularly if productive assets are targeted. The<br />
dollar value of the assets lost may greatly underestimate their significance. A 2003<br />
victimisati<strong>on</strong> survey <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Mozambique found that the average value of goods stolen <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cident was <strong>on</strong>ly about US$13. 192 This f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is supported by the results of a number of<br />
victimisati<strong>on</strong> surveys c<strong>on</strong>ducted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. The low absolute value of this loss might be<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpreted to mean that property crimes committed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that country are trivial. However, the<br />
average annual <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>come of Mozambicans is just $1,050, so this loss represents 1.24% of a<br />
year’s wage. This is actually a higher share than the average loss suffered by an American<br />
victim ($410, about 1.14% of average annual <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>come), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, given the lack of social <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
private <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>surance, the impact is likely to be much greater.<br />
The serious impact of property crime is reflected <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> survey resp<strong>on</strong>ses <strong>on</strong> which crimes are<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sidered the most serious by the public. In developed countries, sexual assault is generally<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sidered more serious than vehicular theft, whereas <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> countries like Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Tanzania,<br />
as well as many Asian countries, the opposite is true.<br />
The significance of livestock theft for <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce a large share of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns are farmers, perhaps the best s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle example of the importance<br />
of property crimes is stock theft. Farm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is a risky enterprise anywhere <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the world, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> it is<br />
all the more so <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. In resp<strong>on</strong>se to fluctuati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> year-to-year <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>come, farmers must<br />
devote resources to build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g up stocks of liquid assets <strong>on</strong> which the family can rely dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
bad seas<strong>on</strong>s. In <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, this usually means livestock. But accumulat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a herd exposes the<br />
farmer a new risk: livestock theft. 193<br />
Most of the ICVS surveys are d<strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> capital cities, usually the most metropolitan areas of the<br />
respective countries, where livestock theft would be relatively rare. But a recent nati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
victim survey c<strong>on</strong>ducted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Malawi found that 40% of all crimes experienced were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cidents<br />
of crop theft, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> another 20% were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cidents of livestock theft, two-thirds of which <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved<br />
the loss of poultry. 194 In a survey of three urban areas <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Tanzania, three of the five most<br />
comm<strong>on</strong>ly reported crimes were crop theft, livestock theft <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the theft of a bicycle. 195 It is<br />
likely that livestock <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crop theft would figure even more prom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ently if the survey were<br />
d<strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> rural areas. A recent survey of four prov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ces <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Mozambique, which <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded rural<br />
areas, found nearly a fifth of the sample had fallen victim to livestock theft, but less than 2%<br />
had reported a case of livestock theft to the police (Figure 40).<br />
71
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Figure 40: Share of sample experienc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g livestock theft<br />
20<br />
18<br />
17.9<br />
16<br />
Percent of sample<br />
14<br />
12<br />
10<br />
8<br />
6<br />
4<br />
2<br />
0<br />
2.5<br />
1<br />
9<br />
0.4<br />
11<br />
5<br />
1.4<br />
5.6<br />
0.8<br />
6.7<br />
0.1<br />
11.3<br />
5<br />
8.1 8.5<br />
4<br />
1.6<br />
South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
(nati<strong>on</strong>al)<br />
Malawi<br />
(nati<strong>on</strong>al)<br />
Tanzania (3<br />
cities)<br />
Mozambique<br />
(4 prov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ces)<br />
Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a<br />
(Kampala<br />
Nigeria<br />
(Enugu State)<br />
Botswana<br />
(Gabar<strong>on</strong>e)<br />
Namibia<br />
(W<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dhoek)<br />
Zambia<br />
(Lusaka)<br />
Stock theft<br />
Reported stock theft<br />
Source: ICVS, various years; ISS, 2004<br />
In part, livestock theft is as comm<strong>on</strong> as it is for cultural reas<strong>on</strong>s: cattle raid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is an important<br />
rite of passage <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many parts of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. But the cultural means of cop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g have been lost <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
some areas, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, given the unlimited greed of some rustlers, the impact is likely to be worse<br />
today. In additi<strong>on</strong>, the acquisiti<strong>on</strong> of modern weap<strong>on</strong>ry makes feuds over cattle far more<br />
lethal than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the past.<br />
Fear of crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> human potential<br />
While the direct impact of crime <strong>on</strong> poor victims is great, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>direct effects of crime have a<br />
far wider reach. Victimisati<strong>on</strong> or fear of victimisati<strong>on</strong> can cause people to withdraw from<br />
social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order to limit their exposure. This manifests itself <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some very c<strong>on</strong>crete<br />
ways. There are many opportunity costs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a life designed around avoid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al vulnerability. Some people simply refuse to go out at night, or to make use of public<br />
transport, which may limit access to productive <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong>al activities.<br />
Women, who also have to face the additi<strong>on</strong>al threats of sexual violence <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> harassment, may<br />
be more str<strong>on</strong>gly affected than men. World Bank research <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Jamaica found that girls were<br />
afraid to go to school because of violence. 196 In Brazil, schools that serve rival drug gang<br />
territories can become no-go z<strong>on</strong>es. 197 Return<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, research <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
highlights how educati<strong>on</strong> opportunities can be limited when attend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g class means exposure<br />
to sexual violence, even at the h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> of teachers. 198<br />
In Zambia, a World Bank study found that fear of crime was limit<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the movement of<br />
women <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e poor community, where 93% said they felt unsafe, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that fear of crime was<br />
prevent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g teachers from show<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g up at work. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> was rated as the sec<strong>on</strong>d most press<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cern by women of the community, after water supply. The report noted that even<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
school classes had been term<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ated because the electrical fixtures had been stolen from<br />
classrooms, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that public facilities were regularly looted <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> v<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>alised. As a result, parents<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this poor community were fundrais<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to put fences around schools – an unusual priority<br />
given that many did not have access to adequate supplies of water. 199<br />
72
II. How <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> H<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ders <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
ICVS data show that <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns feel the least safe walk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the area where they live at night<br />
compared to resp<strong>on</strong>dents <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other regi<strong>on</strong>s. 200 Given that walk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is the <strong>on</strong>ly means of transport<br />
available to many <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns, this could prevent social <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> commercial <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong> after dark.<br />
Figure 41: Share feel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g unsafe walk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g al<strong>on</strong>e after dark <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their area<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Americas<br />
Asia<br />
Europe<br />
Oceania<br />
0 20 40 60<br />
ICVS, Various years<br />
It additi<strong>on</strong> to the high-level effects menti<strong>on</strong>ed above, crime also impedes ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
development at the grass roots. Vulnerable groups may f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d many of basic transacti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
essential for small bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess to be too risky. Start<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess may not be worth the trouble if<br />
it <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creases the visibility of the entrepreneur as a possible target, or if capital is likely to be<br />
pillaged. Speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g specifically about poverty reducti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Malawi, the IMF says, “<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>security<br />
makes it too risky for the poor to accumulate assets <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> wealth, particularly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a rural sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
as any assets or wealth are likely to be stolen.” 201<br />
South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> may represent an extreme case <strong>on</strong>ce aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, but a World Bank survey of small,<br />
medium <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> micro enterprise (SMME) firms found that 94% felt that crime should be given<br />
priority by local governments, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 77% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated that acti<strong>on</strong> aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st crime was the most<br />
important acti<strong>on</strong> local government could take. Approximately 61% of SMMEs polled said<br />
they had suffered from some form of crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the previous f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ancial year. The study also<br />
found that these small firms spent as much <strong>on</strong> security as they did <strong>on</strong> tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, “an allocati<strong>on</strong><br />
with a high opportunity cost.” 202<br />
Similarly, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Tanzania, a survey of small bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess entrepreneurs found that 82% held the<br />
op<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>i<strong>on</strong> that any petty trader is a potential victim of crime. Losses <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded the deliberate<br />
destructi<strong>on</strong> of property, theft, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> robbery, with victimisati<strong>on</strong> levels runn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> excess of 50%.<br />
Vendors polled were more likely to advocate the use of violence <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>se to crime than<br />
report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g victimisati<strong>on</strong> to the authorities. 203<br />
73
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Figure 42: Share of resp<strong>on</strong>dents absta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for fear of crime<br />
Us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g public transport<br />
Start<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess<br />
Allow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g children to<br />
walk to school<br />
Us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g public parks<br />
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35<br />
Source: Burt<strong>on</strong> et al, ‘Nati<strong>on</strong>al Victims of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> Survey: South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2003’<br />
(Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies), p.56.<br />
In a nati<strong>on</strong>al victim survey c<strong>on</strong>ducted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, resp<strong>on</strong>dents were asked a number of<br />
questi<strong>on</strong>s about how crime affected their everyday activities. Over a quarter of resp<strong>on</strong>dents<br />
(26%) said that they felt that crime prevented them from start<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g their own bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess. Nearly<br />
as many (24%) said they could not use public transportati<strong>on</strong> for fear of crime, a very serious<br />
issue <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a country where the majority of black people have no other means of access<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g urban<br />
markets or work opportunities. 204 In a very real sense, fear of crime has paralysed the<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic development of many South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns, both victims <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>-victims. The same is<br />
surely true <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict areas, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> may also be true <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> countries where crime levels are also high.<br />
Bra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> dra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
When quality of life decl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es, those who are able to emigrate do so. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the World<br />
Bank:<br />
“At the beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the 21 st century, more than 130 milli<strong>on</strong> people live<br />
outside the country of their birth, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that number has been ris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at about<br />
2% a year… Cross-border migrati<strong>on</strong>, comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed with the “bra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> dra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>” from<br />
develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dustrial countries, will be <strong>on</strong>e of the major forces shap<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>scape of the 21 st century… A bra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> dra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> can hamper a develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
country’s ability to harness modern agricultural <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dustrial technology.<br />
Some countries <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sub-Saharan <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>…have lost <strong>on</strong>e third of their skilled<br />
workers.” 205<br />
Loss of skilled labour is particularly pa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ful for a c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent where, accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to UNECA,<br />
“both the volume <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the quality of human capital are widely acknowledged to be grossly<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sufficient to meet the challenges of the 21 st Century.” 206 Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the Strategic Plan of<br />
the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Uni<strong>on</strong> Commissi<strong>on</strong>, “ (a) quantitative <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> qualitative human resource deficit<br />
persists <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some key areas, aris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from slow progress <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> health.”<br />
Unfortunately, for a variety of reas<strong>on</strong>s, large numbers of skilled <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns choose to leave their<br />
home countries for better prospects <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the developed world. The Internati<strong>on</strong>al Organisati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong><br />
Migrati<strong>on</strong> (IOM) estimates that 3.8 milli<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns live <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Europe, North America, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Australia, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> some 80,000 highly qualified people leave the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent every year to take up<br />
work overseas, not <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g students. 207<br />
74
II. How <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> H<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ders <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is not unique <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this regard, of course. Albania, another area stricken by crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
corrupti<strong>on</strong>, has lost an estimated <strong>on</strong>e third of its populati<strong>on</strong> s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce 1990. 208 Further, the impact<br />
of skilled labour migrati<strong>on</strong> is presently be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g debated, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> possible positive effects of skilled<br />
migrati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> remittances <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the creati<strong>on</strong> of well-placed <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<br />
diasporas. 209 But as <strong>on</strong>e of the primary barriers to growth <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is a shortage of skills, this<br />
movement has serious implicati<strong>on</strong>s for development. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vest <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skilled<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>nel through subsidies to universities, as well as educati<strong>on</strong>al grants <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> subsidised loans.<br />
These <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>puts are lost when skilled pers<strong>on</strong>nel emigrate, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> still more must be spent <strong>on</strong><br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g replacements, costs develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g countries are ill equipped to absorb. The Lancet<br />
estimated the cost of los<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g 600 South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n medical school graduates to New Zeal<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to<br />
be US$ 37 milli<strong>on</strong>. 210 Skilled emigrants take their m<strong>on</strong>ey with them, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the skills shortage<br />
keeps the wages of those who rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> artificially high. In fact, many develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g countries <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> elsewhere are forced to pay premium salaries <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order to import skills from abroad,<br />
as much as $US4 billi<strong>on</strong> per annum. 211<br />
The number of emigrants leav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is hard to calculate. It is certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ly not a new<br />
phenomen<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is often tied to periods of political repressi<strong>on</strong> or civil c<strong>on</strong>flict. Many<br />
countries do not ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> records of emigrants, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> many emigrants do not notify their home<br />
countries of their departure. Indeed, even <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, which ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s some of the best<br />
records <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this regard, research <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicates that the official emigrati<strong>on</strong> figures may capture less<br />
than 35% of the true outflow. 212 In additi<strong>on</strong>, some migrate for a limited period of time, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tent<br />
<strong>on</strong> return<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to their home countries at some po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the future. The rate at which they fulfil<br />
these <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenti<strong>on</strong>s rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s unclear, as does their ec<strong>on</strong>omic productivity after return<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Figure<br />
43 gives some estimates <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2000 for the number of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns resident <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> selected European<br />
countries. Comparable 2000 data for France are not available, although the IOM <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicates that<br />
it hosts <strong>on</strong>e of the largest <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n diaspora communities: an estimated 614 200 Algerians, 572<br />
700 Moroccans, 206 300 Tunisians, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 43 700 Senegalese were resident <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that country <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
1990. 213<br />
Figure 43: Sizes of selected <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n diasporas (2000)<br />
180000<br />
160000<br />
170905<br />
140000<br />
120000<br />
100000<br />
80000<br />
60000<br />
40000<br />
20000<br />
0<br />
11435<br />
15000<br />
17186<br />
12174<br />
54000<br />
8350<br />
467<br />
57000<br />
4936<br />
17340<br />
45000<br />
15351<br />
8000<br />
81450<br />
55213<br />
1000<br />
24260<br />
35188<br />
2621<br />
21807<br />
33000<br />
22602<br />
Ghana<br />
Senegal<br />
Tunisia<br />
Morocco<br />
Nigeria<br />
South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Somalia<br />
Algeria<br />
Italy UK Germany<br />
Source: IOM, ‘World Migrati<strong>on</strong> 2003’<br />
75
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a unusual case, both <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the quality of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> available <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
historical roots of migrati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that country. A survey d<strong>on</strong>e of medical school graduates <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicates that a third to half of all graduat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g doctors leave the country, 214 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
similar c<strong>on</strong>cerns have been voiced <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the bank<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sector. 215 Another study found that between<br />
<strong>on</strong>e eighth <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e fifth of all South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns with tertiary educati<strong>on</strong> now reside abroad. 216<br />
While <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the past skilled emigrati<strong>on</strong> was seen primarily as ‘white flight’, more recent studies<br />
have <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated that members of all ethnic groups are presently <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved. 217<br />
But these problems are not unique to South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. The IOM has estimated that skills flight<br />
has left <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> with <strong>on</strong>ly 20,000 scientists <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> eng<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>eers to serve a populati<strong>on</strong> of 600 milli<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The value of this labour is placed at $67 billi<strong>on</strong> between 1997 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2001 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is directly tied to<br />
retard<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g growth. Zambia is cited as an extreme example, where the number of doctors<br />
decl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed from 1600 to 400 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the course of a few years. 218 It is estimated that 18,000<br />
Zimbabwean nurses work abroad, 219 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a recent report from Swazil<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated that 700<br />
nurses left the country <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the space of 12 m<strong>on</strong>ths. 220 Various large estimates have been made<br />
as to the share of professi<strong>on</strong>als emigrat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from countries such as Ghana, Sudan, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kenya<br />
over the years.<br />
Why do they leave? One review of medical bra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> dra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> listed lack of security <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the threat of<br />
violence as push factors, although this review was not limited to <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. 221 Many of the<br />
reas<strong>on</strong>s seem to be ec<strong>on</strong>omic, but larger lifestyle issues are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved. Look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g specifically at<br />
the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent, Hatt<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Williams<strong>on</strong> argue that “rapid growth <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the cohort of young<br />
potential migrants, populati<strong>on</strong> pressure <strong>on</strong> the resource base, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> poor ec<strong>on</strong>omic performance<br />
are the ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> forces driv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n emigrati<strong>on</strong>.” 222 But this <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> similar studies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volve all<br />
out-migrati<strong>on</strong>, not just skilled migrati<strong>on</strong>. Surveys of skilled emigrants from <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> are rare,<br />
but the Internati<strong>on</strong>al Organisati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Migrati<strong>on</strong> was able to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terview many <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the framework<br />
of its Return of Qualified <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Nati<strong>on</strong>als Programme <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the mid-1990s. “Poor socioec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s” topped the list of push factors, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> “corrupti<strong>on</strong>” was specifically<br />
noted. 223 “<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g>” is c<strong>on</strong>spicuously absent from this list, but may be associated with poor<br />
liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
In South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <strong>on</strong> the other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a World Bank survey of 325 large manufactur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g firms<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Johannesburg senior executives reported the shortage of skilled labour <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
violence as the ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> impediments to growth. 224 The labour market research <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stitute FSA-<br />
C<strong>on</strong>tact found that 96% of skilled emigrants from South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> menti<strong>on</strong>ed crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> violence<br />
am<strong>on</strong>g their reas<strong>on</strong>s for decid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to leave the country. 225<br />
2.2 The impact of crime <strong>on</strong> the ec<strong>on</strong>omy<br />
Most capital <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>flows <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the form of aid. Total private <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>flows to sub-Saharan<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> as a percentage of GDP are lower than for all other develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g regi<strong>on</strong>s. 226 At the 2004<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Summit, it was noted that this had not always been the case: <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the early<br />
1970s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> attracted a higher percentage of world FDI than Asia or Lat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> America. By the<br />
turn of the century, flows <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to Lat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> America were 5.5 times higher, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> those <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to Asia were<br />
n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e times higher, than flows <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. 227 Even look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at FDI as a share of GDP, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
comes up short (Figure 44), a dem<strong>on</strong>strati<strong>on</strong> that <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ues to suffer from low levels of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestor c<strong>on</strong>fidence.<br />
76
II. How <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> H<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ders <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Figure 44: FDI as a percentage of GDP<br />
Percent<br />
4<br />
3.5<br />
3<br />
2.5<br />
2<br />
1.5<br />
2.4<br />
2.7<br />
2.9<br />
3.5<br />
3.6<br />
1<br />
0.5<br />
0<br />
Subsaharan<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Lat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
America<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
Carribean<br />
All least<br />
developed<br />
countries<br />
CIS<br />
East Asia<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
Pacific<br />
Source: UNDP Human <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> Report 2004 Data<br />
One of the reas<strong>on</strong>s FDI is so important <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is that few <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns save, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> many of those<br />
that do so choose to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vest their wealth overseas. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> has the world’s highest <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cidence of<br />
capital flight, with 40% of private portfolios be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g held outside the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent: were <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
able to attract back this comp<strong>on</strong>ent of private wealth, the private capital stock would <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease<br />
by around two thirds. 228 Domestic capital flight is estimated to reduce c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ental GDP by<br />
some 16%. S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce private capital stock is more significant than public capital stock (it takes<br />
almost $2 of public capital to offset the loss of $1 of private capital), 60% of public capital<br />
stock <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is required simply to offset private capital flight. 229<br />
Figure 45: Share of private wealth <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vested abroad<br />
45<br />
40<br />
40<br />
39<br />
35<br />
30<br />
Percent<br />
25<br />
20<br />
15<br />
10<br />
5<br />
10<br />
5 6<br />
0<br />
Sub-<br />
Saharan<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Lat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
America<br />
South Asia East Asia<br />
Middle<br />
East<br />
Source: Collier, Hoeffler, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pattillo 2001 230<br />
The paucity of capital formati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is perplex<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to Collier et al, “<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
has been rated by <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestors as the riskiest c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent,” but “<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is regarded as<br />
more risky than is warranted by the fundamentals.” 231 People are afraid to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vest <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
despite the fact that rates of return <strong>on</strong> FDI have generally been much higher <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> sub-Saharan<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other regi<strong>on</strong>s (Figure 46). 232<br />
77
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Figure 46: Rate of return <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestment<br />
30<br />
25<br />
25.3<br />
Percent<br />
20<br />
15<br />
10<br />
16.2<br />
12.5<br />
14<br />
5<br />
0<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Asia <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Pacific<br />
Source: UNCTAD<br />
Lat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> America<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Carribean<br />
All develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
countries<br />
The gap between the ec<strong>on</strong>omic fundamentals <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestor c<strong>on</strong>fidence is puzzl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. It has been<br />
attributed to the percepti<strong>on</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestors that the rule of law does not prevail <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries score poorly <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dices of governance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rule of law. 233<br />
Although some of these <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicators used by the World Bank <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the compilati<strong>on</strong> of its<br />
governance rat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs are c<strong>on</strong>troversial, they attempt to measure how effectively the state fulfils<br />
its law enforcement functi<strong>on</strong>s. The World Bank has rule of law rat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs for 50 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n states<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 195 countries worldwide. Only <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n state ranks <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the top 50 countries <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of<br />
rule of law <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>ly 14 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n states appear <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the top 100 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2004. Overall, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n states<br />
are rated am<strong>on</strong>g the most lawless <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the world. 234 In 2000, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
Commissi<strong>on</strong> for <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> identified “rule of law” as <strong>on</strong>e of the most robust <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicators <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g differences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> growth performance am<strong>on</strong>g countries. 235<br />
Of course, “rule of law” encompasses both civil <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al matters, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> it might be<br />
expected that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestors would be more c<strong>on</strong>cerned about predictable resoluti<strong>on</strong> of commercial<br />
disputes than street crime. Why do <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestors care about crime levels? There seem to be<br />
several reas<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g direct losses, fear for the safety of expatriate staff <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> facilities,<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cern over the unpredictable ways crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creases the cost of do<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
specific impact of corrupti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The safety of people <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> assets <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vested <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is a real c<strong>on</strong>cern for foreign bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>esses. As<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> States Ambassador John Campbell cauti<strong>on</strong>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a recent speech <strong>on</strong> US <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestment <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Nigeria to the Lagos Chamber of Commerce, “US firms will <strong>on</strong>ly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vest <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Nigeria if the<br />
physical security of their pers<strong>on</strong>nel <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> property is assured.” 236 He went <strong>on</strong> to menti<strong>on</strong> many<br />
specific examples of security c<strong>on</strong>cerns, which <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded both political <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al violence,<br />
without mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g any dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cti<strong>on</strong> between the two.<br />
The Ec<strong>on</strong>omist Intelligence Unit (EIU) runs a service called “Riskwire” that evaluates the<br />
safety of a number of countries for foreign bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess. Out of 59 countries evaluated, <strong>on</strong>ly six<br />
are <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n: South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, Nigeria, Kenya, Egypt, Morocco, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Algeria. These represent the<br />
largest open ec<strong>on</strong>omies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a substantial porti<strong>on</strong> of the populati<strong>on</strong> of the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent.<br />
78
II. How <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> H<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ders <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Of these, South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> receives the most favourable risk evaluati<strong>on</strong>, rank<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g 29 th of 59, ahead<br />
of the North <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries. Nigeria is rated as the riskiest country for bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
world (59 th ), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kenya (54 th ) doesn’t fare much better. 237 In the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual country<br />
evaluati<strong>on</strong>s, crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice are featured prom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ently as c<strong>on</strong>cerns for all the sub-<br />
Saharan countries. In South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>:<br />
“Violent crime is a major problem, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s a serious c<strong>on</strong>cern for<br />
bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess… Many <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the police are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>experienced, poorly tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> corrupt:<br />
the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong> itself cannot be relied up<strong>on</strong> to enforce the law adequately <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
to protect the public…High levels of crime are <strong>on</strong>e of the ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> obstacles to<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic growth.”<br />
In Nigeria:<br />
“Nigeria is an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>secure envir<strong>on</strong>ment for commercial operati<strong>on</strong>s. Security<br />
risk arises <strong>on</strong> three levels. The first comes from ris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g violent crime, [from]<br />
simple armed robbery [to] carjack<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> violent attacks… Sec<strong>on</strong>d,<br />
companies can be subjected to direct attack or blackmail… facilities can be<br />
v<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>alised <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> staff kidnapped. Third, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cidences of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ter-communal<br />
violence have risen… Nigeria’s ill-equipped police force…has been<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>effective <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> stemm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the crime wave.”<br />
In Kenya:<br />
“Violent crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> extorti<strong>on</strong> will c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ue to pose a risk to bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess…Armed<br />
assaults <strong>on</strong> houses <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>esses are likely to rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>… The police force,<br />
which is poorly equipped <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>adequately tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed, under-paid <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> corrupt,<br />
cannot be relied up<strong>on</strong> for protecti<strong>on</strong>.”<br />
Whatever the accuracy of these evaluati<strong>on</strong>s, they show that c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al crime is <strong>on</strong>e of the<br />
most important factors to be c<strong>on</strong>sidered by foreigners before directly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the major<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omies of sub-Saharan <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
In the three EIU examples above, all emphasise the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>adequacy of the police <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with<br />
the problem. Lack of c<strong>on</strong>fidence <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the police prevails am<strong>on</strong>g local bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>esspeople as well, as<br />
reflected <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the World Bank firm survey <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Zambia, where <strong>on</strong>ly half the losses suffered were<br />
reported to the authorities. This lack of c<strong>on</strong>fidence seems to be justified: of those <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cidents<br />
that were reported, <strong>on</strong>ly a quarter were solved. In Kenya, the figures were even worse: while<br />
79% of the offences were reported, less than a fifth (18%) were solved. 238<br />
The obvious alternative for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terested firms is to spend m<strong>on</strong>ey <strong>on</strong> self-protecti<strong>on</strong>. In the EIU<br />
threat assessment for South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, the analysts recommend:<br />
Expatriates are str<strong>on</strong>gly advised to take the necessary security precauti<strong>on</strong>s at<br />
home <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> at work. For <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stance, the use of electric fences <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> gates, high walls,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stallati<strong>on</strong> of security alarms… security gates that separate sleep<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g areas… video surveillance systems to identify crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>als… remote<br />
track<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g devices <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cars…”<br />
In another report, the EIU sums it up: “<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> … is partly resp<strong>on</strong>sible for the high bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess<br />
costs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> [South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>].” 239<br />
As the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Commissi<strong>on</strong> for <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> notes, social disorder <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creases the<br />
costs of do<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess as private citizens divert scarce resources to protecti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> self<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>surance. 240 “When government is not str<strong>on</strong>g enough to protect property rights,” the World<br />
Bank says, “private organisati<strong>on</strong>s sell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ‘protecti<strong>on</strong> services’ fill the void.” 241 South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is<br />
an excellent example, with nearly three times as many private guards (900 per 100,000<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>habitants), as police officers (312 per 100,0000). 242 In essence, the private sector has<br />
assumed a large share of the costs of ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g order <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the society. This cost is<br />
79
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>siderable: the security <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dustry <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is estimated to turn over between R10<br />
billi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> R18 billi<strong>on</strong> (about US$ 3 billi<strong>on</strong>), 243 equivalent to about 3% of GDP.<br />
In a World Bank study of Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>an firms, costs of security were about equal to direct losses to<br />
crime: about 3% of gross sales or 28% of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestment <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> plants <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> equipment. 244 Similar<br />
figures were found <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the studies of Zambia <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kenya. 245 As the World Bank argues,<br />
“crime … <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creases the costs of bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess, whether through the direct loss of goods or the costs<br />
of tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g precauti<strong>on</strong>s such as hir<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g security guards, build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g fences, or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stall<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g alarm<br />
systems. In the extreme, foreign firms will decl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vest, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> domestic <strong>on</strong>es will flee the<br />
country for a more peaceful locale.” 246<br />
The 2005 World <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> Report, entitled A better <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestment climate for every<strong>on</strong>e,<br />
discusses crime as barrier to bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess at length. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the Report: “…the costs<br />
associated with crime, corrupti<strong>on</strong>, regulati<strong>on</strong>, unreliable <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>frastructure, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> poor c<strong>on</strong>tract<br />
enforcement can amount [<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>] to 25% of sales – or more than three times what is<br />
typically paid <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> taxes.” This f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is based <strong>on</strong> global Investment Climate Surveys, which<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded poll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>esses <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries <strong>on</strong> how seriously crime impeded<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestment. While the rate varied c<strong>on</strong>siderably between countries (Figure 47), over 29% of<br />
bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess people reported that crime was a major c<strong>on</strong>stra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestment, about 50% more<br />
than the global average. 247 Those report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g direct losses to crime varied from 11%-80% of<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>dents <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> each country, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the cost of these losses varied between 2%-12% of total<br />
sales.<br />
Figure 47: Share of bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>esses report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g crime as a ‘major c<strong>on</strong>stra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t’<br />
80<br />
70<br />
70<br />
percent affirmative<br />
60<br />
50<br />
40<br />
30<br />
26 27<br />
36<br />
49<br />
20<br />
10<br />
0<br />
1<br />
10<br />
15<br />
Eritrea<br />
Ethiopia<br />
Senegal<br />
Tanzania<br />
Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a<br />
Nigeria<br />
Zambia<br />
Kenya<br />
Source: World <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> Report 2005<br />
South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> was not <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the poll, but a UNODC study found that 80% of bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess<br />
people polled said that crime was a major impediment <strong>on</strong> bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess. Eighty-four percent of<br />
bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>esses polled had experienced some form of crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2001, with theft by employees<br />
be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the top crime experienced (49% hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g experienced at least <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cident <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the previous<br />
year), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> burglaries close beh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d (47%). 248<br />
80
II. How <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> H<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ders <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Corrupti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestment<br />
Corrupti<strong>on</strong> is probably an even more important c<strong>on</strong>cern for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestors, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the negative impact<br />
of corrupti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestment has been well documented. In a review of the role of corrupti<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> development, UNDP reports the f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs of empirical work that dem<strong>on</strong>strates the negative<br />
impact of corrupti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> growth, c<strong>on</strong>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g “corrupti<strong>on</strong> affects growth predom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>antly<br />
through its effect <strong>on</strong> the level of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestment…” 249 The World Bank agrees that, by distort<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the rule of law <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> weaken<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>al foundati<strong>on</strong>s of ec<strong>on</strong>omic growth, corrupti<strong>on</strong> is<br />
the s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle greatest obstacle to ec<strong>on</strong>omic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social development. The harmful effects of<br />
corrupti<strong>on</strong> are especially severe <strong>on</strong> the poor, who are hardest hit by ec<strong>on</strong>omic decl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, are<br />
most reliant <strong>on</strong> the provisi<strong>on</strong> of public services, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> are least capable of pay<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the extra costs<br />
associated with bribery <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> fraud. 250<br />
Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the Investment Climate surveys c<strong>on</strong>ducted for the 2005 World <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Report, corrupti<strong>on</strong> is listed the number <strong>on</strong>e obstacle to do<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, outpac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
taxes, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>frastructure, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>flati<strong>on</strong>. 251 The IMF notes, “there is a close associati<strong>on</strong> between<br />
corrupti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> slow growth, as well as between corrupti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> political <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stability…” 252<br />
Speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g specifically of Kenya, the IMF says “corrupti<strong>on</strong> hampers a country’s ability to<br />
attract <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestment, the effectiveness of its <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> revenue generat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ability.” 253<br />
Of those forms of corrupti<strong>on</strong> likely to have an impact <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestment, <strong>on</strong>e of the most comm<strong>on</strong><br />
forms is the dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for bribes from government officials <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order to receive services, licenses,<br />
or access to benefits. The dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for bribes raises transacti<strong>on</strong> costs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> uncerta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ty <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omy. 254 These dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s seem to impact more heavily <strong>on</strong> small bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>esses. 255 The World<br />
Bank Investment Climate Survey data show that bribes as a share of sales are 50% larger for<br />
small firms that large <strong>on</strong>es. Large firms pay larger bribes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> absolute terms, but their impact is<br />
smaller. 256 This may make smaller firms less competitive, reduc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>novati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> promot<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
m<strong>on</strong>opolizati<strong>on</strong>. Corrupti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the courts is also of c<strong>on</strong>cern to foreign <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestors. The results of<br />
a judicial <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrity study c<strong>on</strong>ducted by the UNODC <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Nigeria found companies with foreign<br />
capital <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestment generally perceive the country’s justice system less accessible than<br />
domestic bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>esses, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> they are also by far more likely to experience corrupti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
courts. 257<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong> to deterr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestment, corrupti<strong>on</strong> may be beh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d another formidable barrier to<br />
bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>: red tape. As the World Bank notes “In many [<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n] countries restrictive<br />
regulati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> practices, often aimed at generat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g rents for officials <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> favoured groups,<br />
c<strong>on</strong>stra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess activity, affect<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g both agriculture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dustry.” 258 The maps show the<br />
number procedures <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the number of days required to enforce a c<strong>on</strong>tract. While the<br />
correlati<strong>on</strong> with perceived corrupti<strong>on</strong> is not perfect, countries generally rated as the least<br />
corrupt countries <strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent have either the fewest number of procedures required<br />
(Tunisia) or the shortest waits (Tunisia, Botswana), while countries widely regarded as most<br />
corrupt (Nigeria, Chad, DRC, Angola, Cote d’Ivoire, Camero<strong>on</strong>) have either a high number of<br />
procedures or very l<strong>on</strong>g waits or both. Ir<strong>on</strong>ically, very poor countries can have very elaborate<br />
bureaucracies.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>esses themselves view corrupti<strong>on</strong> as a serious impediment to bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess. In the<br />
World Bank <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n firm surveys noted above, 35% of Algerian firms, 38% of Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>an firms,<br />
39% of Ethiopian firms, 40% of Senegalese firms, 46% of Zambian firms, 51% of Tanzanian<br />
firms, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 73% of Kenyan firms said corrupti<strong>on</strong> was a major or very severe c<strong>on</strong>stra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t <strong>on</strong><br />
bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess. 259 In a UNODC study <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 64% of firms described corrupti<strong>on</strong> as a major<br />
obstacle to bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess. 260<br />
Comply<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with the dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s of corrupt officials can be very costly. Figure 48 shows the<br />
results of the most recent World Bank Investment Climate surveys for <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>: many firms are<br />
los<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g between 2% <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 9% of their total sales to bribes. 261 Put another way, the cost of bribes<br />
81
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a was found to comprise just under 8% of total costs, compared to other essential<br />
expenditures like fuel (6%), <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest payments (7%) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> wages (18%). 262 It is almost<br />
impossible to estimate the impact of bribery <strong>on</strong> the ec<strong>on</strong>omy because it can kill bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess<br />
ventures before they are even born. In South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 12% of bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>esses polled said they had<br />
refra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed from mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a major <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestment because of fear of be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g required to pay excessive<br />
bribes. 263 Look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at ec<strong>on</strong>omic crimes more broadly (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g corrupti<strong>on</strong>, embezzlement,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> extorti<strong>on</strong>), a survey of 189 organizati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kenya, Tanzania, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Zambia found that,<br />
between them, US$206 milli<strong>on</strong> was lost over two years. 264<br />
Figure 48: Firms pay<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g bribes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> share of sales spent <strong>on</strong> bribes<br />
80<br />
75<br />
76<br />
70<br />
64<br />
60<br />
50<br />
40<br />
39<br />
43<br />
45<br />
50<br />
30<br />
20<br />
10<br />
5<br />
3 2<br />
4 4<br />
9<br />
6<br />
0<br />
Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a<br />
Tanzania<br />
Senegal<br />
Zambia<br />
Eritrea<br />
Algeria<br />
Kenya<br />
Percent report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g bribes are paid<br />
Average bribe share of total sales<br />
Source: World <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> Report<br />
2005<br />
82
II. How <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> H<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ders <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Number of procedures required to enforce a c<strong>on</strong>tract<br />
Legend<br />
Number of procedures required to enforce a c<strong>on</strong>tract<br />
Under 10<br />
11 - 25<br />
26 - 50<br />
Above 50<br />
no data available<br />
Source: World Bank (2004) World <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> Report: Do<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2005, World Bank: Wash<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gt<strong>on</strong> DC.<br />
Note: The boundaries <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> names shown <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the designati<strong>on</strong>s used <strong>on</strong> this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
Rob<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<strong>on</strong> Projecti<strong>on</strong><br />
Datum: WGS 84<br />
Scale 1: 100,000,000¯<br />
83
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Number of days required to enforce a c<strong>on</strong>tract<br />
Legend<br />
Number of days required to enforce a c<strong>on</strong>tract<br />
Upto 180 days<br />
181 - 365 days (upto 1 year)<br />
366 - 730 days (1-2 years)<br />
Above 730 days (more than 2 years)<br />
no data available<br />
Source: World Bank (2004) World <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> Report: Do<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2005, World Bank: Wash<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gt<strong>on</strong> DC.<br />
Note: The boundaries <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> names shown <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the designati<strong>on</strong>s used <strong>on</strong> this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
Rob<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<strong>on</strong> Projecti<strong>on</strong><br />
Datum: WGS 84<br />
Scale 1: 100,000,000¯<br />
84
II. How <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> H<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ders <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> hampers tourism<br />
“…tourism [is] the world’s largest <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> fastest grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dustry, which <strong>on</strong><br />
account of its socio-cultural <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ec<strong>on</strong>omic dynamics also forms an excellent<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>strument for promot<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ec<strong>on</strong>omic development, underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, goodwill,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> close relati<strong>on</strong>s between peoples.”<br />
- Southern <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> Community (SADC) Protocol <strong>on</strong> Tourism<br />
While crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> corrupti<strong>on</strong> drive away <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> drive up costs, some bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess people<br />
are, apparently, able to cope with these limitati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> carry <strong>on</strong>. But crime threatens other<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dustries more directly. One form of bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess that is particular sensitive to crime issues is<br />
tourism.<br />
While it is not a panacea for all development woes, tourism comprises a major part of the<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omies of both developed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g countries. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the World Travel <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Tourism Council (WTTC), it is resp<strong>on</strong>sible for over 10% of global GDP <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> over 12% of<br />
exports, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> provides over 8% of global employment. 265 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s tourism <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dustry has grown<br />
faster than the global average s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce 1995, with Southern <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> general <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
particular (resp<strong>on</strong>sible for 22% of c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ental tourist arrivals) tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the lead. 266 In 2004, the<br />
WTTC estimates tourism <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> sub-Saharan <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> was expected to directly generate almost<br />
US$55 billi<strong>on</strong> of ec<strong>on</strong>omic activity. Directly <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>directly, it estimated to be resp<strong>on</strong>sible for<br />
6% of employment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> over 7% of GDP. Tourism GDP was expected to grow nearly 10% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
2004, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the employment generated by it by just under 9%, far outpac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g total growth <strong>on</strong> the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent. 267<br />
Figure 49: Total tourism dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (US$ milli<strong>on</strong>s)<br />
25000<br />
20000<br />
19522<br />
15000<br />
10000<br />
5000<br />
4875<br />
3817<br />
2313 2180<br />
0<br />
South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> Nigeria Reuni<strong>on</strong> Kenya Mauritius<br />
Source: WTTC, 2004<br />
85
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Thus, tourism is already an important <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g part of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s ec<strong>on</strong>omy. The World<br />
Tourism Organisati<strong>on</strong> projects that tourism <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> will grow four-fold between 1995 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
2020. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to a report of the British Department for Internati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g>:<br />
“80% of the world’s poor (below $1 a day) live <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 12 countries. In 11 of<br />
these, tourism is significant <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>/or grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Of the 100 or so poorest<br />
countries, tourism is significant <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> almost half of the low <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>come countries<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> virtually all the lower-middle <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>come countries (account<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for over 2%<br />
of GDP or 5% of exports).” 268<br />
The significance of the sector for some of the best perform<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ec<strong>on</strong>omies <strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent is<br />
even greater. The direct tourism share of total GDP <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Seychelles (21%), Mauritius (13%)<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Comoros (9%) is remarkable, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>direct benefits are even greater. 269 Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to<br />
the OECD, 2002 hotel <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> restaurant <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>come al<strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Mauritius exceeded that of the<br />
country’s primary agricultural product, sugar. 270<br />
In South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, the biggest ec<strong>on</strong>omy <strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent, the tourism ec<strong>on</strong>omy is said to provide<br />
direct <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>direct benefits to the value of 7% of GDP <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2003, projected to grow to 9% by<br />
2013. It is estimated to provide 7% of jobs, expected to grow to 8% by 2013. It is estimated to<br />
provide 12% of exports, grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to 15% by 2013. Between 1998 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2002, tourism was the<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly sector of the South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n ec<strong>on</strong>omy to show both positive growth <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> employment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> to GDP. 271<br />
In its Protocol <strong>on</strong> Tourism, SADC speaks of “the Regi<strong>on</strong>’s rich tourism potential which offers<br />
an array of natural features <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a number of sites c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g natural w<strong>on</strong>ders of the world;<br />
added to all these be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the diversity of history <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural lifestyles of the peoples of the<br />
Regi<strong>on</strong>.” Of course, the same applies to all the other regi<strong>on</strong>s of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
Tourism is particularly valued for the number of low-skill jobs it generates <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the hospitality<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> food service <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dustries. A good deal of work has been d<strong>on</strong>e <strong>on</strong> how “eco-tourism” can<br />
benefit poor rural populati<strong>on</strong>s. 272 Tourism is likely to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> importance as primary<br />
commodity prices drop <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> as the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent faces stiff <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al competiti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> low-wage<br />
manufactur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> can offer the world someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g found nowhere else – access to the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent itself, with its unique wildlife, l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>scape, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural attracti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crimes aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st tourists <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> particular, are anathema to the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dustry. The New<br />
Partnership for <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> (NEPAD) specifically prioritises “c<strong>on</strong>sumer safety <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
security issues” <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> its discussi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> tourism <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. 273 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> warn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs are prom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
travel guide descripti<strong>on</strong>s of most <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>sular safety advisories are issued<br />
aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st tourist dest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent with frighten<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g regularity. It is estimated that<br />
Egypt lost $1 billi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> revenues follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a spate of attacks <strong>on</strong> tourists over a 12-m<strong>on</strong>th<br />
period. 274 South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s lost bid to host the 2004 Olympics has been blamed <strong>on</strong> the crime<br />
situati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the country 275 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s former M<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ister for Tourism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
Affairs, Pallo Jordan, has said, “the chief impediment to tourism growth is the percepti<strong>on</strong> that<br />
South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is an unsafe place.” 276 Hotel book<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs dropped 75% after violence erupted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Zimbabwe, despite massive depreciati<strong>on</strong> of the country’s currency. 277 A recent Ec<strong>on</strong>omist<br />
Intelligence Unit report blamed Camero<strong>on</strong>’s “reputati<strong>on</strong> for crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> corrupti<strong>on</strong>”, am<strong>on</strong>g<br />
other th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, for the poor performance of its tourism sector. 278 In 2005, the Kenya Tourism<br />
Board estimated that adverse travel advisories cost the country nearly US$200 milli<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
recent years. 279<br />
Still, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n tourism c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ues to grow despite all these troubles, but would doubtless<br />
perform even better if the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent were viewed as a safe dest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
86
II. How <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> H<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ders <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
2.3 The impact of crime <strong>on</strong> governance<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> especially corrupti<strong>on</strong>, directly underm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es democracy by destroy<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the trust<br />
relati<strong>on</strong>ship between the people <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the state. The most basic obligati<strong>on</strong> of the state is to<br />
ensure the safety of its citizens. When the state fails to fulfil this obligati<strong>on</strong> or, worse,<br />
provides protecti<strong>on</strong> to some groups but not to others, the people effectively reclaim their right<br />
to use force <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the resoluti<strong>on</strong> of disputes, often with disastrous c<strong>on</strong>sequences. When state<br />
officials are seen to be corrupt, the citizenry sees no moral compulsi<strong>on</strong> to pay taxes or<br />
otherwise participate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> democracy. The state effectively becomes an occupy<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g force, an<br />
enemy to be avoided, if not actively underm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed. It cannot facilitate development under these<br />
circumstances.<br />
When crime rates are high, people everywhere tend to blame the police. This effect is<br />
obviously str<strong>on</strong>ger when the police are perceived to be part of the problem. As discussed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Secti<strong>on</strong> 1.1 above, survey data show <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n people regard the police as the most corrupt<br />
sector of government, with the courts often close beh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d. When rule of law becomes suborned<br />
to rule by c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> wealth, marg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>alised populati<strong>on</strong>s are unlikely to report<br />
victimisati<strong>on</strong> to the police or otherwise assist <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong>s. Without the cooperati<strong>on</strong><br />
of the public, the crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice system cannot functi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> so societies can get locked <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to<br />
a downward spiral of crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ality <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> public withdrawal.<br />
If the police cannot be trusted to effectively <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> impartially enforce the law, the people may<br />
take measures to protect themselves. Arguably, <strong>on</strong>e of the best <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicators of state failure is the<br />
rise of vigilantism. ‘Justice’ executed by community members may be a major source of<br />
violence <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> even political <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stability <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some areas. As discussed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Secti<strong>on</strong> 1.1 above, what<br />
beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s as self-protecti<strong>on</strong> can eventually degenerate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to a protecti<strong>on</strong> racket <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> then exp<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tro other areas of crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ality.<br />
For example, the vigilante group “People Aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st Gangsterism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>Drugs</strong>” <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
began as a popular movement <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an ethnic m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ority community. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itial goal of the group<br />
was to pressure the state to take acti<strong>on</strong> aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st well-know local gangsters <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> drug dealers<br />
who operated with impunity <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their areas, allegedly due to widespread police corrupti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
When the group felt their dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s were not given sufficient attenti<strong>on</strong>, members took acti<strong>on</strong><br />
aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st the gang leaders directly, dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g they end their crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al activities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, when they<br />
refused, publicly execut<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g them.<br />
This violence, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>sequent counterattacks by the gangsters, eroded much of the group’s<br />
popular support, but a core of vigilantes c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued to wage war <strong>on</strong> gang leaders for an<br />
extended period of time. The group eventually took <strong>on</strong> a religious extremist character <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
began a terrorist bomb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g campaign throughout the city of Cape Town, target<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g tourist areas.<br />
When the state took acti<strong>on</strong>, the group assass<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ated public officials <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> witnesses aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st them<br />
alike. 280 The militarised resp<strong>on</strong>se of the state, while ostensibly successful, has deeply affected<br />
crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice strategy s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce that time. It also led to the passage of highly c<strong>on</strong>troversial antiterror<br />
legislati<strong>on</strong> that, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> its early stages, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded tactics employed by the apartheid state <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> its<br />
own ‘war <strong>on</strong> terror’.<br />
Another group, called Mapogo a Mathamaga, began <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the rural Limpopo prov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce of South<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> when a group of about 100 small bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess owners decided to take direct acti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se to a str<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of armed robberies. Suspected crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>als were beaten, tortured, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> often<br />
executed, but property recovery rates were said to be high. The group spread to urban areas<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> attracted membership across ethnic groups, who supported the methods of Mapogo as<br />
‘<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n justice’. The leader of the group was snapped up by an oppositi<strong>on</strong> political party <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
almost w<strong>on</strong> a place <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the prov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cial legislature. Today, the group markets itself as a private<br />
security company <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> claims tens of thous<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s of pay<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g members. 281<br />
87
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
For South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns who cannot afford these services, there are plenty of alternative groups<br />
will<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to avenge wr<strong>on</strong>gdo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, from sp<strong>on</strong>taneous community upris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs to (often crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>alised)<br />
m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ibus taxi associati<strong>on</strong>s. South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> has a l<strong>on</strong>g traditi<strong>on</strong> of brutal community vigilantism,<br />
rooted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the days when traditi<strong>on</strong>al police services were not available to black South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> exp<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the struggle for democracy, when alleged “<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formers” were often burnt<br />
alive.<br />
Nigeria also has a l<strong>on</strong>g history of self-protecti<strong>on</strong> groups, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> provides numerous examples of<br />
vigilante organisati<strong>on</strong>s that comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e elements of trade associati<strong>on</strong>s, ethnic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest groups,<br />
traditi<strong>on</strong>al warrior cults, religious bodies, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> official law enforcement agencies. One of the<br />
best know examples is the Bakassi Boys, orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally formed by a local shoe maker’s<br />
associati<strong>on</strong> to defend merchants aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>als. After a brutal campaign aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st local thugs<br />
reduced crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their area, the “success” of the group led to a dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for their services <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
other communities. In the end, the Bakassi Boys were recognised by the state government as<br />
an “official” vigilante group, receiv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g funds from both the government <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> from the public.<br />
The police <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Nigeria are federal, so the endorsement <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> fund<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of vigilante groups allows<br />
local politicians to create their own private armies, which are allegedly used to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>timidate<br />
political opp<strong>on</strong>ents <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> secure their positi<strong>on</strong>s as sources of patr<strong>on</strong>age. With its extreme ethnic<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> religious diversity, Nigeria is also afflicted by a variety of ethnic protective associati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the north, Sharia law enforcement groups, whose activities often <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volve violence. 282<br />
Even groups that are arguably better <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to state <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> traditi<strong>on</strong>al structures, such as the<br />
sungusungu groups <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Tanzania, may lapse <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to brutality <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, literally, witch hunt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. 283<br />
While traditi<strong>on</strong>al justice systems can provide a valuable supplement to the crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice<br />
system <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n c<strong>on</strong>text, their activities must be closely m<strong>on</strong>itored to ensure compliance<br />
with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al human rights st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards. In the end, there is no substitute for a functi<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice system <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the modern world.<br />
Police corrupti<strong>on</strong> is also a key part of the growth of organised crime. Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al markets cannot<br />
flourish unless officials turn a bl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d eye. Corrupti<strong>on</strong> allows crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al commodities to be cross<br />
borders with ease, allows m<strong>on</strong>ey to be laundered without questi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> allows well-known<br />
crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>als to walk the streets without fear. And <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> turn, as noted by <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Secretary<br />
General Kofi Annan said <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> his March 2005 report entitled In Larger Freedom, “Organized<br />
crime c<strong>on</strong>tributes to State weakness, impedes ec<strong>on</strong>omic growth, fuels many civil wars,<br />
regularly underm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> peacekeep<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g efforts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> provides f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>anc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
mechanisms to terrorist groups.”<br />
Official corrupti<strong>on</strong><br />
In Secti<strong>on</strong> 2.2 above, it was illustrated how corrupti<strong>on</strong> can drive away <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestment, but this is<br />
not the <strong>on</strong>ly way it <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terferes with development. Both petty <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> gr<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> corrupti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terfere<br />
with the ability of the state to promote development by block<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the delivery of services,<br />
underm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the tax base, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> distort<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g public spend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. As South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n President Thabo<br />
Mbeki recently put it, “…corrupti<strong>on</strong> is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>imical to development. It c<strong>on</strong>stra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s our ability to<br />
fight poverty, negatively affects ec<strong>on</strong>omic development, damages social values <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
underm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es democracy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> good governance.” 284<br />
On a day-to-day level <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many parts of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, corrupti<strong>on</strong> blocks the delivery of development<br />
services to the public. The 2004 Transparency Internati<strong>on</strong>al (TI) Global Corrupti<strong>on</strong> Barometer<br />
survey covered 64 countries, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g five from sub-Saharan <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Resp<strong>on</strong>dents were<br />
asked whether <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the last 12 m<strong>on</strong>ths they had been asked to pay bribes. The three countries<br />
with the highest positive resp<strong>on</strong>se rates were all <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n: Camero<strong>on</strong> (52%), Kenya (36%), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Nigeria (32%, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a three-way tie for third). In Camero<strong>on</strong>, a further 14% answered “d<strong>on</strong>’t<br />
know” (the sec<strong>on</strong>d-highest n<strong>on</strong>-resp<strong>on</strong>se rate), so that <strong>on</strong>ly about a third (34%) denied hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
88
II. How <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> H<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ders <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
to pay a bribe <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the last year. Thus, it would appear that the citizens of some of the world’s<br />
poorest countries could have to pay out more bribes than the citizens of any other regi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to Transparency Internati<strong>on</strong>al’s Kenya Urban Bribery Index, 67% of the<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>dents' <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s with public <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved bribes, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the average urban<br />
Kenyan pays 16 bribes a m<strong>on</strong>th, 99% of which are to public officials. 285 Kenya is not unique<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this regard. In a survey <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a, 40% of resp<strong>on</strong>dents said they had been forced to pay a<br />
bribe <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order to receive a basic service, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g access to primary educati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> health<br />
care. 286 In Ghana, two thirds (66%) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e survey said they paid 10% of their <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>comes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
bribes to public officials. 287 Empirical research shows that the poor <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns pay a higher<br />
share of their <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>come to bribes than do the rich, 288 although it is the rich that truly benefit from<br />
corrupti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
While <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns are harassed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> denied service at the grassroots, there have been wellpublicised<br />
stories of much higher-level corrupti<strong>on</strong>. Corrupti<strong>on</strong> allows favoured groups to<br />
m<strong>on</strong>opolise the benefits produced by the state <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> extra rents from the public.<br />
Predictably, this tends to alienate those who are not part of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ner circle. In <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, the<br />
divisi<strong>on</strong> between the privileged <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the disadvantaged masses is often drawn <strong>on</strong> clan, ethnic,<br />
religious, or regi<strong>on</strong>al l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es, sometimes dressed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> political trapp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. In extreme cases, this<br />
can lead to civil c<strong>on</strong>flict or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>surgency. Senior politicians have been implicated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> embezzl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
their countries’ wealth, for their own benefit <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to support extended patr<strong>on</strong>age networks.<br />
Two key areas for graft are natural resource extracti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> public procurement.<br />
As discussed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Secti<strong>on</strong> 1.2 above, it has been argued that natural resource wealth can actually<br />
promote corrupti<strong>on</strong>, as it allows the state to operate without the need to keep the taxpayers<br />
pleased or spend <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an efficient manner. The World Bank asserts, “Rent seek<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g behaviour<br />
can be especially pr<strong>on</strong>ounced <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> countries that have a high level of dependence <strong>on</strong> exports of<br />
m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>erals, oil, or other natural resources.” 289 Theft of natural resource wealth by officials is<br />
particularly problematic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, where many ec<strong>on</strong>omies are reliant <strong>on</strong> resource extracti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Aside from robb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the people of the benefit of their country’s wealth, unregulated resource<br />
extracti<strong>on</strong> can have a devastat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g effect <strong>on</strong> the envir<strong>on</strong>ment, underm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g susta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>able<br />
livelihoods for generati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Ir<strong>on</strong>ically, development aid, another form of ‘free’ m<strong>on</strong>ey, can also become a corrupt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
factor. 290 Renewed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent is set to reverse trends of decl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g aid<br />
experienced <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> recent years. Global aid disbursements decl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed through the 1990s, from .33%<br />
of d<strong>on</strong>or GDP <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1990 to .24% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1999. 291 The share of global aid assigned to sub-Saharan<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> also decl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that period, from 37% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1990 to 27% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2000, largely due to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased fund<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to Eastern Europe. 292 Despite this decl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, aid flows are still very important<br />
to <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries (Map) when c<strong>on</strong>sidered as a share of gross nati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>come.<br />
The World Bank has determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed that, overall, foreign aid has not helped development <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> much 293 but, teamed with good governance, aid can be very effective, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> can even<br />
‘crowd <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>’ private <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestment. 294 Oddly enough, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicati<strong>on</strong>s are that corrupti<strong>on</strong> does not<br />
reduce the amount of aid a country receives – the opposite may be true. 295 And there are<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicati<strong>on</strong>s that aid can actually reduce the amount of public spend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g while simultaneously<br />
encourag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g rent seek<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. 296 Although the correlati<strong>on</strong> is far from perfect, countries <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
that are generally regarded as highly corrupt tend to have either high levels of natural<br />
resources (Nigeria) or high levels of aid (Mozambique) or both (Angola, Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>e). The<br />
fact that aid as a share of gross <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>come for sub-Saharan <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> exceeds 6% – six times as<br />
much as any other regi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the world, could be seen as a risk factor for corrupti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
89
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Aid as percentage of gross nati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>come (GNI) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2002<br />
Morocco<br />
Tunisia<br />
Algeria<br />
Libya<br />
Egypt<br />
Western Sahara<br />
Mauritania<br />
Cape Verde<br />
Mali<br />
Niger<br />
Senegal<br />
Gambia<br />
Gu<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ea<br />
Gu<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ea-Bissau<br />
Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>e<br />
Liberia<br />
Burk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a Faso<br />
Ben<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Cote d’Ivoire<br />
Togo<br />
Ghana<br />
Chad<br />
Nigeria<br />
Central <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Republic<br />
Camero<strong>on</strong><br />
Sudan<br />
Eritrea<br />
Ethiopia<br />
Djibouti<br />
Somalia<br />
Equatorial Gu<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ea<br />
Sao Tome & Pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cipe<br />
Gab<strong>on</strong><br />
C<strong>on</strong>go<br />
Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a<br />
Democratic Republic Rw<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a<br />
of C<strong>on</strong>go Burundi<br />
Kenya<br />
Seychelles<br />
Tanzania<br />
Comoros<br />
Angola<br />
Zambia<br />
Malawi<br />
Zimbabwe<br />
Mozambique<br />
Madagascar<br />
Mauritius<br />
Namibia<br />
Botswana<br />
Lesotho<br />
South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Swazil<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Legend<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>al boundaries<br />
Aid as percentage of GNI (%)<br />
no data available<br />
Less than 3%<br />
3.1% - 10%<br />
10.1% - 20%<br />
above 20%<br />
¯<br />
0 500 1,000<br />
Kilometers<br />
1:46,000,000<br />
Map Projecti<strong>on</strong>: Geographic<br />
Datum: WGS 84<br />
Source: World Bank (2004) World <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> Indicators, World Bank: Wash<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gt<strong>on</strong> DC<br />
[http://www.worldbank.org/data/databytopic/aid.html]<br />
Note: The boundaries <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> names shown <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the designati<strong>on</strong>s used <strong>on</strong> this map do not imply<br />
official endorsement or acceptance by the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
90
II. How <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> H<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ders <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
In additi<strong>on</strong> to embezzlement, direct losses are also seen, for example, when public officials<br />
accept <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>flated tenders <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> exchange for kickbacks. In these cases, the public ends up pay<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
more for less, with the difference be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g split between corrupt public servants <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the tender<br />
recipient. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to Transparency Internati<strong>on</strong>al (TI) Chairman Peter Eigen, “Corrupti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
large-scale public projects is a daunt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g obstacle to susta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>able development, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> results <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a<br />
major loss of public funds needed for educati<strong>on</strong>, healthcare <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> poverty alleviati<strong>on</strong>, both <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
developed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g countries.” TI estimates that the amount lost due to bribery <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
government procurement al<strong>on</strong>e is at least US$ 400 billi<strong>on</strong> per year worldwide 297<br />
Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to a survey of 1000 firms <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 74% reported government procurement as<br />
an area <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which bribery is perceived to be required. 298 In Morocco, the majority of firms polled<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2001 said that bribes were often required <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> procurement, about a third of which exceed 10%<br />
of the c<strong>on</strong>tract’s value. 299 A government c<strong>on</strong>tract is said to cost 3.7% of the value of the c<strong>on</strong>tract<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> bribes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Zambia. 300<br />
Procurement fraud can also distort public spend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, as corrupt officials pursue graft-rich<br />
projects, such as large public-works ventures <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> defence procurements, at a cost to social<br />
programmes. Countries with higher levels of corrupti<strong>on</strong> tend to have lower levels of social<br />
spend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> general. 301 The IMF, speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g specifically of Kenya, notes: “corrupti<strong>on</strong> affects the<br />
way public m<strong>on</strong>ey is allocated, divert<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g expenditures away from sectors such as health <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
educati<strong>on</strong> to sectors such as public works where c<strong>on</strong>tracts can be manipulated <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> bribes more<br />
easily secured.” 302<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong>, the quality of large-scale public works projects may also be lack<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, because<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tractors who w<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their tenders through bribery may not feel compelled to stick to<br />
specificati<strong>on</strong>s. Thus, corrupti<strong>on</strong> may result <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> still more costs to the country, as corrupt officials<br />
seek immediate benefits to the detriment of the public <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest. 303<br />
Siph<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g off of funds by wealthy elites is doubly problematic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, as much of this graft is<br />
immediately <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vested outside the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent. As <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated above, about 40% of all <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<br />
private portfolios are held overseas, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> this share is likely to be even greater when the funds<br />
were obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed through corrupti<strong>on</strong>. The illicit ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s of many of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s past dictators have still<br />
not been recovered from their foreign hid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g places: the recently agreed UN C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st<br />
Corrupti<strong>on</strong> has provisi<strong>on</strong>s aimed at recover<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g these stolen assets. 304<br />
Another way elites can be favoured <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> corrupt regimes is through tax avoidance. Due to a<br />
l<strong>on</strong>gst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g patr<strong>on</strong>age networks, 305 many <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries have tax regimes that favour the<br />
wealthy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> powerful, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> corrupti<strong>on</strong> exacerbates this effect. Studies of The Gambia,<br />
Mozambique, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ghana suggest that corrupti<strong>on</strong> allows the rich to avoid pay<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g taxes. 306 This<br />
fuels further <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>come <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>equality, 307 which, as noted above is highly associated with crime 308 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
has a negative effect <strong>on</strong> growth 309 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> development. 310<br />
The effect of all this macro <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> micro corrupti<strong>on</strong> is predictable. When the public faces <strong>on</strong>go<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s for bribes, witnesses high level embezzlement, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> knows that the rich avoid taxati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
there rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s very little <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>centive to support the government. In order to evade graft-seek<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
officials, excessive regulati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> unfair taxati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>esses go underground.<br />
A large share of ec<strong>on</strong>omic activity <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal, as Figure 50 shows. Countries with<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>efficient regulatory envir<strong>on</strong>ments <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> high levels of corrupti<strong>on</strong> tend to have <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> excess of 40% of GDP. 311 Large <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal sectors are str<strong>on</strong>gly associated with<br />
crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al activity – <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the end, the grey market <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the black market may be closely <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ter-related.<br />
And all this activity, which comprises the bulk of the ec<strong>on</strong>omy <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stances, is untaxed.<br />
91
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Figure 50: Share of shadow ec<strong>on</strong>omy of GDP 1999/2000<br />
70<br />
60<br />
50<br />
40<br />
30<br />
49<br />
33 33 34 34 35 36 38 38 38 40 40 40 40 40 41 42 43 43 45<br />
28<br />
58 58 59<br />
20<br />
10<br />
0<br />
South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Camero<strong>on</strong><br />
Kenya<br />
Morocco<br />
Ghana<br />
Côte d'Ivoire<br />
Madagascar<br />
Mozambique<br />
Niger<br />
Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a<br />
Zambia<br />
Tanzania<br />
Source: Schneider, 2002<br />
Evad<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g taxati<strong>on</strong> does not come without a cost. Informal firms have to stay off the<br />
government’s radar, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> so experience less access to justice. Underground bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>esses may be<br />
reluctant to approach the courts or other agencies of the state for assistance <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> resolv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
commercial disputes. This may make underground firms less competitive, forc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g them to<br />
accept losses due to breach of c<strong>on</strong>tract or default of payment. Alternatively, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal methods<br />
of enforc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g agreements or collect<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g debts may be rooted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> violence, represent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g another<br />
source of crime.<br />
Avoidance of tax <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> regulati<strong>on</strong> also underm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es the functi<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the market. In <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
research shows these hidden resources may not attract their highest value uses. 312 In other words,<br />
hid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g commercial activity requires work, has opportunity costs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> may ultimately impede<br />
growth.<br />
Of course, with little tax base, the state cannot offer extensive development services. In<br />
Tanzania, <strong>on</strong>e study found a vicious cycle of underpayment, whereby tax avoidance led to low<br />
quality of services, which <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> turn were used to justify further n<strong>on</strong>-payment. 313<br />
In the end, the cumulative effect of public corrupti<strong>on</strong> is to destroy respect for the law <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
state. This profoundly underm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es democracy, as many citizens come to regard the state as an<br />
adversary rather than a representative body. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Uni<strong>on</strong> Commissi<strong>on</strong> recognises all this,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> its strategic plan argues that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, “persistent corrupti<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>siderably compromises<br />
susta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>able development.” And as UN Secretary General Kofi Annan notes:<br />
[Corrupti<strong>on</strong>] is found <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> all countries—big <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> small, rich <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> poor—but it<br />
is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g world that its effects are most destructive. Corrupti<strong>on</strong><br />
hurts the poor disproporti<strong>on</strong>ately by divert<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g funds <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tended for<br />
development, underm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a Government’s ability to provide basic services,<br />
feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>equality <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>justice <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> discourag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g foreign aid <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestment.<br />
Corrupti<strong>on</strong> is a key element <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ec<strong>on</strong>omic under-performance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a major<br />
obstacle to poverty alleviati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> development. 314<br />
92
III. Progress <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Prospects<br />
III.<br />
PROGRESS AND PROSPECTS<br />
This Report has probed the l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>kages between crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> under-development <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Chapter<br />
<strong>on</strong>e suggested the possible l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ks between the various manifestati<strong>on</strong>s of poverty <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crime.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> is part of a cohort of challenges afflict<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g disadvantaged populati<strong>on</strong>s all over the world,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> seems to be am<strong>on</strong>g the worst afflicted.<br />
Part Two illustrated the possible ways violence, crime, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> corrupti<strong>on</strong> could be subvert<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
development <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> has a disproporti<strong>on</strong>ate impact <strong>on</strong> vulnerable people <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> poor<br />
countries, which are less well equipped to deal with all sorts of shocks. The direct <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>direct<br />
effects of high levels of crime represent a significant challenge, both <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> themselves <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
ways they underm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e social <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> commercial activity.<br />
If both of these asserti<strong>on</strong>s are true, it would appear that we have at h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a classic vicious cycle.<br />
Develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g countries may manifest high levels of crime, which themselves derail further<br />
development. This is another k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of “poverty trap”, where<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g countries do not seem<br />
to be able to muster sufficient momentum <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> development to overcome the challenges that hold<br />
them back. As <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Secretary General Kofi Annan asserted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> his March 2005 report,<br />
In larger freedom: “…we will not enjoy development without security, we will not enjoy<br />
security without development, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> we will not enjoy either without respect for human rights.<br />
Unless all these causes are advanced, n<strong>on</strong>e will succeed.”<br />
In the words of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> High-level Panel <strong>on</strong> Threats, Challenges, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Change<br />
“development makes every<strong>on</strong>e more secure.” But social development takes time, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
experience has shown that quick ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s can be made aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st crime by apply<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a number of welltested<br />
preventi<strong>on</strong> strategies. This would <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order to break the cycle, crime<br />
preventi<strong>on</strong> should be at the forefr<strong>on</strong>t of development plann<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> preventi<strong>on</strong> efforts could<br />
do more than just reduc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g victimisati<strong>on</strong>, as important a goal as that is. They could also catalyse<br />
the whole process of social development.<br />
If these targeted efforts are not made, crime could c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ue to be a dra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> development<br />
momentum over time. In the l<strong>on</strong>ger term, they may be a decisive factor <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the struggle to obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
a better life for all <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
The f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al secti<strong>on</strong> of this Report looks at a few ideas of what could be d<strong>on</strong>e to address crime as a<br />
development issue <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, not<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g some of the progress already made by <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n nati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
achiev<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this goal to date.<br />
What can be d<strong>on</strong>e<br />
How can crime be specifically addressed, given compet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g needs?<br />
There are a number of possible low-cost ways that crime can be addressed as part of the<br />
development process. Most broadly, crime preventi<strong>on</strong> th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g needs to become part of<br />
development plann<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. This is really a m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d-set shift, a matter of sensitisati<strong>on</strong> to issues that<br />
might be otherwise overlooked. On a practical level, this can manifest itself <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> several ways:<br />
• By generat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g knowledge as a first step – Only when crime data are seen as development<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicators will the c<strong>on</strong>solidati<strong>on</strong> of knowledge <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this area become a priority; tailor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s to <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s requires a detailed underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the nature of crime<br />
<strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent.<br />
• By help<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g governments deliver security, efficiency <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrity – <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries have<br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strated the will to adhere to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the fight aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st drug<br />
traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, organized crime, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> corrupti<strong>on</strong>, but need further <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al assistance <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
translat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g policy <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to effective <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
• By break<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the crime/c<strong>on</strong>flict c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>uum – If crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> political violence lie al<strong>on</strong>g a<br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>uum, crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict preventi<strong>on</strong> should be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrated; the establishment of the rule<br />
93
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
of law <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> efforts to promote post-c<strong>on</strong>flict recovery should be complimentary to <strong>on</strong>e<br />
another.<br />
• By <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g crime preventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> grassroots <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s – Nearly every form of<br />
development work is impacted by crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> can be adapted to address it.<br />
• By mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g corporate bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess part of the soluti<strong>on</strong> – This Report has highlighted several<br />
ways that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess has exacerbated the plight of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n people, but the<br />
potential for partnership <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this area is immense.<br />
Knowledge as a first step<br />
This Report has emphasised that our <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is deficient. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
apparently has <strong>on</strong>e of the worst crime problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the world, but we know the least about it. The<br />
UN has been <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> collect<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g polic<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g statistics <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> do<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g victim surveys around the<br />
world. Unfortunately, the participati<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> supply<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g police figures has been<br />
uneven <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>c<strong>on</strong>sistent. In order to sort this out, crime figures must come to be regarded as<br />
development <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicators, both by the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al community <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> by <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n nati<strong>on</strong>s themselves.<br />
There has already been some progress <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this area. With regard to the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al community,<br />
the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> Programme has recently started publish<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the ICVS figures<br />
<strong>on</strong> victimisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> its annual Human <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> Report, although these figures are revised<br />
far less regularly than the other development <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicators featured. Similarly, the World Bank has<br />
started ask<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g questi<strong>on</strong>s about the impact of crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> its <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestment climate surveys, which is<br />
encourag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g but <strong>on</strong>ly c<strong>on</strong>cerns <strong>on</strong>e aspect of crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> development. On the side of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<br />
nati<strong>on</strong>s, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Comm<strong>on</strong> Positi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> Preventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al Justice, released at<br />
the UN Internati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> C<strong>on</strong>gress <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Bangkok <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> April 2005, called for the creati<strong>on</strong> of an<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al Justice Informati<strong>on</strong> Network under the auspices of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<br />
Uni<strong>on</strong> Commissi<strong>on</strong>. If this visi<strong>on</strong> can be put <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to operati<strong>on</strong>, it would represent a major step<br />
forward <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n crime issues.<br />
If crime figures were to become regarded as an important <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicator of development progress,<br />
more effort might be made to supply them by all c<strong>on</strong>cerned. When crime figures are part of the<br />
scorecard by which <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n governments measure themselves, this will help to ensure that<br />
commitment to the UN c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s goes bey<strong>on</strong>d the legislative stage. In additi<strong>on</strong> to rais<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
awareness <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries themselves, putt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g numbers to the problem would enhance<br />
d<strong>on</strong>or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest. It is difficult to f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d fund<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for issues that cannot be quantified, which may be<br />
<strong>on</strong>e reas<strong>on</strong> crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> has received so little attenti<strong>on</strong> to this po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t.<br />
But <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> gather<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g cannot stop there. As was discussed above, the official crime figures<br />
are, universally, undercounts, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the extent to which this is true varies widely between<br />
countries <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crime types. To get a sense of the real level of victimisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the level of<br />
report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the authorities, some survey work needs to be d<strong>on</strong>e periodically <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> every <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<br />
nati<strong>on</strong>. Some countries have recently participated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> nati<strong>on</strong>al victim surveys, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Mozambique, Malawi, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> many others have hosted ICVS <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other surveys<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> major urban areas. This trend must be encouraged <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> supported. If noth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g else, nati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
statistical offices should be persuaded to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude crime questi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> whatever official poll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
exists.<br />
Aside from rais<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g awareness <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> measur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g progress, crime data should be used to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>form<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s. If the primary crime problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n country are domestic violence <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
livestock theft, it makes little sense to focus attenti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ancial crimes. On the other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
research may <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate that un-recognised problems exist, or that they are c<strong>on</strong>nected <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
unrecognised ways. It is also important that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> gather<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, however modest its scope, be<br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ual. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is a c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> flux, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> new issues emerge all the time. Early <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
can prevent illicit practices from spread<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, nip cycles of violence <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the bud, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> arrest the<br />
development of crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al markets.<br />
94
III. Progress <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Prospects<br />
Help<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g governments deliver security, efficiency <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrity<br />
Secur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the rule of law means hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the correct legislative framework for deal<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with crime<br />
problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> then implement<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this framework effectively. It also means help<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ary<br />
people to realise that they too have a role to play <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> prevent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g crime, corrupti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> violence.<br />
The <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> has l<strong>on</strong>g been <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> rais<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al awareness of, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>sensus<br />
<strong>on</strong>, crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> corrupti<strong>on</strong>, perhaps most notably through its promoti<strong>on</strong> of global c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong><br />
these issues:<br />
• There have been three major <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al drug c<strong>on</strong>trol treaties s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce 1961. In additi<strong>on</strong> to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g general provisi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> illicit traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> drug abuse, they seek to ensure the<br />
availability of narcotic drugs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> psychotropic substances for medical <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> scientific<br />
purposes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to prevent their diversi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to illicit channels.<br />
• The C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st Transnati<strong>on</strong>al organized <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> (2000) is a legally b<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>strument committ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g State parties to tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a series of measures. These <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude the<br />
creati<strong>on</strong> of domestic justice systems to combat the problem, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the adopti<strong>on</strong> of new,<br />
sweep<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g frameworks for mutual legal assistance, extraditi<strong>on</strong>, law enforcement cooperati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
technical assistance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. It also <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cludes specific protocols <strong>on</strong> traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> human<br />
be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, migrants <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> firearms.<br />
• The adopti<strong>on</strong> by the UN General Assembly of the UN C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st Corrupti<strong>on</strong><br />
(Resoluti<strong>on</strong> 58/4 of 31 October 2003) represented another major step to promote<br />
transparency <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> high st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards, particularly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the public service. The chapter of the treaty<br />
deal<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with the recovery of assets was specifically designed to address a problem faced by<br />
many <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n nati<strong>on</strong>s – recover<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the m<strong>on</strong>ey misappropriated by past dictators <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> hidden<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> bank accounts <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> developed countries.<br />
As illustrated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Annex C, the ratificati<strong>on</strong> of these c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s by <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries is very<br />
good <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stances. Indeed, it was Zambia’s recent ratificati<strong>on</strong> of the Firearms C<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
Protocol that allowed it to enter <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to force globally <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> April 2005. Thirty-three nati<strong>on</strong>s have<br />
ratified the C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Transnati<strong>on</strong>al Organised <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> significant numbers have<br />
ratified the Protocols <strong>on</strong> Human Traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (26), Human Smuggl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (22) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Firearms (14).<br />
Thirteen have ratified the C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st Corrupti<strong>on</strong>. Thus, there rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> areas for<br />
improvement, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> efforts should be renewed to br<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g every <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n nati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> board with the<br />
full range of c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> protocols.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong> to participat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> these accords, there have been many c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s passed, as well<br />
as other cooperative ventures, by <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n nati<strong>on</strong>s at the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ental <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sub-regi<strong>on</strong>al level:<br />
• The Organizati<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Unity (OAU) issued the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Charter <strong>on</strong> Human <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Peoples' Rights (1981), which <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cludes basic protecti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of the crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al law; a<br />
C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Terrorism (1999); <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Bamako Declarati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> an <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Comm<strong>on</strong><br />
Positi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the Illicit Proliferati<strong>on</strong>, Circulati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of Small Arms <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Light<br />
Weap<strong>on</strong>s (2000). The <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Uni<strong>on</strong> (AU) has passed a C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Corrupti<strong>on</strong> (2003)<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a Protocol <strong>on</strong> the OAU C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Terrorism (2004). The Declarati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> C<strong>on</strong>trol of<br />
Illicit Drug Traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Abuse <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> was issued <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> December 2004 by the Heads of<br />
State <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Government of the OAU/AU at their 38th Ord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ary Assembly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Durban, South<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Peer Review Mechanism (APRM), an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiative of the New Partnership<br />
for <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> (NEPAD), has am<strong>on</strong>g its aims an assessment of corrupti<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
mechanisms.<br />
• The Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Community of West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n States (ECOWAS) is a dynamic organizati<strong>on</strong><br />
that has played an active role <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> address<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g violence <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the regi<strong>on</strong>. It has passed a<br />
C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Extraditi<strong>on</strong> (1994), a Declarati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a Plan of Acti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Pers<strong>on</strong>s (2001), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> numerous <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>struments relat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to small arms <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> collective security.<br />
West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is also the <strong>on</strong>ly regi<strong>on</strong> of the world to have voluntarily banned <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the import of<br />
small arms. In c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong> with this moratorium <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other matters, ECOWAS launched the<br />
95
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Programme for Coord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Assistance for Security <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
(PCASED), which <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volves tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for the police <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> military, enhanced border c<strong>on</strong>trol, a<br />
regi<strong>on</strong>al firearms registry, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> legislative reform. There are also plans, with UNODC<br />
support, to transform the Nigerian Nati<strong>on</strong>al Drug Law Enforcement Agency Academy <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to a<br />
regi<strong>on</strong>al drug tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g centre.<br />
• The Southern <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> Community (SADC) has passed several crime-related<br />
protocols. In fact, of 21 protocols passed by the sub-regi<strong>on</strong>al organizati<strong>on</strong>, at least a half a<br />
dozen are crime related, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the Protocol <strong>on</strong> Combat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Illicit <strong>Drugs</strong> (1996), the<br />
Protocol On Wildlife C<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> And Law Enforcement (1999), the Protocol <strong>on</strong> Legal<br />
Affairs (2000), the Protocol <strong>on</strong> Corrupti<strong>on</strong> (2001), the Protocol <strong>on</strong> the C<strong>on</strong>trol of Firearms,<br />
Ammuniti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Other Related Materials (2001), the Protocol <strong>on</strong> Mutual Legal Assistance<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al Matters (2002), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Protocol <strong>on</strong> Extraditi<strong>on</strong> (2002). A number of collective<br />
enforcement activities have been undertaken, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g jo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t operati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> stolen vehicles<br />
(Operati<strong>on</strong>s Voyager 4, Mangochi, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Atlantic), cannabis (Operati<strong>on</strong> Matokwane),<br />
diam<strong>on</strong>ds (Operati<strong>on</strong> St<strong>on</strong>e), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> small arms, notably the successful destructi<strong>on</strong> of weap<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Mozambique, Operati<strong>on</strong> Rachel. SADC also ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s a Drug C<strong>on</strong>trol Committee, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the Southern <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Forum Aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st Corrupti<strong>on</strong>, founded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1999, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volves many of the<br />
countries of the sub-regi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
• The Intergovernmental Authority <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> (IGAD) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Eastern <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> has held two<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ferences <strong>on</strong> terrorism, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2003 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2004, which is of particular c<strong>on</strong>cern for the subregi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The Internati<strong>on</strong>al C<strong>on</strong>ference <strong>on</strong> the Great Lakes Regi<strong>on</strong> issued the November 2004<br />
Dar-Es-Salaam Declarati<strong>on</strong>, which clearly places crime am<strong>on</strong>g broader human security<br />
issues <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> calls <strong>on</strong> the nati<strong>on</strong>s of the sub-regi<strong>on</strong> to cooperate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g collective soluti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
• Most <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n nati<strong>on</strong>s are members of <strong>on</strong>e of the regi<strong>on</strong>al police cooperati<strong>on</strong> organizati<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
such as the Southern <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Regi<strong>on</strong>al Police Chiefs Cooperati<strong>on</strong> Organizati<strong>on</strong><br />
(SARPCCO), the East <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Police Chiefs Cooperati<strong>on</strong> Organizati<strong>on</strong> (EAPCCO), the<br />
Comité des Chefs de Police de l'Afrique Centrale (CCPAC), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Police<br />
Chiefs Cooperati<strong>on</strong> Organizati<strong>on</strong> (WAPCCO). These organizati<strong>on</strong>s can take a lead<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g role<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> promot<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ardisati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cooperati<strong>on</strong>. For example, WAPCCO<br />
recently drafted a protocol for the regi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> terrorism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> SARPCCO has established an<br />
Anti-Terrorism Early Warn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Centre. Most <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n nati<strong>on</strong>s are also members of Interpol.<br />
• There are three regi<strong>on</strong>al anti-m<strong>on</strong>ey launder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g groups that have been granted observer<br />
status to the F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ancial Acti<strong>on</strong> Task Force: the Eastern <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Southern <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> Anti-M<strong>on</strong>ey<br />
Launder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Group (ESAAMALG), the Intergovernmental Acti<strong>on</strong> Group aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st M<strong>on</strong>ey<br />
Launder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> (GIABA), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Middle-East <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> North <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> Anti-M<strong>on</strong>ey<br />
Launder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Group (MENAFATF). There is also a fourth group attached to CEMAC<br />
(GABAC), but it has not yet been granted observer status.<br />
Many of these <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al accords call up<strong>on</strong> signatory nati<strong>on</strong>s to pass relevant domestic<br />
legislati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stances, the quality <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> quantity of this work have been astound<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
For example, South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> has, s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce the com<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of democracy <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1994, passed a series of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>novative pieces of legislati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> policy, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the 1994 Green Paper <strong>on</strong> Safety <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Security, the 1995 Police Act, the 1996 Nati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> Preventi<strong>on</strong> Strategy, the 1996 Proceeds<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> Act, the 1997 Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al Procedure Sec<strong>on</strong>d Amendment Act (which tightened bail), the<br />
1998 Nati<strong>on</strong>al Prosecut<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Authority Act, the 1998 White Paper <strong>on</strong> Safety <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Security, the<br />
1998 Preventi<strong>on</strong> of organized <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> Act, the 1998 Judicial Matters Sec<strong>on</strong>d Amendment Act<br />
(which modified the st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards <strong>on</strong> use of force), the 1998 South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Police Service Sec<strong>on</strong>d<br />
Amendment Act (creat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the municipal police), the 1998 Magistrates Court Amendment Act,<br />
the 1998 Domestic Violence Act, the 2000 Firearms C<strong>on</strong>trol Act, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the 2000 (unpublished)<br />
Nati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> Combat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Strategy. And while the causes of crime trends are complex, there is<br />
no deny<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that, 10 years after the establishment of democracy, all <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicators suggest that crime<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is stabilis<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, if not decl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. 315<br />
96
III. Progress <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Prospects<br />
South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is not unique <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this regard. Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice reform has been an issue for nearly<br />
every state that has battled for democracy. Nearly all have had to update legal norms <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> keep<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
with current global <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n c<strong>on</strong>sensus <strong>on</strong> human rights. The governments of Ethiopia <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Kenya, for example, are undergo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g comprehensive legal reforms. Many <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n nati<strong>on</strong>s have<br />
passed legislati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> created nati<strong>on</strong>al bodies <strong>on</strong> corrupti<strong>on</strong>, F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ancial Intelligence Units or<br />
other anti-m<strong>on</strong>ey launder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g structures, as well as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ter-m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>isterial committees <strong>on</strong> drugs.<br />
These <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiatives <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, many undertaken before the relevant <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al agreements were<br />
signed, dem<strong>on</strong>strate the commitment of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n leaders to overcom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their countries,<br />
regi<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> across the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent. But cooperati<strong>on</strong> agreements <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> aggressive legislati<strong>on</strong> are<br />
more than just paper commitments. Many <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n nati<strong>on</strong>s have been active <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> apply<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the work<br />
of lawmakers to c<strong>on</strong>crete operati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
For example, the Nigerian Drug Law Enforcement Agency (NDLEA) has taken a leadership<br />
role <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Jo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t Operati<strong>on</strong>s (WAJO) such as Operati<strong>on</strong> Zebra <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Operati<strong>on</strong> Tiger,<br />
aimed at regi<strong>on</strong>al drug traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Cooperative police efforts with Ben<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> have resulted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
arrests of cross-border b<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>its, such as the notorious Tidjani Hammani. The Independent<br />
Corrupt Practices Commissi<strong>on</strong> (ICPC), the Code of C<strong>on</strong>duct Bureau, the Ec<strong>on</strong>omic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ancial <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g>s Commissi<strong>on</strong> (EFCC), the F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ancial Intelligence Unit <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a new Cyber-<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
EFCC all work <strong>on</strong> aspects of Nigeria’s corrupti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> fraud situati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> there has been much<br />
legislative reform aimed at corrupti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<strong>on</strong>ey launder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. The results of these efforts have<br />
received much <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al media attenti<strong>on</strong> of late. The Nati<strong>on</strong>al Agency for the Prohibiti<strong>on</strong> of<br />
Traffic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pers<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Other Related Matters (NAPTIP) was launched <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2003, follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
passage of specialised legislati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that area. Nigeria has also been <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
agencies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> programmes aimed at strengthen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice system.<br />
But efforts <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many areas, both <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Nigeria <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the rest of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, are be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g hampered by basic<br />
resource <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> capacity shortages. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the d<strong>on</strong>or community can assist<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> enforc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al norms by build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g capacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> local crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al<br />
justice <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> law enforcement through tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, technical assistance, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> support to nati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
governments <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sub-regi<strong>on</strong>al organizati<strong>on</strong>s. For example, Egypt is work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> creat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a<br />
“justice academy” for the tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of judges <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> prosecutors, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a computerised<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong>s network for c<strong>on</strong>nect<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the country’s courts, both of which should assist <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the country’s courts more efficient <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> effective. It is of paramount importance that<br />
corrupti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the police <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> courts be addressed as a matter of priority. A crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice<br />
system that is ridden by corrupti<strong>on</strong> is almost as bad as no crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice system at all.<br />
This support is not simply a matter of ensur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n nati<strong>on</strong>s become more proficient at<br />
apprehend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>carcerat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>als, as important as that might be. It is also required to<br />
ensure that they have the capacity to adhere to basic st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards of due process <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> human rights.<br />
Most <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n nati<strong>on</strong>s cannot afford to provide a defence for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>digent defendants or assistance to<br />
others <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> need of legal <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>, for example, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a number of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n nati<strong>on</strong>s have taken<br />
measures to address this deficiency. In 2004, the Government of Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiated a<br />
paralegal system to help bridge the gap between the formal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal legal systems, to<br />
protect human <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong>al rights, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to address the low levels of access to justice that<br />
have prevailed s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce the civil war ended, due to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>capacitati<strong>on</strong> of the judiciary <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a paucity of<br />
lawyers. Use of paralegals to extend legal services was also <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Burk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a Faso (draw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<strong>on</strong> the experiences of Malawi <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kenya) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2003.<br />
Similarly, humane pris<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s can be difficult to atta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> countries where liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards<br />
are also very low for the law-abid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g populati<strong>on</strong>. Camero<strong>on</strong> has undertaken a major reform of<br />
the correcti<strong>on</strong>al service, draw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> the example of the Canadian system, as has São Tomé <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Príncipe, where pre-trial pris<strong>on</strong>ers are no l<strong>on</strong>ger held together with c<strong>on</strong>victed pris<strong>on</strong>ers. In the<br />
Gambia, the government has been focus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce the Spr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of 2004, <strong>on</strong> a wide range of<br />
correcti<strong>on</strong>s issues, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: improv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g pris<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> treatment of pris<strong>on</strong>ers, ensur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
good pris<strong>on</strong> management <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> self susta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ability of the pris<strong>on</strong> services; reduc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the use of<br />
impris<strong>on</strong>ment, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troduc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g alternative sancti<strong>on</strong>s to impris<strong>on</strong>ment, such an <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<br />
97
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
model of community service; reduc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g rem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pris<strong>on</strong> populati<strong>on</strong>; <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> improv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g juvenile<br />
justice. Egypt is work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> strengthen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g diversi<strong>on</strong> opti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> restorative justice programmes<br />
as alternatives to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>carcerati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
D<strong>on</strong>or commitment is needed to help <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n nati<strong>on</strong>s atta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the capacity to adhere to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards, for the benefit of both the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n people <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the people of rest of the<br />
world. The British Commissi<strong>on</strong> for <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts out, “support for c<strong>on</strong>flict management <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
reform of the security <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> justice sectors (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g polic<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g) is not generally been given,<br />
despite evidence that security is essential to development.” 316 Clearly, this has to change.<br />
It is also important to assure that d<strong>on</strong>or aid does not become part of the problem, however. This<br />
Report has underscored the role of corrupti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> derail<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n development, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> aid can<br />
actually feed corrupti<strong>on</strong> if measures are not taken to prevent this happen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Anti-corrupti<strong>on</strong><br />
provisi<strong>on</strong>s should be built <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to all development projects. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> funds are public goods,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> they must not be used to improve the lives of a select few.<br />
Break<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the crime/c<strong>on</strong>flict c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>uum<br />
S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce c<strong>on</strong>flict is clearly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terfer<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with development <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, c<strong>on</strong>siderable resources need to<br />
be dedicated to violence preventi<strong>on</strong> systems <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the future. But this reas<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g applies equally<br />
well whether the violence is purported to be political or crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> nature. This Report has<br />
asserted that crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict exist al<strong>on</strong>g a c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>uum today, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> thus need to be treated as<br />
two aspects of the same phenomen<strong>on</strong>. The violence, whatever its justificati<strong>on</strong>, must end, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
approaches to peacekeep<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g must be based <strong>on</strong> alleviat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the social tensi<strong>on</strong>s that lead to both<br />
rebelli<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crime. Many of the associates of crime are also associated with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>surrecti<strong>on</strong> –<br />
social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>equalities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>justice, widespread youth unemployment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> alienati<strong>on</strong>, unmanaged<br />
urban or rural spaces, displaced populati<strong>on</strong>s, proliferati<strong>on</strong> of firearms, vigilantism. Thus, the<br />
two issues need to be c<strong>on</strong>sidered together, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crime preventi<strong>on</strong> made part of programmes<br />
aimed at c<strong>on</strong>flict more generally. For a start, crime levels should be seen as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicators of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stability, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> thus built <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to c<strong>on</strong>flict early warn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g systems.<br />
It is also true that, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the post-Cold War world, rebels <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> terrorists are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly rely<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong><br />
crime to raise funds. They <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract with organized crime to acquire weap<strong>on</strong>s, sell c<strong>on</strong>trab<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> launder m<strong>on</strong>ey, am<strong>on</strong>g other th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is vulnerable to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>surgency, terrorism, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
organized crime because the risks of detecti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the barriers to cross-border movement are<br />
limited. Str<strong>on</strong>g law enforcement <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> can prevent future c<strong>on</strong>flict <strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
elsewhere by undercutt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g fund<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sources <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> elim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>at<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g havens for all manner of violent<br />
men.<br />
Furthermore, <strong>on</strong>e of the primary causes of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>surrecti<strong>on</strong> is the percepti<strong>on</strong> that the state is not<br />
serv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the people. Prevent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g official corrupti<strong>on</strong> can improve the public image of the<br />
government <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> thus reduce <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>centives for rebelli<strong>on</strong>. It can also reduce <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>centives to escape <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to<br />
the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> thereby possibly the illegal, ec<strong>on</strong>omy.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong> to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g preventi<strong>on</strong> efforts, awareness also needs to be raised as to the<br />
likelihood of crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al violence <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> commerce <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> post-c<strong>on</strong>flict transiti<strong>on</strong>s. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
needs to be built <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> plann<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g anti-corrupti<strong>on</strong> provisi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> associated<br />
aid programmes. The processes of re-settl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g populati<strong>on</strong>s, disarmament, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> demobilis<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
official <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>surgent armies have profound implicati<strong>on</strong>s for crime preventi<strong>on</strong>. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> specialists<br />
have learned through experience how issues of hous<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, human movement, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> access to<br />
resources can fuel social tensi<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> this knowledge needs to be applied to the process of<br />
build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g peace.<br />
The l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ks between terrorism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> organized crime are becom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly clear, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s aimed at address<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the former should take <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to account the latter. Algeria has<br />
played a lead<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g role <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> anti-terror work <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>ally, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> should be supported <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> exp<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
its knowledge base to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude track<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of trans-nati<strong>on</strong>al organized crime <strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent. But<br />
98
III. Progress <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Prospects<br />
strengthen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g governance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rule of law <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> would, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> itself, represent a major step<br />
towards elim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>at<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g global terrorism.<br />
Countries that are recover<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from war need to be assisted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the transiti<strong>on</strong> to democratic<br />
polic<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. In times of c<strong>on</strong>flict, the police <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other official armed forces may come to be<br />
regarded as the enemy of the people, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> steps need to be taken to repair this relati<strong>on</strong>ship after<br />
the cessati<strong>on</strong> of hostilities. Security forces too need to be tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their new role as public<br />
servants. New skills are required for the police to rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> effective while ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g respect for<br />
human rights. Increas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly, the roles of peacekeepers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> civilian police are becom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tertw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> this opens up opportunities for jo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> operati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
From crime supressi<strong>on</strong> to preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
Prevent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g crime is ultimately about chang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g social relati<strong>on</strong>ships. There is no substitute for<br />
promot<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g greater equality <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusiveness <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this regard, but some shorter-term <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
can help reduce fricti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> promote social heal<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Even <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> areas where war is not an issue,<br />
crime preventi<strong>on</strong> th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is relevant <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> virtually every aspect of grassroots development:<br />
• Hous<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> urban plann<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: Public hous<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g projects are often high crime areas <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many<br />
parts of the world. Urban planners need to mediate the effects of rapid urbanisati<strong>on</strong>, to avoid<br />
overcrowd<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to promote stability <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order to foster a sense of community.<br />
• Public works: Internati<strong>on</strong>ally, public works, defence procurement, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> any other area where<br />
large discreti<strong>on</strong>ary c<strong>on</strong>tracts are awarded, are known to be sources of corrupti<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
measures should be taken to ensure that transparency <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> fairness prevail.<br />
• Health: Competiti<strong>on</strong> for health funds is stiff <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, but address<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the needs of crime<br />
victims can greatly reduce the c<strong>on</strong>sequences of victimisati<strong>on</strong>. This is particularly true for<br />
women survivors of domestic violence <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rape, especially because of the HIV risks.<br />
• Educati<strong>on</strong>: S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce a good share of the perpetrators of crime are of school age, keep<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g them<br />
enrolled <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gful programmes that build self-worth <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a sense of hope is essential.<br />
Educati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> civic rights <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> procedures can help young citizens to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract with the state<br />
when crime matters arise, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> build trust <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice system.<br />
A key area of crime preventi<strong>on</strong> is victim support. D<strong>on</strong>ors can also assist with programmes<br />
aimed at empower<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g victims, such as the drop-<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> centres provided by the government of<br />
Mauritius for exploited children, or the residential demobilisati<strong>on</strong> centres <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rw<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a for child<br />
soldiers from the Democratic Republic of the C<strong>on</strong>go. Many <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n nati<strong>on</strong>s would like to<br />
provide services to victims, especially the most vulnerable, but lack the capacity to do so <strong>on</strong><br />
their own. Partnerships with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al NGOs experienced <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> victim support could provide<br />
crime preventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ameliorati<strong>on</strong> with almost <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stantaneous tangible results. These services<br />
serve the additi<strong>on</strong>al purpose of provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> hidden crime problems, such as human<br />
traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
In the area of drugs, crime preventi<strong>on</strong> encompasses a range of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s aimed at both<br />
supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>. S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce cannabis rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s the major drug of c<strong>on</strong>cern for <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is a major producer of the drug for both <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternal c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> export, efforts should<br />
be made to assist the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> com<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to terms with this substance. Surveys of cultivati<strong>on</strong><br />
areas have been completed by some <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries, but for the most part very little is known<br />
about the size of the problem. Tackl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this issue will require a multi-pr<strong>on</strong>ged approach, with<br />
assistance to <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n agencies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> charge of law enforcement, health, communicati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
promoti<strong>on</strong> of susta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>able alternate livelihoods.<br />
Mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g corporate bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess part of the soluti<strong>on</strong><br />
This report has suggested some of the reas<strong>on</strong>s why foreign direct <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestment is critical to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s development, but it has also highlighted several ways <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess has<br />
99
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>tributed to <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s crime problem, from fund<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g resource wars to fuell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g corrupti<strong>on</strong>. It is<br />
essential that the relati<strong>on</strong>ship between <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n states <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess be repaired <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
that partnerships are formed to ensure that <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is seen as a safe <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> profitable place to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vest<br />
human <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> material resources.<br />
Bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess leaders who have the visi<strong>on</strong> to see the tremendous potential of a stable <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> prosperous<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to take acti<strong>on</strong> to ensure this visi<strong>on</strong> becomes a reality, will ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> greatly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the future.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> to crime preventi<strong>on</strong> should not be seen as a k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of charity, but as an essential<br />
comp<strong>on</strong>ent of nurtur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestment <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an envir<strong>on</strong>ment where returns can be substantial. And<br />
social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestment <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n can w<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> firms a privileged positi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> access<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a large <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>sumer market. In the end, it may prove more cost-effective to c<strong>on</strong>tribute to secur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the society as a whole than to attempt to build a citadel around plants <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>nel.<br />
It is essential that foreign bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>esses operat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> adhere to the same st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards of<br />
c<strong>on</strong>duct <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their deal<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent that they would <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their home countries. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>ns<br />
require the same levels of envir<strong>on</strong>mental protecti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> occupati<strong>on</strong>al safety as do the peoples of<br />
the rest of the world. In the past, foreign banks have allowed <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n kleptocrats to stash vast<br />
sums of embezzled public assets at a great cost to the people of their countries. It is the<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>sibility of f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ancial <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the developed world to apply the same scrut<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>y to<br />
funds com<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> that they would to those com<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from other sources, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to prevent<br />
corrupt officials from us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g them to launder the proceeds of their crimes. Those illicit m<strong>on</strong>ies<br />
that have been sheltered <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the past should be repatriated with due haste. The UNODC recently<br />
launched an Asset Recovery Initiative, offer<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g technical assistance to the governments of<br />
Nigeria <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kenya <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> recover<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g misappropriated m<strong>on</strong>ies. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> like Zambia are also chas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
down funds allegedly embezzled by past leaders. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n governments should also be assisted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
prosecut<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the mult<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>al companies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> local corrupti<strong>on</strong>, as the government of<br />
Lesotho did so effectively <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Highl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s Water case.<br />
As noted above, many <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n nati<strong>on</strong>s have taken aggressive acti<strong>on</strong> aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st corrupti<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
corrupti<strong>on</strong> programmes like that of Botswana are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>ally celebrated. A number of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n nati<strong>on</strong>s, such as Mozambique, are partners with d<strong>on</strong>ors <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their anti-corrupti<strong>on</strong> efforts.<br />
But, arguably, the greatest assistance the developed world can give <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> reduc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<br />
corrupti<strong>on</strong> is simply to stop participat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> it. To achieve this, bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess should commit to<br />
transparency <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> its deal<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. For example, the Extractive Industries Transparency<br />
Initiative (EITI), c<strong>on</strong>ceived by the UK government, is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tended to help to establish st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards for<br />
greater openness <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> resource exploitati<strong>on</strong>. Mult<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>al companies should be required to pay<br />
just revenues to governments, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> not just to government officials, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> return for access to a<br />
country’s natural resources. Look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g bey<strong>on</strong>d the corporate world, a similar tack must also be<br />
applied to other areas where dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al commodities from outside the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent is<br />
fuell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, such as the markets for human be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> wildlife parts.<br />
100
CONCLUSION<br />
Nobel-laureate ec<strong>on</strong>omist Amartya Sen opens his book <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> as Freedom with the oftparaphrased<br />
declarati<strong>on</strong>, “<str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> [is] a process of exp<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the real freedoms people<br />
enjoy.” <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> is not just about resolv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ec<strong>on</strong>omic deprivati<strong>on</strong>, Sen argues. It is about<br />
remov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a range of “unfreedoms” that imp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ge <strong>on</strong> quality <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> quantity of life. While raw<br />
poverty is a major source of unfreedom, it is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tertw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed with other social issues equally<br />
significant <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> limit<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the freedom of poor people. In discuss<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g examples, Sen specifically<br />
menti<strong>on</strong>s c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s surround<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g “law <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> order, the prevalence of violence, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> so <strong>on</strong>” as<br />
forms of unfreedom. 317<br />
Here Sen has touched <strong>on</strong> an idea that is often under-appreciated by development experts: that<br />
freedom from crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> violence are key comp<strong>on</strong>ents of development. Freedom from fear is as<br />
important of freedom from want. It is impossible to truly enjoy <strong>on</strong>e of these rights without the<br />
other.<br />
Furthermore, the two rights are mutually c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gent. While it is well documented that poverty<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al victimisati<strong>on</strong> are often associated, development experts often fail to recognise the<br />
way they re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>force <strong>on</strong>e another. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> may pose a significant impediment to ec<strong>on</strong>omic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
social development, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> may need to be addressed before progress can be made.<br />
This Report was written to raise awareness <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> stimulate discussi<strong>on</strong>. If it has served its purpose,<br />
it will help to gather momentum towards tackl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s crime problem <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> thus promot<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
development. It thus represents not the end of a process, but a beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n nati<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
development professi<strong>on</strong>als, aid agencies, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess need to engage <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an <strong>on</strong>go<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g dialogue<br />
around the ways crime may be impact<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g progress <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. In the end, creat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g crime<br />
awareness <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> development plann<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is primarily about shift<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dsets. It is a matter of<br />
break<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g through the artificial barriers that c<strong>on</strong>ceptually separate ec<strong>on</strong>omic development from<br />
other aspects of life. By recognis<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that freedom from crime is important, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that crime is a<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tribut<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g factor to poverty, a whole cluster of mutually re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g “unfreedoms” can be<br />
addressed at <strong>on</strong>ce.<br />
Recent <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al events have dem<strong>on</strong>strated that no part of the world is safe if any part of the<br />
world is neglected. Cooperati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is thus <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> our collective self-<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest. We<br />
are fortunate to live <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an age where what is morally right is also practically expedient.<br />
Ultimately, the security <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> prosperity of the world is c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gent <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> becom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a safer<br />
place.<br />
101
ANNEX A: AFRICAN COMMON POSITION ON CRIME PREVENTION AND<br />
CRIMINAL JUSTICE<br />
(The orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al formatt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g has been adjusted <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> annexes removed to c<strong>on</strong>serve space.)<br />
I. INTRODUCTION<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> has been identified as <strong>on</strong>e of the major obstacles to development. Imbalanced or<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>adequately planned development c<strong>on</strong>tributes to crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ality <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> thereby c<strong>on</strong>stitutes a threat to<br />
good quality of life, security of life <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> property, democracy, good governance, the rule of law<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the free exercise of human rights. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> General Assembly has decided that<br />
the Substantive agenda items <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Workshop themes for the Eleventh <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
C<strong>on</strong>gress <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> Preventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al Justice be focused up<strong>on</strong> by the Heads of State or<br />
Government or Government M<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>isters at the High-level Segment to be held dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the last three<br />
days of the C<strong>on</strong>gress, at which a S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle Declarati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g recommendati<strong>on</strong>s derived from<br />
the deliberati<strong>on</strong>s at that Segment, the Round Tables <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Workshops should be adopted <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
submitted to the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Commissi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> Preventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al Justice.<br />
The <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Regi<strong>on</strong>al Preparatory Meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for the Eleventh <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> C<strong>on</strong>gress <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Preventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al Justice, held <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Addis Ababa, 1-3 March 2004, c<strong>on</strong>sidered the<br />
Substantive agenda items <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Workshop themes. It was recommended that, bear<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<br />
that effective crime preventi<strong>on</strong> strategies depended <strong>on</strong> the establishment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> promoti<strong>on</strong> of crime<br />
preventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice projects, through various means, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g by rais<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g public<br />
awareness, both States <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> regi<strong>on</strong>al bodies should engage <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> efforts designed to improve public<br />
awareness about the dangers of organized crime, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> firearms,<br />
smuggl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of migrants, terrorism, drug traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, theft of cultural property, ec<strong>on</strong>omic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ancial crimes, m<strong>on</strong>ey-launder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, computer-related crime, as well as the disruptive effect of<br />
retributive justice, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trast to restorative justice, which emphasizes restorati<strong>on</strong> of social<br />
cohesi<strong>on</strong> through mediati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rec<strong>on</strong>ciliati<strong>on</strong> of the parties. The meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g also recommended<br />
the adopti<strong>on</strong> of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of Pris<strong>on</strong>ers. It also exhorted Member States,<br />
who have not d<strong>on</strong>e so, to accede to the various C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Protocols, both <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> regi<strong>on</strong>al.<br />
The <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Regi<strong>on</strong>al Preparatory Meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Auxiliary Sem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ar <strong>on</strong> the Implementati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Transnati<strong>on</strong>al organized <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> (the organized <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> its three Protocols <strong>on</strong> Traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pers<strong>on</strong>s, Smuggl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of Migrants <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Firearms, also held <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Addis Ababa, 4-5 March 2004, decided that <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> should<br />
prepare a Comm<strong>on</strong> Positi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> each of the Substantive items <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Workshop themes. It<br />
requested “the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Uni<strong>on</strong> to identify <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> coord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ate issues pert<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent to <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> lead with<br />
an <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Comm<strong>on</strong> Positi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> Preventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al Justice, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> present them to the<br />
Eleventh C<strong>on</strong>gress <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> Preventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al Justice, hold<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Bangkok, Thail<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
April 2005.”<br />
After the adopti<strong>on</strong> of the Comm<strong>on</strong> Positi<strong>on</strong> by the Sec<strong>on</strong>d <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Uni<strong>on</strong> M<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>isterial<br />
C<strong>on</strong>ference <strong>on</strong> Drug C<strong>on</strong>trol <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, it would be submitted for the c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>, respectively,<br />
of the Sixth Ord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ary Sessi<strong>on</strong> of the Executive Council <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Fourth Ord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ary Sessi<strong>on</strong> of the<br />
Assembly, to be held <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> January 2005. The Comm<strong>on</strong> Positi<strong>on</strong> would thereafter be utilized by<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n delegates as guidel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es for their c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>s to the deliberati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> decisi<strong>on</strong>s at the<br />
Eleventh <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> C<strong>on</strong>gress, bear<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n realities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terests <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the field of<br />
crime preventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice.<br />
102
II. PREAMBLE<br />
We, the M<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>isters resp<strong>on</strong>sible for Drug C<strong>on</strong>trol <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> Preventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at the<br />
Sec<strong>on</strong>d <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Uni<strong>on</strong> M<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>isterial C<strong>on</strong>ference <strong>on</strong> Drug C<strong>on</strong>trol <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Mauritius, 14-17 December<br />
2004:<br />
1. Deeply c<strong>on</strong>cerned that crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> armed c<strong>on</strong>flicts generally c<strong>on</strong>stitute major obstacles to<br />
development, good quality of life, security of life <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> property, as well as democracy,<br />
proper management of public affairs, the rule of law <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> full enjoyment of human rights;<br />
2. Aware that poverty is <strong>on</strong>e of the core causes of crime, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that it is widespread <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
with c<strong>on</strong>sequential impact <strong>on</strong> development <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the empowerment of groups, families <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the countries of the Member States of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Uni<strong>on</strong>;<br />
3. Recogniz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that transnati<strong>on</strong>al organized crime, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g drug traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, human <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
firearms traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> smuggl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of migrants, terrorism, corrupti<strong>on</strong>, ec<strong>on</strong>omic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ancial crimes, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g m<strong>on</strong>ey-launder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cyber crime, severely hamper susta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>able<br />
socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic developments, perpetuate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>equity, lowers productivity, reduces efficiency<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> effectiveness, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> underm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrity of the social, ec<strong>on</strong>omic, cultural <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
political order;<br />
4. C<strong>on</strong>cerned about the negative effects of corrupti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> punitive effects <strong>on</strong> the political,<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic, social <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural stability of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n States, its underm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of accountability<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> transparency <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the management of public affairs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> its devastat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g effects <strong>on</strong> the<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social development of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n peoples;<br />
5. Inspired by the various <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Uni<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Protocols<br />
(listed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Annex A) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Codes of C<strong>on</strong>duct, Declarati<strong>on</strong>s, Decisi<strong>on</strong>s, Recommendati<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
Plans of Acti<strong>on</strong>, Programmes of Acti<strong>on</strong>, St<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ard M<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>imum Rules, Pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ciples, Guidel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es,<br />
Safeguards, Procedures, Model Agreements <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Regimes (listed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Annex B) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the field of<br />
crime preventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice, have deliberated extensively <strong>on</strong> the issues <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
problems c<strong>on</strong>cern<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g crime preventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order to overcome the<br />
negative impact <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> deleterious effect of crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> our various communities;<br />
6. Tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Note of the General Assembly resoluti<strong>on</strong> 56/119 of 19 December 2001, which, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> its<br />
paragraph 2(h) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (i), enjo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed each of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> C<strong>on</strong>gresses <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Preventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al Justice to adopt a S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle Declarati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g recommendati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
derived from the deliberati<strong>on</strong>s of the High-level Segment, the Round Tables <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
Workshops, to be submitted to the Commissi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> Preventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al Justice,<br />
act<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g as the preparatory body of the C<strong>on</strong>gresses, for its c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>;<br />
7. Welcom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the C<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Regi<strong>on</strong>al Preparatory Meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for the Eleventh<br />
C<strong>on</strong>gress <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> Preventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al Justice, held <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Addis Ababa, 1-3 March 2004,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> its request that the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Uni<strong>on</strong> identify <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> coord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ate issues pert<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent to <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>;<br />
8. Underscor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the importance of enhanc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the capacity of Member States <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the field of<br />
crime preventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> of strengthen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al cooperati<strong>on</strong>;<br />
9. Desirous of adopt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Comm<strong>on</strong> Positi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> Preventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al<br />
Justice;<br />
We therefore commit ourselves <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividually <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> collectively to take the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g steps:<br />
103
III. PRIORITY POLICY OPTIONS<br />
A. NATIONAL SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT<br />
10. Plan <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> design nati<strong>on</strong>al crime preventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice policies with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the overall<br />
socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic policy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> legislative c<strong>on</strong>text.<br />
11. Call up<strong>on</strong> Member States to take preventive, protective <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rehabilitative measures, through<br />
enforcement of compulsory educati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> provisi<strong>on</strong> of vocati<strong>on</strong>al tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for the youth,<br />
m<strong>on</strong>itor <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> br<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g abuses to light, carry out situati<strong>on</strong> analysis at various levels, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> raise<br />
awareness through public educati<strong>on</strong> activities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the mass media, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>corporati<strong>on</strong> of the appropriate educati<strong>on</strong>al modules <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the school curricula at the<br />
primary, sec<strong>on</strong>dary <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tertiary levels, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> build coaliti<strong>on</strong>s with the civil society;<br />
12. Pursue policies of ec<strong>on</strong>omic growth to create employment, alleviate poverty <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ensure<br />
better <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> equitable <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>come distributi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order to ensure access by the most vulnerable<br />
groups, particularly women <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> children, to productive assets, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, credit,<br />
technology <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>. The resultant programme can be prosecuted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a partnership<br />
between government, the private sector, the citizens <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al community,<br />
particularly target<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g accelerated growth of agriculture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> food producti<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> also<br />
complement<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g these with health services <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> transportati<strong>on</strong> systems at affordable rates.<br />
Particular attenti<strong>on</strong> should be paid to strengthen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g family ec<strong>on</strong>omic empowerment<br />
programmes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social safety nets for the most disadvantaged families <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> vulnerable<br />
groups, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g women, children <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> youth, pr<strong>on</strong>e to crime commissi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> recruitment<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al syndicates;<br />
13. Ensure effective capacity-build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for the nati<strong>on</strong>al law enforcement, prosecutorial, judicial<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> custodial comp<strong>on</strong>ents of the crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice systems, to play a key role <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
formulati<strong>on</strong> of nati<strong>on</strong>al policies <strong>on</strong> crime preventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice, <strong>on</strong> the <strong>on</strong>e h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> poverty alleviati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>on</strong> the other;<br />
14. Ensure that custodial authorities adopt necessary measures to prevent HIV/AIDS, bloodborne,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other communicable diseases, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>mates affected by these diseases are<br />
given appropriate treatment;<br />
15. Address <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> prevent abusive treatment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> corrupti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the part of public services <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
mobilise the vulnerable <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> disadvantaged groups <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the fight aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st abusive treatment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
corrupti<strong>on</strong>;<br />
16. Call up<strong>on</strong> the World Bank, Internati<strong>on</strong>al M<strong>on</strong>etary Fund (IMF), <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> Programme (UNDP), <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Commissi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> Narcotic <strong>Drugs</strong><br />
(UNCND) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> Preventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al Justice <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (UNCCPCJ) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Drugs</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> (UNODC) to look <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the questi<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al resources<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the social impact of Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAP) <strong>on</strong> the citizens of<br />
Member States, with a view of ameliorat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the adverse impact of these programmes <strong>on</strong> the<br />
poor, with its resultant crime-produc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g tendency;<br />
B. BROAD SOCIAL PROGRAMMES TO PREVENT AND COMBAT DRUG AND<br />
CRIME<br />
17. Collect, collate, analyse <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dissem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> about the hazards <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>sequences of<br />
drugs, crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ality <strong>on</strong> citizens, their families <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> societies, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the severe<br />
cost of drug abuse <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crime <strong>on</strong> susta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>able development;<br />
18. Advocate for the protecti<strong>on</strong> of women, children <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> youths <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> particular, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the combat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> elim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> of traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the recruitment of children <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> youths <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to<br />
104
crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al syndicates, by giv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the family a more important role <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> combat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
drugs, with due regard to creed, religious <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural values;<br />
19. Ensure access by women, children <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> youths to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> about their rights, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
warn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs about the modus oper<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>i of human traffickers, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g traffickers <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> human<br />
organs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> recruitment syndicates <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to crime, prostituti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pornography;<br />
20. Adopt effective measures to prevent child labour, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>formity with the relevant<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> nati<strong>on</strong>al labour laws;<br />
21. Involve relevant government units, citizens, societal organizati<strong>on</strong>s, NGOs, professi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
associati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> trade uni<strong>on</strong>s to participate fully <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the process of develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g nati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
policies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> programmes to combat drug, crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ality;<br />
22. Promote representative government, proper management of public affairs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> public<br />
property, transparency <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> accountability to the public <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> supportive of nati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> local/grassroots social <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ec<strong>on</strong>omic development with a clear rejecti<strong>on</strong> of the<br />
phenomen<strong>on</strong> of impunity;<br />
23. Support micro-credit, market<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestment schemes to assist the poor <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
disadvantaged <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g victims of human traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> organized crime, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the areas of<br />
agriculture, food producti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other small scale enterprises, which will be designed to<br />
assist them <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> becom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g respectable self-employed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals, who will c<strong>on</strong>tribute to<br />
nati<strong>on</strong>al development;<br />
24. Develop programmes aimed at address<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the needs of communities emerg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from<br />
c<strong>on</strong>flicts, with a view to alleviat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the c<strong>on</strong>sequential scourge of crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> drugs;<br />
25. Support efforts to draft <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>alize as appropriate:<br />
a) the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st Theft of <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Cultural Property,<br />
b) the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st Cyber <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
c) the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Code of C<strong>on</strong>duct aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st Terrorism, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
d) Draft Comprehensive C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> Aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st Terrorism <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> all its ramificati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
26. Address the root causes of terrorism, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the factors which motivate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
groups to commit terrorist acts. Such knowledge should be used to generate public<br />
awareness about the problems, root causes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> effect of terrorism <strong>on</strong> the society <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
process of development, as well as enhance the capacity of law enforcement, crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al<br />
justice, social services <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other relevant officials to develop appropriate strategies for<br />
elim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>at<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the root causes of terrorism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> its motivati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for elim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>at<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g terrorism<br />
itself from the society;<br />
27. Call up<strong>on</strong> Member States to mobilize their nati<strong>on</strong>al resources, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g governmental,<br />
other <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>al, private sector, civil society <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> citizens to enhance the capacities of<br />
Member States <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the field of crime preventi<strong>on</strong>, law enforcement, prosecutorial, judicial <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
custodial functi<strong>on</strong>s, through tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, reform <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> reorganizati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>/<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>telligence<br />
gather<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, research, collati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> analysis, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dissem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> crime<br />
preventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice;<br />
28. Promote respect for human <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> peoples’ rights, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> accordance with the provisi<strong>on</strong>s of the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Charter <strong>on</strong> Human <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Peoples’ Rights, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other relevant regi<strong>on</strong>al, c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ental as<br />
well as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>struments, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al humanitarian law. <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to promote<br />
the provisi<strong>on</strong> of legal aid to citizens, to enable them effectively enforce their rights <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice adm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>istrati<strong>on</strong>;<br />
29. Ensure Declarati<strong>on</strong> of Assets by elected <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>/or appo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ted public officials, through the<br />
adopti<strong>on</strong> of Codes of C<strong>on</strong>duct, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> allow the general public to have access to such Assets<br />
Declarati<strong>on</strong>s;<br />
105
30. Adopt necessary measures to promote <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrity, transparency <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> accountability <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
Public <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Private Sectors.<br />
31. Promote <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>al collaborati<strong>on</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g agencies fight<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st organized crime, drug,<br />
terrorism, corrupti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> fraud at the nati<strong>on</strong>al, bilateral, regi<strong>on</strong>al, c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ental <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al levels, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ter alia, to enhance <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> exchange <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> share best<br />
practices;<br />
32. Call up<strong>on</strong> Member States to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>corporate treatment sentenc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice<br />
systems, with due regard to their nati<strong>on</strong>al legislati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
C. LEGAL FRAMEWORKS AND IMPLEMENTATION<br />
33. Sign, ratify <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> adopt as appropriate, the sub-regi<strong>on</strong>al, regi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>struments <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the field of crime preventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice listed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Annex A, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> such<br />
Codes of C<strong>on</strong>duct, Declarati<strong>on</strong>s, Decisi<strong>on</strong>s, Recommendati<strong>on</strong>s, Plans of Acti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
Programmes of Acti<strong>on</strong>, St<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ard M<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>imum Rules, Pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ciples, Guidel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es, Safeguards,<br />
Procedures, Model Agreements <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Regimes, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the field of crime preventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al<br />
justice, listed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Annex B. Member States should give priority attenti<strong>on</strong> to their full<br />
implementati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
34. Participate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the preparati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> timely completi<strong>on</strong> of new bilateral, regi<strong>on</strong>al, c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ental<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al arrangements for effectively combat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> improv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al<br />
justice, particularly those relat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to terrorism, m<strong>on</strong>ey-launder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, cyber crime, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> theft<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural property, whilst pursu<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the speedy accessi<strong>on</strong> to exist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Protocols <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their effective implementati<strong>on</strong>;<br />
35. Enact <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> harm<strong>on</strong>ize nati<strong>on</strong>al legislati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> formulate policies <strong>on</strong> effective measures to<br />
combat crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ality.<br />
36. Formulate time-bound, measurable programmes of acti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> targets, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order toa)<br />
reduce the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cidents <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> impact of organized crime, drug abuse <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> firearms, smuggl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of migrants, terrorism, corrupti<strong>on</strong>, ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ancial crimes, m<strong>on</strong>ey-launder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, urban crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> risks to youth, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> develop <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
strengthen <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al cooperati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> law enforcement, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g mutual legal assistance<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> extraditi<strong>on</strong> measures, with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>text of respect for human rights;<br />
b) reform the crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice system, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troducti<strong>on</strong> or enhancement of<br />
restorative justice, as appropriate;<br />
c) m<strong>on</strong>itor <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> evaluate <strong>on</strong>go<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g programmes periodically, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use the results of the<br />
evaluati<strong>on</strong> to replicate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> adapt best practices;<br />
37. Strengthen capacities at nati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> regi<strong>on</strong>al levels for address<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the problems of crime<br />
preventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>text of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n ec<strong>on</strong>omic, social, cultural <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
political development, through research <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> analysis of problems lead<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
number of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cidents of crime, with a view to establish<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g appropriate strategies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
mechanisms for solv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g those problems;<br />
D. REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL COORDINATION AND COOPERATION<br />
38. Call up<strong>on</strong> Member States <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al community to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease their f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ancial <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
technical assistance to the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Institute for the Preventi<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the Treatment of Offenders (UNAFRI), <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order to enhance its capacity to provide the<br />
required technical services to Member States of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Uni<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to promote <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
coord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ate regi<strong>on</strong>al technical activities related to crime preventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice<br />
systems <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>;<br />
106
39. Strengthen cooperati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> partnerships am<strong>on</strong>g Member States <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the AU Commissi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
relevant UN Agencies, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al partners, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order to effectively<br />
combat transnati<strong>on</strong>al organized crime, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g drug traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
firearms, smuggl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of migrants, terrorism, corrupti<strong>on</strong>, ec<strong>on</strong>omic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ancial crime,<br />
m<strong>on</strong>ey-launder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cyber crime, promote crime preventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> enhance crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice<br />
reform, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g restorative justice;<br />
40. Encourage closer l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k between the Commissi<strong>on</strong> of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Uni<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Commissi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> Preventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al Justice <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the field of crime<br />
preventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice;<br />
41. Establish <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ter-m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>isterial mechanisms at sub-regi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> regi<strong>on</strong>al levels to m<strong>on</strong>itor the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cidents of crime, collect <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> analyse data, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> coord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ate efforts to prevent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> combat<br />
them;<br />
42. Stress the imperative need to implement the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Uni<strong>on</strong> Plan of Acti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the Preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Combat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of Terrorism; <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this regard, welcome the establishment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> launch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Centre for the Study <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Research <strong>on</strong> Terrorism, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Algiers, Algeria, as a<br />
novel achievement <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s collective efforts to outlaw <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> eradicate the scourge of<br />
terrorism from the C<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent;<br />
43. Urge all Member States of the Uni<strong>on</strong> to extend full cooperati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> support to the Centre as<br />
well as take active part <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their activities, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> further urge those that have not yet d<strong>on</strong>e so to<br />
establish, as so<strong>on</strong> as possible, Nati<strong>on</strong>al Focal Po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts to liase with the Centre;<br />
44. Appeal to <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s Partners, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al organizati<strong>on</strong>s, agencies, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
similar Centres around the world to provide support to the Centre <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> establish networks for<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> shar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, research, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigative <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> jo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t activities;<br />
45. Establish the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Regi<strong>on</strong>al Centre for the Preventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Eradicati<strong>on</strong> of Illicit Firearms<br />
Traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (the Regi<strong>on</strong>al Firearms Centre) to serve as a regi<strong>on</strong>al focal centre for effective<br />
promoti<strong>on</strong> of cooperati<strong>on</strong>, collaborati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> coord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this area, as well as facilitate<br />
the collecti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> exchange of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> harm<strong>on</strong>izati<strong>on</strong> of the relevant legislati<strong>on</strong>;<br />
46. Establish urgently the Advisory Board <strong>on</strong> Corrupti<strong>on</strong> which shall collect <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> document<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the nature <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> scope of corrupti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> related offences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, develop<br />
methodologies for analys<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the nature <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> extent of corrupti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dissem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ate<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sensitize the public <strong>on</strong> the negative effects of corrupti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> related<br />
offences, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> advise governments <strong>on</strong> how to deal with the scourge of corrupti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> related<br />
offences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their domestic jurisdicti<strong>on</strong>s, am<strong>on</strong>g other functi<strong>on</strong>s;<br />
47. Create an <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al Justice Informati<strong>on</strong> Network, under the auspices of<br />
the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Uni<strong>on</strong> Commissi<strong>on</strong>, as the core of Pan-<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n crime preventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al<br />
justice activities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> programmes;<br />
48. Urge Member States to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tensify efforts to accelerate the establishment of these two Centres<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Network <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mobilize, with necessary c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> from their private sectors, the<br />
necessary f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ancial <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other assistance, to enable the Centres <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Network functi<strong>on</strong><br />
effectively <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> efficiently. To this end, call up<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s Partners, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
organizati<strong>on</strong>s, agencies, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> similar Centres <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Networks around the world, to<br />
provide support to these Centres <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Network, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> establish networks for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong><br />
shar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, research, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> jo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t activities;<br />
49. Mobilise fund<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for specific crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice related Pan <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n projects. To<br />
this end, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Regi<strong>on</strong> should additi<strong>on</strong>ally recommend the repatriati<strong>on</strong> of all m<strong>on</strong>ies<br />
unlawfully removed from the ec<strong>on</strong>omies of their Member States to the countries of orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
to enable Member States of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Uni<strong>on</strong> cope better <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their fight aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st such<br />
sophisticated crimes as transnati<strong>on</strong>al organized crime, drug traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
107
pers<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> firearms, smuggl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of migrants, terrorism, corrupti<strong>on</strong>, m<strong>on</strong>ey-launder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ancial crimes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cyber crimes;<br />
50. Utilize the available expert resources of <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>Drugs</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
(UNODC), <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Institute for the Preventi<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Treatment<br />
of Offenders (UNAFRI) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Interregi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Justice Research<br />
Institute (UNICRI), Internati<strong>on</strong>al Organizati<strong>on</strong> for Migrati<strong>on</strong> (IOM) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Internati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al Police Organizati<strong>on</strong> (ICPO-INTERPOL) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the various capacity build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
research projects/programmes outl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed above. To this end, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al technical assistance,<br />
<strong>on</strong> bilateral <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> multilateral bases, should be provided for <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries to enhance their<br />
capacities for ratify<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> implement<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the OAU/AU C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Protocols <strong>on</strong><br />
Corrupti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Terrorism, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> organized <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> its<br />
Protocols, as well as the adopti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> implementati<strong>on</strong>, at the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al level, of other<br />
arrangements <strong>on</strong> corrupti<strong>on</strong>, ec<strong>on</strong>omic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ancial crimes, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g m<strong>on</strong>ey-launder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
cyber crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> theft of <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural property;<br />
IV. ADOPTION OF COMMON POSITION<br />
Member States are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vited to adopt the Comm<strong>on</strong> Positi<strong>on</strong> as c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed under the Priority Policy<br />
Opti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to ensure that the steps outl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed thereunder are not <strong>on</strong>ly implemented at the<br />
nati<strong>on</strong>al level, but will also be used as guidel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es for <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n delegates at the forthcom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Eleventh <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> C<strong>on</strong>gress <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> Preventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al Justice, hold<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Bangkok, Thail<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 18-25 April 2005. The Comm<strong>on</strong> Positi<strong>on</strong> is therefore expected to facilitate<br />
the adopti<strong>on</strong> of a mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gful C<strong>on</strong>gress Declarati<strong>on</strong>, which will take account of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s realities<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terests, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> which will go a l<strong>on</strong>g way to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tensify efforts towards combat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>troll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g transnati<strong>on</strong>al organized crime, drug traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> firearms,<br />
smuggl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of migrants, terrorism, corrupti<strong>on</strong>, ec<strong>on</strong>omic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ancial crimes, m<strong>on</strong>ey-launder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> computer-related crime, as well as enhanc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice reforms, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g restorative<br />
justice.<br />
108
ANNEX B: DECLARATION ON CONTROL OF ILLICIT DRUG TRAFFICKING<br />
AND ABUSE IN AFRICA (2002-2006)<br />
(The orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al formatt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g has been adjusted <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> annexes removed to c<strong>on</strong>serve space.)<br />
We, the Heads of State <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Government of the OAU/AU meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> our 38th Ord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ary<br />
Assembly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Durban, South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, have undertaken a comprehensive review of the<br />
implementati<strong>on</strong> of our Declarati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Plan of Acti<strong>on</strong> No AHG/Decl. 2(XXXII) adopted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> July<br />
1996 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Yaounde, Camero<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> C<strong>on</strong>trol of Drug Abuse <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Illicit Drug Traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
We note with serious c<strong>on</strong>cern that despite acti<strong>on</strong>s taken by our countries, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividually <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
collectively, regard<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g drug c<strong>on</strong>trol <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, there is a rapid progressi<strong>on</strong> of drug abuse <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
particular am<strong>on</strong>g children, young adults <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> women; <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to areas previously unaffected <strong>on</strong> our<br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent. We are equally c<strong>on</strong>cerned about the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g variety of abused drugs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
escalati<strong>on</strong> of illicit traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> narcotic drugs, psychotropic substances <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> chemical<br />
precursors.<br />
New trends have started to have devastat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g impacts <strong>on</strong> our countries <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> peoples <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
ultimately <strong>on</strong> the efforts of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Governments to build democratic societies, to achieve<br />
susta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>able ec<strong>on</strong>omic development <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to ensure security for our people. These are<br />
compounded by the escalati<strong>on</strong> of the comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed effects of drug abuse <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Inject<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Drug<br />
Use <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> HIV/AIDS; drugs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> organized crime, m<strong>on</strong>ey launder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, c<strong>on</strong>flicts, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternally<br />
displaced people, unemployment, gender <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sensitivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> street-children. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>adequacy or<br />
lack of facilities for the treatment, rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong> of victims of drugs is also<br />
becom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly evident. C<strong>on</strong>sequently, we support the formulati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> implementati<strong>on</strong><br />
of jo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t drug <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> AIDS c<strong>on</strong>trol projects <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> our countries.<br />
We welcome measures, which have been taken at the nati<strong>on</strong>al, regi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ental levels to<br />
curb drug abuse <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> illicit traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> associated problems, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> call <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<br />
governments, civil societies NGOs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the organized private sector to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tensify their efforts <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
this regard.<br />
We reaffirm our commitment to the measures identified <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the1996 Declarati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Plan of<br />
Acti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the C<strong>on</strong>trol of Drug Abuse <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Illicit Drug Traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to account emerg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
associated problems. In this c<strong>on</strong>text, we commit ourselves <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> our countries to ensure an<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrated <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> balanced approach to drug c<strong>on</strong>trol <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to mobilize adequate human material <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ancial resources, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from the organized private sector, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order to address the problem<br />
effectively <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the provisi<strong>on</strong> of safe work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g envir<strong>on</strong>ment, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a timely manner.<br />
We call <strong>on</strong> all our development partners, all the relevant UN agencies, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> particular<br />
UNDCP, to assist <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Countries by provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g adequate technical <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ancial support.<br />
With the view to giv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g effect to this Declarati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ensur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that the problems of drug abuse<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> illicit traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g are effectively addressed through a comprehensive plan, we adopt the<br />
follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g revised Plan of Acti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the C<strong>on</strong>trol of Drug Abuse <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Drug Traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
In so do<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, we will accord priority to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong> build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> policy development, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
research <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> network<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, legal system <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> implementati<strong>on</strong> law <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g nati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> regi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
law enforcement <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trol capacities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> measures, reducti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for drugs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
promoti<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al co-operati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
We are c<strong>on</strong>v<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ced that the implementati<strong>on</strong> of the revised Plan of Acti<strong>on</strong> can make a significant<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> to poverty eradicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> as such we will situate the Plan with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the overall<br />
framework of NEPAD, as our <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegral programme of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Uni<strong>on</strong>.<br />
109
PLAN OF ACTION FOR DRUG CONTROL IN AFRICA: 2002-2006<br />
Broad Objectives of the old Plan of Acti<strong>on</strong>: 1997-2001<br />
The broad objectives of the Plan of Acti<strong>on</strong>, adopted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1996 were:<br />
a) Assess<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the drug problem <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> its two aspects of supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> of illicit drugs as<br />
well as ensur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the capacity of countries to address the problem;<br />
b) Integrat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g drug dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> reducti<strong>on</strong> programmes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the nati<strong>on</strong>al health <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social<br />
policy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, where not available, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>frastructures for treatment of drug addicts<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong>;<br />
c) Evaluat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g periodically the programmes that were be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g implemented;<br />
d) Ensur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g coherence of acti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> drug c<strong>on</strong>trol at nati<strong>on</strong>al, regi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ental<br />
levels;<br />
e) Sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g up appropriate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>s to address illicit drug traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a<br />
balanced, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrated <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> timely manner;<br />
f) Develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g human resources <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mobiliz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g resources at nati<strong>on</strong>al, regi<strong>on</strong>al, c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ental<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al levels for carry<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g out the acti<strong>on</strong>s identified<br />
g) Mobiliz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the community <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>-governmental organizati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> eradicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g drug<br />
abuse <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> illicit traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>; <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
h) Adopt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Internati<strong>on</strong>al Drug C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> legal <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>struments to deal<br />
with the problem;<br />
i) Foster<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g cooperati<strong>on</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g countries shar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the same problems, preferably <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
same regi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
j) The Assembly of Heads of State <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Government <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Yaounde, Camero<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1996<br />
committed itself to:<br />
The active <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong> of drug c<strong>on</strong>trol <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to nati<strong>on</strong>al policies by allocat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g adequate resources for<br />
drug c<strong>on</strong>trol activities;<br />
a) Ensur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that mechanisms for the collecti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> analysis of data <strong>on</strong> the drug problem<br />
are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troduced to improve formulati<strong>on</strong> of policies;<br />
b) Instituti<strong>on</strong>al build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g;<br />
c) Human resources development;<br />
d) Suppressi<strong>on</strong> of illicit drug traffic;<br />
e) Reduc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g illicit dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for drugs;<br />
f) Community mobilizati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
g) Internati<strong>on</strong>al cooperati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Rati<strong>on</strong>ale for the Review of the 1996 – 2001 Plan of Acti<strong>on</strong><br />
S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce the adopti<strong>on</strong> of the Declarati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Plan of Acti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Drug Abuse <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Illicit Traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
C<strong>on</strong>trol <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1996, efforts were deployed for its effective implementati<strong>on</strong>. The overall<br />
implementati<strong>on</strong> was impeded by the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>stra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts:<br />
a) Political <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stability <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some countries <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> regi<strong>on</strong>s;<br />
b) Challenge of limited resources <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>text of compet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g needs or dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s regardless<br />
of the political will;<br />
c) Absence of effective follow-up, m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mobilizati<strong>on</strong> mechanisms;<br />
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d) Inadequate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>al capacity at the OAU for drug c<strong>on</strong>trol.<br />
Despite these c<strong>on</strong>stra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts, some successes were recorded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the areas of:<br />
a) Rais<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the profile of drug c<strong>on</strong>trol <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent;<br />
b) Support of the capacity of OAU Secretariat to address drug c<strong>on</strong>trol by the establishment<br />
of the Drug C<strong>on</strong>trol Focal Po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t (DCFP);<br />
c) Develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> implement<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of nati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> regi<strong>on</strong>al drug c<strong>on</strong>trol strategies;<br />
d) Improv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the research capability <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>al data collecti<strong>on</strong> mechanisms <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many<br />
countries;<br />
e) Capacity build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at the nati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> regi<strong>on</strong>al levels <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the areas of coord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>, law<br />
enforcement, legislati<strong>on</strong>, judicial tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> reducti<strong>on</strong>;<br />
f) <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> of data base of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Experts <strong>on</strong> Drug C<strong>on</strong>trol as well as <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n NGOs<br />
active <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Reducti<strong>on</strong> activities.<br />
The drug problem <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is further exacerbated by the salient of emerg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g issues such as:<br />
a) HIV/AIDS, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ject<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g drug use (IDUs), grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g variety of drugs of abuse –<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g local plants, solvents <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other substances;<br />
b) Poverty<br />
c) Gender <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>equality,<br />
d) C<strong>on</strong>flicts, human displacement, refugees <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> voluntary migrati<strong>on</strong>;<br />
e) Street children;<br />
f) Traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> humans, especially women <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> child for labour <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sexual exploitati<strong>on</strong>;<br />
g) Organized crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sophisticati<strong>on</strong> of organized <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al syndicates<br />
with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al ramificati<strong>on</strong>s coupled with terrorism.<br />
S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce the adopti<strong>on</strong> of the Declarati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Plan of Acti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1996, new policies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> strategies of<br />
address<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the problems of drug abuse, illicit traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> associated crimes have emerged,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the SADC regi<strong>on</strong>al drug c<strong>on</strong>trol programme, the ECOWAS regi<strong>on</strong>al drug c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
programme <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the UNDCP Drug C<strong>on</strong>trol Strategy for <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Other measures also <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude:<br />
a) Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stream<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g drug c<strong>on</strong>trol <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to development plann<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> implementati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>corporat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g elements of poverty alleviati<strong>on</strong>, women empowerment, alternative<br />
development strategies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> HIV/AIDS programmes;<br />
b) Str<strong>on</strong>g partnership particularly with sister organizati<strong>on</strong>s at the regi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
levels for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased visibility <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> resource mobilizati<strong>on</strong> for drug c<strong>on</strong>trol;<br />
c) The transformati<strong>on</strong> of the OAU <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Uni<strong>on</strong> (AU); <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
d) The adopti<strong>on</strong> of the New Partnership for <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>'s <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> (NEPAD).<br />
The Plan of Acti<strong>on</strong> was subsequently revised dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the First OAU M<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>isterial C<strong>on</strong>ference <strong>on</strong><br />
Drug C<strong>on</strong>trol, which was held <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Yamoussoukro, Cote D'Ivoire <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> May 2002<br />
Revised Plan of Acti<strong>on</strong><br />
The revised Plan of Acti<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>sists of the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g key areas: Instituti<strong>on</strong> build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> policy<br />
development; <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>, research <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> network<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g; legal systems <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> implementati<strong>on</strong> of laws;<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrated drug dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> reducti<strong>on</strong>; Nati<strong>on</strong>al Law Enforcement <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> C<strong>on</strong>trol Capacities; Regi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Law Enforcement <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> C<strong>on</strong>trol Measures <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Internati<strong>on</strong>al Cooperati<strong>on</strong>. The basic comp<strong>on</strong>ents<br />
of the revised Plan of Acti<strong>on</strong>, have been structured around the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g key objectives <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
strategic acti<strong>on</strong>s (table below):<br />
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Plan <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Strategic Acti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Key areas Objectives Acti<strong>on</strong><br />
1. Instituti<strong>on</strong><br />
Build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Policy<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
(a)<br />
(b)<br />
Create a str<strong>on</strong>g<br />
coord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> unit at the<br />
OAU/AU <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> more<br />
effective cooperati<strong>on</strong><br />
between RECs for the<br />
discharge of their<br />
coord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> functi<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> advisory services;<br />
The OAU/AU to play<br />
the lead role<br />
- OAU/AU to establish a drug c<strong>on</strong>trol unit<br />
at the Secretariat for advocacy, policy<br />
development, coord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>, resource<br />
mobilizati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> collaborati<strong>on</strong> with<br />
agencies of the UN <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> relevant<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ental drug c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
organizati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
- The OAU/AU to advocate for the<br />
establishment of Drug C<strong>on</strong>trol Units<br />
(DCUs) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Member States <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the RECs<br />
without DCUs as well as the coord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the strengthen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the exist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
DCUs.<br />
- To support RECs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the development of<br />
regi<strong>on</strong>al Drug C<strong>on</strong>trol Strategies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order<br />
to provide for the implementati<strong>on</strong> of the<br />
regi<strong>on</strong>al legal <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>strument.<br />
- The OAU/AU to form Partnership with<br />
sister organizati<strong>on</strong>s at the regi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al level;<br />
(c)<br />
(d)<br />
(e)<br />
Support Regi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Nati<strong>on</strong>al policy- mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
bodies to develop<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrated policies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
strategies address<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
drugs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> drug-related<br />
problems.<br />
Encourage <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> support<br />
the ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stream<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of<br />
drug c<strong>on</strong>cerns <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> all<br />
aspects of regi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
nati<strong>on</strong>al development<br />
plans;<br />
The OAU/AU to make<br />
efforts at ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stream<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
comp<strong>on</strong>ents of drug<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trol dams <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to<br />
relevant programmes<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> activities at the<br />
General Secretariat;<br />
- RECs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Member States to sensitize <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> development planners <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> policymakers<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> each country to ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stream drug<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trol <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to regi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> nati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
development plann<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
HIV/AIDS Programmes;<br />
- RECs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Member States to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troduce<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> susta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> poverty alleviati<strong>on</strong><br />
programmes, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> alternative legitimate<br />
sources of employment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>come<br />
agricultural <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>-agricultural sectors<br />
am<strong>on</strong>g groups <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> areas pr<strong>on</strong>e to<br />
cultivati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> trade <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cannabis <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other<br />
related substances;<br />
112
Key areas Objectives Acti<strong>on</strong><br />
2. Informati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
Research <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Network<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g:<br />
(f)<br />
(g)<br />
(h)<br />
(a)<br />
(b)<br />
Create frameworks <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cerned Member States for<br />
develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> implement<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
susta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>able alternative<br />
development strategies for the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trol of illicit drug trade <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
cultivati<strong>on</strong>, especially of<br />
cannabis, Khat <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> opium poppy.<br />
OAU/AU to take the lead note <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
formulat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g policy <strong>on</strong> Alternative<br />
development, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> organise<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g workshops <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
coord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>at<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with development<br />
partners, for Member States.<br />
Member States to ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
effective c<strong>on</strong>trol of licit, narcotic<br />
drugs, psychotropic substances<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> processor chemicals to<br />
ensure availability for medical<br />
scientific purpose <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dustrial<br />
purposes (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the case of chemical<br />
precursors) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> prevent their<br />
diversi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to illicit market.<br />
Create networks of local <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<br />
experts <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> licit drugs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> key<br />
doma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s (dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> reducti<strong>on</strong>, drug<br />
abuse Epidemiology, judicial<br />
cooperati<strong>on</strong>, m<strong>on</strong>ey launder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
law enforcement) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Utilize<br />
expert networks <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> project design,<br />
delivery <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> evaluati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the c<strong>on</strong>duct of local <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> regi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
studies <strong>on</strong> key issues.<br />
Facilitate better communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> exchange between <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<br />
experts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> those from other<br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ents to adapt exist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards to the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment;<br />
- Member States to promote<br />
susta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>able producer cooperatives<br />
(especially <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the agricultural<br />
sector), micro-credit schemes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
community self-help projects<br />
through grants <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> extensi<strong>on</strong><br />
programmes;<br />
- Member States, RECS <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
OAU to tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> staff at nati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
level <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> jo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tly at the regi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ental levels, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
encourage expert-exchange<br />
through sec<strong>on</strong>dment; organize<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ferences <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> workshops, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
refresher courses.<br />
- Member States should develop<br />
or strengthen policy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
legislative measures to c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
licit drugs;<br />
- Re-orientate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> pharmacy<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> medical pers<strong>on</strong>nel to<br />
ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> rati<strong>on</strong>al use of drugs<br />
- Member States, RECs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> OAU<br />
to tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>nel, create <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> data base <strong>on</strong> drug<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trol organizati<strong>on</strong>s (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
NGOs) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> experts <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
order to facilitate network<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
am<strong>on</strong>g them with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>text of<br />
research, c<strong>on</strong>ferences, workshops<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> publicati<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for<br />
purposes of exchang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g expert<br />
skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the design, delivery <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
evaluati<strong>on</strong> of programmes;<br />
- Member States <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> RECs to<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> researchers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> journalists<br />
<strong>on</strong> gather<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, analyz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> drugs<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> drug-related issues;<br />
113
Key areas Objectives Acti<strong>on</strong><br />
3.Legal Systems<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Implementati<strong>on</strong><br />
of Law:<br />
(c)<br />
(d)<br />
(a)<br />
(b)<br />
(c)<br />
C<strong>on</strong>duct targeted research to<br />
improve data collecti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
analysis of drug abuse <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
HIV/AIDS <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> drug-related<br />
crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>;<br />
Develop effective management of<br />
data <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> collecti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
analysis, utilizati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
dissem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>, storage <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
retrieval.<br />
Update drug c<strong>on</strong>trol, organized<br />
crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<strong>on</strong>ey launder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
legislati<strong>on</strong>s with a view to<br />
harm<strong>on</strong>ise these legal<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>struments;<br />
Support the development of legal<br />
sancti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> remedial measures<br />
that dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guish am<strong>on</strong>g drug<br />
offences <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> offenders;<br />
Facilitate tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the effective<br />
use of different sentenc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
opti<strong>on</strong>s for different drug<br />
offences <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> offenders;<br />
- Member States to establish<br />
nati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>/or regi<strong>on</strong>al research<br />
centre(s) for the study of all<br />
aspects of drug – producti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
distributi<strong>on</strong>, abuse, law<br />
enforcement, policies, preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
educati<strong>on</strong>, counsell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, treatment,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rehabilitati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
- Research <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Educati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>s should be<br />
strengthened <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> engaged <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> drug<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trol research.<br />
- Member States, RECs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> OAU<br />
to establish or strengthen <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
adequately fund research, data<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> management<br />
systems;<br />
- RECs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Member States to<br />
develop framework for reform<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> harm<strong>on</strong>ise drug laws to take<br />
account of organized crime,<br />
m<strong>on</strong>ey launder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, electr<strong>on</strong>ic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> revoluti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
their use <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> drug traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
m<strong>on</strong>ey launder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g;<br />
- RECs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Member States to<br />
reform drug laws to ensure due<br />
observance of rule of law <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
protecti<strong>on</strong> of human rights, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to<br />
differentiate between various<br />
types of drug offences <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
offenders;<br />
- Member States to develop<br />
m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards <strong>on</strong> the<br />
sentence adm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>istrati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
procedure.<br />
- RECs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Member States to<br />
ensure that where required<br />
judges, magistrates <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
prosecutors are properly tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> equipped for effective<br />
adm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>istrati<strong>on</strong> of law.<br />
- Establishment of dedicated drug<br />
courts by member countries,<br />
where necessary.<br />
114
Key areas Objectives Acti<strong>on</strong><br />
4. Integrated<br />
Drug Dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Reducti<strong>on</strong>:<br />
(d)<br />
(e)<br />
(f)<br />
(g)<br />
(a)<br />
(b)<br />
(c)<br />
(d)<br />
Support the development of<br />
legislati<strong>on</strong> to offer treatment<br />
opti<strong>on</strong>s for drug offenders as<br />
aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st jail terms.<br />
To provide treatment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> opportunities for<br />
pris<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>mates.<br />
Upgrade legal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> judicial<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>s to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease their<br />
capacity to provide optimal<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
Regulate the advertisement of<br />
licit substances that could serve<br />
as gateway to drug abuse.<br />
Create str<strong>on</strong>ger health <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social<br />
services, NGOs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> outreach<br />
programmes for drug abusers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
risk groups;<br />
Strengthen Drug Educati<strong>on</strong> for<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>- <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> out-of-school youth;<br />
Involve the media, op<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>i<strong>on</strong><br />
makers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> communities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> drug<br />
abuse awareness;<br />
C<strong>on</strong>duct treatment, rehabilitati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> research programmes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> all<br />
countries more so those with<br />
severe drug abuse problems;<br />
- Member States to establish <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
strengthen health care <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
(<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g establishment of drug<br />
counsel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, detoxificati<strong>on</strong>) for<br />
effective management of drug<br />
abuse;<br />
- Member States to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troduce <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
susta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> drug educati<strong>on</strong> activities<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
community;<br />
- Member States to develop <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
distribute model drug educati<strong>on</strong><br />
curriculum for educati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> community-based<br />
programmes;<br />
- Member States to prepare,<br />
produce <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> distribute<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> enlighten<br />
materials to the public, especially<br />
groups at risk through<br />
educati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
employers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> labour<br />
organizati<strong>on</strong>s, religious <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
traditi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>s, NGOs,<br />
CBOs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the mass media;<br />
115
Key areas Objectives Acti<strong>on</strong><br />
5. Nati<strong>on</strong>al law<br />
Enforcement<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> C<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
Capacities:<br />
(e)<br />
(f)<br />
(g)<br />
Develop alternative development<br />
opportunities for those <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the cultivati<strong>on</strong> of cannabis <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> illegal drugs.<br />
Increase research <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> studies <strong>on</strong><br />
new drug abuse patterns <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
trends, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> drug abuse <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
HIV/AIDS not restricted to IDU<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to document best practices.<br />
To undertake public<br />
enlightenment to curb widespread<br />
use of licit substances that serve<br />
as gateway to drug abuse. –<br />
Member States to develop <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
enforce strict st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards for the<br />
advertisement <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sale of tobacco<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> alcohol.<br />
a) Establish <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrated<br />
drug law enforcement capacity at<br />
key po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts of entry (seaports,<br />
airports <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> boarders).<br />
b) Establishment of a Nati<strong>on</strong>al focal<br />
po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t to coord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ate drug-related<br />
crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>telligence between drug law<br />
enforcement units <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> nati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>telligence agencies.<br />
c) Strengthen tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> logistic<br />
support to specialized units aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st<br />
illicit drug traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> organized<br />
crime, m<strong>on</strong>ey launder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
corrupti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> human<br />
be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs;<br />
- Member states <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> RECs to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> promote research <strong>on</strong><br />
new drug abuse patterns <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
trends, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> drug abuse <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
HIV/AIDS not restricted to IDU.<br />
- To research, publish <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
dissem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ate best practices <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
preventi<strong>on</strong>, treatment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
rehabilitati<strong>on</strong>. OAU/AU <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
RECs to be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
dissem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
- Member States to ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
effective drug law enforcement<br />
capacity at the ports <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> borders;<br />
- Member States to create<br />
adequately funded <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> equipped<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> properly managed drug law<br />
enforcement agencies;<br />
- Promote bilateral agreements<br />
between neighbour<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g countries<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> support cross-border<br />
cooperati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> jo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong>s aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st drug<br />
traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other<br />
transnati<strong>on</strong>al organized crime;<br />
- Member States to ensure proper<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>u<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for drug<br />
law enforcement officials,<br />
Custom <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Immigrati<strong>on</strong><br />
pers<strong>on</strong>nel, Central Bank <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
commercial banks' staff;<br />
116
Key areas Objectives Acti<strong>on</strong><br />
6. Regi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Law<br />
Enforcement<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> C<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
Measures:<br />
d) Improve cooperati<strong>on</strong> between law<br />
enforcement, forensic sciences <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the judiciary;<br />
e) Establish c<strong>on</strong>trol structures <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
mechanisms to limit the diversi<strong>on</strong><br />
of licit drugs to illicit markets.<br />
a) Support the creati<strong>on</strong> of operati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
cooperati<strong>on</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g law<br />
enforcement bodies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> countries<br />
with similar pattern of drug<br />
problem;<br />
b) Establish direct cooperati<strong>on</strong><br />
between <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n entry ports <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
source/ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> dest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> countries;<br />
-Member States <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> RECs to<br />
enhance cooperati<strong>on</strong> between<br />
drug law enforcement agencies,<br />
health <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> trade authorities, the<br />
judiciary <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ancial sectors.<br />
- Member States to reform their<br />
laws for effective regulati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
importati<strong>on</strong>, market<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
prescripti<strong>on</strong> of pharmaceutical<br />
drugs;<br />
- RECs to establish a liais<strong>on</strong><br />
bureau to facilitate operati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
cooperati<strong>on</strong>, bilateral agreements,<br />
jo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> operati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
expert exchanges, jo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ferences <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> workshops,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>telligence shar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g am<strong>on</strong>g their<br />
Members <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> between Member<br />
States of other RECs.<br />
- RECs to establish a liais<strong>on</strong><br />
bureau to facilitate operati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
cooperati<strong>on</strong>, bilateral agreements,<br />
jo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> operati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
expert exchanges, jo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ferences <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> workshops,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>telligence shar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g am<strong>on</strong>g their<br />
Members <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> between Member<br />
States of other RECs.<br />
c) Facilitate tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g programmes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the procurement of equipment to<br />
specialized units for their<br />
participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
operati<strong>on</strong>s aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st drug traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other organized crime.<br />
7. Internati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Cooperati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
a) Promote <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al cooperati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the fields of drug c<strong>on</strong>trol;<br />
- Member States <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> RECs to<br />
collaborate with UN Agencies,<br />
the ICPO INTERPOL,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al agencies active <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the fields of development law<br />
enforcement <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> drug c<strong>on</strong>trol <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
order to mobilize resources,<br />
exchange expertise, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>telligence,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> capacity<br />
build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g;<br />
117
Key areas Objectives Acti<strong>on</strong><br />
b) Advocacy to enhance <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
support for development <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> drug<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trol efforts <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> by UN<br />
agencies, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al development<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> drug c<strong>on</strong>trol organizati<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
- OAU to mobilise additi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
resources for the promoti<strong>on</strong> of<br />
drug c<strong>on</strong>trol efforts <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent.<br />
c) Support the sign<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ratificati<strong>on</strong><br />
of UN C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Protocols<br />
<strong>on</strong> drugs. – Member States to sign<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ratify UN C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
protocols;<br />
Implementati<strong>on</strong> Strategy<br />
a) Role of OAU/AU<br />
The OAU/AU is to play the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g roles (advocacy, policy development, mobilizati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
resources; coord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g; capacity build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g):<br />
Advocacy:<br />
• Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> drug c<strong>on</strong>trol <strong>on</strong> the Agenda of OAU/AU meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
- Policy <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g>:<br />
• Develop appropriate policies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> programmes, especially to tackle complex <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> new trends<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> drug traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, drug abuse <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<strong>on</strong>ey launder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g;<br />
Mobilisati<strong>on</strong> of Resources:<br />
• Efforts would be made to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volve UN agencies, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al organizati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>al community as f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ancial <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> technical cooperat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g partners.<br />
Coord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>, m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> evaluati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
• Coord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>, m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> evaluati<strong>on</strong> of drug c<strong>on</strong>trol efforts of RECs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> member states<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g its own efforts.<br />
b) Partnerships<br />
The successful implementati<strong>on</strong> of this plan requires broad partnerships at member state,<br />
regi<strong>on</strong>al, C<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ental <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Internati<strong>on</strong>al levels. The Media, Women's Organisati<strong>on</strong>s, N<strong>on</strong>-<br />
Government organizati<strong>on</strong>s, Civil Society Organizati<strong>on</strong>s, faith-based organizati<strong>on</strong>s, Community-<br />
Based Organizati<strong>on</strong>s, Labour Organizati<strong>on</strong> students' organizati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the private sector are an<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegral part of this partnership.<br />
c) Implementati<strong>on</strong> Target<br />
Given the different levels of capacities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> available resources am<strong>on</strong>g member countries <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
implementati<strong>on</strong> of this Plan, it is expected that countries will have achieved at least 2 activities<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> each of the priority areas identified at the mid-term of this Plan. It will be up to member<br />
states, given their own priorities, to select their activities.<br />
A mid-term review the Plan of Acti<strong>on</strong> after two years <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al review before the end of<br />
the given period shall be c<strong>on</strong>ducted.<br />
d) M<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Evaluati<strong>on</strong><br />
118
a) Member States, RECs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> OAU to establish effective m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> evaluati<strong>on</strong><br />
framework to m<strong>on</strong>itor <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> evaluate their respective implementati<strong>on</strong> of the Plan <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
other drug c<strong>on</strong>trol programmes;<br />
b) Member States to resp<strong>on</strong>d promptly to requests for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> by RECs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> OAU;<br />
c) Annual OAU Report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g system to be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troduced to provide assessment of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> efforts;<br />
d) An <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ter-m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>isterial/<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ter-agency jo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t review framework for periodic assessment of the<br />
implementati<strong>on</strong> of the Plan should be set up.<br />
119
ANNEX C: CRIME DATA ISSUES<br />
Quantitative comparis<strong>on</strong> of crime between countries is h<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ged <strong>on</strong> two data sources: policegenerated<br />
statistics (such as those compiled by Interpol <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Survey of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Trends <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Operati<strong>on</strong>s of Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al Justice Systems [CTS]) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> victim surveys (such as<br />
those performed under the aegis of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Internati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> Victim Surveys<br />
[ICVS] <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other surveys). Data from these sources are sparse for <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries. The Table<br />
below summarises the available <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> – the shaded rows represent countries for which no<br />
data at all are available.<br />
Thirteen victimisati<strong>on</strong> surveys <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries have been run as part of the ICVS project, 318<br />
but these also occurred <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> different years across a decade. In most cases, these surveys were not<br />
nati<strong>on</strong>ally representative, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> were c<strong>on</strong>ducted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong>e major city of each country. 319 Some<br />
victim surveys have been d<strong>on</strong>e by the Institute of Security Studies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 320 while a<br />
few more were c<strong>on</strong>ducted with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the framework of the UN Habitat Safer Cities Programme. 321<br />
F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally, the sec<strong>on</strong>d round of multi-purpose surveys d<strong>on</strong>e by the Afrobarometer <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 15<br />
countries 322 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded two items <strong>on</strong> victimisati<strong>on</strong> (burglary <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>al attacks). Although a<br />
specialised victim survey would provide a more accurate measure, crime-related items <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> multipurpose<br />
surveys (which usually <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volve larger samples than specialised surveys) may provide<br />
some <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> public sensitivity to crime.<br />
Table 3: Availability of crime data from <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries, 1990-2004<br />
UNODC CTS Interpol<br />
Nati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
statistics<br />
ICVS<br />
other victim surveys<br />
Algeria 2003 <br />
Angola 2000 <br />
Ben<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1998 <br />
Botswana 1990 1996 City, 2000 Afrobarometer,2002<br />
Burk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a Faso 1998 <br />
Burundi <br />
Camero<strong>on</strong> 1998 <br />
Cape Verde Afrobarometer,2002<br />
CAR <br />
Chad <br />
Comoros <br />
C<strong>on</strong>go, DR <br />
C<strong>on</strong>go, R <br />
Côte d'Ivoire 2000 2002 <br />
Djibouti 1998 <br />
Egypt 1994 City, 1992 <br />
Equa. Gu<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ea <br />
Eritrea 1999 <br />
Ethiopia 1990 2000 <br />
Gab<strong>on</strong> 1996 <br />
Gambia <br />
Ghana 2001 Afrobarometer,2002<br />
Gu<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ea <br />
121
Gu<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ea-Bissau <br />
Kenya <br />
Habitat, 2002 city –<br />
Afrobarometer, 2002<br />
Lesotho 1997 1999 City, 1998 Afrobarometer,2002<br />
Liberia <br />
Libya 2003 <br />
Madagascar 1994 1996 <br />
Malawi <br />
ISS, 2002/3, nati<strong>on</strong>al –<br />
Afrobarometer, 2002<br />
Mali 1999 Afrobarometer,2002<br />
Mauritania 1999 <br />
Mauritius 2000 1996 <br />
Morocco 2002 <br />
Mozambique 1999 <br />
4 prov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ces,<br />
2002<br />
Afrobarometer,2002<br />
Namibia 2002 1999 City, 2000 Afrobarometer,2002<br />
Niger 1998 <br />
Nigeria 1994 City, 1998<br />
Rw<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a 1990 1999 <br />
São T. & Pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>c. 1994 <br />
DFID, 2003 state –<br />
Afrobarometer, 2002<br />
Senegal 2003 Afrobarometer,2002<br />
Seychelles 2000 1996 <br />
Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>e <br />
Somalia <br />
South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2002 2001 2003/4 City, 2000<br />
ISS, 2003, nati<strong>on</strong>al –<br />
Afrobarometer, 2002<br />
Sudan 1994 <br />
Swazil<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2000 2003 City, 2000 <br />
Tanzania 1997 2003 City, 1992<br />
ISS, 2003?, city –<br />
Afrobarometer, 2002<br />
Togo <br />
Tunisia 2002 2002 City, 1992 <br />
Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a 1997 2003 City, 2000 Afrobarometer,2002<br />
Zambia 2000 2001 City, 2000 Afrobarometer,2002<br />
Zimbabwe 2000 2001 City, 1996 <br />
Unreliable official statistics<br />
One might expect that crime statistics would be as available as many other social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicators.<br />
Unfortunately, this is not the case. Even when they are available, they cannot be used for<br />
comparis<strong>on</strong>s across countries. This is because def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>iti<strong>on</strong>s of crime differ between countries. In<br />
additi<strong>on</strong>, the rate at which crimes are reported to the police varies depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> a range of<br />
factors, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g access to justice <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> attitudes towards the police. Under-report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is<br />
particularly acute <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, as will be discussed below.<br />
122
There are great differences between the ways crime is def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed by local laws, even when the<br />
crime carries the same name. For example, a “burglary” may require forced entry or the tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
of property <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some areas, but <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other areas these are not required. Similarly, the term “rape”<br />
may be applied to different types of c<strong>on</strong>duct across jurisdicti<strong>on</strong>s, with some us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g other terms to<br />
describe n<strong>on</strong>-penetrative forced sex, sex with m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ors, male rape, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> spousal rape. While<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>sensus <strong>on</strong> what c<strong>on</strong>stitutes a crime is grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g through human rights awareness<br />
campaigns, develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g countries may be expected to lag beh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> modernis<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g their def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>iti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
of crime, if for no other reas<strong>on</strong> than the presence of more press<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g items <strong>on</strong> the legislative<br />
agenda.<br />
Even with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle legal system, police statistics may bear little resemblance to the real crime<br />
situati<strong>on</strong>. This is because they are generally based <strong>on</strong> crimes recorded by the police. In order for<br />
most types of crime to be recorded, a report must first be made by a member of the public, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
then the police must deem this report worthy of record<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. As will be discussed below, survey<br />
work shows that <strong>on</strong>ly a share of crimes experienced by victims are reported to the police. The<br />
rate at which the public reports crime varies tremendously between crime types, between<br />
countries, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> even between regi<strong>on</strong>s, ethnic groups, or genders with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a country. Any<br />
comparis<strong>on</strong> based <strong>on</strong> police statistics will be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>accurate to the degree of under-report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. In<br />
many countries for many crime types, less than half the offences that do occur are reported. In<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, less than a 50% overall report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g rate is the norm, with many countries show<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g much<br />
lower rates.<br />
These rates are also subject to change as the political climate shifts. For example, report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g rates<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a decreased from a third <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1992, to under a quarter (23%) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1996, to under a fifth<br />
(17%) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2000, accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to ICVS figures. It makes little sense to compare police crime figures<br />
between countries under these circumstances, particularly if data <strong>on</strong> report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g rates are from a<br />
different year than the crime figures c<strong>on</strong>cerned. It is also impossible to calculate trend data for<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> based <strong>on</strong> the recorded crime levels, because while half the countries have reported at<br />
some stage, very few give detailed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> over time. South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> is <strong>on</strong>e notable excepti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
but the peculiarities of the South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n political situati<strong>on</strong>, which <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved the enfranchisement<br />
of some 90% of the populati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the last decade, prevent str<strong>on</strong>g statements be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g made about<br />
real crime trends <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that country.<br />
There are a range of reas<strong>on</strong>s why people fail to report. People who do not trust the crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al<br />
justice system to deliver a positive outcome may decide not to report. Reas<strong>on</strong>s for this mistrust<br />
may <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude: belief that the police or courts are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>effective; belief that the police or courts are<br />
corrupt; a feel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that the system does not work <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest of members of the victim’s<br />
gender, ethnic or regi<strong>on</strong>al group; fear of “sec<strong>on</strong>dary victimisati<strong>on</strong>” by the crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice<br />
system; <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> fear that the system will not be able to protect the victims from reprisals from the<br />
crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>als <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved. Access to the justice system may also be an issue. Those who do not have<br />
access to transportati<strong>on</strong> or communicati<strong>on</strong> technology may f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g very burdensome. The<br />
same applies to those whose family or professi<strong>on</strong>al resp<strong>on</strong>sibilities do not allow for time to be<br />
taken off to participate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice process.<br />
There are a c<strong>on</strong>trast<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g number of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>centives for report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that may skew the accuracy of police<br />
statistics. For example, property <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>surance can provide a major <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>centive for the report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of<br />
vehicle thefts, burglaries, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> even robberies. In additi<strong>on</strong>, some wealthy countries can afford to<br />
provide a comprehensive suite of services for victims of crime, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g health care <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> even<br />
f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ancial compensati<strong>on</strong>, which provide str<strong>on</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>centives for report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. ICVS data show that<br />
report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g rates for develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g regi<strong>on</strong>s are much lower than those <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> developed regi<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> has some of the lowest report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g rates <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the world.<br />
Both with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> between countries, there are report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g rate differences between crime types. In<br />
most countries, for example, vehicular theft is almost universally reported, either because the<br />
compla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ant hopes to recover such a valuable piece of property, or because report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is required<br />
for an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>surance claim to be h<strong>on</strong>oured. On the other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, sexual offences <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> types of<br />
assault (such as domestic violence <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> child abuse) are almost always under-reported, although<br />
123
the extent to which this is true is dependent <strong>on</strong> cultural <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> legal approaches to these issues, as<br />
well as the capacity of the state to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sure that compla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ants will be well treated.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong>, for some types of crime a law enforcement official is almost always the pers<strong>on</strong><br />
report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. These <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude corrupti<strong>on</strong>, drug offences, prostituti<strong>on</strong>, some firearms offences, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
immigrati<strong>on</strong> offences. The levels at which these crimes are reported are dependent <strong>on</strong> police<br />
priorities. For example, levels of recorded drug offences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Colombia, a country which<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>disputably plays a large role <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al drugs trade, are low compared to a country<br />
where enforcement is prioritised, like Switzerl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Thus, these crime figures are more a<br />
reflecti<strong>on</strong> of enforcement capacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> priorities than they are of the true underly<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g situati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally, a not <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>significant <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence <strong>on</strong> police figures is the discreti<strong>on</strong>ary power of the police to<br />
decide if <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how a crime is to be recorded. The police would not serve the public <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest if<br />
they recorded every crime as the offence alleged by the compla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ant, but the way <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which an<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cident is classified is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluenced by a number of factors, such as political pressure to show low<br />
crime levels. The degree to which reported offences are recorded by the police varies from area<br />
to area.<br />
For these reas<strong>on</strong>s, police crime figures should not be used <strong>on</strong> their own to make comparis<strong>on</strong>s<br />
between countries, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> this is particularly true <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>text of develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g countries. Given the<br />
weaker <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>al capacity of the crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice systems of develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g countries to record<br />
crime, they are more likely to under-count the number of offences that occur. This will clearly<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude crimes reliant <strong>on</strong> the police for detecti<strong>on</strong>, such as drug offences. Low capacity may also<br />
dissuade victims from report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, because they cannot expect the same levels of protecti<strong>on</strong> of<br />
their rights as would be found <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> states with more resources. In additi<strong>on</strong>, members of the public<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> these areas may lack the time or the technology to report crimes. Further, given that many<br />
develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g countries share a past dom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ated by col<strong>on</strong>ial <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> authoritarian regimes, there may be<br />
historic reas<strong>on</strong>s why segments of the public may distrust the police <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some countries. F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally,<br />
the percepti<strong>on</strong> that the crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice system is corrupt, which may be l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ked to governance<br />
problems, may also underm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e trust <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the system.<br />
The benefits of victim surveys<br />
Probably the best supplement to police crime figures are victim surveys. These usually <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volve<br />
poll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a representative sample of the populati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their homes about their experiences of crime.<br />
They also probe the rate of n<strong>on</strong>-report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the reas<strong>on</strong>s beh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d it. This allows the police crime<br />
statistics to be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpreted more <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>telligently. Victim surveys also allow def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>iti<strong>on</strong>s of crime to<br />
be st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ardised, which allows <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al comparis<strong>on</strong> that would otherwise be impossible.<br />
While they are a vital supplement to police statistics, victim surveys are expensive to do<br />
properly, especially <strong>on</strong> a nati<strong>on</strong>ally representative level. For this reas<strong>on</strong>, victim surveys are<br />
rarely d<strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g countries, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> surveys c<strong>on</strong>ducted under the ICVS have usually<br />
focused <strong>on</strong> a s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle urban area, rather than attempt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to cover the whole country. S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce urban<br />
areas are typically more crime pr<strong>on</strong>e than rural areas of the country, it is difficult to generalize<br />
to the country as a whole <strong>on</strong> the basis of this <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>, but comparis<strong>on</strong>s can mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gfully be<br />
d<strong>on</strong>e between urban areas <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>ally.<br />
124
ANNEX D: DRUGS AND CRIME CONVENTIONS<br />
Country<br />
S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle<br />
C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>on</strong> Narcotic<br />
<strong>Drugs</strong>,<br />
1961ª<br />
C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>on</strong><br />
Psychotropic<br />
Substances,<br />
1971<br />
C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong><br />
aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st the Illicit<br />
Traffic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Narcotic <strong>Drugs</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Psychotropic<br />
Substances, 1988<br />
C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong><br />
aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st<br />
Corrupti<strong>on</strong><br />
C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong><br />
aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st<br />
Transnati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Organized<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Algeria * * * * *<br />
Angola<br />
Ben<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> * * * * *<br />
Botswana * * * *<br />
Burk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a Faso * * * *<br />
Burundi * * *<br />
Camero<strong>on</strong> * * *<br />
Cape Verde * * * *<br />
Central <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<br />
Republic * * * *<br />
Chad * *<br />
Comoros * * * *<br />
C<strong>on</strong>go * * *<br />
Côte d'Ivoire * * *<br />
Democratic Republic<br />
of the C<strong>on</strong>go * *<br />
Djibouti * * * * *<br />
Egypt * * * * *<br />
Equatorial Gu<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ea *<br />
Eritrea * * *<br />
Ethiopia * * *<br />
Gab<strong>on</strong> * * *<br />
Gambia * * * *<br />
Ghana * * *<br />
Gu<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ea * * * *<br />
Gu<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ea-Bissau * * *<br />
Kenya * * * * *<br />
Lesotho * * * *<br />
Liberia * *<br />
Libyan Arab Jamahiriya * * * *<br />
Madagascar * * * *<br />
125
S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle<br />
C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong><br />
C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>on</strong><br />
C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong><br />
aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st the Illicit<br />
C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong><br />
aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st<br />
C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong><br />
aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st<br />
<strong>on</strong> Narcotic Psychotropic Traffic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Corrupti<strong>on</strong> Transnati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
<strong>Drugs</strong>,<br />
1961ª<br />
Substances,<br />
1971<br />
Narcotic <strong>Drugs</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Psychotropic<br />
Organized<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Country<br />
Substances, 1988<br />
Malawi * * * *<br />
Mali * * * *<br />
Mauritania * * *<br />
Mauritius * * * * *<br />
Morocco * * * *<br />
Mozambique * * *<br />
Namibia * * * *<br />
Niger * * * *<br />
Nigeria * * * * *<br />
Rw<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a * * * *<br />
Sao Tome <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cipe * * *<br />
Senegal * * * *<br />
Seychelles * * * *<br />
Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>e * * * *<br />
Somalia * *<br />
South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> * * * * *<br />
Sudan * * * *<br />
Swazil<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> * * *<br />
Togo * * * *<br />
Tunisia * * * *<br />
Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a * * * * *<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> Republic<br />
of Tanzania * * * *<br />
Zambia * * * *<br />
Zimbabwe * * *<br />
ª States parties to the S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Narcotic <strong>Drugs</strong> of 1961 or as amended by the 1972 Protocol.<br />
126
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5 Fajnzylber, et al, op cit.<br />
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7Fajnzylber, et al., op cit ; p : 2-3.<br />
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9 Neumayer, op cit.<br />
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11 Ellis, L., <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Walsh, A. Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ology: A global perspective. Bost<strong>on</strong>: Allyn <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Bac<strong>on</strong>, 2000, pp. 107-110.<br />
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13 Ellis <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Walsh, op cit, p. 161.<br />
14 <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Populati<strong>on</strong> Divisi<strong>on</strong>, ‘ World urbanisati<strong>on</strong> propects : The 2001 revisi<strong>on</strong>’.<br />
15 Burt<strong>on</strong>, P., du Plessis, A., Leggett, T., Louw, A., Mistry, D., <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> van Vuuren, H., ‘Nati<strong>on</strong>al victims of crime survey: South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2003,’ Pretoria:<br />
Institute for Security Studies.<br />
16 Ellis <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Walsh, op cit, pp. 147-148.<br />
17 For an analysis of gangsterism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> hous<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, see Leggett, T., ‘Terugskiet (return<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g fire): Grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g up <strong>on</strong> the street corners of Manenberg, South<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. In Dowdney, L., ‘Neither war not peace: Internati<strong>on</strong>al comparis<strong>on</strong>s of children <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> youth <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> organised armed violence. Rio de Janeiro, Viva<br />
Rio, 2005.<br />
18 Leggett, T., ‘Safe shack liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al vulnerability <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> shacks <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> government hous<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.’ Midr<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>: Nedbank <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> Index<br />
Vol. 5, No. 5, 2001.<br />
19 Farrell, G. <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Clark, K., “What does the world spend <strong>on</strong> crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice?” HEUNI Paper No. 20, 2004.<br />
20 For a sceptical perspective <strong>on</strong> the efficacy of rout<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e polic<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, see the works of David Bayley.<br />
21 CTS data, 2000 or most recent year<br />
22 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Commissi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Human <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> People’s Rights ‘Mali pris<strong>on</strong>s revisited: Report of the Special Rapporteur <strong>on</strong> Pris<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> C<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
Detenti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Series IV, No 4, p 16.<br />
23 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Commissi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Human <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> People’s Rights ‘Pris<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Mozambique: Report of the Special Rapporteur <strong>on</strong> Pris<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> C<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
Detenti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Series IV, No 3, p 26.<br />
24 Leggett, T (2003) The sieve effect: South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s c<strong>on</strong>victi<strong>on</strong> rates <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> perspective. South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> Quarterly, Issue 5, p. 14.<br />
http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g>Q/No.5/3SA.pdf. The article notes that, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other crime categories, the South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice system actually<br />
performs surpris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly well <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> comparis<strong>on</strong> to well developed countries.<br />
127
25 Schärf, W. N<strong>on</strong>-State Justice Systems <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Southern <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>: How Should Governments Resp<strong>on</strong>d. Institute for Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ology, University of Cape Town:<br />
Mimeo, 2003.<br />
26 Lock, P. (1999) ‘<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, military downsiz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the growth of private security’ <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Cilliers, J. & Mas<strong>on</strong>, P. (eds) Peace, Profit or Plunder?: The<br />
Privatisati<strong>on</strong> of Security <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> War-Torn <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Societies (Pretoria, Institute for Security Studies), p. 23<br />
27 Hodess, R. <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Wolkers, M., ‘Report of the Transparency Internati<strong>on</strong>al Global Corrupti<strong>on</strong> Barometer 2004.’ Berl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>: TI, 9 December 2004.<br />
28 CIET<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al, Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a Nati<strong>on</strong>al Integrity Study 1998. New York: CIET<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al, 1998.<br />
29 CIET<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al, Service Delivery Survey: Corrupti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Police, Judiciary, Revenue <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> L<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s Services. Presidential Commissi<strong>on</strong> On<br />
Corrupti<strong>on</strong>. Government Of Tanzania /CIET<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al, Dar Es Salaam, July 1996.<br />
30 Bratt<strong>on</strong>, M., Logan, C., Cho, W., <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Bauer, P., ‘ Afrobarometer Round Two: Compendium of Comparative Results from a 15-Country Survey.<br />
Cape Town, Accra, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> East Lans<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: IDASA, CDD-Ghana, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Michigan State University., 2004.<br />
31 This is not always the case, however. In parts of Tanzania, the Sungusungu ‘community police force’ groups were officially sp<strong>on</strong>sored by the state<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>se to a wave of b<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>itry <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cattle rustl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g said to be driven by demobilised soldiers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> enabled by police corrupti<strong>on</strong>. Some of the groups<br />
were steeped <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ritual <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> magic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> targeted witches as well as thieves. Whatever their excesses, these groups seem to have popular support <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> have<br />
presently been accommodated by the official structures. See Heald, S ‘Domesticat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Leviathan: Sungusungu groups <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Tanzania.’ L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> School of<br />
Ec<strong>on</strong>omics <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> Studies Institute Crisis States Programme Work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Paper Series No.1, 2002.<br />
32 Small Arms Survey, Small Arms Survey 2004 :Rights at risk (Oxford University Press: Oxford), p 175.<br />
33 Ibid.<br />
34 Ibid, p. 179.<br />
35 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Uni<strong>on</strong> Commissi<strong>on</strong>, ‘Strategic Plan of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Uni<strong>on</strong> Commissi<strong>on</strong>.’ May 2004, p.15.<br />
36 Elbadawi, I. <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sambanis, N. ‘Why Are There So Many Civil Wars <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>? Underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Prevent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Violent C<strong>on</strong>flict.’ Journal of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<br />
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38 World Health Organizati<strong>on</strong>, World Report <strong>on</strong> Violence <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Health (WHO: Geneva), 2002.<br />
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40 Institute for Security Studies, ‘Fact File: DRC’, available at: http://www.iss.org.za/AF/profiles/drc<strong>on</strong>go/drc<strong>on</strong>go1.html<br />
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43 Op cit, p. 8.<br />
44 Kaldor, M., ‘Cosmopolitanism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> organized violence.’ Paper prepared for the C<strong>on</strong>ference <strong>on</strong> C<strong>on</strong>ceiv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Cosmopolitanism. Warwick, 27-28 April,<br />
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45 Makarenko, T., op cit.<br />
46 Klare, M, ‘Resource wars: The new l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>scape of global c<strong>on</strong>flict. New York, Henry Holt, p. 210-211.<br />
47 Collier. P. <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Hoeffler, A., ‘On the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cidence of civil war <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>.’ Journal of C<strong>on</strong>flict Resoluti<strong>on</strong>, Vol. 46, No. 1, February 2002.<br />
48 Collier, P <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Hoeffler, A., ‘Greed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> grievance <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> civil war.’ Policy research work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g paper 2355, World Bank, 2000.<br />
49 Humphries, M, ‘Natural resources, c<strong>on</strong>flict, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict resoluti<strong>on</strong>: Uncover<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the mechanisms.’, Journal of C<strong>on</strong>flict Resoluti<strong>on</strong>, August 2005<br />
(forthcom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g).<br />
50 For example, Ross, M, ‘How does natural resource wealth <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence civil war? Evidence from 13 case studies.’ Unpublished paper, July 2002.<br />
San<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, F. ‘Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al rebels: A discussi<strong>on</strong> of war <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ality from the Columbian experience.’ L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> School of Ec<strong>on</strong>omics <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> Research<br />
Centre Crisis States Programme, Work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Paper Series No. 27.<br />
51 Ross, M., ‘Natural resources <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> civil war: An overview.’ Paper submitted to the World Bank Research Observer, August, 2003.<br />
128
52 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Uni<strong>on</strong> Commissi<strong>on</strong>, ‘Strategic Plan of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Uni<strong>on</strong> Commissi<strong>on</strong>.’ May 2004, p.14.<br />
53 World Bank, ‘Post-C<strong>on</strong>flict Recovery <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>: An Agenda for the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> Regi<strong>on</strong>.’. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> Regi<strong>on</strong> Work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Paper Series No. 30, April 2002, p. 5.<br />
54 For example, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Côte d’Ivoire, <strong>on</strong>e of the leaders of the Forces Nouvelles (FN) movement allegedly organized the robbery of a bank <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Bouake, a<br />
town under FN c<strong>on</strong>trol. Similarly, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Abidjan <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2002, another bank was robbed, supposedly by a future leader of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>surrecti<strong>on</strong>. See the UNODC’s<br />
forthcom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g report <strong>on</strong> the Transnati<strong>on</strong>al organized <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Regi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
55 Ross, M., op.cit.<br />
56 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Uni<strong>on</strong> Commissi<strong>on</strong>, ‘Strategic Plan of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Uni<strong>on</strong> Commissi<strong>on</strong>.’ May 2004, p.14.<br />
57 World Bank, ‘World <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> Report 2005’, p.41.<br />
58 http://www.transparency.org/cpi/2004/cpi2004.en.html<br />
59 Collier, P., ‘Rebelli<strong>on</strong> as a quasi-crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al activity.’ Journal of C<strong>on</strong>flict Resoluti<strong>on</strong>. Vol. 44, No. 6, December 2000, p. 840.<br />
60 Collier, P <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Hoeffer, A., ‘Murder by numbers: Socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ants of homicide <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> civil war.’ Oxford Centre for the Study of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<br />
Ec<strong>on</strong>omies Work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Paper Series 2004-10.<br />
61 UNODC, ‘Transnati<strong>on</strong>al organized <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Regi<strong>on</strong>.’ Forthcom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
62 Special Court for Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>e, Indictment of Charles Ghankay Taylor, Case No. SCSL-03-1, 3 March 2003.<br />
63 UNODC, ‘Transnati<strong>on</strong>al organized <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Regi<strong>on</strong>.’ Forthcom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
64 Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the UN Panel of Experts <strong>on</strong> Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>e, “Between 1992 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1996, average annual exports were less than 200,000 carats <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the per<br />
carat value was significantly less than the country’s known run-of-m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e average.”<br />
65 Report <strong>on</strong> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Panel of Experts <strong>on</strong> Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>e, secti<strong>on</strong> 67.<br />
66 Ibid, secti<strong>on</strong> 80.<br />
67 See, for example, van Niekerk, P., ‘Mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a kill<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: The bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess of war.’ Centre for Public Integrity.<br />
68 See numerous articles <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> documents of Douglas Farah: http://www.douglasfarah.com/materials.shtml<br />
There is also earlier evidence that Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>e’s diam<strong>on</strong>ds have played an important role <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Arab politics via the country’s prom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent Lebanese<br />
expatriate community. In the 1980s, the lead<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g diam<strong>on</strong>d-dealer <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>e, Jamil Said Mohammed, who was himself half-Lebanese, developed<br />
c<strong>on</strong>siderable <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Leban<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Iran. Sierra Le<strong>on</strong>ean diam<strong>on</strong>ds were thus believed to be a significant source of f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>anc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Lebanese<br />
civil war. See the UNODC’s forthcom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g report <strong>on</strong> the Transnati<strong>on</strong>al organized <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Regi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
69 UNODC, ‘Transnati<strong>on</strong>al organized <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Regi<strong>on</strong>.’ Forthcom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
70 Ibid.<br />
71 <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Security Council Resoluti<strong>on</strong> 1295, April 18, 2000.<br />
72 Declarati<strong>on</strong> of the 18th Southern <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> Community (SADC) leaders' summit held <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Mauritius <strong>on</strong> September 14, 1998.<br />
73 Security Council S/2002/1119.<br />
74 French, H. ‘From old files, a new story of U.S. role <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Angolan war.’ New York Times, March 31, 2002 .<br />
75 Security Council “/2000/1225.<br />
76 M<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Mechanism <strong>on</strong> Sancti<strong>on</strong>s aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st UNITA, Supplementary Report, S/2001/966, 12 October, 2001.<br />
77 Dynes, M., ‘The oil flows but Angola’s people live <strong>on</strong> h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> outs.’ L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> Times, February 24, 2003.<br />
78 Jane's Sent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>el Security Assessment – Southern <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, Angola: External Affairs, 19 August 2004.<br />
79 <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2001 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2002<br />
80 INCB, Report 2003, E/INCB/2003/1, p, 39.<br />
81 Naylor, R., ‘The underworld of ivory.’ Paper available at:<br />
129
http://www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/susg/UNDERIVORY.doc<br />
82 An<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, K., ‘Regulat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g illicit trade <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> natural resources: The role of regi<strong>on</strong>al actors <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>.’ Review of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Political Ec<strong>on</strong>omy No. 95.<br />
2003, p. 100.<br />
83 Kaldor, op cit., p. 5.<br />
84 World Bank, ‘Post-C<strong>on</strong>flict Peace Build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>: The Challenges of Socio-Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Recovery <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g>.’ <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> Regi<strong>on</strong> Work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Paper Series No. 73., October 2004.<br />
85 Collier, P. & Hoeffler, A., ‘Murder by Numbers: Comparis<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Inter-Relati<strong>on</strong>ships between Homicide <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> War’, 2004, Mimeo available at<br />
http://www.csae.ox.ac.uk<br />
86 Rogers, D. ‘Dy<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for it: Gangs, violence, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social change <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> urban Nicaragua.’ L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> School of Ec<strong>on</strong>omics <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> Research Centre<br />
Crisis States Programme, Work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Paper Series.<br />
87 UN Report <strong>on</strong> the Impact of Armed C<strong>on</strong>flict <strong>on</strong> Children, 1996.<br />
88 The sem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al study <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this regard is S.L.A. Marshall’s work <strong>on</strong> WWII fir<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g rates (summarised <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> his book ‘Men Aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st Fire’), which c<strong>on</strong>cluded<br />
that <strong>on</strong>ly 15% to 20% of riflemen <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the European theatre ever fired their weap<strong>on</strong> at an enemy soldier. While c<strong>on</strong>troversial, Marshall’s work has been<br />
supported by numerous other studies apply<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a range of methodologies.<br />
89 Gray, J., ‘The end of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>nocence: Child soldiers <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al assistance.’ Master’s thesis, Victoria University of Well<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gt<strong>on</strong>, available<br />
at: http://www.dev-z<strong>on</strong>e.net/downloads/devnetabstract368.pdf, p.36.<br />
90 http://www.child-soldiers.org/childsoldiers/some-facts<br />
91 Gray, op cit., p.34.<br />
92 Sisk, T., ‘Peacemak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Civil Wars: Obstacles, Opti<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Opportunities.’ Kroc Institute Occasi<strong>on</strong>al Paper 20, March 2001<br />
93 World Bank, ‘Post-c<strong>on</strong>flict peace build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>: The challenges of socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic recovery <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> development.’ <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> Regi<strong>on</strong> Work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Paper<br />
No. 76, October 2004, p. 12.<br />
94 Human Rights Watch, ‘Youth, poverty, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> blood: The lethal legacy of West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s regi<strong>on</strong>al warriors.’ Human Rights Watch Vol. 17, No. 5 (A),<br />
March 2005.<br />
95 Human Rights Watch, ‘The Warri crisis: Fuell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g violence.’ Human Rights Watch, Vol 15, No.18(a)<br />
96 WAC Global Services ,‘Peace <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Security <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Niger Delta.’ Report dated December 2003.<br />
97 Ibid.<br />
98 UNODC, ‘Transnati<strong>on</strong>al organized crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Regi<strong>on</strong>’, forthcom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
99 Human Rights Watch, ‘Violence <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Nigeria’s oil-rich Rivers State <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2004’ Human Rights Watch Brief<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Paper, February 2005.<br />
100 Human Rights Watch, ‘The Warri crisis: Fuell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g violence.’ Human Rights Watch, Vol 15, No.18(a).<br />
101 Ibid.<br />
102 UNODC, ‘Transnati<strong>on</strong>al organized <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Regi<strong>on</strong>.’ Forthcom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
103 Shaw, M., ‘Democracy's Disorder? <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g>, Police <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Citizen Resp<strong>on</strong>ses <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Transiti<strong>on</strong>al Societies.’ Johannesburg: South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Institute of<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>al Affairs.<br />
104 Lac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a, B., <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Gleditsch, N., ‘M<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g trends <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> global combat: A new dataset of battle deaths. European Journal of Populati<strong>on</strong>, 2005.<br />
105 IRC, ‘Mortality <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Democratic Republic of the C<strong>on</strong>go: Results of a nati<strong>on</strong>wide survey.’ As quoted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Lac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Gleditsch, op cit.<br />
106 WHO, ‘Violence <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> disasters.’ WHO Fact Sheet, available at:<br />
http://www.who.<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t/violence_<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>jury_preventi<strong>on</strong>/publicati<strong>on</strong>s/violence/en/violence_disasters.pdf<br />
107 UNFAO, ‘State of the World’s Forests 2005’, p 119.<br />
130
108 Costa, A., Keynote address delivered at the Internati<strong>on</strong>al Scientific <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Advisory Council of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> Preventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al<br />
Justice Programme Internati<strong>on</strong>al C<strong>on</strong>ference <strong>on</strong> organized <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Humanitarian Disasters, Courmayeur M<strong>on</strong>t Blanc, 3-5 December 2004.<br />
109 Wölte, S., ‘Armed c<strong>on</strong>flict <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> women: A desk study.’ GTZ, Sector Project aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st Traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Women, January, 2004, as cited by<br />
Costa, op cit.<br />
110 Costa, op cit.<br />
111 UNHCR, ‘Protracted refugee situati<strong>on</strong>s.’ Paper presented to the Executive Committee of the High Commissi<strong>on</strong>er’s Programme St<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Committee, 30th Sessi<strong>on</strong>,EC/54/SC/CRP.14, 10 June 2004.<br />
112 World Bank, ‘Post c<strong>on</strong>flict recovery <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>: An Agenda for the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Regi<strong>on</strong>.’ World Bank <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> Regi<strong>on</strong> Work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Paper Series No. 30, p.7.<br />
113 Ibid, p.6.<br />
114 Jacobsen, K. ‘The forgotten soluti<strong>on</strong>: local <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong> for refugees <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g countries.’ <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> High Commissi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Refugees New<br />
Issues <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Refugee Research Work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Paper No. 45, p. 14.<br />
115 Collier, C., Elliott, L., Hegre, H., Hoeffler, H., Reynal-Querol, M., <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sambanis, N., ‘Break<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the c<strong>on</strong>flict trap: Civil war <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> development<br />
policy.’ World Bank Policy Research Report, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 2.<br />
116 Michailhof, S., Kostner, M., Devictor, X., ‘Post-c<strong>on</strong>flict recovery <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>: An agenda for the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n regi<strong>on</strong>. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> Regi<strong>on</strong> Work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Paper<br />
Series No. 30, April 2002.<br />
117 IRIN, 1 September 2003, quot<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g President Benjam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Mkapa, , Dar Es Salaam.<br />
118 Michailhof, S., Kostner, M., Devictor, X., ‘Post-c<strong>on</strong>flict recovery <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>: An agenda for the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n regi<strong>on</strong>. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> Regi<strong>on</strong> Work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Paper<br />
Series No. 30, April 2002, p.6.<br />
119 World Bank, ‘Post-c<strong>on</strong>flict peace build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>: The challenges of socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic recovery <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> development.’ <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> Regi<strong>on</strong> Work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Paper<br />
No. 76, October 2004, p. 13.<br />
120 Ibid.<br />
121 Shaw, op cit.<br />
122 Angola, the C<strong>on</strong>go <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Equatorial Gu<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ea are the <strong>on</strong>ly countries <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> which are not yet parties to any of the three <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al drug c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
treaties. Liberia is not yet a party to the 1971 C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Psychotropic Substances. The Democratic Republic of the C<strong>on</strong>go, Gab<strong>on</strong>, Liberia,<br />
Namibia <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Somalia are not yet parties to the 1988 C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> (UN C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st Illicit Traffic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Narcotic <strong>Drugs</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Psychotropic Substances,<br />
1988) INCB 2003, p. 39.<br />
123 A ‘unit equivalent’ is a typical unit of c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> for that particular drug type, equivalent to a ‘dose’.123<br />
124 Veseley, M., ‘Coca<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs target Kenya.’ <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess February 2005. pp 24-25.<br />
125 INCB, 2003: 45<br />
126 Nkowane, M, Rocha-Silva. L, Saxena, S, Mbatia, J, Ndubani, P, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Weir-Smith, G (2004) Psychoactive drug use am<strong>on</strong>g young people: f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
of a multi-centre study <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> three <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries. C<strong>on</strong>temporary Drug Problems 31: 329-356.<br />
127 Leggett, T., ‘Intravenous drug use <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>.’ In Karim, S. ‘Aids <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’. Cape Town: Cambridge University Press, 2005.<br />
128 Data from the South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Community Epidemiology Network <strong>on</strong> Drug Use (SACENDU).<br />
129 Article 3, paragraph (a) of the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Punish Traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pers<strong>on</strong>s, especially Women <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Children, which<br />
supplements the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st Transnati<strong>on</strong>al organized <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
130 UNICEF (2003) Traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Human Be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, Especially Women <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Children, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Florence: UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre<br />
131 Ibid.<br />
132 Fitzgibb<strong>on</strong>, K., ‘Modern day slavery?: The scope of traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of pers<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’ <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Security Review Vol. 12, No. 1, 2003<br />
133 ILO, 2000:<br />
134 Ibid.<br />
131
135 Fitzgibb<strong>on</strong>, op cit<br />
136 Gamba, V., <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Chachiua, M., ‘Small Arms Proliferati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Southern <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>: an Overview.’ ISS M<strong>on</strong>ograph 38, Pretoria: Institute for Security<br />
Studies.<br />
137 <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g> for the Coord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> of Humanitarian Affairs – Integrated Regi<strong>on</strong>al Informati<strong>on</strong> Networks (IRIN), 23 Sep 2003.<br />
138 Ibid.<br />
139 Gils<strong>on</strong>, D., ‘Ukra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e: Cash<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Illegal Arms’ Fr<strong>on</strong>tl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, ‘Gunrunners’ May 2002, available at:<br />
http://www.pbs.org/fr<strong>on</strong>tl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>eworld/stories/sierrale<strong>on</strong>e/c<strong>on</strong>text.html<br />
140 Misol , L., ‘Small Arms <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> C<strong>on</strong>flict <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>.’ Testim<strong>on</strong>y before the US C<strong>on</strong>gressi<strong>on</strong>al Human Rights Caucus, May 20, 2004<br />
141 All Party Parliamentary Group <strong>on</strong> the Great Lakes Regi<strong>on</strong>, ‘Arms flows <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Eastern DR C<strong>on</strong>go’. L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>: APPG, December 2004.<br />
142 Institute for Democracy <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> (IDASA), ‘The recovery <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> destructi<strong>on</strong> of firearms <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>.’ Unpublished paper, August 2003,<br />
available at: http://www.smallarmsnet.org/issues/regi<strong>on</strong>s/saarmsidasa.pdf<br />
143 Small Arms Survey, Small Arms Survey 2003 : <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> denied (Oxford University Press: Oxford), p. 160.<br />
144 Human Rights Watch, ‘The Warri crisis: Fuell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g violence.’ Human Rights Watch, Vol 15, No.18(a)<br />
145 WAC Global Services ,‘Peace <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Security <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Niger Delta.’ Report dated December 2003.<br />
146 Ibid.<br />
147 UNODC, ‘Transnati<strong>on</strong>al organized <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Regi<strong>on</strong>.’ Forthcom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
148 Born Free Foundati<strong>on</strong>, ‘Zimbabwe Loses Over 500 Elephants this Year Amid Renewed Slaughter: French Nati<strong>on</strong>als Implicated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for<br />
Ivory.’ http://www.bornfree.org.uk/elefriends/CITES.htm.<br />
149 Courouble, M., Hurst, F., Milliken, T., ‘More ivory than elephants: Domestic ivory markets <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> three West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries.’ TRAFFIC Onl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
Report Series No 8, Cambridge: TRAFFIC Internati<strong>on</strong>al, December 2003.<br />
150 Born Free Foundati<strong>on</strong>, op cit.<br />
151 Ibid.<br />
152 Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Investigati<strong>on</strong> Agency, ‘Back <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess: Elephant poach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the ivory black markets of Asia.’ 2002. http://www.eia<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al.org.<br />
153 World C<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> Uni<strong>on</strong>, ‘<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s Last Northern White Rh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>os Decimated By Poach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Crisis In Garamba World Heritage Site: 50%<br />
Slaughtered In Last 14 M<strong>on</strong>ths.’ August 6, 2004<br />
154 Gastrow, P., ‘Triad Societies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese organized <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’ Institute for Security Studies Occasi<strong>on</strong>al Paper No 48, 2001<br />
155 Marshall, L. ‘Poach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, Smuggl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Threaten Abal<strong>on</strong>e Col<strong>on</strong>ies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>.’ Nati<strong>on</strong>al Geographic News, April 3, 2002. Burgener, M., ‘South<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n abal<strong>on</strong>e: A CITES Appendix III c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate?’ TRAFFIC Bullet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Vol. 20, No. 2, 2005, pp.48-49.<br />
156 Gastrow, op cit.<br />
157 The 14 SADC member states are: Angola, Botswana, Democratic Republic of C<strong>on</strong>go, Lesotho, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia,<br />
Seychelles, South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, Swazil<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, Tanzania, Zambia, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Zimbabwe.<br />
158 J<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Xiang, S. ‘The US—F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ancial war <strong>on</strong> terrorism versus the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ancial system,’ Journal of C<strong>on</strong>temporary Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese Internati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Relati<strong>on</strong>s, Beij<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a Institute of C<strong>on</strong>temporary Internati<strong>on</strong>al Studies, July 2002, p 21, as quoted by Bagenda, P., ‘Combat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g M<strong>on</strong>ey Launder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the SADC Sub-Regi<strong>on</strong>: The Case of Tanzania’ <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Goredema, C (ed.) ‘Profil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g M<strong>on</strong>ey Launder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Eastern <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Southern <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’, ISS M<strong>on</strong>ograph<br />
Series No. 90, Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies, 2003.<br />
159 Commissi<strong>on</strong> of the European Communities, ‘Communicati<strong>on</strong> from the Commissi<strong>on</strong> to the Council, The EU<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> dialogue’, accessed via:<br />
http://europa.eu.<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t/eur-lex/en/com/cnc/2003/com2003_0316en01.pdf, as quoted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Commissi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> , ‘Our Comm<strong>on</strong> Interest: Report of the<br />
Commissi<strong>on</strong> for <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, March 2005, p. 144.<br />
160 Goredema, C., ‘M<strong>on</strong>ey launder<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Southern <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>: Incidence, magnitude <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> prospects for its c<strong>on</strong>trol.’ Institute for Security Studies<br />
Occasi<strong>on</strong>al Paper 92, October 2004.<br />
132
161 The commentary that follows is based <strong>on</strong> a forthcom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g UNODC publicati<strong>on</strong>, Transnati<strong>on</strong>al Organised <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the West <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Regi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is<br />
referenced to that document unless otherwise noted.<br />
162 Interpol News Update, 27 August 2004, page 8.<br />
163 Interpol Report <strong>on</strong> Intellectual Property Pirated Goods, May 2004, pages 35-37.<br />
164 Presentati<strong>on</strong> of the World Bank Poverty Reducti<strong>on</strong> Strategy for 30 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n countries <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> September 2002 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Dakar, Senegal.<br />
165 Levy, B. ‘Patterns of governance <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>.’ World Bank World Bank <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> Regi<strong>on</strong> Work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Paper Series No. 36, September 2002.<br />
166 CPI 2004 (http://www.icgg.org). The Corrupti<strong>on</strong> Percepti<strong>on</strong> Index, published every year by Transparency Internati<strong>on</strong>al, provides country scores<br />
based <strong>on</strong> percepti<strong>on</strong>s of corrupti<strong>on</strong> from different polls <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> surveys c<strong>on</strong>ducted by various organizati<strong>on</strong>s. This may not <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate the true extent of<br />
corrupti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
167 Sachs, JD., McArthur, JW., Schmidt-Traub, G., Kruk, M., Bahadur, C., Faye, M., & McCord, G. (2004) End<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s Poverty Trap. Mimeo<br />
available at www.unmillenniumproject.org, p. 3-4.<br />
168 <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Surveys <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> Trends <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Operati<strong>on</strong>s of Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al Justice Systems, m<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ated by the Ecosoc resoluti<strong>on</strong> 1984/48 of 25 May<br />
1984 <strong>on</strong> crime preventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al justice <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>text of development.<br />
169 These <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude Botswana, Egypt, Lesotho, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, Swazil<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, Tanzania, Tunisia, Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a, Zambia <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Zimbabwe.<br />
170 UNICRI <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> UNDP, Republic of Mozambique – Strategic Plan of the Police of the Republic of Mozambique – Results of surveys <strong>on</strong> victimisati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> police performance, April 2003.<br />
171 The data <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this chart refers to the 38 countries resp<strong>on</strong>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the CTS <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> also participat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the ICVS 2000 (five from <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, four from the<br />
Americas, four from Asia, 24 from Europe <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e from Oceania). In subsequent charts, the regi<strong>on</strong>al compositi<strong>on</strong>s for police recorded <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> survey data<br />
may vary, as some countries did not participate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> both surveys.<br />
172 Plan Limited, ‘Universal birth registrati<strong>on</strong>: A universal resp<strong>on</strong>sibility.’ Wok<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: Plan Limited., February 2005.<br />
173 Anderss<strong>on</strong>, N., Ho-Foster, A., Matthis, J., Marokoane, N., Mashiane, V., Mhatre , S., Mitchell, S., Mokoena, T., M<strong>on</strong>asta, L., Ngxowa , N.,<br />
Salcedo, M., S<strong>on</strong>nekus, H., ‘Nati<strong>on</strong>al cross secti<strong>on</strong>al study of views <strong>on</strong> sexual violence <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> risk of HIV <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fecti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> AIDS am<strong>on</strong>g South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<br />
school pupils.’ British Medical Journal, 329:952, 2004<br />
174 Leggett, T. ‘Ra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>bow tenement: <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> polic<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ner Johannesburg. Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies M<strong>on</strong>ograph No. 78.<br />
175 Data <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> comparative charts refer to 36 countries resp<strong>on</strong>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the CTS <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> also participat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the ICVS 2000 (5 from <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 4 from the<br />
Americas, 4 from Asia, 24 from Europe <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1 from Oceania).<br />
176 CTS data, 2000 or most recent available year.<br />
177 http://www1.worldbank.org/prem/poverty/scapital/<br />
178 Knack, S. <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Keefer, P., "Does Social Capital Have an Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Payoff? A Cross-Country Investigati<strong>on</strong>" Quarterly Journal of Ec<strong>on</strong>omics, 1997,<br />
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179 Moser, C. <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Holl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, J., ‘Urban Poverty <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Violence <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Jamaica.’ Lat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> American <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Caribbean Studies Series. Wash<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gt<strong>on</strong>, D.C.: World<br />
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180 Davis, K <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Tebilcock, M. ‘What role do legal <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>s play <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> development’ Draft prepared for the Internati<strong>on</strong>al M<strong>on</strong>etary Fund’s C<strong>on</strong>ference<br />
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181 Ibid.<br />
182 Waters, H., Rajkotia, Y., Basu, S., Rehw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>kel, J., Butchart, A., ‘The ec<strong>on</strong>omic dimensi<strong>on</strong>s of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpers<strong>on</strong>al violence.’ Geneva: Department of<br />
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183 WHO, 2004, op cit. p. 6.<br />
184 WHO, 2004, op cit. p. 14.<br />
133
185 Internati<strong>on</strong>al Labour Organizati<strong>on</strong>, ‘Insecurities compound poverty.’, op cit<br />
186 Small Arms Survey 2003, op cit, p. 132<br />
187 Violence <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Injury Surveillance System (2000) Rapid assessment of trauma facilities at state hospitals <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
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188 Pers<strong>on</strong>al communicati<strong>on</strong>, Brett Bowman, University of South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
189 http://www.sahealth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fo.org.za/violence/nimssannual2002.htm<br />
190http://www.sahealth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fo.org.za/violence/gfjpilotstudy.pdf;<br />
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206 UNECA, Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Report <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2000, p. 28.<br />
207 Internati<strong>on</strong>al Organisati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Migrati<strong>on</strong>, World Migrati<strong>on</strong> 2003, p. 218.<br />
208 EIU Country Reports: Albania., February 2005.<br />
209IOM op cit . 232-236.<br />
210 Lancet, ‘Medical migrati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>equity of health care’. Lancet Vol. 356, 2000.<br />
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212 Southern <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Migrati<strong>on</strong> Project (2001) Count<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Bra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s: Measur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Emigrati<strong>on</strong> from South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Migrati<strong>on</strong> Policy Brief No 5.<br />
213 Internati<strong>on</strong>al Organisati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Migrati<strong>on</strong>, World Migrati<strong>on</strong> 2003<br />
134
214 We<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er, R., Mitchell, G., Price, M., ‘Wits medical graduates: Where are they now? South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Journal of Science 1998, Vol. 94, pp 59-63.<br />
215 F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ancial Times, ‘South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> Industry: Banks fear effects of bra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> dra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>.’ 18 July 2001<br />
216 Kaplan, D. Meyer, J, Brown, M., ‘Brian dra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>: New data, new opti<strong>on</strong>s.’ Trade <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Industry M<strong>on</strong>itor, Vol. 11, September 1999.<br />
217 Southern <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Migrati<strong>on</strong> Project, ‘Th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g about the bra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> dra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Southern <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>.’ Migrati<strong>on</strong> Policy Brief No. 8.<br />
218 F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ancial Times, ‘<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ec<strong>on</strong>omy: Bra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Dra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ‘hits growth’’, 2 August, 2001.<br />
219 Pang et al op cit.<br />
220 EIU Viewswire, ‘Swazil<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ec<strong>on</strong>omy: C<strong>on</strong>cern over skills shortage. Country Brief<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, 26 September, 2002.<br />
221 Pang et al op cit.<br />
222 Hatt<strong>on</strong>, T. <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Williams<strong>on</strong>, J., ‘Demographic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ec<strong>on</strong>omic pressure <strong>on</strong> emigrati<strong>on</strong> out of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>.’ Paper presented at the c<strong>on</strong>ference ‘Populati<strong>on</strong><br />
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223 Internati<strong>on</strong>al Organisati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Migrati<strong>on</strong>, World Migrati<strong>on</strong> 2003.<br />
224 F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ancial Times, ‘South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ec<strong>on</strong>omy: Shortage of skills will curb growth.’ 5 November 2001.<br />
225 Daily Dispatch, ‘Bra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> dra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> worsen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: Survey’ Tuesday, March 17, 1998.<br />
226 Bhattacharya, A., M<strong>on</strong>tiel, P., <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sharma, S., ‘How can Sub-Saharan <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> attract more private capital <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>flows?’ F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g>, Vol.<br />
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227 World Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Forum Knowledge Navigator, ‘FDI: Why not <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>?’ 4 June 2004.<br />
228 Collier, P., Hoeffler, A., <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pattillo, C., ‘Flight capital as a portfolio choice.’ World Bank Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Review, Vol. 15, No. 1, (2001) p. 59.<br />
229 Ibid, p. 60.<br />
230 Collier, P et al. op cit.<br />
231 Ibid, p. 76.<br />
232 Bhattacharya, op cit.<br />
233 The World Bank rates countries <strong>on</strong> six governance <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicators: voice <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> accountability, political stability, government effectiveness, regulatory<br />
quality, rule of law, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trol of corrupti<strong>on</strong>. See Kaufmann, D., Kraay, A. & Mastruzzi, M. (2004) Governance Matters III: Governance Indicators<br />
for 1996-2002 (World Bank: Wash<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gt<strong>on</strong> DC.)<br />
234 Kaufmann, op cit.<br />
235 UNECA, ‘Obstacles to <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s development’ Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Report <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2000.<br />
236 <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> States Diplomatic Missi<strong>on</strong> to Nigeria, Speech of Ambassador John Campbell to the Lagos Chamber of Commerce, presented December 1,<br />
2004.<br />
237 Ec<strong>on</strong>omist Intelligence Unit (2005) Riskwire: 1 February 2005. http://riskwire.eiu.com/<br />
238 Ibid.<br />
239 Ec<strong>on</strong>omist Intelligence Unit (2005) Country brief<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
240 UNECA, ‘Obstacles to <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s development’ Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Report <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2000, p.26.<br />
241 World Bank, ‘World <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> Report 2005’, p. 90.<br />
242 De Waard, J ‘The Private Security Industry <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Internati<strong>on</strong>al Perspective’ European Journal <strong>on</strong> Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al Policy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Research, Vol. 7, No. 2, 1999<br />
243 Kruger, F (2004) South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>’s grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g private army. BBC News.<br />
244 World Bank, Can <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> Claim the 21st Century?, op cit.<br />
245 World Bank, ‘Zambia: An Assessment of the Investment Climate.’ Report No. 29741 ZM. May 2004.<br />
135
246 World Bank, World <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> Report: Do<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2005 . Wash<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gt<strong>on</strong> DC : World Bank, p.89.<br />
247 Brunetti, A., Kisunko, G.,Weder, B., ‘Instituti<strong>on</strong>al obstacles to do<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess: Regi<strong>on</strong> by regi<strong>on</strong> results from a worldwide survey of the private<br />
sector. Policy Research Work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Paper No. 1759. Wash<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gt<strong>on</strong>, DC: World Bank.<br />
248 UNODC Bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess Survey <strong>on</strong> Corrupti<strong>on</strong> Research Report, unpublished report, 24 June 2002.<br />
249 UNDP, ‘Corrupti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Good Governance.’ New York :UNDP.<br />
250 http://www1.worldbank.org/publicsector/anticorrupt/<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dex.cfm<br />
251 Brunetti, A., Kisunko, G.,Weder, B., ‘Instituti<strong>on</strong>al obstacles to do<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess: Regi<strong>on</strong> by regi<strong>on</strong> results from a worldwide survey of the private<br />
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252 Mauro, P., ‘The persistence of corrupti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> slow ec<strong>on</strong>omic growth.’ IMF Staff Papers, Vol. 51, No. 1, 2004.<br />
253 Internati<strong>on</strong>al M<strong>on</strong>etary Fund, “Kenya: Poverty Reducti<strong>on</strong> Strategy Paper.” IMF Country Report No. 05/11. Wash<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gt<strong>on</strong>, D.C.: IMF<br />
254 World Bank, ‘Corrupti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> development.’ PREM Notes No.4, May 1998.<br />
255 Ibid.<br />
256 World Bank, ‘World <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> Report 2005’, p.39.<br />
257 UNODC, ‘Assessment of Justice System Integrity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Capacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> three Nigerian States.’ Unpublished report, May 2004.<br />
258 World Bank, Can <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> Claim the 21st Century? op cit.<br />
259 World Bank, ‘World <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> Report 2005’, op cit.<br />
260 UNODC Bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess Survey <strong>on</strong> Corrupti<strong>on</strong> Research Report, unpublished report, 24 June 2002.<br />
261 World Bank, ‘World <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> Report 2005’, op cit<br />
262 Svenss<strong>on</strong>, J., ‘The cost of do<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess: Firms’ experience with corrupti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a.’ World Bank, June 2000.<br />
263 UNODC Bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess Survey <strong>on</strong> Corrupti<strong>on</strong> Research Report, unpublished report, 24 June 2002.<br />
264 PriceWaterhouseCoopers, ‘Count<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the cost: An ec<strong>on</strong>omic crime survey <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Zambia, Tanzania, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kenya,’<br />
265 World Travel <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Tourism Council. ‘Regi<strong>on</strong>al report: Sun-Saharan <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>.’ Available at: http://www.wttc.org/2004tsa/frameset2a.htm<br />
266 World Market Analysis Research Centre, ‘Unlock<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the tourism potential <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>.’ 2002. Available at:<br />
http://www.worldmarketsanalysis.com/InFocus2002/articles/africa_tourism.html<br />
267 World Travel <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Tourism Council, ‘Sub-Saharan <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>: Travel <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tourism forg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ahead’. L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>, WTTC, 2004.<br />
268 As quoted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Christie, I <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Crompt<strong>on</strong>, D. ‘Tourism <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>.’ World Bank <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> Regi<strong>on</strong> Work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Paper Series No 12, 2000.<br />
269 Ibid.<br />
270 http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/24/25/32430158.pdf<br />
271 Rogers<strong>on</strong>, C., ‘Tourism sector analysis.’ Unpublished paper prepared for the Presidency of South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
272 Vieta, F. ‘Ecotourism propels development’ <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> Recovery On-L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e: A <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Publicati<strong>on</strong>. Vol. 13. No. 1.<br />
273 See the NEPAD source document, page 51.<br />
274 Schiebler, S., Crotts, J. <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Holl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ger, R. ‘Florida tourists vulnerability to crime.’ In Pizam, A., <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Mansfeld, Y. (eds) Tourism, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Security Issues. New York: Wiley, 1996<br />
275 Ferreira, S. amd Harmse, A., ‘<str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tourism <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>: Internati<strong>on</strong>al tourist percepti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> risk.’ South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Geographic Journal Vol.<br />
82, No, 2. 2000, p. 80-85.<br />
276 As quoted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Cape Times 7 May 1997, page 5.<br />
277 World Markets Research Centre, 2002, op cit.<br />
136
278 Ec<strong>on</strong>omist Intelligence Unit, ‘Camero<strong>on</strong>: Tourism’ 28 October, 2004.<br />
279 http://allafrica.com/stories/200501101273.html<br />
280 Gottshalk, K., Vigilantism versus the state: A case study of the rise <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> fall of Pagad, 1996-2000. Institute for Security Studies Occasi<strong>on</strong>al Paper<br />
99, February 2005.<br />
281 Ibid.<br />
282 Human Rights Watch, ‘The Bakassi Boys: The legitimizati<strong>on</strong> of murder <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> torture.’ Human Rights Watch Vol. 14, No. 5 (A), May 2002.<br />
283 Heald, S ‘Domesticat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Leviathan: Sungusungu groups <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Tanzania.’ L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> School of Ec<strong>on</strong>omics <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> Studies Institute Crisis States<br />
Programme Work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Paper Series No.1, 2002.<br />
284 President Thabo Mbeki address<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the Sec<strong>on</strong>d Nati<strong>on</strong>al Anti-Corrupti<strong>on</strong> Forum, 22 March 2005.<br />
285 Transparency Internati<strong>on</strong>al Kenya, ‘The Kenya Urban Bribery Index’ Nairobi, Transparency Internati<strong>on</strong>al, 2001.<br />
286 Tumwesigye, J., ‘Measur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g corrupti<strong>on</strong> at the village level’ Forum <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Crime</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Society. Vol. 2, No. 1, p 126. CIET<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al, Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a<br />
Nati<strong>on</strong>al Integrity Study 1998. New York: CIET<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al, 1998.<br />
287 Centre for Democracy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ghana, ‘Ghana Governance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Corrupti<strong>on</strong> Survey: Evidence from Households, Enterprises, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Public<br />
Officials.’ Wash<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gt<strong>on</strong>: World Bank, 2000.<br />
288 World Bank, ‘Cambodia, Governance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Corrupti<strong>on</strong> Diagnostic: Evidence from Citizen, Enterprise <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Public Officials Survey.’ Wash<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gt<strong>on</strong>,<br />
DC: World Bank, 2000.<br />
289 World Bank, ‘World <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> Report 2005’, p.41.<br />
290 Coolidge, J. <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rose-Ackerman, S. ‘High-level Rent Seek<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Corrupti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n Regimes.’ World Bank Research Policy Work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Paper<br />
1780 (June 1997).<br />
291 Nestman, T. <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Weder, B. ‘The effectiveness of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al aid <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> debt relief: A selective review of the literature.’ Paper prepared for the Fifth<br />
Limburg Sem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ar <strong>on</strong> F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>anc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g>, January 2002.<br />
292 Ibid.<br />
293 World Bank, ‘Assess<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Aid: What works, what doesn’t, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> why. Wash<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gt<strong>on</strong>, D.C., World Bank, 1998.<br />
294 Ibid.<br />
295 Ales<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a, A <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Weder, B., ‘Do corrupt governments receive less foreign aid?’ American Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Review, Vol 92, No. 4, September 2002, pp.<br />
1126-1136.<br />
296 Svenss<strong>on</strong>, J., ‘Foreign Aid <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rent-Seek<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.’ Journal of Internati<strong>on</strong>al Ec<strong>on</strong>omics Vol. 51 No. 2, pp. 461, 2000.<br />
297 http://www.transparency.org/cpi/2004/cpi2004.en.html<br />
298 UNODC Bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess Survey <strong>on</strong> Corrupti<strong>on</strong> Research Report, unpublished report, 24 June 2002.<br />
299 Transparency Internati<strong>on</strong>al Maroc, ‘Enquête Nati<strong>on</strong>ale d'Integrité 2001.’ Berl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>: Transparency Internati<strong>on</strong>al, 2001.<br />
300 World Bank, ‘Zambia: An Assessment of the Investment Climate.’ Op cit.<br />
301 Grupta, S.;Davoodi, H.;Al<strong>on</strong>so-Terme, R., Does Corrupti<strong>on</strong> Affect Income Inequality <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Poverty? Wah<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gt<strong>on</strong> D.C., Internati<strong>on</strong>al M<strong>on</strong>etary Fund.<br />
302 IMF, ‘Kenya: Poverty Reducti<strong>on</strong> Strategy Paper.’ IMF Country Report 05/11, January 2005.<br />
303 Coolidge, J. <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ackerman, S. High level rent seek<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> corrupti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n regimes: Theory <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cases. World Bank Policy Research<br />
Work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Paper 1780.<br />
304 For example, “illegal accounts bel<strong>on</strong>g<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to (former Nigerian President) Abacha's friends <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> families were unearthed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> frozen <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Switzerl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
($750 milli<strong>on</strong>), Liechtenste<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ($100 milli<strong>on</strong>), Luxembourg ($630 milli<strong>on</strong>) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> additi<strong>on</strong> to the $1 Billi<strong>on</strong> voluntarily h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed over by Abacha's family <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
associates. Investigators still believe that there are vast amounts of m<strong>on</strong>ey to be unearthed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> accounts held <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the UK, US, The Channel Isl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, British<br />
Virg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Isl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, France <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Germany am<strong>on</strong>gst others.” http://www.clickafrique.com/0700rpt/politics1707.asp<br />
137
305 For am extensive discussi<strong>on</strong> of “pers<strong>on</strong>alised” politics <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, see Chabal, P. <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Daloz, J. ‘<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> Works: Disorder as a political <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>strument.’<br />
Oxford: James Currey.<br />
306 Rose-Ackerman, S., ‘The challenge of pro-poor governance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> corrupti<strong>on</strong>’ Paper prepared for the Copenhagen C<strong>on</strong>sensus 2004 c<strong>on</strong>ference, 30<br />
April 2004..<br />
307 Gupta, S., Davoodi, H., & Al<strong>on</strong>so-Terme, R. (1998) ‘Does corrupti<strong>on</strong> affect <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>come <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>equality <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> poverty?’ Work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Paper of the Internati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
M<strong>on</strong>etary Fund, p. 26 available at www.imf.org<br />
308 Fajnzylber, P., Lederman, D, & Loayza, N. (2001) ‘Inequality <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> violent crime’ <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> The Journal of Law <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ec<strong>on</strong>omics <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> available at<br />
www.worldbank.org, p. 18.<br />
309 This is true, at least, for asset <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>equality. See Lopez, J., ‘Pro-poor growth: a review of what we know (<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> of what we d<strong>on</strong>'t)’ The World Bank<br />
(PRMPR), September, 2004.<br />
310 UNDP, ‘Corrupti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Good Governance.’ UNDP: New York.<br />
311 Schneider, F., The Size of the Shadow Ec<strong>on</strong>omies of 145 Countries all over the World: First Results over the Period 1999 to 2003. IZA Discussi<strong>on</strong><br />
Paper 1431, December 2004.<br />
312 Johns<strong>on</strong>, S., Kaufmann, D., McMillan, J., <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Woodruff, C., ‘Why do firms hide? Bribes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> unofficial activity after communism.’ Paper dated<br />
June 22, 1999.<br />
313 Rose-Ackerman, S., ‘The challenge of pro-poor governance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> corrupti<strong>on</strong>’ Paper prepared for the Copenhagen C<strong>on</strong>sensus 2004 c<strong>on</strong>ference, 30<br />
April 2004.<br />
314 <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Secretary General Kofi Annan <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> his statement <strong>on</strong> the adopti<strong>on</strong> by the General Assembly of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st<br />
Corrupti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
315 Murder, the s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle most accurate police recorded crime statistic, has clearly been <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> decl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e: from 68 murders per 100,000 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1995/5 to 43 murders<br />
per 100,000 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2003/4. Given that murder is simply an extreme form of assault, this trend is likely to reflect overall violent crime levels. Vehicular theft,<br />
another highly reported crime, has also decl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed from a peak of over 107,000 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cidents <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1998/9 to just over 88,000 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2003/4. While some other<br />
trends are less dramatic, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> at least <strong>on</strong>e crime (robbery) c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ues to climb, it is impossible to tell whether this is due to trends <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> real <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cidence or<br />
trends <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. The South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n government has made great efforts to repair the relati<strong>on</strong>ship between the police <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the public, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> if they have<br />
been successful, an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the rate of report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g would be expected. In other words, it is impossible to tell whether more people or be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g robbed or<br />
whether more people are report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the robberies they experience to the police. Furthermore, Nati<strong>on</strong>al Victim Surveys c<strong>on</strong>ducted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1998 (by the<br />
nati<strong>on</strong>al government) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2003 (by the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent Institute for Security Studies) also <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate that crime levels have stabilised. There is still a l<strong>on</strong>g<br />
way to go before crime rates are brought down to acceptable levels, but the trends are positive <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the right <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>frastructure is com<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to place.<br />
316 Commissi<strong>on</strong> for <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> ‘Our comm<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest: Report of the Commissi<strong>on</strong> for <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>.’ March 2005, p. 155.<br />
317 Sen, A. ‘<str<strong>on</strong>g>Development</str<strong>on</strong>g> as Freedom.’ Garden City: Anchor, 2000.<br />
318 These <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude Botswana, Egypt, Lesotho, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, Swazil<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, Tanzania, Tunisia, Ug<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a, Zambia <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Zimbabwe.<br />
319 These cities were usually the capitals, although <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the case of South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, the survey was run <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Johannesburg, not Pretoria, the capital.<br />
320 The Institute for Security Studies is a n<strong>on</strong>-profit th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k-yank dedicated to <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n security issues. Based <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pretoria, South <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, the ISS ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<br />
programmes <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>n security m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, arms management, peacekeep<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, defence transformati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> crime <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> justice issues. See their website<br />
at http://www.iss.org.<br />
321 UN Habitat – Safer Cities Programme, documentati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Internet at http://www.unhabitat.org/programmes/safercities/<br />
322 Afrobarometer round 2: Compendium of comparative results from a15-country survey. Work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g paper No. 34, March 2004. Available <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternet<br />
at http://www.afrobarometer.org/abseries.html<br />
138