European Resuscitation Council Guidelines for Resuscitation 2010 ...

1374 D. Biarent et al. / Resuscitation 81 (2010) 1364–1388
ficult to establish during resuscitation of an infant or child. In
critically ill children, whenever venous access is not readily attainable
intraosseous access should be considered early, especially
if the child is in cardiac arrest or decompensated circulatory
failure. 155–157 In any case, in critically ill children, if attempts at
establishing intravenous (IV) access are unsuccessful after 1 min,
insert an intraosseous (IO) needle instead. 155,158
Intraosseous access
Intraosseous access is a rapid, safe, and effective route to give
drugs, fluids and blood products. 159–168 The onset of action and
time to achieve adequate plasma drug concentrations are similar
to that achieved via the central venous route. 169,170 Bone
marrow samples can be used to cross match for blood type or
group 171 for chemical analysis 172,173 and for blood gas measurement
(the values are comparable to central venous blood gases if
no drug has been injected in the cavity). 172,174–176 However samples
can damage autoanalysers and should be used preferably in
cartridge analyser. Flush each drug with a bolus of normal saline
to ensure dispersal beyond the marrow cavity, and to achieve
faster distribution to the central circulation. Inject large boluses
of fluid using manual pressure. Intraosseous access can be maintained
until definitive IV access has been established. The benefits
of semi-automated IO devices remain to be seen but preliminary
experiences show them to be rapid and effective for obtaining circulatory
access. 167,168,177,178
Intravenous access
Peripheral IV access provides plasma concentrations of
drugs and clinical responses equivalent to central or IO
access. 156,157,179–181 Central venous lines provide more secure
long-term access but, compared with IO or peripheral IV access,
offer no advantages during resuscitation. 156,179–181
Tracheal tube access
Intraosseous or IV access should be definitely preferred to the
tracheal route for giving drugs. 182 Drugs given via the trachea have
highly variable absorption but, for guidance, the following dosages
have been recommended:
Adrenaline
100 gkg −1
Lidocaine
2–3 mg kg −1
Atropine
30 gkg −1
The optimal dose of naloxone is not known.
Dilute the drug in 5 ml of normal saline and follow administration
with five ventilations. 183–185 Do not give non-lipid soluble
medications (e.g., glucose, bicarbonate, calcium) via the tracheal
tube because they will damage the airway mucosa.
Fluids and drugs
Volume expansion is indicated when a child shows signs of
circulatory failure in the absence of volume overload. 186 Isotonic
crystalloids are recommended as the initial resuscitation fluid for
infants and children with any type of circulatory failure.
If systemic perfusion is inadequate, give a bolus of 20 ml kg −1 of
an isotonic crystalloid even if the systemic blood pressure is normal.
Following every bolus, re-assess the child’s clinical state, using ABC,
to decide whether a further bolus or other treatment is required.
There are insufficient data to make recommendations about the
use of hypertonic saline for circulatory failure associated with head
injuries or hypovolaemia. 187,188
There are also insufficient data to recommend delayed
fluid resuscitation in the hypotensive child with blunt
trauma. 189 Avoid dextrose containing solutions unless there
is hypoglycaemia. 190–193 Monitor glucose levels and avoid hypoglycaemia;
infants and small children are particularly prone to
hypoglycaemia.
Adenosine
Adenosine is an endogenous nucleotide that causes a brief atrioventricular
(AV) block and impairs accessory bundle re-entry at
the level of the AV node. Adenosine is recommended for the treatment
of supraventricular tachycardia (SVT). 194 It is safe because
it has a short half-life (10 s); give it intravenously via upper limb
or central veins to minimise the time taken to reach the heart.
Give adenosine rapidly, followed by a flush of 3–5 ml of normal
saline. 195 Adenosine must be used with caution in asthmatics, second
or third degree AV block, long QT syndromes and in cardiac
transplant recipients.
Adrenaline (epinephrine)
Adrenaline is an endogenous catecholamine with potent , 1
and 2 adrenergic actions. It is placed prominently in the cardiac
arrest treatment algorithms for non-shockable and shockable
rhythms. Adrenaline induces vasoconstriction, increases diastolic
pressure and thereby improves coronary artery perfusion pressure,
enhances myocardial contractility, stimulates spontaneous
contractions, and increases the amplitude and frequency of VF, so
increasing the likelihood of successful defibrillation.
The recommended IV/IO dose of adrenaline in children for
the first and for subsequent doses is 10 gkg −1 . The maximum
single dose is 1 mg. If needed, give further doses of
adrenaline every 3–5 min. Intratracheal adrenaline is no longer
recommended, 196–199 but if this route is ever used, the dose is ten
times this (100 gkg −1 ).
The use of higher doses of adrenaline via the IV or IO route
is not recommended routinely as it does not improve survival or
neurological outcome after cardiopulmonary arrest. 200–203
Once spontaneous circulation is restored, a continuous infusion
of adrenaline may be required. Its haemodynamic effects are
dose related; there is also considerable variability in response
between children; therefore, titrate the infusion dose to the
desired effect. High infusion rates may cause excessive vasoconstriction,
compromising extremity, mesenteric, and renal blood
flow. High-dose adrenaline can cause severe hypertension and
tachyarrhythmias. 204
To avoid tissue damage it is essential to give adrenaline through
a secure intravascular line (IV or IO). Adrenaline (and other catecholamines)
is inactivated by alkaline solutions and should never
be mixed with sodium bicarbonate. 205
Amiodarone
Amiodarone is a non-competitive inhibitor of adrenergic receptors:
it depresses conduction in myocardial tissue and therefore
slows AV conduction, and prolongs the QT interval and the
refractory period. Except when given for the treatment of refractory
VF/pulseless VT, amiodarone must be injected slowly (over
10–20 min) with systemic blood pressure and ECG monitoring to
avoid causing hypotension. This side effect is less common with the
aqueous solution. 206 Other rare but significant adverse effects are
bradycardia and polymorphic VT. 207
Atropine
Atropine accelerates sinus and atrial pacemakers by blocking
the parasympathetic response. It may also increase AV conduction.
Small doses (< 100 g) may cause paradoxical bradycardia. 208 In