An Introduction to Human Trafficking - United Nations Office on ...
An Introduction to Human Trafficking - United Nations Office on ... An Introduction to Human Trafficking - United Nations Office on ...
- Page 3 and 4: UNITED NATIONS OFFICE ON DRUGS AND
- Page 5: Acknowledgements This document was
- Page 8 and 9: V. Practical implications for a vul
- Page 11 and 12: Introduction The G
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- Page 15: the victims of the crime, as well a
- Page 18 and 19: AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN TRAFFICKIN
- Page 20 and 21: AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN TRAFFICKIN
- Page 22 and 23: AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN TRAFFICKIN
- Page 24 and 25: AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN TRAFFICKIN
- Page 26 and 27: INTRODUCTION À LA TRAITE DES ÊTRE
- Page 28 and 29: INTRODUCTION À LA TRAITE DES ÊTRE
- Page 30 and 31: INTRODUCTION À LA TRAITE DES ÊTRE
- Page 32 and 33: INTRODUCTION À LA TRAITE DES ÊTRE
- Page 34 and 35: INTRODUCCIÓN A LA TRATA DE PERSONA
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<str<strong>on</strong>g>An</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Introducti<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g>:<br />
Vulnerability, Impact and Acti<strong>on</strong><br />
BACKGROUND PAPER
UNITED NATIONS OFFICE ON DRUGS AND CRIME<br />
Vienna<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>An</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Introducti<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g>:<br />
Vulnerability, Impact and Acti<strong>on</strong><br />
UNITED NATIONS<br />
New York, 2008
The designati<strong>on</strong>s employed and the presentati<strong>on</strong> of material in this publicati<strong>on</strong> do<br />
not imply the expressi<strong>on</strong> of any opini<strong>on</strong> whatsoever <strong>on</strong> the part of the Secretariat<br />
of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>cerning the legal status of any country, terri<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ry, city or<br />
area or of its authorities, or c<strong>on</strong>cerning the delimitati<strong>on</strong> of its fr<strong>on</strong>tiers or<br />
boundaries.
Acknowledgements<br />
This document was prepared by the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Drugs and Crime<br />
(UNODC). The effort was led by Kristiina Kangaspunta of the UNODC <str<strong>on</strong>g>An</str<strong>on</strong>g>ti-<str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> Unit, with the key papers researched and drafted by Michèle Clark, Judith<br />
Dix<strong>on</strong> and Mike Dottridge. Valuable c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>s were also made by Martin Fowke,<br />
Silke Albert, Riikka Put<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>nen, Troels Vester, J<strong>on</strong>athan Eischen and Kerstin Uebel. The<br />
report was prepared under the overall leadership and supervisi<strong>on</strong> of Doris Buddenberg.<br />
For further informati<strong>on</strong> regarding the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Global Initiative <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> Fight <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> (UN.GIFT), please go <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> its website at www.ungift.org.<br />
The UNODC <str<strong>on</strong>g>An</str<strong>on</strong>g>ti-<str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> Unit can be c<strong>on</strong>tacted at ahtu@unodc.org, teleph<strong>on</strong>e<br />
(+43-1) 26060-5687. For further informati<strong>on</strong> regarding UNODC’s work <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> combat<br />
trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s and the Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> Prevent, Suppress and Punish <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in<br />
Pers<strong>on</strong>s, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong><br />
against Transnati<strong>on</strong>al Organized Crime, please go <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> www.unodc.org.<br />
iii
CONTENTS<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Introducti<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1<br />
Summaries of the papers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7<br />
1. Vulnerability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7<br />
2. Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8<br />
3. Acti<strong>on</strong> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11<br />
Summaries of the papers (French) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15<br />
1. Vulnerability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15<br />
2. Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17<br />
3. Acti<strong>on</strong> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19<br />
Summaries of the papers (Spanish) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23<br />
1. Vulnerability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23<br />
2. Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25<br />
3. Acti<strong>on</strong> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27<br />
Summaries of the papers (Chinese) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33<br />
1. Vulnerability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33<br />
2. Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34<br />
3. Acti<strong>on</strong> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36<br />
Summaries of the papers (Russian) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39<br />
1. Vulnerability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39<br />
2. Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41<br />
3. Acti<strong>on</strong> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44<br />
Summaries of the papers (Arabic) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56<br />
1. Vulnerability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56<br />
2. Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55<br />
3. Acti<strong>on</strong> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52<br />
PART ONE. VULNERABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59<br />
Vulnerability, preventi<strong>on</strong>s and human trafficking: the need for a new paradigm<br />
I. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Introducti<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59<br />
II. The current framework for preventi<strong>on</strong> of trafficking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62<br />
III. The purpose of a discussi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> vulnerability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67<br />
IV. Vulnerability: a definiti<strong>on</strong> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68<br />
A. Vulnerability and human trafficking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68<br />
B. C<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s of vulnerability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71<br />
Page<br />
v
V. Practical implicati<strong>on</strong>s for a vulnerability-based programme for the<br />
preventi<strong>on</strong> of trafficking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76<br />
VI. C<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78<br />
PART TWO. IMPACT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79<br />
The impact of trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81<br />
I. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Introducti<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81<br />
II. The c<strong>on</strong>sequences of trafficking up<strong>on</strong> individuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82<br />
A. The physical impact of trafficking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82<br />
B. HIV/AIDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83<br />
C. Mental health impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84<br />
D. Child victims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84<br />
E. Substance abuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85<br />
F. Impact <strong>on</strong> behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85<br />
G. Stigma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86<br />
H. Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87<br />
III. The political implicati<strong>on</strong>s of trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88<br />
A. Shaping migrati<strong>on</strong> policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88<br />
B. Border c<strong>on</strong>trol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89<br />
C. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89<br />
D. Regular migrati<strong>on</strong>: countries of destinati<strong>on</strong> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90<br />
E. Regular migrati<strong>on</strong>: source countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91<br />
F. Management of the status of trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92<br />
IV. The ec<strong>on</strong>omic impact of trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93<br />
A. The costs of trafficking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93<br />
B. Lost resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94<br />
C. Remittances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94<br />
D. The profits of organized crime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96<br />
V. The impact <strong>on</strong> the rule of law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98<br />
VI. Post-c<strong>on</strong>flict situati<strong>on</strong>s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98<br />
VII. Global security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99<br />
VIII. C<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100<br />
PART THREE. ACTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101<br />
Resp<strong>on</strong>ses <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s: internati<strong>on</strong>al norms translated in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> acti<strong>on</strong><br />
at the nati<strong>on</strong>al and regi<strong>on</strong>al levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103<br />
I. Translating internati<strong>on</strong>al instruments in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> acti<strong>on</strong> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103<br />
A. Legislati<strong>on</strong> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103<br />
B. Instituti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> combat trafficking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105<br />
C. Learning what works: good practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105<br />
vi
II. Working <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>gether . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106<br />
A. At the nati<strong>on</strong>al level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106<br />
B. At the bilateral level between two States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106<br />
C. At the regi<strong>on</strong>al level, involving several States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107<br />
D. At the internati<strong>on</strong>al level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108<br />
III. Prosecuti<strong>on</strong> and law enforcement activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110<br />
A. Identifying trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111<br />
B. Intercepti<strong>on</strong>s at fr<strong>on</strong>tiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111<br />
C. Increasing the effectiveness of prosecuti<strong>on</strong>s by using<br />
victim-friendly techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112<br />
D. Mutual legal assistance <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> facilitate prosecuti<strong>on</strong>s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113<br />
IV. Preventi<strong>on</strong> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114<br />
A. Preventi<strong>on</strong> in areas of origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114<br />
B. Intercepti<strong>on</strong>s of those in transit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116<br />
C. Preventi<strong>on</strong> in areas where trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s are exploited . . . . . . . . 117<br />
V. Protecti<strong>on</strong> and assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120<br />
A. Internati<strong>on</strong>al standards <strong>on</strong> protecti<strong>on</strong> and assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120<br />
B. Emergency assistance and medical care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121<br />
C. Assessment of cases of trafficked adults and children, including<br />
risk assessments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122<br />
D. Enabling victims of traffickers <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> recover and restart their lives . . . 123<br />
VI. The role of research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123<br />
A. Research reports <strong>on</strong> regi<strong>on</strong>al patterns and specific countries . . . . . . 123<br />
B. Research about those already trafficked, identifying the<br />
circumstances in which they were vulnerable <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> traffickers . . . . . . . . 124<br />
C. Research about traffickers and the techniques they use . . . . . . . . . . . 124<br />
D. Research <strong>on</strong> the numbers of trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125<br />
E. Research <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<strong>on</strong>i<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>r, evaluate and assess the impact of preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
and rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> efforts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126<br />
F. Research standards: The World Health Organizati<strong>on</strong> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126<br />
VII. C<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127<br />
vii
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Introducti<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
The Global Initiative <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> Fight <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
“The <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Global Initiative <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> Fight <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> (UN.GIFT) aims <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> mobilize<br />
state and n<strong>on</strong>-state ac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> eradicate human trafficking by: (a) reducing both the vulnerability<br />
of potential victims and the demand for exploitati<strong>on</strong> in all its forms; (b) ensuring adequate<br />
protecti<strong>on</strong> and support <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> those who fall victim; and (c) supporting the efficient prosecuti<strong>on</strong> of<br />
the criminals involved while respecting the fundamental human rights of all pers<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
“In carrying out its missi<strong>on</strong>, UN.GIFT will increase knowledge and awareness <strong>on</strong> human trafficking;<br />
promote effective rights-based resp<strong>on</strong>ses; build capacity of state and n<strong>on</strong>-state ac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs, and<br />
foster partnerships for joint acti<strong>on</strong> against human trafficking.”<br />
(UN.GIFT missi<strong>on</strong> statement)<br />
Overview<br />
The widespread c<strong>on</strong>temporary exploitati<strong>on</strong> of men, women and children is unacceptable<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> people of c<strong>on</strong>science the world over. Traditi<strong>on</strong>al approaches <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> preventing trafficking<br />
in human beings, <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> protect and assist trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s and bring criminals <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> justice<br />
have had some small impact <strong>on</strong> the global phenomen<strong>on</strong>, but not enough. That even <strong>on</strong>e<br />
young pers<strong>on</strong> be denied the benefits of childhood, that <strong>on</strong>e young woman be subjected<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the brutal humiliati<strong>on</strong> of sexual exploitati<strong>on</strong> and that <strong>on</strong>e man become the slave of a<br />
cruel taskmaster in another country are clear signals that we must renew both our resolve<br />
as well as our initiatives <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> protect those who are vulnerable.<br />
The <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Global Initiative <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> Fight <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> (UN.GIFT) was born<br />
out of a renewed commitment by world leaders in the battle against human trafficking <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
end this crime, <strong>on</strong>e of the most egregious violati<strong>on</strong>s of human rights in the world <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>day.<br />
Formally launched in March 2007 by the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Drugs and Crime<br />
(UNODC), and made possible by a generous grant from the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> Arab Emirates,<br />
UN.GIFT is a call <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> acti<strong>on</strong>, reminding Governments, civil society ac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs, the media, the<br />
business community and c<strong>on</strong>cerned individuals of their comm<strong>on</strong> commitments <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> fight<br />
trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s, and that this battle can not be fought, or w<strong>on</strong>, al<strong>on</strong>e. As at 4<br />
December 2007, 116 nati<strong>on</strong>s had ratified the Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> Prevent, Suppress and Punish<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in Pers<strong>on</strong>s, Especially Women and Children, thereby providing a comm<strong>on</strong><br />
framework for internati<strong>on</strong>al efforts. Only by joining forces, pooling knowledge, expanding<br />
the scope and number of stakeholders and cooperating across borders can we hope<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> eradicate human trafficking. Acknowledging this need at all levels, UNODC c<strong>on</strong>tinues<br />
1
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> develop UN.GIFT in partnership with the Internati<strong>on</strong>al Labour Organizati<strong>on</strong>, the<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>al Organizati<strong>on</strong> for Migrati<strong>on</strong>, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Children’s Fund, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> High Commissi<strong>on</strong>er for <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rights and the Organizati<strong>on</strong> for<br />
Security and Cooperati<strong>on</strong> in Europe.<br />
Why UN.GIFT?<br />
UN.GIFT aims <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> advance acti<strong>on</strong> against trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> many fr<strong>on</strong>ts, and its<br />
objectives include the following:<br />
1. To raise awareness—<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> tell the world that human trafficking exists and mobilize<br />
people <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> s<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>p it.<br />
2. To strengthen preventi<strong>on</strong>—<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> inform vulnerable groups and alleviate the fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs that<br />
make people vulnerable <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking.<br />
3. To reduce demand—<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> attack the problem at its source by lowering incentives <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
trade and lowering demand for the products and services of exploited people.<br />
4. To support and protect the victims—<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> ensure housing, counselling, medical, psychological<br />
and material assistance, keeping in mind the special needs of women and<br />
children and people at risk, such as those in refugee camps and c<strong>on</strong>flict z<strong>on</strong>es.<br />
5. To improve law enforcement effectiveness—<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> improve informati<strong>on</strong> exchange <strong>on</strong><br />
trafficking routes, trafficker profiles and victim identificati<strong>on</strong> in order <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> dismantle<br />
criminal groups and c<strong>on</strong>vict more traffickers. For those c<strong>on</strong>victed, <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> ensure that the<br />
punishment fits the crime.<br />
6. To implement internati<strong>on</strong>al commitments—<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> ensure that internati<strong>on</strong>al commitments<br />
are turned in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> nati<strong>on</strong>al laws and practice by targeting technical and legal assistance<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> countries in greatest need and improving m<strong>on</strong>i<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ring of implementati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
7. To enrich the database—<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> deepen global understanding of the scope and nature of<br />
trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s by more data collecti<strong>on</strong> and analysis, better data-sharing, joint<br />
research initiatives and creating an evidence-based report <strong>on</strong> global trafficking trends.<br />
8. To strengthen partnership—<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> build up regi<strong>on</strong>al and thematic networks involving civil<br />
society, intergovernmental organizati<strong>on</strong>s and the private sec<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>r.<br />
9. To ensure resources—<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> attract and leverage resources for the sustainable funding of<br />
projects around the world committed <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> ending human trafficking.<br />
10. To strengthen Member States’ participati<strong>on</strong>—<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> give Member States a str<strong>on</strong>g sense<br />
of ownership in the process and create l<strong>on</strong>g-term momentum.<br />
2
The Vienna Forum <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> Fight <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
The framework of UN.GIFT has allowed for a global c<strong>on</strong>ference, the Vienna Forum <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Fight <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be held in the Austrian capital from 13 <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> 15 February 2008.<br />
The Forum is a unique opportunity <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> bring <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>gether representatives from Member States,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> entities, n<strong>on</strong>-governmental and internati<strong>on</strong>al organizati<strong>on</strong>s, the business<br />
community, academia, the public sec<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>r and civil society.<br />
The Vienna Forum is a visible step <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>wards generating c<strong>on</strong>solidated support and political<br />
will behind the goals of the Global Initiative. The aims of the Forum are specifically <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
raise awareness of all forms of trafficking, <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> facilitate cooperati<strong>on</strong> and partnerships am<strong>on</strong>g<br />
participants, <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> take s<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ck of progress made and <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> set the directi<strong>on</strong>s for follow-up measures<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> prevent and counter human trafficking. The Forum also provides for an assessment<br />
of the less<strong>on</strong>s learned regarding the dimensi<strong>on</strong>s of the issue and the current acti<strong>on</strong><br />
taken in resp<strong>on</strong>se <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s. It allows for an open envir<strong>on</strong>ment <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> enable<br />
all the parties involved <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> take practical steps within their spheres of acti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> fight human<br />
trafficking.<br />
Vulnerability, impact and acti<strong>on</strong><br />
The Vienna Forum is organized around three central themes, which reflect the key issues<br />
that need <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be addressed in a comprehensive anti-trafficking strategy: Why does human<br />
trafficking occur? What are the c<strong>on</strong>sequences? What measures might be taken in resp<strong>on</strong>se?<br />
Within each theme, plenary sessi<strong>on</strong>s as well as workshops provide participants with the<br />
opportunity <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> explore each theme in greater detail, with the purpose of developing comprehensive<br />
interventi<strong>on</strong> strategies and undertaking practical acti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
1.—Vulnerability: why does human trafficking happen?<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> traffickers prey <strong>on</strong> people who are poor, isolated and weak. Issues such as<br />
disempowerment, social exclusi<strong>on</strong> and ec<strong>on</strong>omic vulnerability are the result of policies<br />
and practices that marginalize entire groups of people and make them particularly<br />
vulnerable <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> being trafficked. Natural disasters, c<strong>on</strong>flict and political turmoil weaken<br />
already tenuous social protecti<strong>on</strong> measures. Individuals are vulnerable <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> being trafficked<br />
not <strong>on</strong>ly because of c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s in their countries of origin, however. The allure of<br />
opportunity, the relentless demand for inexpensive goods and services and the<br />
expectati<strong>on</strong> of reliable income drive people in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> potentially dangerous situati<strong>on</strong>s where<br />
they are at risk of being exploited. The Vienna Forum will examine existing definiti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
of and practices related <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the preventi<strong>on</strong> of trafficking and, by focusing <strong>on</strong> decreasing<br />
vulnerability, will broaden the strategic impact of existing preventi<strong>on</strong> efforts.<br />
3
2. Impact: the human and social c<strong>on</strong>sequences of<br />
human trafficking<br />
The human and social c<strong>on</strong>sequences of trafficking are compelling. From the physical abuse<br />
and <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rture of victims <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the psychological and emoti<strong>on</strong>al trauma, <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the ec<strong>on</strong>omic and<br />
political implicati<strong>on</strong>s of unabated crime, the impact <strong>on</strong> individuals and society is clearly<br />
destructive and unacceptable.<br />
The Vienna Forum will explore the impact of human trafficking <strong>on</strong> the lives of individuals<br />
and their communities. Participants will share experiences and focus <strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>sequences<br />
of human trafficking <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> victims, including the violence they experience, the<br />
adverse health effects, the social stigmatizati<strong>on</strong> and the risk of revictimizati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
3. Acti<strong>on</strong>: innovative approaches <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> solving<br />
complex problems<br />
The <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col provides a comprehensive strategic approach <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> combating trafficking<br />
in human beings. Implementati<strong>on</strong> of the measures described in the Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col,<br />
remains uneven however. A lack of clarity related <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> even basic terms and definiti<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
nati<strong>on</strong>al political c<strong>on</strong>cerns and uncertainty regarding what measures work and what do<br />
not have c<strong>on</strong>tributed <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> a lack of systematic and c<strong>on</strong>sistent implementati<strong>on</strong>, and sustainable<br />
acti<strong>on</strong>. Participants will be able <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> review major global anti-trafficking strategies and<br />
nati<strong>on</strong>al resp<strong>on</strong>ses, sharing from their own experiences and identifying elements that c<strong>on</strong>stitute<br />
best practices.<br />
Background papers<br />
In order <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> provide participants with a comm<strong>on</strong> starting point for debate and dialogue,<br />
UNODC commissi<strong>on</strong>ed the three following background papers, each addressing <strong>on</strong>e of<br />
the major themes of the c<strong>on</strong>ference, and drafted by three leading anti-trafficking experts.<br />
The first paper, <strong>on</strong> vulnerability, challenges current working definiti<strong>on</strong>s of preventi<strong>on</strong> and<br />
the practical emphasis <strong>on</strong> public awareness as the primary <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ol <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> prevent the occurrence<br />
of this crime. The author maintains that an expanded understanding of preventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
include the vulnerability of at-risk individuals and the fostering of an envir<strong>on</strong>ment where<br />
crime cannot prosper will assist in the development of comprehensive preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
strategies.<br />
The sec<strong>on</strong>d paper, <strong>on</strong> the impact of trafficking, outlines the many areas where trafficking<br />
affects our lives. The author includes discussi<strong>on</strong>s of the c<strong>on</strong>sequences of trafficking <strong>on</strong><br />
4
the victims of the crime, as well as <strong>on</strong> our social, political and ec<strong>on</strong>omic systems, describing<br />
both the reach and the complex and interlocking negative impact that human trafficking<br />
has at both the nati<strong>on</strong>al and the global level.<br />
The third paper, <strong>on</strong> acti<strong>on</strong>, provides a detailed summary of government resp<strong>on</strong>ses <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking<br />
since the adopti<strong>on</strong> of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col in 2000. The author describes state<br />
acti<strong>on</strong>s in the areas of preventi<strong>on</strong>, protecti<strong>on</strong> and assistance, and prosecuti<strong>on</strong> and law<br />
enforcement, offering a critique of different approaches and a call for an understanding<br />
of what c<strong>on</strong>stitutes good and best practices.<br />
The full papers—reproduced in English <strong>on</strong>ly—are preceded by summaries in all six official<br />
languages of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
5
Summaries of the papers<br />
1.—Vulnerability<br />
Vulnerability, preventi<strong>on</strong> and human trafficking:<br />
the need for a new paradigm<br />
Current practices in the preventi<strong>on</strong> of trafficking in human beings are analysed in this<br />
paper in order <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> understand why human trafficking c<strong>on</strong>tinues <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be identified as a growing<br />
phenomen<strong>on</strong>. Numerous preventi<strong>on</strong> initiatives and c<strong>on</strong>siderable funding notwithstanding,<br />
a preliminary c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> is that existing preventi<strong>on</strong> practices do not reflect the<br />
comprehensive approach embodied in definiti<strong>on</strong>s of the term “crime preventi<strong>on</strong>” in general<br />
or in the illustrative definiti<strong>on</strong> of “preventi<strong>on</strong>” in article 9 of the Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> Prevent,<br />
Suppress and Punish <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in Pers<strong>on</strong>s, Especially Women and Children, supplementing<br />
the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> against Transnati<strong>on</strong>al Organized Crime.<br />
“Preventi<strong>on</strong>” as it has been c<strong>on</strong>ceptualized in normative frameworks is examined, as also<br />
how those frameworks have been narrowly implemented. Vulnerability, in particular the<br />
vulnerability of an individual in his or her social c<strong>on</strong>text, emerges as the missing link in<br />
formulating well-developed policies and practices. Focus is placed <strong>on</strong> what c<strong>on</strong>stitutes vulnerability<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking as a prerequisite for the development of valid preventi<strong>on</strong> programmes.<br />
New c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s are introduced as regards the development of strategic<br />
policies <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> prevent trafficking that are capable of addressing the real problems of vulnerable<br />
populati<strong>on</strong>s according <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> their own needs, in their own c<strong>on</strong>texts.<br />
The author questi<strong>on</strong>s what is meant when experts describe human trafficking as a growing<br />
phenomen<strong>on</strong>, since any assessment of an increase in human trafficking is impossible<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> quantify except in general terms. Reas<strong>on</strong>s for this include differences in nati<strong>on</strong>al definiti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
of the crime of trafficking, as well as of who c<strong>on</strong>stitutes a victim of trafficking,<br />
al<strong>on</strong>g with a lack of c<strong>on</strong>sistent, reliable and comparable data.<br />
Both crime preventi<strong>on</strong> and reducti<strong>on</strong> of vulnerability are valid approaches <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> combating<br />
human trafficking. Each calls for different dynamics in policy and programme planning.<br />
A focus <strong>on</strong> vulnerability will enhance the human rights comp<strong>on</strong>ent of trafficking preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
policies. Traditi<strong>on</strong>al definiti<strong>on</strong>s of crime preventi<strong>on</strong> can c<strong>on</strong>tribute <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the enhancement<br />
of anti-trafficking policies by focusing <strong>on</strong> reducing elements of risk in the<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment. Theoretically, preventi<strong>on</strong> should therefore aim <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> eliminate trafficking before<br />
it occurs by reducing the fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs that make individuals vulnerable <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> being trafficked.<br />
Basic principles of crime preventi<strong>on</strong>, such as the inclusi<strong>on</strong> of a broad community of stakeholders,<br />
the empowerment of vulnerable pers<strong>on</strong>s and the reducti<strong>on</strong> of risk fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs, are<br />
7
AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN TRAFFICKING: VULNERABILITY, IMPACT AND ACTION<br />
intrinsic <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the elaborati<strong>on</strong> of what is meant by “preventi<strong>on</strong>” given in article 9 of the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col. Unfortunately, the implementati<strong>on</strong> of those principles has been limited,<br />
with the predominant focus having been <strong>on</strong> the development of both large and small<br />
public awareness campaigns directed <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>wards potential victims of trafficking. Such programmes<br />
are developed <strong>on</strong> the premise that increased awareness of possible harm will<br />
help an individual <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> choose a different path. However, such programmes fall short because<br />
they fail <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> provide potential victims with an alternative course of acti<strong>on</strong>. If the emphasis<br />
of preventi<strong>on</strong> programmes is placed exclusively <strong>on</strong> increasing the awareness of potential<br />
victims, preventi<strong>on</strong> is limited. By failing <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> provide alternatives, such interventi<strong>on</strong>s place<br />
the <strong>on</strong>us for preventi<strong>on</strong> of exploitati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the individual him- or herself. Potential<br />
victims remain equally vulnerable before and after viewing posters, films and televisi<strong>on</strong><br />
advertisements.<br />
The author stresses that successfully assisting vulnerable populati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> protect themselves<br />
from harm is not possible without an understanding of what makes them vulnerable <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
violence, abuse and exploitati<strong>on</strong> in the first place. Reframing the issue of preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
through a definiti<strong>on</strong> of vulnerability <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> abuse and exploitati<strong>on</strong> will allow for a more c<strong>on</strong>sistent<br />
approach <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> preventing trafficking. While the broad c<strong>on</strong>cept of preventi<strong>on</strong> exists<br />
as part of the normative framework of many countries, viewing preventi<strong>on</strong> models in terms<br />
of their relati<strong>on</strong>ships <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the social, cultural, ec<strong>on</strong>omic and political vulnerability of certain<br />
populati<strong>on</strong>s or groups <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> being trafficked has been largely neglected in practice.<br />
Although used frequently in anti-trafficking discussi<strong>on</strong>s, the terms “vulnerable” and “vulnerability”<br />
have not been c<strong>on</strong>clusively defined other than in a legal c<strong>on</strong>text. This paper<br />
includes an analysis of several c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s in understanding vulnerability and provides<br />
a definiti<strong>on</strong> in which “vulnerability” refers <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> “a c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> resulting from how individuals<br />
negatively experience the complex interacti<strong>on</strong> of social, cultural, ec<strong>on</strong>omic, political and<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mental fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs that create the c<strong>on</strong>text for their communities”.<br />
Based <strong>on</strong> such c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s, indica<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs for c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s of vulnerability will need <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be<br />
developed in the following areas: children; gender; poverty; social and cultural exclusi<strong>on</strong>;<br />
limited educati<strong>on</strong>; political instability, war and c<strong>on</strong>flict; social, cultural and legal frameworks;<br />
movement under duress; and demand.<br />
Because most c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s causing vulnerability are systemic and the result of governmentenacted<br />
policies, it is the resp<strong>on</strong>sibility of States <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> ensure the protecti<strong>on</strong> of vulnerable<br />
individuals in their midst.<br />
2.—Impact<br />
The impact of trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s<br />
The impact and cost of human trafficking <strong>on</strong> individuals as well as <strong>on</strong> political, ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
and social systems is described in the paper. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking is a crime against<br />
8
SUMMARIES OF THE PAPERS<br />
individuals and its c<strong>on</strong>sequences are most directly felt by those who are its victims. While<br />
human trafficking is a global phenomen<strong>on</strong> that knows no internati<strong>on</strong>al borders, it is within<br />
individual countries and societies that its far-reaching and pervasive c<strong>on</strong>sequences are<br />
felt. More than 130 countries are affected by human trafficking. Some of the most notable<br />
social, political and ec<strong>on</strong>omic impacts of human trafficking are identified, as also important<br />
policy c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s in each of those areas.<br />
The c<strong>on</strong>sequences of trafficking <strong>on</strong> individuals<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking has an impact <strong>on</strong> the individuals it victimizes in all areas of their lives.<br />
Every stage of the trafficking process can involve physical, sexual and psychological abuse<br />
and violence, deprivati<strong>on</strong> and <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rture, the forced use of substances, manipulati<strong>on</strong>, ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
exploitati<strong>on</strong> and abusive working and living c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s. Unlike most other violent<br />
crime, trafficking usually involves prol<strong>on</strong>ged and repeated trauma. Documentati<strong>on</strong> and<br />
research describe how men, women and children are abused in specific exploitative c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
and the short- and l<strong>on</strong>g-term physical injuries, disabilities and deaths that may<br />
result. For a number of specified reas<strong>on</strong>s, trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s are at great risk of HIV infecti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The trauma experienced by victims of trafficking includes post-traumatic stress disorder,<br />
anxiety, depressi<strong>on</strong>, alienati<strong>on</strong>, disorientati<strong>on</strong>, aggressi<strong>on</strong> and difficulty<br />
c<strong>on</strong>centrating. Studies indicate that trauma worsens during the trafficking process and<br />
may persist far bey<strong>on</strong>d the end of any exploitati<strong>on</strong>. While subject <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the same harmful<br />
treatment as adults, child victims are especially vulnerable <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking because of their<br />
age, immaturity and lack of experience, <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> abusive practices that may, for example, stunt<br />
their further physical development and <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>tinued victimizati<strong>on</strong> as a result of attachment,<br />
developmental and social difficulties. The behaviour of trafficking victims can be<br />
difficult for third parties <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> understand, while victims can find it difficult <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> comprehend<br />
what has happened <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> them, or <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> discuss it with or explain it <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> others. Victims may<br />
appear <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> those around them, even support pers<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be uncooperative, irritable, hostile,<br />
aggressive or ungrateful. The stigma attached <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> them as victims has been shown <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
have a significant and <strong>on</strong>going impact <strong>on</strong> their lives, including in the trauma experienced<br />
by the individual victim as well as the possibility of physical rejecti<strong>on</strong> by family and/or<br />
community. The l<strong>on</strong>g-term c<strong>on</strong>sequences of human trafficking for the individual are complex<br />
and depend <strong>on</strong> many fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs, with no guarantee of recovery. Revictimizati<strong>on</strong> is often<br />
a further c<strong>on</strong>sequence of the experience.<br />
The political implicati<strong>on</strong>s of trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking is an issue of major internati<strong>on</strong>al discussi<strong>on</strong> and c<strong>on</strong>cern. Because it<br />
involves transnati<strong>on</strong>al movement of people, <strong>on</strong>e important related area of debate is migrati<strong>on</strong><br />
policy. <str<strong>on</strong>g>An</str<strong>on</strong>g>other c<strong>on</strong>cerns human rights aspects. The author describes the complex<br />
interrelati<strong>on</strong>ship between policy and acti<strong>on</strong> as regards trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s, smuggling<br />
of migrants and migrati<strong>on</strong> flows. The relevance of increased border c<strong>on</strong>trol is noted, as<br />
is the status attributed <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> those who do not enter a State legally. <str<strong>on</strong>g>An</str<strong>on</strong>g> unintended c<strong>on</strong>sequence<br />
of efforts directed principally at illegal migrati<strong>on</strong> can be the n<strong>on</strong>-identificati<strong>on</strong> and<br />
victimizati<strong>on</strong> of trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s. The specific migrati<strong>on</strong> issues faced by countries of<br />
9
AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN TRAFFICKING: VULNERABILITY, IMPACT AND ACTION<br />
origin and destinati<strong>on</strong> that can have a direct impact <strong>on</strong> trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s are outlined,<br />
as also the systemic challenges <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be met in the case of the identificati<strong>on</strong> in <strong>on</strong>e<br />
State of a trafficked pers<strong>on</strong> from another State.<br />
The ec<strong>on</strong>omic impact of trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s<br />
The difficulties in assessing the impact of human trafficking are most apparent when<br />
attempting <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> quantify its ec<strong>on</strong>omic costs. However, key ec<strong>on</strong>omic c<strong>on</strong>sequences of trafficking<br />
are described. The costs of the crime of trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s incorporates many<br />
elements, including the value of all resources devoted <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> its preventi<strong>on</strong>, the treatment and<br />
support of victims and the apprehensi<strong>on</strong> and prosecuti<strong>on</strong> of offenders. These costs may<br />
be offset in part by the recovery of criminal proceeds and assets of the traffickers.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in pers<strong>on</strong>s also results in loss of human resources and reducti<strong>on</strong>s in tax revenue.<br />
Further, trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s redirects the financial benefits of migrati<strong>on</strong> from<br />
migrants, their families, community and government or other potential legitimate employers<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> traffickers and their associates. All indicati<strong>on</strong>s are that the income generated by<br />
related organized crime is significant and global. Given the <strong>on</strong>going nature of exploitati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
human trafficking generates a stable and regular source of income for criminal networks,<br />
with a c<strong>on</strong>sequent impact <strong>on</strong> other forms of criminal activity as well as legitimate<br />
business.<br />
Impact <strong>on</strong> the rule of law<br />
As a criminal act, trafficking violates the rule of law, threatening nati<strong>on</strong>al jurisdicti<strong>on</strong>s and<br />
internati<strong>on</strong>al law. Organized crime is <strong>on</strong>e of the most important mechanisms for unlawful<br />
redistributi<strong>on</strong> of nati<strong>on</strong>al wealth, unduly influencing markets, political power and societal<br />
relati<strong>on</strong>s. These effects may be acute in countries resp<strong>on</strong>ding <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> civil unrest, natural<br />
disasters or post-c<strong>on</strong>flict situati<strong>on</strong>s. The corresp<strong>on</strong>ding challenges faced by Governments<br />
are in stark c<strong>on</strong>trast <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the opportunities created for human traffickers. The underlying<br />
threat posed by trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s is why the issue is increasingly recognized as <strong>on</strong>e<br />
of global security.<br />
As a complex manifestati<strong>on</strong> of the global ec<strong>on</strong>omy, organized crime and violati<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
human rights, human trafficking causes extreme hardship <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the suspected milli<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
people worldwide who have become victims of it and also has an impact <strong>on</strong> the financial<br />
markets, the ec<strong>on</strong>omies and the social structures of countries where it is allowed <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
exist. As a major comp<strong>on</strong>ent of organized crime, with all its financial power, trafficking<br />
in pers<strong>on</strong>s has a complex and interlocking negative impact across human, social, political<br />
and ec<strong>on</strong>omic spheres.<br />
The destabilizing and dangerous c<strong>on</strong>sequences of human trafficking range from readily<br />
recognized violence, direct ec<strong>on</strong>omic loss and major migrati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>cerns <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the less easily<br />
quantified, equally serious, but more complex effects of risks and harms <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> envir<strong>on</strong>mental,<br />
social, health and safety, and violati<strong>on</strong>s of human rights. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in pers<strong>on</strong>s<br />
10
SUMMARIES OF THE PAPERS<br />
directly challenges the development of stable, more prosperous societies and legitimate<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omies, and works str<strong>on</strong>gly against the rec<strong>on</strong>ciliati<strong>on</strong> of political interests with humanitarian<br />
and human rights obligati<strong>on</strong>s. The range of trafficking-related crimes and their<br />
broad and interrelated impacts have created a cumulative threat <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> global peace, security<br />
and stability and have shaped political, social and ec<strong>on</strong>omic resp<strong>on</strong>ses at both nati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
and global levels.<br />
3.—Acti<strong>on</strong><br />
Resp<strong>on</strong>ses <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s: internati<strong>on</strong>al norms<br />
translated in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> acti<strong>on</strong> at the nati<strong>on</strong>al and regi<strong>on</strong>al levels<br />
The principal resp<strong>on</strong>ses by Governments <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s since the adopti<strong>on</strong> in<br />
November 2000 of the Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> Prevent, Suppress and Punish <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in Pers<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
Especially Women and Children are described in the paper, as also how some of these<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ses could be more effective. The main focus of States has been <strong>on</strong> detecting and<br />
prosecuting traffickers, identifying, protecting and assisting people who have already been<br />
trafficked and initiating acti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> prevent people from being trafficked in the first place.<br />
The need is stressed for more research and data collecti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> all forms of trafficking in<br />
order <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> develop tailored and effective anti-trafficking strategies and the subsequent m<strong>on</strong>i<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ring<br />
of such interventi<strong>on</strong>s in order <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> make sure they have the desired impact.<br />
Legislati<strong>on</strong><br />
Of the 116 States that had ratified the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col as at 4 December 2007, the<br />
majority have adopted new laws or amended existing legislati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> translate the Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col<br />
in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> acti<strong>on</strong>, define an offence of trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s and increase the penalties for traffickers,<br />
and have established instituti<strong>on</strong>s and procedures <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> implement the law. Many<br />
regi<strong>on</strong>al initiatives have also been implemented. However, in the formulati<strong>on</strong> of these normative<br />
frameworks, at both the nati<strong>on</strong>al and the regi<strong>on</strong>al level, there is little c<strong>on</strong>sistency<br />
in the core definiti<strong>on</strong> of trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s and nati<strong>on</strong>al legislati<strong>on</strong> often falls short of<br />
the comprehensive provisi<strong>on</strong>s of the Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col. States may refer <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> commercial sexual<br />
exploitati<strong>on</strong>, or the trafficking of women and girls, while omitting trafficking for forced<br />
labour or servitude. In other cases, although the Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col clearly indicates that in the case<br />
of children the various illegal means of trafficking are irrelevant, some legislati<strong>on</strong> does<br />
not yet reflect that provisi<strong>on</strong>, or defines the age of a child as something other than less<br />
than 18 years of age.<br />
Such lack of definiti<strong>on</strong>al clarity poses major challenges for internati<strong>on</strong>al cooperati<strong>on</strong>. All<br />
States that have ratified the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col should make sure that their legislati<strong>on</strong> is<br />
in compliance with its provisi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
11
AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN TRAFFICKING: VULNERABILITY, IMPACT AND ACTION<br />
Working <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>gether: coordinati<strong>on</strong> and cooperati<strong>on</strong> as essential<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ols in combating trafficking<br />
Collaborati<strong>on</strong> begins at the nati<strong>on</strong>al level, but is equally important at the bilateral, regi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
and internati<strong>on</strong>al levels. At the nati<strong>on</strong>al level, the presence of instituti<strong>on</strong>al structures<br />
such as nati<strong>on</strong>al referral mechanisms, nati<strong>on</strong>al rapporteurs and nati<strong>on</strong>al coordina<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs/coordinating<br />
structures has facilitated c<strong>on</strong>certed acti<strong>on</strong> against trafficking.<br />
Prosecuti<strong>on</strong> and law enforcement activities<br />
Notwithstanding significant efforts <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> identify and care for victims and <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> detect and prosecute<br />
traffickers, trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s is still reported <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be <strong>on</strong>e of the most lucrative<br />
sec<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs of transnati<strong>on</strong>al organized crime. C<strong>on</strong>fusi<strong>on</strong> between, <strong>on</strong> the <strong>on</strong>e hand, human<br />
trafficking and, <strong>on</strong> the other, smuggling or other immigrati<strong>on</strong>-related offences has impeded<br />
progress in law enforcement efforts. The challenges faced in properly identifying a<br />
victim of trafficking have highlighted the need for minimum standards c<strong>on</strong>cerning the<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se of criminal justice systems.<br />
A major challenge for immigrati<strong>on</strong> and law enforcement officials is how <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> distinguish<br />
trafficking victims from others they may come in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>tact with. Significant tensi<strong>on</strong>s exist<br />
between initiatives designed primarily <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> enforce the law against traffickers and those<br />
designed <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> uphold the human rights of trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s. The two approaches are not<br />
mutually exclusive, however, and evidence suggests that the prompt identificati<strong>on</strong> and<br />
appropriate treatment of victims is crucial <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> an effective law enforcement resp<strong>on</strong>se. Some<br />
States have begun <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> adopt “reflecti<strong>on</strong> periods” for trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s identified within<br />
their borders in order <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> give them time <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> recover and reflect <strong>on</strong> whether they are able<br />
and wish <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> cooperate with law enforcement. A particularly c<strong>on</strong>tentious area of debate is<br />
whether the granting of temporary residence permits (separate from reflecti<strong>on</strong> period entitlements)<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> victims of trafficking should be c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>al up<strong>on</strong> a trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>’s cooperati<strong>on</strong><br />
with the criminal justice system. Little priority has so far been given <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> awarding<br />
compensati<strong>on</strong> or damages <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> victims of trafficking.<br />
Preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
Preventi<strong>on</strong> is inadequately addressed in anti-trafficking strategies, perhaps because of<br />
uncertainty as <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the effectiveness of different preventive techniques. A lack of m<strong>on</strong>i<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ring<br />
and evaluati<strong>on</strong> of preventi<strong>on</strong> programmes has made it difficult <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> identify those initiatives<br />
which have been successful. Numerous complex fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs c<strong>on</strong>tribute <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking<br />
in human beings, including a variety of underlying and root causal fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs that influence<br />
the decisi<strong>on</strong>s made by individuals that lead <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking and that c<strong>on</strong>tribute <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> a social<br />
and ec<strong>on</strong>omic envir<strong>on</strong>ment in which trafficking and exploitati<strong>on</strong> can flourish. These fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs<br />
include ec<strong>on</strong>omic crisis, social exclusi<strong>on</strong>, gender discriminati<strong>on</strong> and a weak legal or<br />
social protecti<strong>on</strong> system. The remedies for these shortcomings require a broader set of<br />
acti<strong>on</strong>s than those designed specifically <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> s<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>p trafficking.<br />
12
SUMMARIES OF THE PAPERS<br />
Preventi<strong>on</strong> initiatives in areas of origin have primarily taken the form of<br />
informati<strong>on</strong>/awareness-raising campaigns alerting people of the dangers involved in seeking<br />
work abroad, the promoti<strong>on</strong> of income-generating activities, formal and n<strong>on</strong>-formal<br />
educati<strong>on</strong>al initiatives and initiatives targeted at groups that are known <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be at high risk<br />
of being trafficked. Some preventi<strong>on</strong> programmes have taken the form of measures <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
strengthen social protecti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Although the industrialized States <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> which people are trafficked have invested m<strong>on</strong>ey<br />
principally in preventi<strong>on</strong> in the countries of origin, they have also begun <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> make efforts<br />
within their own countries, primarily in the form of revisi<strong>on</strong> and comprehensive implementati<strong>on</strong><br />
of immigrati<strong>on</strong> and employment policies. M<strong>on</strong>i<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ring working c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
notably in the informal ec<strong>on</strong>omic sec<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs, regulating recruitment agencies in sec<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs where<br />
trafficking occurs, providing facilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> protect migrants from abusive practices and using<br />
legislati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> address the demand for the labour or services of a trafficked pers<strong>on</strong> are<br />
some of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ols States have used <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> address demand. Countries of destinati<strong>on</strong> have also<br />
implemented large-scale informati<strong>on</strong> campaigns <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> inform the public about the potential<br />
for abusive practices in their countries.<br />
Protecti<strong>on</strong> and assistance<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>al guidelines now clarify the rights of trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s under existing internati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
law, in particular their rights <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> protecti<strong>on</strong> and assistance. Intergovernmental agencies<br />
and n<strong>on</strong>-governmental organizati<strong>on</strong>s have issued a range of good practice guidelines<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cerning assistance and care so that identified trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s can be transferred <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
a safe place <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> receive a variety of services, including physical and psychological care,<br />
legal assistance, shelter and protecti<strong>on</strong>. Significant efforts have also been made <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> develop<br />
standards for the special care of children.<br />
The treatment of trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s in countries of exploitati<strong>on</strong> varies widely from country<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> country. Restricti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> the definiti<strong>on</strong> of a trafficking pers<strong>on</strong> (women trafficked for<br />
commercial sexual exploitati<strong>on</strong>, for example) can leave other trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s without<br />
any legal recourse. In many places, trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s remain criminalized for their illegal<br />
entry in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> or residence in the countries of transit and destinati<strong>on</strong> or for their involvement<br />
in illicit activities that were a direct c<strong>on</strong>sequence of their being trafficked. The<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sequence of inadequate identificati<strong>on</strong> procedures usually means that a trafficked pers<strong>on</strong><br />
will be summarily returned <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> his or her country of origin without any attenti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
potential risks at home.<br />
Recovery for trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s is a l<strong>on</strong>g and complex process. Less<strong>on</strong>s learned reveal<br />
that the c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al assumpti<strong>on</strong> that victims should be repatriated and returned <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> live<br />
with their families is inappropriate and results <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>o easily in victims being returned <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> a<br />
situati<strong>on</strong> where they suffer further harm.<br />
13
AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN TRAFFICKING: VULNERABILITY, IMPACT AND ACTION<br />
The role of research<br />
Research <strong>on</strong> trafficking in human beings is vital <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> ensuring adequate preventi<strong>on</strong>, protecti<strong>on</strong><br />
and assistance <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s and the prosecuti<strong>on</strong> of criminals. Ongoing<br />
research is necessary in several key areas, notably <strong>on</strong> the characteristics of trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s<br />
and the c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s of vulnerability; <strong>on</strong> the techniques of the traffickers; <strong>on</strong> the scope<br />
of the problem, including numbers of trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s; and <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<strong>on</strong>i<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>r, evaluate and<br />
assess the impact of preventi<strong>on</strong> and rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> efforts in order <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> ensure that funded<br />
programmes are in fact effective.<br />
The author c<strong>on</strong>cludes by acknowledging that <strong>on</strong>e of the challenges facing the anti-trafficking<br />
community <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>day is the abundance of recommendati<strong>on</strong>s made <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> Governments by<br />
internati<strong>on</strong>al, regi<strong>on</strong>al and specialized advocacy agencies and organizati<strong>on</strong>s. A c<strong>on</strong>certed<br />
effort is needed <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> help States identify and reach agreement <strong>on</strong> what c<strong>on</strong>stitutes “good<br />
practice” in order <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> ensure that anti-trafficking initiatives become more effective and that<br />
funds allocated <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> s<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>pping trafficking are used more effectively.<br />
14
Résumé des articles<br />
1.—Vulnérabilité<br />
Vulnérabilité, préventi<strong>on</strong> et trafic humain: nécessité d’un<br />
nouveau paradigme<br />
Les pratiques actuelles en matière de préventi<strong>on</strong> du trafic d’êtres humains s<strong>on</strong>t analysées<br />
dans le présent article afin de comprendre les rais<strong>on</strong>s pour lesquelles le trafic humain<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tinue d’être identifié comme un phénomène en hausse. En dépit de nombreuses initiatives<br />
et de financements c<strong>on</strong>sidérables, la c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> préliminaire est que les pratiques<br />
de préventi<strong>on</strong> actuelles ne reflètent pas la démarche polyvalente incarnée dans les définiti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
des termes “préventi<strong>on</strong> de la criminalité” en général ou dans la définiti<strong>on</strong> illustrative<br />
du mot “préventi<strong>on</strong>” à l’article 9 du Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>cole visant à prévenir, réprimer et punir la<br />
traite des pers<strong>on</strong>nes, en particulier des femmes et des enfants, un pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>cole additi<strong>on</strong>nel<br />
à la C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> des <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Unies c<strong>on</strong>tre la criminalité transnati<strong>on</strong>ale organisée.<br />
S<strong>on</strong>t examinées la “préventi<strong>on</strong>”, telle qu’elle est c<strong>on</strong>çue dans les cadres normatifs, ainsi<br />
que la manière d<strong>on</strong>t ces cadres <strong>on</strong>t été étroitement mis en œuvre. La vulnérabilité, et en<br />
particulier la vulnérabilité d’un individu dans s<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>texte social, émerge comme étant le<br />
chaîn<strong>on</strong> manquant dans la formulati<strong>on</strong> et le développement de politiques et de pratiques<br />
appropriées. L’attenti<strong>on</strong> est centrée sur ce qui c<strong>on</strong>stitue la vulnérabilité au trafic en tant<br />
que pré-requis permettant le développement de programmes de préventi<strong>on</strong> valables. De<br />
nouvelles c<strong>on</strong>sidérati<strong>on</strong>s s<strong>on</strong>t introduites c<strong>on</strong>cernant le développement de politiques<br />
stratégiques visant à prévenir le trafic et capables de s’attaquer aux vrais problèmes des<br />
populati<strong>on</strong>s vulnérables en f<strong>on</strong>cti<strong>on</strong> de leurs besoins et de leur propre c<strong>on</strong>texte.<br />
L’auteur pose la questi<strong>on</strong> de savoir ce que veulent dire les experts lorsqu’ils décrivent le<br />
trafic humain comme étant un phénomène en hausse, dans la mesure où <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ute évaluati<strong>on</strong><br />
d’une augmentati<strong>on</strong> du trafic humain est impossible à quantifier, sauf en termes généraux.<br />
Parmi les rais<strong>on</strong>s pour cela, <strong>on</strong> notera les différences de définiti<strong>on</strong>s au niveau nati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
de ce qui c<strong>on</strong>stitue un crime de traite humaine et une victime de la traite, ainsi que le<br />
manque de d<strong>on</strong>nées cohérentes, fiables et comparables.<br />
La préventi<strong>on</strong> de la criminalité et la réducti<strong>on</strong> de la vulnérabilité s<strong>on</strong>t <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>utes deux des<br />
approches valides pour combattre la traite des pers<strong>on</strong>nes, chacune faisant appel à des<br />
dynamiques différentes en termes de planificati<strong>on</strong> de politiques et de programmes. Une<br />
focalisati<strong>on</strong> sur la vulnérabilité mettra l’accent sur la composante des droits de l’homme<br />
dans les politiques de préventi<strong>on</strong> de la traite. Les définiti<strong>on</strong>s traditi<strong>on</strong>nelles de la préventi<strong>on</strong><br />
de la criminalité peuvent c<strong>on</strong>tribuer au renforcement des politiques antitraite en se<br />
c<strong>on</strong>centrant sur la réducti<strong>on</strong> des éléments de risque dans l’envir<strong>on</strong>nement. Théoriquement,<br />
15
INTRODUCTION À LA TRAITE DES ÊTRES HUMAINS: VULNÉRABILITÉ, IMPACT ET ACTIONS<br />
la préventi<strong>on</strong> devrait alors viser à éliminer la traite avant qu’elle n’ait lieu en réduisant les<br />
facteurs qui rendent les individus vulnérables à ce trafic.<br />
Les principes de base de préventi<strong>on</strong> de la criminalité, tels que la participati<strong>on</strong> d’une communauté<br />
étendue d’intervenants, la capacitati<strong>on</strong> de pers<strong>on</strong>nes vulnérables et la réducti<strong>on</strong><br />
des facteurs de risque, f<strong>on</strong>t partie intrinsèque de l’élaborati<strong>on</strong> de ce que l’<strong>on</strong> appelle<br />
“préventi<strong>on</strong>” sel<strong>on</strong> l’article 9 du Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>cole sur la traite. Malheureusement, la mise en<br />
œuvre de ces principes est restée limitée, l’attenti<strong>on</strong> s’étant sur<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ut portée sur le développement<br />
de grandes et moindres campagnes de prises de c<strong>on</strong>science par le public, visant les<br />
victimes potentielles de la traite. Ces programmes s<strong>on</strong>t développés en vertu de l’idée sel<strong>on</strong><br />
laquelle avertir un individu des possibles dangers qu’il encourt l’aidera à choisir une autre<br />
voie. Cependant, ces programmes ne s<strong>on</strong>t pas suffisants car ils ne fournissent pas aux<br />
victimes potentielles une possibilité d’acti<strong>on</strong> alternative. Si les programmes de préventi<strong>on</strong><br />
se focalisent exclusivement sur une meilleure prise de c<strong>on</strong>science de la part des victimes<br />
potentielles, la préventi<strong>on</strong> sera limitée. En ne fournissant pas d’alternative, ces interventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
placent la resp<strong>on</strong>sabilité de la préventi<strong>on</strong> de l’exploitati<strong>on</strong> sur la pers<strong>on</strong>ne elle-même.<br />
Les victimes potentielles s<strong>on</strong>t <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ut aussi vulnérables après qu’avant avoir vu les affiches,<br />
les films et les publicités télévisées.<br />
L’auteur insiste sur le fait qu’aider efficacement les populati<strong>on</strong>s vulnérables à se protéger<br />
des dangers n’est possible que si elles comprennent en premier lieu ce qui les rend vulnérables<br />
à la violence, aux abus et à l’exploitati<strong>on</strong>. Recadrer la questi<strong>on</strong> de la préventi<strong>on</strong><br />
à travers une définiti<strong>on</strong> de la vulnérabilité aux abus et à l’exploitati<strong>on</strong> permettra d<strong>on</strong>c<br />
une approche plus cohérente de la préventi<strong>on</strong> de la traite. Alors que le c<strong>on</strong>cept de la<br />
préventi<strong>on</strong> au sens large existe dans le cadre normatif de nombreux pays, l’idée de c<strong>on</strong>sidérer<br />
les modèles de préventi<strong>on</strong> en termes de leur relati<strong>on</strong> vis-à-vis de la vulnérabilité<br />
sociale, culturelle, éc<strong>on</strong>omique et politique de certaines populati<strong>on</strong>s ou groupes à la traite<br />
a été essentiellement ignorée dans la pratique.<br />
Bien que souvent utilisés dans les discussi<strong>on</strong>s antitraite, les termes “vulnérable” et “vulnérabilité”<br />
n’<strong>on</strong>t pas été définis de manière décisive autrement que dans un c<strong>on</strong>texte<br />
juridique. Le présent article comporte une analyse de plusieurs c<strong>on</strong>sidérati<strong>on</strong>s pour<br />
comprendre la vulnérabilité et fournit une définiti<strong>on</strong> sel<strong>on</strong> laquelle le terme “vulnérabilité”<br />
s’applique à une “c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> résultant de la manière d<strong>on</strong>t un individu a une expérience<br />
négative de l’interacti<strong>on</strong> complexe des facteurs sociaux, culturels, éc<strong>on</strong>omiques, politiques<br />
et envir<strong>on</strong>nementaux resp<strong>on</strong>sables du c<strong>on</strong>texte de sa communauté”.<br />
En f<strong>on</strong>cti<strong>on</strong> de ces c<strong>on</strong>sidérati<strong>on</strong>s, des indicateurs mettant en évidence les c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s de<br />
vulnérabilité devr<strong>on</strong>t être développés dans les domaines suivants: l’enfance; le genre; la<br />
pauvreté; l’exclusi<strong>on</strong> sociale et culturelle; une éducati<strong>on</strong> limitée; l’instabilité politique, la<br />
guerre et les c<strong>on</strong>flits; les cadres sociaux, culturels et juridiques; les mouvements forcés; et<br />
la demande.<br />
Dans la mesure où la plupart des c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s génératrices de vulnérabilité s<strong>on</strong>t systémiques<br />
et résultent de politiques mises en place par les gouvernements, il est de la resp<strong>on</strong>sabilité<br />
des États d’assurer la protecti<strong>on</strong> des individus vulnérables en leur sein.<br />
16
RÉSUMÉ DES ARTICLES<br />
2.—Impact<br />
L’impact du trafic de pers<strong>on</strong>nes<br />
Cet article décrit l’impact et le coût du trafic humain sur les pers<strong>on</strong>nes ainsi que sur les<br />
systèmes politiques, éc<strong>on</strong>omiques et sociaux. Le trafic humain est un crime envers les<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>nes d<strong>on</strong>t les c<strong>on</strong>séquences les plus immédiates <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>uchent ses victimes. Bien que le<br />
trafic humain soit un phénomène m<strong>on</strong>dial ne c<strong>on</strong>naissant pas de fr<strong>on</strong>tières internati<strong>on</strong>ales,<br />
ces c<strong>on</strong>séquences, à la fois c<strong>on</strong>sidérables et très étendues, se f<strong>on</strong>t particulièrement ressentir<br />
dans certains pays et certaines sociétés. Au moins 130 pays s<strong>on</strong>t <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>uchés par le trafic<br />
humain. S<strong>on</strong>t identifiés d’une part les effets les plus no<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ires du trafic humain sur le plan<br />
social, politique et éc<strong>on</strong>omique, et d’autre part des c<strong>on</strong>sidérati<strong>on</strong>s importantes en termes<br />
de politique dans chacun de ces domaines.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>séquences du trafic de pers<strong>on</strong>nes<br />
Le trafic humain affecte <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>us les aspects de la vie des pers<strong>on</strong>nes qu’il victimise. Chaque<br />
étape du processus de traite peut impliquer des abus et des violences physiques, sexuels<br />
et psychologiques, la privati<strong>on</strong> et la <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rture, la c<strong>on</strong>sommati<strong>on</strong> forcée de substances, la<br />
manipulati<strong>on</strong>, l’exploitati<strong>on</strong> éc<strong>on</strong>omique ainsi que des c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s abusives de travail et<br />
de vie. C<strong>on</strong>trairement à la plupart des autres crimes de violence, la traite est en général<br />
associée à des traumatismes répétés et prol<strong>on</strong>gés. Des documents et des travaux de<br />
recherches f<strong>on</strong>t état des abus que des hommes, des femmes et des enfants subissent dans<br />
des c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s spécifiques d’exploitati<strong>on</strong>, ainsi que des blessures physiques, des handicaps,<br />
voire de la mort, qui peuvent en résulter à court ou à l<strong>on</strong>g terme. Pour un certain<br />
nombre de rais<strong>on</strong>s bien définies, les pers<strong>on</strong>nes victimes de trafic <strong>on</strong>t un risque élevé de<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tracter une infecti<strong>on</strong> à VIH. Parmi les traumatismes que vivent les victimes de traite,<br />
<strong>on</strong> notera les troubles de stress post-traumatique, l’anxiété, la dépressi<strong>on</strong>, l’aliénati<strong>on</strong>, la<br />
désorientati<strong>on</strong>, l’agressi<strong>on</strong> et des troubles de la c<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong>. Des études indiquent que<br />
le traumatisme s’aggrave durant le processus de traite et peut persister bien après la fin<br />
de <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ute exploitati<strong>on</strong>. S’ils s<strong>on</strong>t sujets aux mêmes traitements délétères que les adultes,<br />
les enfants victimes s<strong>on</strong>t particulièrement vulnérables au trafic, en rais<strong>on</strong> de leur âge, de<br />
leur immaturité et de leur manque d’expérience, aux pratiques abusives qui peuvent,<br />
notamment, freiner leur développement physique ultérieur et à la persistance de la victimisati<strong>on</strong><br />
en rais<strong>on</strong> de difficultés d’attachement, de développement et de relati<strong>on</strong>s sociales.<br />
Le comportement des victimes de trafic peut être difficile à comprendre pour des tiers,<br />
et les victimes elles-mêmes peuvent éprouver des difficultés à comprendre ce qui leur est<br />
arrivé, d’en parler ou de l’expliquer aux autres. Pour ceux qui les en<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>urent, voire même<br />
les pers<strong>on</strong>nes qui les assistent, les victimes peuvent sembler n<strong>on</strong> coopérantes, irascibles,<br />
hostiles, agressives ou peu rec<strong>on</strong>naissantes. Il a été m<strong>on</strong>tré que les stigmates qui leur s<strong>on</strong>t<br />
associés en tant que victimes <strong>on</strong>t un impact significatif et durable sur leur vie, y<br />
compris sur le traumatisme vécu par l’individu victime et en terme de rejet physique<br />
potentiel par la famille et/ou la communauté. Les c<strong>on</strong>séquences à l<strong>on</strong>g terme du trafic<br />
humain pour l’individu s<strong>on</strong>t complexes et dépendent de nombreux facteurs, sans aucune<br />
garantie de récupérati<strong>on</strong>. La revictimisati<strong>on</strong> est souvent une c<strong>on</strong>séquence additi<strong>on</strong>nelle<br />
de ce type d’expérience.<br />
17
INTRODUCTION À LA TRAITE DES ÊTRES HUMAINS: VULNÉRABILITÉ, IMPACT ET ACTIONS<br />
Les implicati<strong>on</strong>s politiques du trafic de pers<strong>on</strong>nes<br />
Le trafic humain est un sujet important de discussi<strong>on</strong> et de préoccupati<strong>on</strong> au niveau<br />
internati<strong>on</strong>al. Du fait qu’il implique des mouvements transnati<strong>on</strong>aux de pers<strong>on</strong>nes, un<br />
important domaine de discussi<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>nexe est celui de la politique migra<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ire. Un autre<br />
débat c<strong>on</strong>cerne les aspects liés aux droits de l’homme. L’auteur décrit l’interacti<strong>on</strong> complexe<br />
entre politique et acti<strong>on</strong> en ce qui c<strong>on</strong>cerne le trafic des pers<strong>on</strong>nes, le passage de<br />
clandestins et les flux migra<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ires. La pertinence d’un c<strong>on</strong>trôle accru des fr<strong>on</strong>tières est<br />
soulignée, comme l’est également le statut attribué à ceux entrant dans un État de manière<br />
illégale. Une c<strong>on</strong>séquence n<strong>on</strong> intenti<strong>on</strong>nelle des efforts dirigés principalement vers les<br />
migrati<strong>on</strong>s illégales peut être la n<strong>on</strong>-identificati<strong>on</strong> et la victimisati<strong>on</strong> de pers<strong>on</strong>nes déjà<br />
victimes de trafic. S<strong>on</strong>t exposés les problèmes spécifiques de migrati<strong>on</strong> auxquels doivent<br />
faire face les pays d’origine et de destinati<strong>on</strong> et pouvant avoir un impact direct sur le trafic<br />
des pers<strong>on</strong>nes, ainsi que les enjeux systémiques à relever dans le cas où une<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>ne victime de trafic serait identifiée dans un État mais originaire d’un autre État.<br />
L’impact éc<strong>on</strong>omique du trafic de pers<strong>on</strong>nes<br />
Les difficultés renc<strong>on</strong>trées pour évaluer l’impact du trafic humain s<strong>on</strong>t particulièrement<br />
apparentes lorsqu’<strong>on</strong> tente de quantifier s<strong>on</strong> coût éc<strong>on</strong>omique. Les c<strong>on</strong>séquences<br />
éc<strong>on</strong>omiques les plus no<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ires du trafic s<strong>on</strong>t néanmoins décrites. Les coûts du trafic de<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>nes comprennent de nombreux éléments, y compris la valeur de <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>utes les<br />
ressources dédiées à sa préventi<strong>on</strong>, au traitement et à l’assistance des victimes ainsi que<br />
l’arrestati<strong>on</strong> et la mise en accusati<strong>on</strong> des criminels. Ces coûts peuvent être compensés en<br />
partie par la récupérati<strong>on</strong> des recettes et avoirs criminels des trafiquants. Le trafic de<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>nes se traduit également par une perte en ressources humaines et une réducti<strong>on</strong><br />
des revenus fiscaux. En outre, le trafic de pers<strong>on</strong>nes redirige les bénéfices financiers de<br />
la migrati<strong>on</strong> des migrants, de leur famille, de leur communauté et de leur gouvernement<br />
ou <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ut autre employeur légitime potentiel vers les trafiquants et leurs associés. Sel<strong>on</strong> les<br />
indicati<strong>on</strong>s disp<strong>on</strong>ibles, le revenu généré par le crime organisé dans ce domaine est<br />
significatif et d’étendue m<strong>on</strong>diale. Étant d<strong>on</strong>né la nature actuelle de l’exploitati<strong>on</strong>, le<br />
trafic humain génère une source de revenu stable et régulière pour les réseaux criminels,<br />
avec un impact c<strong>on</strong>sidérable sur d’autres types d’activités criminelles ou légitimes.<br />
L’impact sur l’au<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rité de la loi<br />
En tant qu’acte criminel, le trafic viole l’au<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rité de la loi, menaçant ainsi les lois nati<strong>on</strong>ales<br />
et internati<strong>on</strong>ales. Le crime organisé est l’un des mécanismes les plus importants de<br />
redistributi<strong>on</strong> illégale de richesses nati<strong>on</strong>ales, influençant les marchés, le pouvoir politique<br />
et les relati<strong>on</strong>s sociétales de manière impropre. Ces effets peuvent être aigus dans les pays<br />
faisant face à des troubles de l’ordre public, des catastrophes naturelles ou des situati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
d’après c<strong>on</strong>flit. Les défis corresp<strong>on</strong>dants auxquels s<strong>on</strong>t c<strong>on</strong>fr<strong>on</strong>tés les gouvernements<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trastent violemment avec les opportunités créées par les trafiquants de pers<strong>on</strong>nes. La<br />
menace sous-jacente posée par les trafiquants de pers<strong>on</strong>nes justifie que la questi<strong>on</strong> soit<br />
de plus en plus rec<strong>on</strong>nue comme un problème de sécurité au niveau m<strong>on</strong>dial.<br />
18
RÉSUMÉ DES ARTICLES<br />
En tant que manifestati<strong>on</strong> complexe de la globalisati<strong>on</strong> de l’éc<strong>on</strong>omie, du crime organisé<br />
et des violati<strong>on</strong>s des droits de l’homme, le trafic humain n<strong>on</strong> seulement provoque<br />
d’extrêmes souffrances aux milli<strong>on</strong>s de pers<strong>on</strong>nes soupç<strong>on</strong>nées d’en être devenues les<br />
victimes à travers le m<strong>on</strong>de, mais a aussi un impact sur les marchés financiers, les<br />
éc<strong>on</strong>omies et les structures sociales des pays où <strong>on</strong> le laisse se développer. En tant que<br />
composante importante du crime organisé, avec <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ute la puissance financière qui y est<br />
associée, le trafic de pers<strong>on</strong>nes a un impact négatif complexe et intriqué dans les sphères<br />
humaine, sociale, politique et éc<strong>on</strong>omique.<br />
Les c<strong>on</strong>séquences déstabilisantes et dangereuses du trafic humain v<strong>on</strong>t d’une violence<br />
facilement rec<strong>on</strong>naissable, de la perte éc<strong>on</strong>omique directe et de préoccupati<strong>on</strong>s majeures<br />
en matière de migrati<strong>on</strong> à des effets complexes moins facilement quantifiables mais <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ut<br />
aussi sévères en terme de risques et de dommages sur le plan envir<strong>on</strong>nemental, social,<br />
sanitaire et sécuritaire, et en termes de violati<strong>on</strong>s des droits de l’homme. Le trafic de<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>nes menace directement le développement de sociétés stables et plus prospères<br />
ainsi que d’éc<strong>on</strong>omies légitimes et s’attaque à <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ute réc<strong>on</strong>ciliati<strong>on</strong> des intérêts politiques<br />
et des obligati<strong>on</strong>s humanitaires et de droits de l’homme. L’ensemble des crimes liés au<br />
trafic ainsi que leurs c<strong>on</strong>séquences étendues et interc<strong>on</strong>nectées <strong>on</strong>t créé une menace<br />
cumulative pour la paix dans le m<strong>on</strong>de et <strong>on</strong>t suscité des rép<strong>on</strong>ses à la fois politiques,<br />
sociales et éc<strong>on</strong>omiques aux niveaux nati<strong>on</strong>al et m<strong>on</strong>dial.<br />
3.—Acti<strong>on</strong><br />
Mesures c<strong>on</strong>tre la traite de pers<strong>on</strong>nes: normes internati<strong>on</strong>ales<br />
traduites sous formes d’acti<strong>on</strong> aux niveaux nati<strong>on</strong>al et régi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
S<strong>on</strong>t décrites dans le présent article les principales mesures gouvernementales en rép<strong>on</strong>se<br />
à la traite des pers<strong>on</strong>nes depuis l’adopti<strong>on</strong> en novembre 2000 du Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>cole visant à<br />
prévenir, réprimer et punir la traite des pers<strong>on</strong>nes, en particulier les femmes et les enfants,<br />
ainsi que la manière d<strong>on</strong>t ces mesures pourraient être rendues plus efficaces. L’attenti<strong>on</strong><br />
des États s’est portée <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ut particulièrement sur l’identificati<strong>on</strong> et la poursuite en justice<br />
des trafiquants, l’identificati<strong>on</strong> et la protecti<strong>on</strong> des pers<strong>on</strong>nes ayant été victimes de trafic<br />
et l’assistance à ces pers<strong>on</strong>nes, et enfin la mise en œuvre d’acti<strong>on</strong>s pour éviter que les<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>nes ne soient victimes de traite en premier lieu. La nécessité de poursuivre la<br />
recherche et de collecter des d<strong>on</strong>nées sur <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>utes les formes de traite est soulignée afin de<br />
développer des stratégies antitraite spécifiquement adaptées et efficaces ainsi que la surveillance<br />
ultérieure de ce type d’interventi<strong>on</strong>s pour vérifier qu’elles <strong>on</strong>t bien l’effet souhaité.<br />
Législati<strong>on</strong><br />
Sur les 116 États ayant ratifié le Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>cole antitraite au 4 décembre 2007, la majorité a<br />
adopté de nouvelles lois ou amendé la législati<strong>on</strong> existante afin de traduire le Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>cole<br />
en acti<strong>on</strong>s, définir le crime de traite des pers<strong>on</strong>nes et augmenter les pénalités appliquées<br />
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INTRODUCTION À LA TRAITE DES ÊTRES HUMAINS: VULNÉRABILITÉ, IMPACT ET ACTIONS<br />
aux trafiquants et a créé des instituti<strong>on</strong>s et des procédures permettant d’appliquer la loi.<br />
De nombreuses initiatives régi<strong>on</strong>ales <strong>on</strong>t également été mises en œuvre. Cependant, dans<br />
la formulati<strong>on</strong> de ces cadres normatifs, la définiti<strong>on</strong> f<strong>on</strong>damentale de la traite des pers<strong>on</strong>nes<br />
manque de cohérence aussi bien au niveau nati<strong>on</strong>al que régi<strong>on</strong>al et la législati<strong>on</strong><br />
nati<strong>on</strong>ale est souvent en deçà des provisi<strong>on</strong>s polyvalentes du Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>cole. Les États se<br />
référent parfois à l’exploitati<strong>on</strong> sexuelle à des fins commerciales, ou à la traite de femmes<br />
et de jeunes filles, <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ut en omettant la traite liée au travail forcé et à la servitude. Dans<br />
d’autres cas, bien que le Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>cole indique clairement que dans le cas des enfants les différents<br />
moyens illégaux de traite ne s<strong>on</strong>t pas pertinents, certaines législati<strong>on</strong>s ne reflètent<br />
pas encore cette provisi<strong>on</strong> ou bien définissent l’âge d’un enfant autrement que comme<br />
étant inférieur à 18 ans.<br />
Une telle absence de clarté dans les définiti<strong>on</strong>s pose un défi majeur en termes de coopérati<strong>on</strong><br />
internati<strong>on</strong>ale. Tous les États ayant ratifié le Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>cole antitraite devraient s’assurer<br />
que leur législati<strong>on</strong> est c<strong>on</strong>forme à ces provisi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Travailler ensemble: la coordinati<strong>on</strong> et la coopérati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>stituent<br />
des outils essentiels pour combattre la traite<br />
Si la collaborati<strong>on</strong> commence au niveau nati<strong>on</strong>al, elle est <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ut aussi importante aux niveaux<br />
bilatéral, régi<strong>on</strong>al et internati<strong>on</strong>al. Sur le plan nati<strong>on</strong>al, la présence de structures instituti<strong>on</strong>nelles<br />
telles que les systèmes d’orientati<strong>on</strong>s, de rapporteurs et de coordinateurs ainsi<br />
que de structures de coordinati<strong>on</strong> au niveau nati<strong>on</strong>al <strong>on</strong>t facilité les acti<strong>on</strong>s c<strong>on</strong>certées<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tre la traite.<br />
Poursuite judiciaire et activités de répressi<strong>on</strong><br />
En dépit d’efforts significatifs pour identifier et prendre soin des victimes ainsi que pour<br />
identifier et poursuivre en justice les trafiquants, la traite des pers<strong>on</strong>nes est encore rapportée<br />
comme étant l’un des secteurs les plus lucratifs de la criminalité organisée au niveau<br />
transnati<strong>on</strong>al. La c<strong>on</strong>fusi<strong>on</strong> entre, d’un côté, la traite humaine et, de l’autre, le trafic ou<br />
autres délits liés à l’immigrati<strong>on</strong> a freiné les progrès en matière de répressi<strong>on</strong>. Les défis<br />
auxquels il faut faire face pour identifier correctement une victime de traite <strong>on</strong>t souligné<br />
la nécessité d’avoir des normes minimales en ce qui c<strong>on</strong>cerne la réacti<strong>on</strong> des systèmes<br />
de justice criminelle.<br />
Un défi majeur pour les f<strong>on</strong>cti<strong>on</strong>naires chargés de l’immigrati<strong>on</strong> et de faire appliquer la<br />
loi est de faire la distincti<strong>on</strong> entre les victimes de la traite et les autres pers<strong>on</strong>nes avec<br />
qui elles entreraient en c<strong>on</strong>tact. Des tensi<strong>on</strong>s manifestes existent entre les initiatives destinées<br />
en premier lieu à faire appliquer la loi c<strong>on</strong>tre les trafiquants et celles visant à faire<br />
valoir les droits de l’homme pour les pers<strong>on</strong>nes victimes de traite. Cependant, les deux<br />
démarches ne s<strong>on</strong>t pas mutuellement exclusives et certaines d<strong>on</strong>nées tendent à m<strong>on</strong>trer<br />
que l’identificati<strong>on</strong> rapide et le traitement approprié des victimes s<strong>on</strong>t primordiaux pour<br />
une réacti<strong>on</strong> efficace en termes de répressi<strong>on</strong>. Certains États <strong>on</strong>t adopté des “périodes de<br />
20
RÉSUMÉ DES ARTICLES<br />
réflexi<strong>on</strong>” pour les pers<strong>on</strong>nes victimes de traite identifiées à l’intérieur de leurs fr<strong>on</strong>tières<br />
afin de leur d<strong>on</strong>ner le temps de récupérer et de réfléchir si elles se sentent capables et<br />
si elles souhaitent coopérer à la répressi<strong>on</strong>. Un sujet de débat particulièrement épineux<br />
est de savoir si le fait d’octroyer un permis de résidence temporaire (en dehors du droit<br />
à une période de réflexi<strong>on</strong>) aux victimes de traite devrait dépendre de la coopérati<strong>on</strong> de<br />
la pers<strong>on</strong>ne victime de traite avec le système de justice criminelle. Il n’a été jusqu’à présent<br />
accordé qu’une faible priorité à l’octroi d’une compensati<strong>on</strong> ou de dommages et intérêts<br />
aux victimes de traite.<br />
Préventi<strong>on</strong><br />
La préventi<strong>on</strong> n’est pas gérée de manière adéquate dans les stratégies antitraite, vraisemblablement<br />
à cause des doutes c<strong>on</strong>cernant l’efficacité des diverses méthodes de préventi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Le manque de surveillance et d’évaluati<strong>on</strong> des programmes de préventi<strong>on</strong> a rendu difficile<br />
l’identificati<strong>on</strong> des initiatives qui se s<strong>on</strong>t avérées efficaces. De nombreux facteurs complexes<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tribuent à la traite d’êtres humains, y compris un certain nombre de facteurs<br />
sous-jacents et de cause première influençant les décisi<strong>on</strong>s que prennent les individus,<br />
menant à la traite et c<strong>on</strong>tribuant à produire un envir<strong>on</strong>nement social et éc<strong>on</strong>omique dans<br />
lequel la traite et l’exploitati<strong>on</strong> peuvent se développer activement. Parmi ces facteurs, <strong>on</strong><br />
retrouve les crises éc<strong>on</strong>omiques, l’exclusi<strong>on</strong> sociale, la discriminati<strong>on</strong> de genre et la faiblesse<br />
des systèmes de protecti<strong>on</strong> légale et sociale. Remédier à ce genre de faille demande<br />
un ensemble d’acti<strong>on</strong>s de plus grande envergure que celles destinées spécifiquement à<br />
enrayer la traite.<br />
Les initiatives de préventi<strong>on</strong> dans les régi<strong>on</strong>s d’origine <strong>on</strong>t sur<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ut pris la forme de campagnes<br />
d’informati<strong>on</strong> et de prise de c<strong>on</strong>science alertant les pers<strong>on</strong>nes des dangers associés<br />
à la recherche de travail à l’étranger, à la promoti<strong>on</strong> d’activités génératrices de revenus,<br />
aux initiatives éducatives formelles et informelles ainsi qu’aux initiatives ciblant des<br />
groupes c<strong>on</strong>nus pour encourir un risque élevé de traite. Certains programmes de préventi<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>on</strong>t pris la forme de mesures visant à renforcer la protecti<strong>on</strong> sociale.<br />
Bien que les États industrialisés vers lesquels la traite des pers<strong>on</strong>nes est organisée aient<br />
investi des f<strong>on</strong>ds principalement à des fins de préventi<strong>on</strong> dans les pays d’origine, ils <strong>on</strong>t<br />
également commencé à déployer des efforts à l’intérieur de leur propre pays, <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ut d’abord<br />
en révisant et en appliquant plus largement leurs politiques d’immigrati<strong>on</strong> et d’emploi. La<br />
surveillance des c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s de travail, notamment dans les secteurs de l’éc<strong>on</strong>omie<br />
informelle, la régulati<strong>on</strong> des agences de recrutement dans les secteurs où la traite sévit,<br />
la mise à dispositi<strong>on</strong> de structures pour protéger les migrants de pratiques abusives et le<br />
recours à la législati<strong>on</strong> pour rép<strong>on</strong>dre à la demande de travail ou de services par des pers<strong>on</strong>nes<br />
victimes de traite s<strong>on</strong>t quelques-uns des outils que les États <strong>on</strong>t utilisé pour rép<strong>on</strong>dre<br />
à la demande. Les pays de destinati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>t également mis en œuvre des campagnes<br />
d’informati<strong>on</strong> de grande envergure afin d’informer le public des possibilités de pratiques<br />
abusives dans leur propre pays.<br />
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INTRODUCTION À LA TRAITE DES ÊTRES HUMAINS: VULNÉRABILITÉ, IMPACT ET ACTIONS<br />
Protecti<strong>on</strong> et assistance<br />
Les directives internati<strong>on</strong>ales clarifient aujourd’hui les droits des pers<strong>on</strong>nes victimes de<br />
traite sel<strong>on</strong> la loi internati<strong>on</strong>ale en vigueur, en particulier leurs droits à la protecti<strong>on</strong> et à<br />
l’assistance. Des agences intergouvernementales et des organisati<strong>on</strong>s n<strong>on</strong> gouvernementales<br />
<strong>on</strong>t élaboré une série de directives de b<strong>on</strong>nes pratiques c<strong>on</strong>cernant l’assistance et<br />
les soins de manière que les pers<strong>on</strong>nes identifiées comme étant victimes de traite puisse<br />
être transférées dans un endroit sûr et recevoir divers services, y compris des soins<br />
physiques et psychologiques, une assistance juridique, hébergement et protecti<strong>on</strong>. Des<br />
efforts significatifs <strong>on</strong>t aussi été faits pour développer les normes c<strong>on</strong>cernant les soins<br />
particuliers prodigués aux enfants.<br />
Le traitement de pers<strong>on</strong>nes victimes de traite dans les pays où elles s<strong>on</strong>t exploitées varie<br />
énormément d’un pays à l’autre. Les restricti<strong>on</strong>s quant à la définiti<strong>on</strong> d’une pers<strong>on</strong>ne victime<br />
de traite (femmes sujettes à la traite pour être exploitées sexuellement à des fins<br />
commerciales, par exemple) peuvent laisser d’autres victimes de la traite sans recours<br />
juridique. Dans de nombreux pays, les victimes de la traite s<strong>on</strong>t encore criminalisées pour<br />
être entrées ou résider illégalement dans les pays de transit et de destinati<strong>on</strong> ou pour leur<br />
implicati<strong>on</strong> dans des activités illicites directement liées à la traite qu’elles <strong>on</strong>t subie. La<br />
c<strong>on</strong>séquence de procédures d’identificati<strong>on</strong> inadéquates signifie généralement qu’une victime<br />
de la traite sera sommairement renvoyée dans s<strong>on</strong> pays d’origine sans que l’<strong>on</strong> se<br />
préoccupe des risques qu’elle encourt potentiellement chez elle.<br />
La récupérati<strong>on</strong> pour une victime de traite est un processus l<strong>on</strong>g et complexe. Les leç<strong>on</strong>s<br />
que l’<strong>on</strong> a pu tirer révèlent que la présompti<strong>on</strong> commune que les victimes doivent être<br />
rapatriées et renvoyées dans leur famille est inappropriée et fait que les victimes s<strong>on</strong>t trop<br />
facilement renvoyées à une situati<strong>on</strong> dans laquelle elles subir<strong>on</strong>t encore d’autres atteintes.<br />
Le rôle de la recherche<br />
La recherche sur la traite des pers<strong>on</strong>nes est vitale pour la mise en place de préventi<strong>on</strong><br />
appropriée, de protecti<strong>on</strong> et d’assistance aux pers<strong>on</strong>nes victimes de traite et pour la poursuite<br />
en justice des criminels. Une recherche active est nécessaire dans plusieurs domaines<br />
clefs – notamment c<strong>on</strong>cernant les caractéristiques des victimes de traite et les c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
de vulnérabilité; les techniques des trafiquants; l’ampleur du problème, y compris le nombre<br />
de pers<strong>on</strong>nes victimes de traite. Elle est également nécessaire pour surveiller, évaluer<br />
et mesurer l’impact des efforts de préventi<strong>on</strong> et de réhabilitati<strong>on</strong>, et assurer ainsi que les<br />
programmes financés s<strong>on</strong>t réellement efficaces.<br />
L’auteur c<strong>on</strong>clut en rec<strong>on</strong>naissant que l’un des défis auxquels doit faire face la communauté<br />
antitraite aujourd’hui est l’ab<strong>on</strong>dance des recommandati<strong>on</strong>s faites aux gouvernements par<br />
les agences et les organisati<strong>on</strong>s de soutien internati<strong>on</strong>ales, régi<strong>on</strong>ales et spécialisées. Un<br />
effort c<strong>on</strong>certé est nécessaire pour aider les États à identifier et à se mettre d’accord sur ce<br />
qui c<strong>on</strong>stitue une “b<strong>on</strong>ne pratique” afin d’assurer que les initiatives antitraite soient plus<br />
efficaces et que les f<strong>on</strong>ds alloués pour juguler la traite soient utilisés de manière plus<br />
judicieuse.<br />
22
Resúmenes de los documen<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<br />
I.—Vulnerabilidad<br />
Vulnerabilidad, prevención y trata de seres humanos:<br />
la necesidad de un nuevo paradigma<br />
En el presente documen<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> se analizan las actuales prácticas de prevención de la trata de<br />
seres humanos para comprender la razón por la cual este fenómeno sigue cobrando<br />
amplitud. Pese a las numerosas iniciativas de prevención y a la c<strong>on</strong>siderable financiación<br />
dedicada, una primera c<strong>on</strong>clusión es que en las actuales prácticas de prevención no<br />
aparece reflejado el enfoque integral recogido en las definici<strong>on</strong>es de la expresión<br />
“prevención del deli<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>” en general, o en la definición ilustrativa de “prevención” que<br />
figura en el artículo 9 del Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>colo para prevenir, reprimir y sanci<strong>on</strong>ar la trata de<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>as, especialmente mujeres y niños, que complementa la C<strong>on</strong>vención de las<br />
Naci<strong>on</strong>es Unidas c<strong>on</strong>tra la Delincuencia Organizada Transnaci<strong>on</strong>al.<br />
Se analiza la “prevención” como ha sido c<strong>on</strong>ceptualizada en los marcos normativos, así<br />
como también la forma en que esos marcos han sido aplicados c<strong>on</strong> un criterio restrictivo.<br />
La vulnerabilidad, y en particular la vulnerabilidad de un individuo en su c<strong>on</strong>tex<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> social,<br />
aparece como el eslabón perdido en la formulación de políticas y prácticas sólidas. Se<br />
hace hincapié en lo que es la vulnerabilidad ante la trata como c<strong>on</strong>dición previa para<br />
elaborar programas de prevención válidos. Se introducen nuevos c<strong>on</strong>cep<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>s c<strong>on</strong> respec<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
a la elaboración de políticas estratégicas para prevenir la trata, que permitan encarar los<br />
problemas reales de las poblaci<strong>on</strong>es vulnerables en función de sus propias necesidades<br />
y en sus corresp<strong>on</strong>dientes c<strong>on</strong>tex<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>s.<br />
El au<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>r cuesti<strong>on</strong>a lo que significa para los exper<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>s el hecho de que la trata de seres<br />
humanos sea un fenómeno de creciente amplitud ya que es imposible cuantificar cualquier<br />
evaluación de un aumen<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> de la trata de pers<strong>on</strong>as, salvo en términos generales. Ello se<br />
explica, entre otras cosas, por las diferencias que existen entre las definici<strong>on</strong>es naci<strong>on</strong>ales<br />
del deli<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> de la trata, así como entre las definici<strong>on</strong>es de víctima de la trata, además de la<br />
falta de da<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>s coherentes, fiables y comparables.<br />
Tan<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> la prevención del deli<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> como la reducción de la vulnerabilidad, c<strong>on</strong>stituyen enfoques<br />
válidos para combatir la trata de seres humanos. Cada uno de ellos sup<strong>on</strong>e una<br />
dinámica particular en cuan<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> a la planificación de las políticas y los programas. P<strong>on</strong>er<br />
de relieve la vulnerabilidad mejorará el comp<strong>on</strong>ente de derechos humanos de las políticas<br />
de prevención de la trata. Las definici<strong>on</strong>es tradici<strong>on</strong>ales de prevención del deli<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
pueden c<strong>on</strong>tribuir a mejorar las políticas de lucha c<strong>on</strong>tra la trata, centrándose en reducir<br />
los elemen<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>s de riesgo del en<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rno. De ahí que, en teoría, la prevención debería<br />
23
INTRODUCCIÓN A LA TRATA DE PERSONAS: VULNERABILIDAD, IMPACT0 Y ACCIÓN<br />
apuntar a eliminar la trata antes de que ocurra, limitando los fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>res que exp<strong>on</strong>en a los<br />
individuos al riesgo de ser obje<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> de dicha trata.<br />
Los principios básicos de la prevención del deli<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>, como la inclusión de una gran diversidad<br />
de partes interesadas, el empoderamien<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> de las pers<strong>on</strong>as vulnerables y la reducción<br />
de los fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>res de riesgo, s<strong>on</strong> intrínsecos al desarrollo del sentido de “prevención”<br />
c<strong>on</strong>forme al artículo 9 del Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>colo c<strong>on</strong>tra la trata de pers<strong>on</strong>as. Lamentablemente, la aplicación<br />
de esos principios ha sido limitada, insistiéndose principalmente en la organización<br />
de campañas de sensibilización pública a escala tan<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> amplia como pequeña dirigidas a<br />
las víctimas potenciales de la trata. Esos programas se preparan partiendo de la base de<br />
que cuan<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> más c<strong>on</strong>ciencia tenga un individuo del daño que lo acecha más fácil le resultará<br />
escoger un camino que lo aparte del mismo. No obstante, esos programas s<strong>on</strong> insuficientes<br />
porque no ofrecen a las víctimas potenciales la posibilidad de actuar de otra<br />
forma. Si el énfasis de los programas de prevención apunta exclusivamente a sensibilizar<br />
a las víctimas potenciales sobre los posibles riegos, la prevención es limitada. Al no proporci<strong>on</strong>ar<br />
otras alternativas, en esas intervenci<strong>on</strong>es la resp<strong>on</strong>sabilidad primordial de la<br />
prevención de la explotación recae en el propio individuo. Las víctimas potenciales<br />
seguirán siendo tan vulnerables antes como después de ver las advertencias en los carteles,<br />
las películas y la televisión.<br />
El au<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>r recalca que es imposible ayudar a las poblaci<strong>on</strong>es vulnerables a protegerse eficazmente<br />
del peligro si éstas no comprenden la razón por la cual están expuestas a la<br />
violencia, el abuso y la explotación. Reformular la cuestión de la prevención a través de<br />
una definición de la vulnerabilidad ante el abuso y la explotación permitirá adoptar un<br />
enfoque más sólido para prevenir la trata. Si bien el c<strong>on</strong>cep<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> más amplio de prevención<br />
forma parte del marco normativo de numerosos países, en la práctica se han desatendido<br />
en gran medida los modelos de prevención desde el pun<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> de vista de sus relaci<strong>on</strong>es<br />
c<strong>on</strong> la vulnerabilidad social, cultural, ec<strong>on</strong>ómica y política de algunas poblaci<strong>on</strong>es o grupos<br />
ante la trata.<br />
Aunque los términos “vulnerable” y “vulnerabilidad”, se utilizan frecuentemente en las<br />
deliberaci<strong>on</strong>es sobre la lucha c<strong>on</strong>tra la trata, no han sido definidos de manera c<strong>on</strong>vincente,<br />
c<strong>on</strong> excepción del c<strong>on</strong>tex<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> jurídico. El documen<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> incluye un análisis de diversos<br />
criterios para comprender la vulnerabilidad y proporci<strong>on</strong>a una definición c<strong>on</strong>forme a la<br />
cual la “vulnerabilidad” remite a una “c<strong>on</strong>dición que resulta de la forma en que los individuos<br />
experimentan negativamente la compleja interacción de los fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>res sociales, culturales,<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>ómicos, políticos y ambientales que c<strong>on</strong>forman el c<strong>on</strong>tex<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> de sus respectivas<br />
comunidades”.<br />
Teniendo en cuenta los elemen<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>s menci<strong>on</strong>ados, será preciso elaborar indicadores de las<br />
c<strong>on</strong>dici<strong>on</strong>es de la vulnerabilidad en relación c<strong>on</strong> los temas siguientes: los niños, el género,<br />
la pobreza, la exclusión social y cultural, la educación limitada, la inestabilidad política,<br />
la guerra y los c<strong>on</strong>flic<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, los marcos sociales, culturales y jurídicos, el desplazamien<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
impues<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> por coacción, y la demanda.<br />
24
RESÚMENES DE LOS DOCUMENTOS<br />
Como la mayoría de las c<strong>on</strong>dici<strong>on</strong>es causantes de la vulnerabilidad s<strong>on</strong> sistémicas y resultan<br />
de las políticas adoptadas por los Gobiernos, incumbirá a los Estados asegurar la protección<br />
de los individuos vulnerables dentro de su jurisdicción.<br />
2.—Impac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
El impac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> de la trata de pers<strong>on</strong>as<br />
El documen<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> describe el impac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> y el cos<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> de la trata de seres humanos que sup<strong>on</strong>e<br />
para los individuos, así como para los sistemas político, ec<strong>on</strong>ómico y social. La trata de<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>as es un deli<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> cometido c<strong>on</strong>tra individuos y sus víctimas s<strong>on</strong> quienes experimentan<br />
más directamente sus c<strong>on</strong>secuencias. Si bien la trata de seres humanos es un fenómeno<br />
mundial que trasciende las fr<strong>on</strong>teras, sus c<strong>on</strong>secuencias profundas y de gran alcance<br />
se sienten en los distin<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>s países y sociedades. La trata de pers<strong>on</strong>as afecta a más de 130<br />
países. Se identifican algunos de los principales efec<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>s sociales, políticos y ec<strong>on</strong>ómicos<br />
de la trata de pers<strong>on</strong>as, jun<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong> importantes elemen<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>s relativos a las políticas en cada<br />
una de esas esferas.<br />
Las c<strong>on</strong>secuencias de la trata en los individuos<br />
La trata de seres humanos afecta a los individuos que s<strong>on</strong> sus víctimas en <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>dos los aspec<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<br />
de la vida. Cada una de las etapas del proceso de la trata puede c<strong>on</strong>llevar el maltra<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
y la violencia física, sexual y sicológica, privaci<strong>on</strong>es y <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rtura, el c<strong>on</strong>sumo obligado de<br />
substancias, la manipulación, explotación ec<strong>on</strong>ómica y abusos en las c<strong>on</strong>dici<strong>on</strong>es de trabajo<br />
y de vida. C<strong>on</strong>trariamente a la mayoría de los demás deli<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>s violen<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, la trata suele<br />
entrañar un traumatismo prol<strong>on</strong>gado y repetido. La documentación y las investigaci<strong>on</strong>es<br />
describen situaci<strong>on</strong>es específicas de abuso de hombres, mujeres y niños en c<strong>on</strong>dici<strong>on</strong>es<br />
de explotación particulares, las lesi<strong>on</strong>es físicas a cor<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> y largo plazo, las discapacidades<br />
y los fallecimien<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>s que sobrevienen. Por una serie de motivos especificados, las pers<strong>on</strong>as<br />
víctimas de la trata corren un al<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> riesgo de infección por el VIH. Los traumatismos que<br />
experimentan las víctimas de la trata incluyen el tras<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rno postraumático del estrés, la<br />
ansiedad, depresión, alienación, desorientación, agresión y dificultades de c<strong>on</strong>centración.<br />
Los estudios muestran que los traumas y traumatismos se agudizan durante el proceso<br />
del tráfico y pueden subsistir durante largo tiempo después de haber cesado la explotación.<br />
Suje<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>s al mismo tratamien<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> perjudicial que los adul<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, los niños víctimas de la trata s<strong>on</strong><br />
especialmente vulnerables a la misma, en razón de su edad, inmadurez y falta de experiencia;<br />
a prácticas abusivas que pueden, por ejemplo, impedir su desarrollo físico; y a una<br />
victimización c<strong>on</strong>stante en razón de los vínculos afectivos y de dificultades de desarrollo<br />
y de orden social. Puede resultar difícil a terceras pers<strong>on</strong>as comprender el comportamien<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
de las víctimas de la trata, debido a la dificultad para estas últimas de captar cabalmente<br />
lo que les ha ocurrido o de explicarlo y discutirlo c<strong>on</strong> otras pers<strong>on</strong>as. El en<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rno<br />
puede percibir a las víctimas como poco cooperativas, irritables, hostiles, agresivas, o<br />
25
INTRODUCCIÓN A LA TRATA DE PERSONAS: VULNERABILIDAD, IMPACT0 Y ACCIÓN<br />
ingratas, incluso c<strong>on</strong> quienes las ayudan. Se ha observado que el estigma propio de su<br />
c<strong>on</strong>dición de víctimas, las afectan de manera permanente y marcada en su vida, inclusive<br />
en el trauma experimentado por cada víctima, y la posibilidad del rechazo físico por la<br />
familia y/o la comunidad. Las c<strong>on</strong>secuencias a largo plazo de la trata de pers<strong>on</strong>as en los<br />
individuos s<strong>on</strong> complejas y dependen de numerosos fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>res, sin que pueda garantizarse<br />
la recuperación. Otra posible c<strong>on</strong>secuencia de la experiencia es que las víctimas vuelven<br />
a ser el obje<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> de victimización.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>secuencias políticas de la trata de pers<strong>on</strong>as<br />
La trata de pers<strong>on</strong>as es un tema de discusión, además de obje<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> de preocupaci<strong>on</strong>es internaci<strong>on</strong>ales<br />
importantes. Como incluye el desplazamien<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> transnaci<strong>on</strong>al de pers<strong>on</strong>as, una<br />
importante esfera de debate es la política de migración. Otra esfera se relaci<strong>on</strong>a c<strong>on</strong> los<br />
derechos humanos. El au<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>r describe la compleja interrelación entre las políticas y las<br />
medidas relativas a la trata de pers<strong>on</strong>as, el tráfico de los migrantes y las corrientes migra<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rias.<br />
Se señala la importancia que reviste un c<strong>on</strong>trol fr<strong>on</strong>terizo más eficaz, así como la<br />
c<strong>on</strong>dición atribuida a las pers<strong>on</strong>as que no ingresan legalmente al terri<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rio de un país.<br />
Una c<strong>on</strong>secuencia involuntaria de los esfuerzos destinados principalmente a c<strong>on</strong>trolar la<br />
migración ilícita puede ser la no identificación y la victimización de las víctimas de la<br />
trata. Se exp<strong>on</strong>en asimismo los problemas c<strong>on</strong>cre<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>s de migración a que se ven c<strong>on</strong>fr<strong>on</strong>tados<br />
los países de origen y de destino, que pueden tener un efec<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> direc<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> en la trata de<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>as, así como los re<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>s sistémicos que es preciso resolver cuando se identifica en<br />
un Estado a una víctima originaria de otro Estado.<br />
Impac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> ec<strong>on</strong>ómico de la trata de pers<strong>on</strong>as<br />
Las dificultades que se plantean para evaluar el impac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> de la trata de pers<strong>on</strong>as s<strong>on</strong> más<br />
patentes cuando se procura cuantificar sus cos<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>s ec<strong>on</strong>ómicos. Pese a ello, en el documen<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
se describen las c<strong>on</strong>secuencias ec<strong>on</strong>ómicas esenciales de la trata. Los cos<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>s del<br />
deli<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> de la trata de pers<strong>on</strong>as engloban numerosos elemen<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, como el valor de <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>dos los<br />
recursos dedicados a la prevención, el tratamien<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> y el apoyo de las víctimas, y la captura<br />
y enjuiciamien<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> de los au<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>res del deli<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Es<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>s cos<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>s pueden compensarse parcialmente<br />
recuperando las ganancias ilícitas y los bienes de los tratantes. La trata de pers<strong>on</strong>as<br />
también redunda en una pérdida de recursos humanos y una disminución de los ingresos<br />
fiscales. Además, la trata canaliza hacia los tratantes y sus cómplices los beneficios<br />
financieros de la migración, en detrimen<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> de los migrantes, sus familias, la comunidad,<br />
el Gobierno o los posibles empleadores legítimos. Todo indica que los ingresos generados<br />
por la delincuencia organizada c<strong>on</strong>exa s<strong>on</strong> voluminosos y de alcance planetario. Debido<br />
a que la explotación se caracteriza por ser permanente, la trata de pers<strong>on</strong>as c<strong>on</strong>stituye<br />
una fuente estable y regular de ingresos de las redes de delincuentes, c<strong>on</strong> las c<strong>on</strong>siguientes<br />
repercusi<strong>on</strong>es en otras formas de actividades delictivas, así como en las actividades<br />
comerciales y productivas lícitas.<br />
26
RESÚMENES DE LOS DOCUMENTOS<br />
Impac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> en el Estado de derecho<br />
En tan<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> que deli<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> la trata vulnera el Estado de derecho y representa una amenaza para<br />
las jurisdicci<strong>on</strong>es naci<strong>on</strong>ales y el derecho internaci<strong>on</strong>al. El deli<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> organizado es uno de<br />
los principales mecanismos de redistribución ilícita de la riqueza naci<strong>on</strong>al que influye<br />
indebidamente en los mercados, en los poderes políticos y en las relaci<strong>on</strong>es de la sociedad.<br />
Esos efec<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>s pueden ser pr<strong>on</strong>unciados en los países que se movilizan para hacer frente<br />
a disturbios sociales o catástrofes naturales o situaci<strong>on</strong>es c<strong>on</strong>secutivas a c<strong>on</strong>flic<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>s. Los<br />
ingentes problemas que plantean a los Gobiernos c<strong>on</strong>trastan radicalmente c<strong>on</strong> las oportunidades<br />
que ofrecen a los tratantes de seres humanos. La amenaza subyacente que<br />
plantea la trata de pers<strong>on</strong>as explica por qué se c<strong>on</strong>sidera cada vez más el problema como<br />
parte integrante de la seguridad mundial.<br />
Por ser una manifestación compleja de la ec<strong>on</strong>omía mundial, el deli<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> organizado y las<br />
violaci<strong>on</strong>es de los derechos humanos, la trata de seres causa situaci<strong>on</strong>es de dificultad<br />
extrema a los mill<strong>on</strong>es de posibles víctimas a escala mundial y repercute en los mercados<br />
financieros, las ec<strong>on</strong>omías y las estructuras sociales de los países en que se produce.<br />
Como importante comp<strong>on</strong>ente de la delincuencia organizada, c<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>do el poder financiero<br />
que c<strong>on</strong>lleva, la trata de pers<strong>on</strong>as tiene complejos efec<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>s negativos e interrelaci<strong>on</strong>ados<br />
en el ámbi<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> humano, social, político y ec<strong>on</strong>ómico.<br />
Las c<strong>on</strong>secuencias desestabilizadoras y peligrosas de la trata de pers<strong>on</strong>as abarcan desde<br />
la violencia patente, las pérdidas ec<strong>on</strong>ómicas directas y graves preocupaci<strong>on</strong>es en materia<br />
de migración, hasta los efec<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>s más complejos, pero más difícilmente cuantificables e<br />
igualmente graves, que sup<strong>on</strong>en los riesgos y los perjuicios ambientales, sociales, sanitarios<br />
y de seguridad, así como en materia de violación de los derechos humanos. La trata<br />
de pers<strong>on</strong>as obstaculiza directamente el desarrollo de sociedades estables y más prósperas<br />
y de ec<strong>on</strong>omías lícitas, y en<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rpece notablemente la c<strong>on</strong>ciliación de los intereses políticos<br />
c<strong>on</strong> las obligaci<strong>on</strong>es humanitarias y relativas a los derechos humanos. La diversidad<br />
de deli<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>s relaci<strong>on</strong>ados c<strong>on</strong> la trata y sus repercusi<strong>on</strong>es amplias y relaci<strong>on</strong>adas entre sí,<br />
han generado una acumulación de amenazas a la paz, la seguridad y la estabilidad mundiales,<br />
y han c<strong>on</strong>figurado respuestas políticas, sociales y ec<strong>on</strong>ómicas en los planos naci<strong>on</strong>al<br />
y mundial.<br />
3.—Medidas<br />
Respuestas a la trata de pers<strong>on</strong>as: normas internaci<strong>on</strong>ales<br />
traducidas en medidas a nivel naci<strong>on</strong>al y regi<strong>on</strong>al.<br />
En el documen<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> se exp<strong>on</strong>en las principales respuestas aportadas por los Gobiernos a la<br />
trata de pers<strong>on</strong>as desde la aprobación en noviembre de 2000 del Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>colo para prevenir,<br />
27
INTRODUCCIÓN A LA TRATA DE PERSONAS: VULNERABILIDAD, IMPACT0 Y ACCIÓN<br />
reprimir y sanci<strong>on</strong>ar la trata de pers<strong>on</strong>as, especialmente mujeres y niños, y se explica la<br />
forma en que algunas de esas respuestas pueden tener mayor eficacia. Los Estados han<br />
c<strong>on</strong>centrado su atención principalmente en identificar y enjuiciar a los tratantes, así como<br />
en identificar, proteger y ayudar a las pers<strong>on</strong>as que ya han sido víctimas de la trata y en<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>mar medidas para impedir ante <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>do que haya víctimas de esa trata. Se destaca la necesidad<br />
de realizar más investigaci<strong>on</strong>es y acopiar más da<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>s sobre <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>das las formas de trata<br />
para elaborar estrategias de lucha adaptadas a situaci<strong>on</strong>es c<strong>on</strong>cretas, y realizar el c<strong>on</strong>siguiente<br />
seguimien<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> de esas intervenci<strong>on</strong>es c<strong>on</strong> obje<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> de cerciorarse de la obtención del<br />
efec<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> deseado.<br />
Legislación<br />
De los 116 Estados que ratificar<strong>on</strong> el Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>colo c<strong>on</strong>tra la trata de pers<strong>on</strong>as al 4 de diciembre<br />
de 2007, la mayoría han promulgado nuevas leyes o modificado la legislación existente<br />
para poder aplicar el Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>colo, tipificar el deli<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> de la trata de pers<strong>on</strong>as y aumentar<br />
las penas impuestas a los tratantes, y han establecido instituci<strong>on</strong>es y procedimien<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>s destinados<br />
a aplicar la legislación corresp<strong>on</strong>diente. También se han llevado a la práctica<br />
numerosas iniciativas regi<strong>on</strong>ales. No obstante, la formulación de es<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>s marcos normativos,<br />
en el plano tan<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> naci<strong>on</strong>al como regi<strong>on</strong>al, es poco coherente por lo que se refiere a la<br />
definición básica de la trata de pers<strong>on</strong>as, y la legislación naci<strong>on</strong>al frecuentemente no basta<br />
para asegurar el cumplimien<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> de las extensas disposici<strong>on</strong>es del Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>colo. Los Estados<br />
a veces se refieren a la explotación sexual comercial o a la trata de mujeres y niñas, pero<br />
omiten menci<strong>on</strong>ar la trata para proporci<strong>on</strong>ar trabajo forzoso o en c<strong>on</strong>dici<strong>on</strong>es de servidumbre.<br />
En otros casos, si bien el Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>colo c<strong>on</strong>tra la trata de pers<strong>on</strong>as indica claramente que<br />
tratándose de niños no es pertinente referirse a los diversos medios ilegales de realizar<br />
la trata, algunas leyes <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>davía no reflejan esa disposición, o bien no definen la edad de<br />
un niño por su c<strong>on</strong>dición de menor de 18 años.<br />
Esa falta de claridad de las definici<strong>on</strong>es plantea graves problemas en materia de cooperación<br />
internaci<strong>on</strong>al. Todos los Estados que ratificar<strong>on</strong> el Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>colo deberían cerciorarse<br />
de que su legislación cumpla lo previs<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> en las disposici<strong>on</strong>es del mismo.<br />
Colaborar: la coordinación y la cooperación s<strong>on</strong> instrumen<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<br />
fundamentales para combatir la trata<br />
La colaboración empieza a nivel naci<strong>on</strong>al pero también es importante en los niveles bilateral,<br />
regi<strong>on</strong>al e internaci<strong>on</strong>al. A nivel naci<strong>on</strong>al, la presencia de estructuras instituci<strong>on</strong>ales<br />
como los mecanismos naci<strong>on</strong>ales de derivación, los rela<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>res naci<strong>on</strong>ales y los coordinadores<br />
y estructuras de coordinación naci<strong>on</strong>ales, han facilitado la adopción de medidas<br />
c<strong>on</strong>certadas c<strong>on</strong>tra la trata.<br />
Actuación penal y cumplimien<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> de la ley<br />
Pese a los importantes esfuerzos destinados a identificar y atender a las víctimas así como<br />
a ubicar y enjuiciar a los tratantes, la trata de pers<strong>on</strong>as sigue siendo uno de los sec<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>res<br />
más lucrativos de la delincuencia organizada internaci<strong>on</strong>al. La c<strong>on</strong>fusión entre la trata de<br />
28
RESÚMENES DE LOS DOCUMENTOS<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>as, por un lado, y el tráfico o c<strong>on</strong>trabando u otros deli<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>s relaci<strong>on</strong>ados c<strong>on</strong> la inmigración,<br />
por otro, ha en<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rpecido los progresos en materia de cumplimien<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> de la ley. Los<br />
problemas que sup<strong>on</strong>e la identificación apropiada de una víctima de la trata han pues<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
de relieve la necesidad de disp<strong>on</strong>er de normas mínimas relativas a la respuesta de los sistemas<br />
de justicia penal.<br />
Un importante re<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> que se plantea a los funci<strong>on</strong>arios de inmigración y encargados de<br />
hacer cumplir la ley c<strong>on</strong>siste en cómo distinguir las víctimas de la trata de otras víctimas<br />
c<strong>on</strong> las que puedan entrar en c<strong>on</strong>tac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Están en c<strong>on</strong>flic<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> las iniciativas destinadas ante<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>do a aplicar la ley para castigar a los tratantes, c<strong>on</strong> las iniciativas cuyo obje<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> es defender<br />
los derechos humanos de las víctimas de la trata. Sin embargo, no s<strong>on</strong> dos enfoques<br />
mutuamente excluyentes y los hechos observados muestran que es esencial rápidamente<br />
identificar y prodigar un tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> adecuado a las víctimas para c<strong>on</strong>seguir que los servicios<br />
encargados del cumplimien<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> de la ley aporten una respuesta eficaz. Algunos Estados han<br />
comenzado a adoptar la práctica de prever "períodos de reflexión" para las víctimas de la<br />
trata identificadas dentro de sus fr<strong>on</strong>teras, que les permitan recuperarse y reflexi<strong>on</strong>ar para<br />
poder determinar si s<strong>on</strong> capaces y están dispuests a cooperar c<strong>on</strong> los servicios policiales<br />
y judiciales competentes. Una cuestión particularmente c<strong>on</strong>trovertida c<strong>on</strong>siste en determinar<br />
si la c<strong>on</strong>cesión de permisos de residencia temporales (independientemente del derecho<br />
a disp<strong>on</strong>er de períodos de reflexión) a las víctimas de la trata, debe supeditarse a su<br />
cooperación c<strong>on</strong> la justicia penal. Hasta la fecha se ha dado poca prioridad a o<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rgar una<br />
indemnización a las víctimas de la trata por los daños sufridos.<br />
Prevención<br />
En las estrategias de lucha c<strong>on</strong>tra la trata no se aborda debidamente la prevención, quizás<br />
porque no se c<strong>on</strong>oce c<strong>on</strong> certeza la eficacia de las distintas técnicas en la materia. La<br />
falta de programas de seguimien<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> y evaluación de la prevención ha hecho difícil identificar<br />
las iniciativas que han tenido éxi<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Numerosos fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>res complejos c<strong>on</strong>tribuyen a la<br />
trata de seres humanos, incluidos diversos fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>res subyacentes y profundamente arraigados<br />
que ejercen una influencia en las decisi<strong>on</strong>es adoptadas por individuos y que c<strong>on</strong>ducen<br />
a la trata, y que además c<strong>on</strong>tribuyen a crear un en<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rno social y ec<strong>on</strong>ómico propicio<br />
a la trata y la explotación. Entre esos fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>res figuran la crisis ec<strong>on</strong>ómica, la exclusión<br />
social, la discriminación por motivos de género y un sistema jurídico o de protección<br />
social endeble. Para resolver las carencias que representan esos fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>res se necesita un<br />
c<strong>on</strong>jun<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> de medidas más amplio que el de las destinadas especialmente a impedir la trata.<br />
Las iniciativas de prevención en las z<strong>on</strong>as de origen de las víctimas han c<strong>on</strong>sistido principalmente<br />
en campañas de información y sensibilización que alertan a las pers<strong>on</strong>as del<br />
peligro que entraña la búsqueda de trabajo en el extranjero, la promoción de actividades<br />
generadoras de ingresos, iniciativas de educación oficial y extraoficial, e iniciativas destinadas<br />
a los grupos que se sabe más expues<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>s a la trata. Algunos programas de prevención<br />
han c<strong>on</strong>sistido en medidas para reforzar la protección social.<br />
Si bien los Estados industrializados de destino de las víctimas de la trata han invertido<br />
dinero sobre <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>do para la prevención en los países de origen, también han comenzado a<br />
29
INTRODUCCIÓN A LA TRATA DE PERSONAS: VULNERABILIDAD, IMPACT0 Y ACCIÓN<br />
actuar en sus propios países, sobre <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>do procediendo a la revisión y una amplia aplicación<br />
de políticas de inmigración y empleo. Algunos de los instrumen<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>s que han utilizado los<br />
Estados para abordar el problema de la demanda han sido la supervisión de las c<strong>on</strong>dici<strong>on</strong>es<br />
de trabajo, sobre <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>do en los sec<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>res de la ec<strong>on</strong>omía informal, la reglamentación<br />
de las actividades de las agencias de c<strong>on</strong>tratación en los sec<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>res en que se produce la<br />
trata, la propuesta de servicios para proteger a los inmigrantes de las prácticas abusivas<br />
y la utilización de instrumen<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>s legislativos para encarar la demanda del trabajo o los servicios<br />
proporci<strong>on</strong>ados por las víctimas de la trata. Los países de destino también han llevado<br />
adelante campañas de divulgación a gran escala para informar al público acerca de<br />
las posibles prácticas abusivas en su terri<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rio naci<strong>on</strong>al.<br />
Protección y asistencia<br />
Las directrices internaci<strong>on</strong>ales aclaran actualmente los derechos de las pers<strong>on</strong>as obje<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
de la trata en virtud del derecho internaci<strong>on</strong>al en vigor, sobre <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>do su derecho a la protección<br />
y la asistencia. Los organismos intergubernamentales y las organizaci<strong>on</strong>es no<br />
gubernamentales han elaborado <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>da una serie de directrices de buenas prácticas sobre<br />
la asistencia y la atención, que permiten transferir a las víctimas identificadas a un lugar<br />
seguro para recibir diversos servicios, incluida la atención física y sicológica, asistencia<br />
jurídica, albergue y protección. También se ha realizado una importante labor normativa<br />
destinada a prodigar una atención especial a los niños.<br />
El tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>cedido a las víctimas de la trata en los lugares d<strong>on</strong>de se produce la explotación<br />
difiere c<strong>on</strong>siderablemente de un país a otro. La definición restringida de víctima de la<br />
trata (por ejemplo, la trata de mujeres para la explotación sexual comercial) puede privar<br />
a otras víctimas de la trata de <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>do recurso jurídico. En muchas partes, las víctimas s<strong>on</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>sideradas culpables por su entrada o residencia ilícitas en los países de tránsi<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> y de<br />
destino o por su participación en actividades ilegales que s<strong>on</strong> una c<strong>on</strong>secuencia directa<br />
de su c<strong>on</strong>dición. Los procedimien<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>s de identificación inapropiados de la víctima de la<br />
trata suelen c<strong>on</strong>ducir a su devolución sin más trámite a su país de origen, no teniendo<br />
en cuenta los riesgos a que se la exp<strong>on</strong>e de esa forma.<br />
La recuperación de las víctimas de la trata es un proceso prol<strong>on</strong>gado y complejo. Las<br />
enseñanzas adquiridas muestran que la tradici<strong>on</strong>al hipótesis según la cual es preciso repatriar<br />
a las víctimas y reintegrarlas a su vida familiar no es adecuada, ya que generalmente<br />
las vuelve a colocar en una situación vulnerable, expuestas a daños adici<strong>on</strong>ales.<br />
La función de la investigación<br />
Las investigaci<strong>on</strong>es sobre la trata de seres humanos s<strong>on</strong> fundamentales para garantizar la<br />
prevención, protección y asistencia apropiadas a las víctimas de la trata, así como el<br />
procesamien<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> de los au<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>res del deli<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Las investigaci<strong>on</strong>es en curso s<strong>on</strong> necesarias en<br />
varias esferas clave, sobre <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>do las relaci<strong>on</strong>adas c<strong>on</strong> las características propias de las<br />
30
RESÚMENES DE LOS DOCUMENTOS<br />
víctimas y las c<strong>on</strong>dici<strong>on</strong>es de su vulnerabilidad; las técnicas de los traficantes; la amplitud<br />
del fenómeno, incluido el número de las víctimas, y las investigaci<strong>on</strong>es destinadas a<br />
supervisar, evaluar y calibrar el impac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> de la labor de prevención y rehabilitación, para<br />
asegurarse de que los programas financiados sean realmente eficaces.<br />
Como c<strong>on</strong>clusión, el au<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>r rec<strong>on</strong>oce que uno de los re<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>s planteados a la comunidad que<br />
lucha hoy día c<strong>on</strong>tra la trata es la profusión de recomendaci<strong>on</strong>es formuladas a los<br />
Gobiernos, por los organismos y organizaci<strong>on</strong>es especializados de promoción, tan<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> internaci<strong>on</strong>ales<br />
como regi<strong>on</strong>ales. Es necesaria una labor c<strong>on</strong>certada para ayudar a los Estados<br />
a identificar y definir de común acuerdo lo que c<strong>on</strong>stituye “la buena práctica”, a fin de<br />
reforzar la eficacia de las iniciativas para combatir la trata así como de los f<strong>on</strong>dos destinados<br />
a p<strong>on</strong>er fin a la misma.<br />
31
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56
PART ONE<br />
Vulnerability
Vulnerability, preventi<strong>on</strong> and human<br />
trafficking: the need for a new paradigm<br />
Michèle A. Clark<br />
I.—<str<strong>on</strong>g>Introducti<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
In the present paper, current practices in the preventi<strong>on</strong> of trafficking in human beings<br />
are analysed in order <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> understand why trafficking c<strong>on</strong>tinues <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be identified as a growing<br />
phenomen<strong>on</strong>. Numerous preventi<strong>on</strong> initiatives and c<strong>on</strong>siderable funding notwithstanding,<br />
a preliminary c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> is that existing preventi<strong>on</strong> practices do not reflect the<br />
comprehensive approach embodied in definiti<strong>on</strong>s of crime preventi<strong>on</strong> in general or in the<br />
illustrative definiti<strong>on</strong> of “preventi<strong>on</strong>” in article 9 of the Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> Prevent, Suppress and<br />
Punish <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in Pers<strong>on</strong>s, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> against Transnati<strong>on</strong>al Organized Crime. 1 “Preventi<strong>on</strong>” as it has been<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ceptualized in normative frameworks are examined, as also how those frameworks<br />
have been narrowly implemented. Vulnerability, in particular the vulnerability of an individual<br />
in his or her social c<strong>on</strong>text, emerges as the missing link in formulating welldeveloped<br />
policies and practices. Focus is placed <strong>on</strong> what c<strong>on</strong>stitutes vulnerability <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
trafficking as a prerequisite for the development of valid preventi<strong>on</strong> programmes. New<br />
c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s are introduced as regards the development of strategic policies <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> prevent<br />
trafficking that are capable of addressing the real problems of vulnerable populati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
according <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> their own needs, in their own c<strong>on</strong>texts.<br />
The <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col was adopted in November 2000 and had been ratified by 116<br />
countries as at 4 December 2007. Since the adopti<strong>on</strong> of the Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col, the internati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
community has witnessed an explosi<strong>on</strong> of popular and political interest in combating trafficking<br />
in human beings, reflected in an influx of funds, widespread awareness-raising<br />
campaigns, feature films and numerous books, the enactment of anti-trafficking legislati<strong>on</strong><br />
around the world, law enforcement-centred training and the rapid proliferati<strong>on</strong> of victim<br />
support services provided by n<strong>on</strong>-governmental, internati<strong>on</strong>al or regi<strong>on</strong>al organizati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
These measures are being implemented within the framework established in the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col, now known as the “3P” approach, focusing <strong>on</strong> the preventi<strong>on</strong> of the crime, the<br />
prosecuti<strong>on</strong> of offenders and the protecti<strong>on</strong> of victims.<br />
Several years later, it is now reas<strong>on</strong>able <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> ask how far countries have come in preventing<br />
trafficking. In areas of prosecuti<strong>on</strong> and protecti<strong>on</strong>, tangible evidence of new<br />
1<br />
General Assembly resoluti<strong>on</strong> 55/25, annex II.<br />
59
AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN TRAFFICKING: VULNERABILITY, IMPACT AND ACTION<br />
legislati<strong>on</strong> and a rise in law enforcement activities (police training, arrests, trials, c<strong>on</strong>victi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
and sentences) indicate that efforts have been made. Some victims of trafficking have<br />
been identified and provided with shelter and/or other forms of assistance. It is more difficult<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> identify the impact of these efforts: few baseline data exist <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> provide a c<strong>on</strong>text<br />
against which <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> assess progress. In the case of preventi<strong>on</strong>, it is even harder <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> determine<br />
the extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> which measures have been effective.<br />
Despite a lack of c<strong>on</strong>sensus <strong>on</strong> the actual extent of global human trafficking, experts<br />
n<strong>on</strong>etheless report that the crime is increasing. 2 C<strong>on</strong>ferences open with energetic statements<br />
related <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the growth of human trafficking, often referred <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> now as a form of<br />
“modern-day slavery”. Poignant illustrative examples describing heart-wrenching abuse<br />
and exploitati<strong>on</strong> are intended <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> reinforce the commitments of Governments, civil society<br />
and d<strong>on</strong>ors.<br />
Those who have had direct c<strong>on</strong>tact with trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s readily validate such accounts<br />
of human suffering. 3 Many advocates hold <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> vivid memories of emoti<strong>on</strong>ally wounded<br />
and physically beaten human beings as indelible reminders of the reality of the cause and<br />
as powerful incentives <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>tinue fighting the good fight. But the battle must be w<strong>on</strong> not<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly in the hearts of the public, but also in the minds of policymakers and d<strong>on</strong>ors.<br />
Effective policy requires valid and reliable informati<strong>on</strong>. Experts have so far been hard<br />
pressed <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> explain what an increase in human trafficking means in real terms. 4 Are they<br />
referring <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> more arrests, prosecuti<strong>on</strong>s and (with luck) c<strong>on</strong>victi<strong>on</strong>s? Do they include all<br />
forms of trafficking, such as labour and organ trafficking <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> name <strong>on</strong>ly two, or are they<br />
limiting themselves <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking for sexual exploitati<strong>on</strong>? Are the speakers perhaps talking<br />
about the numbers of men, women and children rescued in brothel and/or sweatshop<br />
raids? Perhaps they mean individuals in possessi<strong>on</strong> of fraudulent travel documents or<br />
deported as illegal migrants? Or the numbers of individuals identified as victims of trafficking<br />
according <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the laws and (most frequently) practices of a country and assisted<br />
through shelters or other social service organizati<strong>on</strong>s? <str<strong>on</strong>g>An</str<strong>on</strong>g>d what about the rapidly expanding<br />
forms of trafficking bey<strong>on</strong>d the purposes described in the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col, stemming<br />
in particular from innovati<strong>on</strong>s in medical technology and not yet known when the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col was being drafted? 5<br />
Such indica<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs and others are used <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> dem<strong>on</strong>strate the increase in trafficking and trafficking-related<br />
crimes. <str<strong>on</strong>g>An</str<strong>on</strong>g>d, while the above informati<strong>on</strong> collectively paints a picture of<br />
2<br />
See, for example, Kevin Bales, Understanding Global Slavery: a Reader (Berkeley, California, University of<br />
California Press, 2005).<br />
3<br />
The author includes herself in this category.<br />
4<br />
William Easterly, “Foreign aid and developing ec<strong>on</strong>omies”, transcript of a panel discussi<strong>on</strong>, Council <strong>on</strong> Foreign<br />
Relati<strong>on</strong>s, New York, 16 May 2006.<br />
5<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>An</str<strong>on</strong>g> example of a disturbing new trend is the harvesting and trafficking of human eggs <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be used in in vitro<br />
fertilizati<strong>on</strong> (IVF) treatments. The documentati<strong>on</strong> has been limited <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> date, but is of such a provocative nature that<br />
the European Uni<strong>on</strong> has issued the “European Parliament resoluti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the trade in human egg cells”, Official Journal<br />
of the European Uni<strong>on</strong>, C 320 E, 15 December 2005 (P6_TA(2005)0074).<br />
60
PART ONE.—VULNERABILITY<br />
widespread human misery, there are limitati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> speaking in such broad terms. A closer<br />
examinati<strong>on</strong> of numerous reports reveals little c<strong>on</strong>sistency <strong>on</strong> even some of the most basic<br />
terminology. There is no c<strong>on</strong>sensus <strong>on</strong> the definiti<strong>on</strong> of the term “victim of trafficking”,<br />
although the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col acknowledges the trafficked pers<strong>on</strong> as victim. The<br />
Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col itself does not define the term, although it c<strong>on</strong>tains numerous references <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> victims<br />
of trafficking. Some countries have criminalized trafficking for sexual exploitati<strong>on</strong> but<br />
not for labour. There is not always c<strong>on</strong>sensus <strong>on</strong> what “sexual exploitati<strong>on</strong>” means, nor<br />
is there any broadly accepted <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ol for the identificati<strong>on</strong> of victims. A recent report cites<br />
differences in definiti<strong>on</strong>s of who is a victim of trafficking, the nature of the term itself<br />
and social practices that may c<strong>on</strong>tribute <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking as challenges in reaching internati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sensus. 6 The same report also indicates that such definiti<strong>on</strong>al inc<strong>on</strong>sistencies,<br />
combined with a lack of reliable, c<strong>on</strong>sistent and comparable data, make any assessment<br />
of a rise or fall in human trafficking impossible <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> quantify except in general terms. 7<br />
Unsubstantiated claims of an increase in trafficking offer little guidance <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> policymakers,<br />
practiti<strong>on</strong>ers or d<strong>on</strong>ors seeking <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> introduce effective anti-trafficking measures. The antitrafficking<br />
community, however, is not al<strong>on</strong>e in attempting <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> solve a problem for which<br />
there are no clear-cut parameters. <str<strong>on</strong>g>An</str<strong>on</strong>g> analysis of the implementati<strong>on</strong> of the Millennium<br />
Development Goals, 8 accepted now as criteria by which <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> measure internati<strong>on</strong>al development<br />
efforts, reveals that challenges in achieving some of their objectives stem from a<br />
lack of documentati<strong>on</strong> and, c<strong>on</strong>sequently, an inability <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> determine clear-cut objectives. A<br />
recent report <strong>on</strong> the challenges of meeting the Goals indicates:<br />
“Only 57 out of 163 developing countries have counted the poor more than <strong>on</strong>ce<br />
since 1990. Ninety-two have not counted them at all.” 9<br />
The same challenges are present in quantifying the effects of certain disease preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
programmes or infant and child mortality. Current statistics are based <strong>on</strong> estimates, making<br />
any assessment of progress extremely difficult.<br />
While each of the terms “preventi<strong>on</strong>”, “protecti<strong>on</strong>” and “prosecuti<strong>on</strong>” can benefit from further<br />
definiti<strong>on</strong>al clarity, this paper will discuss the limitati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> achieving progress in<br />
combating human trafficking by relying <strong>on</strong> narrow definiti<strong>on</strong>s and interpretati<strong>on</strong>s of what<br />
c<strong>on</strong>stitutes preventi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
6<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> States of America, Government Accountability <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g>: M<strong>on</strong>i<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ring and Evaluati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>al Projects are Limited, but Experts Suggest Improvements, GAO report GAO-07-1034<br />
(Washing<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>n, D.C., July 2007), p. 13.<br />
7<br />
Ibid., p. 16.<br />
8<br />
See A/56/326, annex, and A/58/323, annex.<br />
9<br />
“Millennium Development Goals: the Eight Commandments”, The Ec<strong>on</strong>omist, 5 July 2007.<br />
61
AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN TRAFFICKING: VULNERABILITY, IMPACT AND ACTION<br />
II.—The current framework for preventi<strong>on</strong> of trafficking<br />
The term “preventi<strong>on</strong>” is defined by illustrati<strong>on</strong> in the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col. Such a definiti<strong>on</strong><br />
has enabled it <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> acquire meaning primarily through practice rather than policy. While<br />
recognized as a critical issue in combating trafficking, little clarity exists as <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> what<br />
c<strong>on</strong>stitutes comprehensive preventive measures. Notably, nati<strong>on</strong>al anti-trafficking policies<br />
or nati<strong>on</strong>al acti<strong>on</strong> plans, where they exist, acknowledge the importance of preventi<strong>on</strong> in<br />
an overall nati<strong>on</strong>al strategy, but seldom define the term.<br />
A recent study <strong>on</strong> measures <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> combat trafficking am<strong>on</strong>g member States of the<br />
Organizati<strong>on</strong> for Security and Cooperati<strong>on</strong> in Europe (OSCE) 10 indicates a high level of<br />
importance attached <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> furthering preventi<strong>on</strong> efforts, but also reveals a diversity of<br />
perspectives <strong>on</strong> the nature of preventi<strong>on</strong> itself. Member States identified the need for<br />
preventi<strong>on</strong>-related activities encompassing three broad areas. The first is preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
through public awareness and educati<strong>on</strong>, reflecting a need <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> inform the public, including<br />
individuals who are potentially at risk, of the dangers of being trafficked. The sec<strong>on</strong>d is<br />
preventi<strong>on</strong> through data collecti<strong>on</strong> and research in order <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> understand both the scope<br />
as well as the nature of trafficking in those countries. The third form of preventi<strong>on</strong> cited<br />
by OSCE member States involves the development of social and ec<strong>on</strong>omic interventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
related <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> human trafficking, reflecting the need <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> generate alternatives for those<br />
potentially at risk of being trafficked. All three areas are necessary <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the development of<br />
comprehensive preventi<strong>on</strong> activities and all are described in the OSCE Acti<strong>on</strong> Plan <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Combat <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> Beings. Notwithstanding identified needs as well as a clear<br />
normative framework, the study also shows that the most frequently implemented<br />
preventi<strong>on</strong> programmes in countries with an OSCE field presence bel<strong>on</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the first<br />
category. Certainly, some preventi<strong>on</strong> programmes corresp<strong>on</strong>ding <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the sec<strong>on</strong>d and third<br />
categories menti<strong>on</strong>ed above are being implemented by internati<strong>on</strong>al organizati<strong>on</strong>s, civil<br />
society groups and government agencies, but they are not the majority.<br />
Is this emphasis <strong>on</strong> public awareness and educati<strong>on</strong> sufficient? Can the reported increases<br />
in trafficking referred <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> at the beginning of this paper possibly be linked <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> limited<br />
preventi<strong>on</strong> efforts? In order <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> answer these questi<strong>on</strong>s h<strong>on</strong>estly, it is necessary <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> understand<br />
the meaning of preventi<strong>on</strong> in the c<strong>on</strong>text of human trafficking. Firstly, practiti<strong>on</strong>ers<br />
need <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be clear as <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> what they are trying <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> prevent. <str<strong>on</strong>g>An</str<strong>on</strong>g> initial resp<strong>on</strong>se stems from the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>text of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col itself, which states in its preamble that preventing<br />
trafficking involves preventing a crime. This resp<strong>on</strong>se is further clarified in the definiti<strong>on</strong><br />
of the term “trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s”, found in article 3 of the Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col, describing the various<br />
acts, means and purposes of trafficking. Of particular interest here is the inclusi<strong>on</strong>, as a<br />
means of trafficking, of the “abuse of … a positi<strong>on</strong> of vulnerability”. In identifying the abuse<br />
of a positi<strong>on</strong> of vulnerability as part of the definiti<strong>on</strong>, the Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col allows us <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>sider<br />
that preventi<strong>on</strong> includes both preventing a crime and reducing the c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s that make<br />
an individual vulnerable <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking.<br />
10<br />
Organizati<strong>on</strong> for Security and Cooperati<strong>on</strong> in Europe, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g> of the Special Representative and Coordina<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>r<br />
for Combating <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> Beings, From Policy <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> Practice: Combating <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> Beings in the<br />
OSCE Regi<strong>on</strong>, 2006 annual report submitted by the <str<strong>on</strong>g>An</str<strong>on</strong>g>ti-<str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> Assistance Unit (OSCE, 2006).<br />
62
PART ONE.—VULNERABILITY<br />
Both crime preventi<strong>on</strong> and reducti<strong>on</strong> of vulnerability are valid approaches. Each calls for<br />
different dynamics in policy and programme planning. They involve different ac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs, including<br />
at-risk individuals themselves, civil society and government agencies. Neither approach<br />
diminishes the reality that, in additi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> being a crime, trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s is also an<br />
abuse of human rights. A focus <strong>on</strong> vulnerability will in fact enhance the human rights<br />
comp<strong>on</strong>ent of any anti-trafficking policy. Indeed, the two different approaches are complementary,<br />
as an examinati<strong>on</strong> of various definiti<strong>on</strong>s of crime preventi<strong>on</strong> will show.<br />
Traditi<strong>on</strong>al definiti<strong>on</strong>s of crime preventi<strong>on</strong> can c<strong>on</strong>tribute <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the enhancement of antitrafficking<br />
preventi<strong>on</strong> policies, because they provide for a broad inclusi<strong>on</strong> of ac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs, the<br />
empowerment of individuals and the reducti<strong>on</strong> of risk fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs in the envir<strong>on</strong>ment. One<br />
definiti<strong>on</strong> of “crime preventi<strong>on</strong>” is “the anticipati<strong>on</strong>, recogniti<strong>on</strong> and appraisal of a crime<br />
risk, and the initiati<strong>on</strong> of acti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> remove or reduce it”. 11 A further definiti<strong>on</strong> is “the promoti<strong>on</strong><br />
of those attitudes, activities and behaviours that create and maintain safe and vital<br />
communities where crime and delinquency cannot flourish”. 12 <str<strong>on</strong>g>An</str<strong>on</strong>g>d a third indicates: 13<br />
“Crime preventi<strong>on</strong> is any initiative or policy which reduces, avoids or eliminates<br />
victimizati<strong>on</strong> by crime or violence. It includes government and n<strong>on</strong>-government<br />
initiatives <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> reduce fear of crime as well as lessen the impact of crime <strong>on</strong> victims.”<br />
Studies of efforts <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> prevent domestic violence can be particularly helpful <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> anti-trafficking<br />
efforts, especially in understanding and applying the principles of inclusi<strong>on</strong>, empowerment<br />
and risk reducti<strong>on</strong>. Recognizing that research efforts in this area are still quite new,<br />
experts acknowledge the complexity of preventing domestic violence and the difficulty of<br />
making choices in focus and c<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong>. It has been said that preventi<strong>on</strong> acti<strong>on</strong> must<br />
choose between two approaches … <strong>on</strong>e is directed at the social envir<strong>on</strong>ment, the other at<br />
the individual. In domestic violence, as in human trafficking, the challenge is whether<br />
<strong>on</strong>e should focus <strong>on</strong> empowering potential victims or <strong>on</strong> changing the structures that<br />
encourage violence, abuse and exploitati<strong>on</strong>. What it means <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> empower potential<br />
victims will form the basis for the next secti<strong>on</strong> of this paper.<br />
Theoretically, preventi<strong>on</strong> efforts should aim <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> eliminate acts of violence before they occur.<br />
In the preventi<strong>on</strong> of infectious diseases or envir<strong>on</strong>mental disasters, where cause and effect<br />
can more readily be identified, it is relatively comm<strong>on</strong>place <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> inoculate against an infecti<strong>on</strong><br />
or <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> shore up a weak levy against threat of flood. Such primary preventi<strong>on</strong> efforts<br />
become more complex when talking about human behaviour: it is not always possible <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
determine c<strong>on</strong>clusively that any single adverse behaviour will result in specific negative<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sequences, nor is it possible <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> claim that any single preventive measure will c<strong>on</strong>clusively<br />
reduce the risk of harm or abuse. In domestic violence, as in human trafficking, it<br />
is difficult <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> identify projects and programmes that will eliminate such abuse before the<br />
11<br />
Timothy D. Crowe, Crime Preventi<strong>on</strong> through Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Design (S<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>neham, Massachusetts, Butterworth-<br />
Heineman, 1991), p. 23 (see www.jus.state.nc.us).<br />
12<br />
American Probati<strong>on</strong> and Parole Associati<strong>on</strong> (see www.appa-net.org/about/ps/crimepreventi<strong>on</strong>).<br />
13<br />
“What is crime preventi<strong>on</strong>,” article available <strong>on</strong> the website of the University of Ottawa, Faculty of Social<br />
Sciences, Institute for the Preventi<strong>on</strong> of Crime<br />
(see http://www.socialsciences.uottawa.ca/ipc/eng/what_is_crime_preventi<strong>on</strong>.asp).<br />
63
AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN TRAFFICKING: VULNERABILITY, IMPACT AND ACTION<br />
fact. In the realm of trafficking preventi<strong>on</strong>, it would appear that it is easier <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> obtain funding<br />
for awareness-raising programmes that describe the potential harms than for general<br />
empowerment programmes directed at broader social problems such as illiteracy, poor<br />
standards of health or under- or unemployment. This attitude <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>wards funding is premised<br />
more <strong>on</strong> assumpti<strong>on</strong> than fact, for it has so far not been proved that either the former or<br />
the latter are more or less effective in preventing trafficking.<br />
Currently, there is little knowledge or understanding of the causes of human trafficking,<br />
although there is extensive descriptive work <strong>on</strong> the process of trafficking itself. Because<br />
it is difficult <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> identify causal relati<strong>on</strong>ships, most preventi<strong>on</strong> programmes limit themselves<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> describing the harmful aspects of trafficking as a means of preventing harm. Preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
programmes do make efforts <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> prevent subsequent acts of revictimizati<strong>on</strong>. 14 Thus, many<br />
programmes are directed at assisting returning trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s in their countries of origin<br />
through counselling, training and job placement.<br />
A comprehensive discussi<strong>on</strong> of preventi<strong>on</strong> must also recognize the dynamic nature of the<br />
trafficking process al<strong>on</strong>g a supply-demand c<strong>on</strong>tinuum. Such an approach has traditi<strong>on</strong>ally<br />
included countries of origin, destinati<strong>on</strong> and transit, but does not provide for internal<br />
trafficking, which can occur within a single country (from rural regi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> urban centres,<br />
for example). <str<strong>on</strong>g>An</str<strong>on</strong>g>y discussi<strong>on</strong> of preventi<strong>on</strong> should focus <strong>on</strong> developing measures that<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sider both the supply and the demand comp<strong>on</strong>ents. The acts of trafficking are different<br />
al<strong>on</strong>g the c<strong>on</strong>tinuum, from recruitment <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> exploitati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> return and possible revictimizati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s are also vulnerable in different ways al<strong>on</strong>g the c<strong>on</strong>tinuum<br />
and different measures <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> prevent both trafficking and revictimizati<strong>on</strong> are necessary.<br />
Countries of destinati<strong>on</strong>, which drive the demand for human trafficking, must increasingly<br />
recognize their role in preventing exploitati<strong>on</strong> and abuse and must include both the c<strong>on</strong>sumers<br />
of commercial sex as well as the employers of individuals trafficked for forced<br />
and exploitative labour. A study of the literature <strong>on</strong> risks and vulnerabilities of refugees<br />
and displaced pers<strong>on</strong>s is particularly useful in the development of such a dynamic framework.<br />
15<br />
The <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col and preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
For some, the discussi<strong>on</strong> above might appear <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be yet <strong>on</strong>e more layer of criteria <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> include<br />
in the development of preventi<strong>on</strong> policies, perhaps even the basis for a subsequent addendum<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> or enhancement of local or regi<strong>on</strong>al acti<strong>on</strong> plans. However, this is not necessary.<br />
Basic principles of crime preventi<strong>on</strong> such as inclusi<strong>on</strong>, empowerment and risk reducti<strong>on</strong><br />
are intrinsic <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col’s elaborati<strong>on</strong> of what is meant by “preventi<strong>on</strong>” in<br />
article 9, which recommends acti<strong>on</strong> for States parties in areas of preventi<strong>on</strong>. The Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col<br />
maintains that it is the State that drives change, with the support and assistance of civil<br />
society, and that, through its various social protecti<strong>on</strong> and law enforcement policies, the<br />
State can play a role in both the preventi<strong>on</strong> of criminal activity and the empowerment of<br />
vulnerable populati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
14<br />
Women Against Violence Europe, Preventi<strong>on</strong> of Domestic Violence Against Women: European Survey, Good Practice<br />
Models, WAVE Training Programme (Vienna, WAVE <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g>, Austrian Women’s Shelter Network, 2000).<br />
15<br />
See, for example, Women’s Commissi<strong>on</strong> for Refugee Women and Children, Displaced Women and Girls at Risk:<br />
Risk Fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs, Protecti<strong>on</strong> Soluti<strong>on</strong>s and Resource Tools (New York, February 2006).<br />
64
PART ONE.—VULNERABILITY<br />
The table below identifies acti<strong>on</strong>s recommended in article 9 of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col<br />
for State parties <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> take in order <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> prevent trafficking. Identifying the goal of each recommended<br />
acti<strong>on</strong> assists in determining the comp<strong>on</strong>ents of a definiti<strong>on</strong> of preventi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Recommended acti<strong>on</strong> for States parties<br />
Fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs requiring preventi<strong>on</strong> activities and<br />
creating c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s of vulnerability<br />
1. States parties shall establish comprehensive<br />
policies, programmes and other measures:<br />
(a) To prevent and combat trafficking (a) Absence of preventi<strong>on</strong> policies,<br />
in pers<strong>on</strong>s; and<br />
programmes and other measures;<br />
(b) To protect victims of trafficking, (b) Absence of policies, programmes<br />
especially women and children, from and other measures <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> protect against<br />
revictimizati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
revictimizati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
2. States parties shall endeavour <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> undertake (a) Lack of data and informati<strong>on</strong>;<br />
measures such as research, informati<strong>on</strong> and (b) Lack of informati<strong>on</strong> regarding trafficking<br />
mass media campaigns and social and<br />
(for the public and possible individuals at<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic initiatives <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> prevent and combat risk of being trafficked);<br />
trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
(c) Social c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s that might c<strong>on</strong>tribute <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
trafficking;<br />
(d) Ec<strong>on</strong>omic c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s that might<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tribute <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking.<br />
3. Policies, programmes and other measures Insufficient cooperati<strong>on</strong> with n<strong>on</strong>established<br />
in accordance with this article governmental organizati<strong>on</strong>s and civil society.<br />
shall, as appropriate, include cooperati<strong>on</strong><br />
with n<strong>on</strong>-governmental organizati<strong>on</strong>s and<br />
other elements of civil society.<br />
4. States parties shall take or strengthen Insufficient bilateral and/or multilateral<br />
measures, including through bilateral or cooperati<strong>on</strong> aimed at alleviating fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs of<br />
multilateral cooperati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> alleviate the vulnerability <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking, including<br />
fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs that make pers<strong>on</strong>s, especially women underdevelopment and lack of opportunity.<br />
and children, vulnerable <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking, such<br />
as poverty, underdevelopment and lack<br />
of equal opportunity.<br />
5. States parties shall adopt or strengthen Insufficient educati<strong>on</strong>al, social or cultural<br />
legislative or other measures, such as measures <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> discourage demand.<br />
educati<strong>on</strong>al, social or cultural measures,<br />
including through bilateral or multilateral<br />
cooperati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> discourage the demand that<br />
fosters all forms of exploitati<strong>on</strong> of pers<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
especially women and children, that leads<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking.<br />
65
AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN TRAFFICKING: VULNERABILITY, IMPACT AND ACTION<br />
Do preventi<strong>on</strong> programmes as currently implemented address all the potential areas of<br />
vulnerability addressed in the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col? If so, have they been effective? It is hard<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> answer these questi<strong>on</strong>s because the evaluati<strong>on</strong> of trafficking preventi<strong>on</strong> programmes in<br />
general remains limited. 16 Furthermore, most programmes focus <strong>on</strong> trafficking for sexual<br />
exploitati<strong>on</strong> despite the growing recogniti<strong>on</strong> of trafficking for forced and b<strong>on</strong>ded labour,<br />
am<strong>on</strong>g others. 17 One measure of effectiveness is that laws have been enacted. In some cases,<br />
perpetra<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs have been brought <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> justice. Most importantly, some individuals have been<br />
helped. However, it is not possible <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> say with certainty that fewer vulnerable individuals are<br />
being trafficked.<br />
Although broad categories of preventi<strong>on</strong> programmes include awareness-raising and<br />
educati<strong>on</strong>, employment, empowerment and community life, crisis preventi<strong>on</strong>, safe migrati<strong>on</strong><br />
and job-vetting activities, demand reducti<strong>on</strong> and policies and legislati<strong>on</strong> regarding<br />
preventi<strong>on</strong>, 17 in practice these activities tend <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be focused <strong>on</strong> the development of smalland<br />
large-scale public awareness campaigns directed at potential victims of trafficking. 18<br />
Awareness-raising activities have predominantly taken the form of large- and small-scale<br />
public educati<strong>on</strong> and awareness campaigns, usually aimed at individuals/social groups<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sidered <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be at risk of being trafficked. There has also been a recent increase in<br />
awareness campaigns directed at men, the clients of women trafficked for prostituti<strong>on</strong>. For<br />
initiatives funded by the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> States Government, assistance is generally aimed <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
enhance efforts <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> prevent human trafficking through public awareness, outreach,<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> efforts and advocacy campaigns. 19<br />
Public awareness campaigns are developed <strong>on</strong> the premise that increased awareness of potential<br />
harm will help an individual <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> choose an alternative course of acti<strong>on</strong>. Although efforts<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> evaluate such programmes indicate that target audiences report an increase in knowledge,<br />
no studies have shown that they actually influence choices, in large part because they are<br />
not able <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> provide potential trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s with viable alternatives. A telling illustrati<strong>on</strong><br />
of this was provided by an NGO outreach worker in a large Western European city, who<br />
asked several trafficked youth whether or not they had been warned about the dangers of<br />
accepting foreign job offers. One young pers<strong>on</strong> resp<strong>on</strong>ded, “Yes, but the nightmare I d<strong>on</strong>’t<br />
know is preferable <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the nightmare I live every day at home.” 20<br />
16<br />
The challenges of evaluating anti-trafficking programmes are documented in numerous reports and studies (see<br />
Ruth Rosenberg and others, Best Practices for Programming <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> Prevent <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> Beings in Europe and Eurasia<br />
(Bethesda, Maryland, Development Alternatives Inc., 2004) and Asia Foundati<strong>on</strong> and Horiz<strong>on</strong>s Project Populati<strong>on</strong><br />
Council, Preventi<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> and the Care and Support of Trafficked Pers<strong>on</strong>s: in the C<strong>on</strong>text of an Emerging HIV/AIDS<br />
Epidemic in Nepal (Kathmandu, Creative Press, February 2001)).<br />
17<br />
Rosenberg and others, op. cit., p. 2.<br />
18<br />
Discussi<strong>on</strong>s of the prevalence of awareness-raising campaigns within the broader c<strong>on</strong>text of preventi<strong>on</strong> can<br />
be found in numerous sources (see Organizati<strong>on</strong> for Security and Cooperati<strong>on</strong> in Europe, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g> of the Special<br />
Representative and Coordina<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>r for Combating <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> Beings, From Policy <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> Practice … and Rosenberg<br />
and others, op. cit.).<br />
19<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> States of America, Government Accountability <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g>: M<strong>on</strong>i<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ring …, p. 7.<br />
20<br />
Author’s notes.<br />
66
PART ONE.—VULNERABILITY<br />
If the emphasis of preventi<strong>on</strong> programmes is placed exclusively <strong>on</strong> increasing the<br />
awareness of potential victims, preventi<strong>on</strong> is limited. By failing <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> provide alternative<br />
courses of acti<strong>on</strong>, these interventi<strong>on</strong>s place the <strong>on</strong>us for preventi<strong>on</strong> of exploitati<strong>on</strong> up<strong>on</strong><br />
the individual him- or herself. Ultimately, potential victims remain equally vulnerable before<br />
and after viewing posters, films and televisi<strong>on</strong> advertisements and participating in<br />
educati<strong>on</strong>al programmes.<br />
III.—The purpose of a discussi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> vulnerability<br />
It is not possible <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be successful in assisting vulnerable populati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> protect themselves<br />
from potentially harmful situati<strong>on</strong>s without an understanding of what makes them vulnerable<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> violence, abuse and exploitati<strong>on</strong> in the first place. 21 C<strong>on</strong>sistent with the internati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
framework for combating trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s created by the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col,<br />
the missi<strong>on</strong> statement of the Global Initiative <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> Fight <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> includes, as <strong>on</strong>e<br />
of its goals, <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> strengthen preventi<strong>on</strong>, warn vulnerable groups and alleviate the fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs that<br />
make people vulnerable <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking such as poverty, underdevelopment and lack of<br />
opportunity. 22 The organizers of the Vienna Forum <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> Fight <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> recognized<br />
that preventi<strong>on</strong> is <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be c<strong>on</strong>sidered largely as a functi<strong>on</strong> of the reducti<strong>on</strong> of vulnerability<br />
and the provisi<strong>on</strong> of opti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> acti<strong>on</strong>s with otherwise potentially harmful c<strong>on</strong>sequences.<br />
By focusing <strong>on</strong> vulnerability, the planners of the Forum hoped <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> expand the discussi<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>on</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> through the identificati<strong>on</strong> of fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs that create c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s of vulnerability<br />
and the subsequent development of targeted strategies <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> alleviate many of those<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Reframing the issue of preventi<strong>on</strong> in relati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> a definiti<strong>on</strong> of vulnerability <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> abuse and<br />
exploitati<strong>on</strong> will allow for a more c<strong>on</strong>sistent and measurable approach <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
of trafficking. The clarificati<strong>on</strong> of what is meant by “vulnerability” will also help <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> identify<br />
causal fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs, usually the direct result of policy decisi<strong>on</strong>s, which increase vulnerability.<br />
While the c<strong>on</strong>cept of preventi<strong>on</strong> remains part of the normative framework of many<br />
countries, viewing preventi<strong>on</strong> models largely in terms of their relati<strong>on</strong>ship <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the social,<br />
cultural, ec<strong>on</strong>omic and political vulnerability of certain populati<strong>on</strong> groups <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> being trafficked<br />
has mainly been neglected in practice.<br />
21<br />
See, for example, the Asia Foundati<strong>on</strong> and Horiz<strong>on</strong>s Project Populati<strong>on</strong> Council, Preventi<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> ... .<br />
22<br />
Website of the Global Initiative <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> Fight <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> (UN.GIFT): www.UNGIFT.org.<br />
67
AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN TRAFFICKING: VULNERABILITY, IMPACT AND ACTION<br />
IV.—Vulnerability: a definiti<strong>on</strong><br />
The terms “vulnerable” and “vulnerability” are used in areas of ec<strong>on</strong>omic development,<br />
social science, human security, crime preventi<strong>on</strong>, envir<strong>on</strong>mental research, disaster relief,<br />
famine, c<strong>on</strong>tagious diseases and mental health. Each of these areas has carefully developed<br />
frameworks that serve as road maps for early warning systems as well as carefully<br />
crafted countermeasures. The increased focus <strong>on</strong> vulnerability leads <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> measures that can<br />
be implemented before the occurrence of a potential danger, trauma or abuse, thereby<br />
lessening its human, ec<strong>on</strong>omic and social c<strong>on</strong>sequences. Thus, an understanding of vulnerability<br />
implicitly leads <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>wards preventi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
A.—Vulnerability and human trafficking<br />
There is no broadly accepted definiti<strong>on</strong> of the terms “vulnerable” and “vulnerability” in<br />
relati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> preventi<strong>on</strong> of trafficking. One definiti<strong>on</strong> of the term “vulnerable” is “exposed<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the possibility of being attacked or harmed, either physically or emoti<strong>on</strong>ally”. 23 In much<br />
of the literature <strong>on</strong> trafficking, the terms “vulnerable” and “poor” have been used syn<strong>on</strong>ymously,<br />
and poverty is often cited as a leading cause of trafficking. Vulnerability, however,<br />
is not the same as income-poverty or poverty even more broadly defined. In the<br />
development literature, for example, vulnerability does not refer <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> lack or want, but rather<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> exposure and defencelessness. 24 Vulnerability refers <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> of a pers<strong>on</strong> in a<br />
specific c<strong>on</strong>text. A resp<strong>on</strong>se <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> vulnerability needs therefore <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> take in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> account 24 the<br />
external c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s of an individual as well as the coping mechanisms that enable the<br />
individual <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> protect him- or herself against a negative impact from those external<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
The terms are more precisely unders<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>od in law, where the term “vulnerable victim” is<br />
used <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> refer <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> “a victim who is unusually vulnerable due <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> age, physical or mental c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
or who is otherwise particularly susceptible <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> criminal c<strong>on</strong>duct”. 25 The c<strong>on</strong>cept of<br />
vulnerability is also used <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> enhance penalties in cases of trafficking. 26<br />
The words occur three times in the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col. The first is in the preamble, which<br />
includes the paragraph:<br />
“C<strong>on</strong>cerned that, in the absence of such an instrument, pers<strong>on</strong>s who are vulnerable<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking will not be sufficiently protected”.<br />
The sec<strong>on</strong>d menti<strong>on</strong> of the term occurs in the definiti<strong>on</strong> of “trafficking”<br />
(art. 3, subpara. (a)):<br />
23<br />
Judy Pearsall and Patrick Hanks, eds., New Oxford Dicti<strong>on</strong>ary of English (Oxford University Press, 2001).<br />
24<br />
Robert Chambers, “Poverty and livelihoods: whose reality counts?”, Envir<strong>on</strong>ment and Urbanizati<strong>on</strong>, vol. 7,<br />
No. 1 (1995), p. 189.<br />
25<br />
Mohamed Y. Mattar, “Incorporating the five basic elements of a model anti-trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s legislati<strong>on</strong> in<br />
domestic laws: from the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the European C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>”, Tulane Journal of Internati<strong>on</strong>al and<br />
Comparative Law, vol. 14, No. 2 (2005), p. 385.<br />
26<br />
Ibid., p. 387.<br />
68
PART ONE.—VULNERABILITY<br />
“‘<str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in pers<strong>on</strong>s’ shall mean the recruitment, transportati<strong>on</strong>, harbouring or<br />
receipt of pers<strong>on</strong>s, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of<br />
coerci<strong>on</strong>, of abducti<strong>on</strong>, of fraud, of decepti<strong>on</strong>, of the abuse of power or of a<br />
positi<strong>on</strong> of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
achieve the c<strong>on</strong>sent of a pers<strong>on</strong> having c<strong>on</strong>trol for another pers<strong>on</strong>, for the purpose<br />
of exploitati<strong>on</strong>.”<br />
The last reference (art. 9, para. 4) has already been cited:<br />
“States Parties shall take or strengthen measures, including through bilateral or multilateral<br />
cooperati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> alleviate the fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs that make pers<strong>on</strong>s, especially women and<br />
children, vulnerable <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking.”<br />
The travaux prépara<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ires <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col also indicate that the reference <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the abuse of a positi<strong>on</strong> of vulnerability is unders<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>od <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> refer <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> any situati<strong>on</strong> in which<br />
the pers<strong>on</strong> involved has no real and acceptable alternative but <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> submit <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the abuse<br />
involved. 27 On the basis of this note, it is possible <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> state that the individuals most vulnerable<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> harm are those with the fewest alternatives. With the knowledge that crime is<br />
increasing in a given neighbourhood, residents with means can choose <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> leave, <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> put<br />
protective bars <strong>on</strong> windows and doors and/or <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> lobby their local representatives aggressively<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> ensure a more visible law enforcement presence. Where there is a str<strong>on</strong>g employment<br />
market and numerous jobs, individuals are able <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> remain in their home countries<br />
rather than pursue foreign employment opportunities that might turn out <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be exploitative.<br />
The core of trafficking preventi<strong>on</strong> activities should therefore be the provisi<strong>on</strong> of alternatives<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the individuals who are most vulnerable. When c<strong>on</strong>fr<strong>on</strong>ted with a potentially<br />
exploitative situati<strong>on</strong>, they should be able <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> know that they have choices.<br />
Based <strong>on</strong> the above analysis, a new definiti<strong>on</strong> of vulnerability will now be introduced, in<br />
which “vulnerability” refers <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> “a c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> resulting from how individuals negatively experience<br />
the complex interacti<strong>on</strong> of social, cultural, ec<strong>on</strong>omic, political and envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs that create the c<strong>on</strong>text for their communities”. As such, vulnerability is not a static,<br />
absolute state, but <strong>on</strong>e that changes according <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>text as well as <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the capacity for<br />
individual resp<strong>on</strong>se. The development of indica<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs requires careful attenti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the unique<br />
characteristic of the group being assessed in order <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> develop the most effective preventive<br />
soluti<strong>on</strong>s and should allow for the development of goals and strategies <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> ensure<br />
reducti<strong>on</strong> of vulnerability. Specific indica<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs will make it possible <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> set tangible goals for<br />
the reducti<strong>on</strong> of vulnerability. C<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s of vulnerability can be very real, such as ill<br />
health or illiteracy; equally important, however, are those areas of vulnerability which are<br />
not clearly dem<strong>on</strong>strable, difficult <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> identify and c<strong>on</strong>sequently difficult <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> address.<br />
27<br />
See the note <strong>on</strong> article 3, subparagraph (a), of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col in the travaux prépara<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ires<br />
(A/55/383/Add.1, para. 63).<br />
69
AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN TRAFFICKING: VULNERABILITY, IMPACT AND ACTION<br />
Illustrati<strong>on</strong><br />
The true s<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ry below will help <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> illustrate the complexity of identifying vulnerability. The<br />
poignancy of the situati<strong>on</strong> will also dem<strong>on</strong>strate the fallacy of simple soluti<strong>on</strong>s and the need<br />
for l<strong>on</strong>g-term answers that empower individuals and provide them with opportunities.<br />
Jana, 18, is from a country in Eastern Europe known <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be a major source for trafficked<br />
women. She has just completed sec<strong>on</strong>dary school and works in a c<strong>on</strong>fecti<strong>on</strong>ery fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ry. Her<br />
older sister, Lydia, was trafficked two years ago. After being arrested in a brothel raid, Lydia<br />
agreed <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> testify against her traffickers and was given temporary residence for the durati<strong>on</strong><br />
of the trial. Although her testim<strong>on</strong>y c<strong>on</strong>tributed <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the prosecuti<strong>on</strong>’s obtaining a c<strong>on</strong>victi<strong>on</strong><br />
and a sentence, Lydia was <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ld she needed <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> go home. Rather than face the shame and<br />
stigma of returning as a criminal and a prostitute, she hanged herself. Now her four-yearold<br />
daughter lives at home with Lydia’s mother, who also works in a c<strong>on</strong>fecti<strong>on</strong>ery fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ry,<br />
and Jana. The father is a migrant labourer and is often away from home for l<strong>on</strong>g periods of<br />
time.<br />
Extensive c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s with the family revealed feelings of deep shame about what had<br />
happened <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> Lydia. Her pictures had been removed from the house and her name was not<br />
menti<strong>on</strong>ed. Jana admitted that, while being afraid of what could happen <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> her, she still<br />
wanted <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> work overseas because there was nothing for her at home, other than <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> stay<br />
in the c<strong>on</strong>fecti<strong>on</strong>ery fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ry and “marry a worthless alcoholic like my sister did”. A small<br />
foundati<strong>on</strong> offered <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> pay for Jana’s university educati<strong>on</strong> over four years, including a<br />
subsidy <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> make up for lost wages as well as all books and fees. Although definitely bright<br />
enough, Jana declined the offer, saying that she did not know any<strong>on</strong>e who had g<strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
university and she didn’t think it was her place. She asked, instead, <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be sent <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> a<br />
vocati<strong>on</strong>al programme <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> study hairdressing, following the example of many of her friends. 28<br />
Jana is a potential victim of trafficking. She is vulnerable because she faces limited employment<br />
opportunities in a country with a volatile ec<strong>on</strong>omy and a limited job market. She is also<br />
vulnerable because she feels no support <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> pursue a university educati<strong>on</strong>, because of the<br />
expectati<strong>on</strong>s of her community that overseas jobs are the <strong>on</strong>ly opti<strong>on</strong> and because she can<br />
see little opportunity for either pers<strong>on</strong>al or professi<strong>on</strong>al fulfilment at home.<br />
How can the anti-trafficking community prevent Jana, and other young women like her,<br />
from being trafficked? What are those programmes that will work? Preventi<strong>on</strong> programmes<br />
designed <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> increase Jana’s awareness of the potential trafficking situati<strong>on</strong>s will fail her.<br />
Her pers<strong>on</strong>al situati<strong>on</strong> has provided her with sufficient knowledge and experience of the<br />
risks involved in seeking overseas employment. Only preventi<strong>on</strong> programmes that are<br />
inclusive of members of her community, that reduce the potential for harm in her<br />
country and that empower her <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> make choices by providing her with viable alternatives<br />
will c<strong>on</strong>tribute <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> preventing harm.<br />
28<br />
Author’s files.<br />
70
PART ONE.—VULNERABILITY<br />
C<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s of vulnerability are usually the results of political, social, cultural or ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
practices and policies that fail <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> ensure equal access and protecti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> all members of a<br />
society. <str<strong>on</strong>g>An</str<strong>on</strong>g>y preventi<strong>on</strong> programme that is based <strong>on</strong> an understanding of vulnerability<br />
will therefore include two comp<strong>on</strong>ents: <strong>on</strong>e will address the external c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s that create<br />
hardship and stress and that will c<strong>on</strong>tribute <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> enhancing the well-being of an individual;<br />
the sec<strong>on</strong>d, equally important approach will focus <strong>on</strong> enhancing an individual’s<br />
capacity <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> seek opti<strong>on</strong>s, enabling the individual <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> participate in ensuring his or her wellbeing.<br />
29 Such a perspective takes in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> account the different comp<strong>on</strong>ents of empowerment<br />
and risk reducti<strong>on</strong> that were identified in the previous discussi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> definiti<strong>on</strong>s of crime<br />
preventi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
There is still no agreement <strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s that lead <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> vulnerability <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> human trafficking.<br />
A review of reports, however, reveals a general c<strong>on</strong>sensus <strong>on</strong> the broad fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs that<br />
make individuals vulnerable. Further research is necessary in order <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> expand <strong>on</strong> these<br />
definiti<strong>on</strong>s and <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> highlight fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs that are specific <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> different geographical regi<strong>on</strong>s, ethnic<br />
groups and political situati<strong>on</strong>s. C<strong>on</strong>flict, for example, creates a unique set of vulnerability<br />
fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs that must be addressed in any discussi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the preventi<strong>on</strong> of human<br />
trafficking.<br />
B.—C<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s of vulnerability<br />
The preceding discussi<strong>on</strong> becomes relevant in the identificati<strong>on</strong> of broad c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
vulnerability in order <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> formulate indica<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs that take in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> account multiple social, cultural,<br />
political and ec<strong>on</strong>omic c<strong>on</strong>texts.<br />
The following is a list of “c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s” or fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs affecting vulnerability that have been<br />
extracted from numerous publicati<strong>on</strong>s addressing the root causes of trafficking. The list<br />
is not intended <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be c<strong>on</strong>clusive, but <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> serve as a starting point for further discussi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
These c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s are described here <strong>on</strong>ly in general terms. The development of specific<br />
indica<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> identify how individuals are vulnerable in particular situati<strong>on</strong>s or c<strong>on</strong>texts<br />
would provide the basis for specific and strategic interventi<strong>on</strong>s. For example, not all young<br />
women from a single regi<strong>on</strong> are trafficked for purposes of sexual exploitati<strong>on</strong>. By identifying<br />
particular vulnerabilities, a framework such as this can assist in the development of<br />
preventi<strong>on</strong> programmes targeted at those who are in fact most vulnerable.<br />
1.—Children<br />
In the c<strong>on</strong>text of trafficking, children should not be treated merely as small adults: they<br />
are uniquely vulnerable in ways that differ from the vulnerability of adults. They are vulnerable<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the demands and expectati<strong>on</strong>s of those in authority, including their parents,<br />
extended family and teachers. Physically, they are not able <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> protect themselves. They<br />
28<br />
Of importance <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the development of these ideas has been Amartya Sen’s discussi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the role of individual<br />
agency in development programmes (see, for example, Amartya Sen, Development as Freedom (New York, Knopf,<br />
1999), chap. X).<br />
71
AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN TRAFFICKING: VULNERABILITY, IMPACT AND ACTION<br />
are usually unaware of any laws that may exist <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> protect them and they are unable <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
negotiate fair treatment for themselves. When rescued from a trafficking situati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
children are not always able <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> articulate the nature of their experiences in a way that<br />
corresp<strong>on</strong>ds <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>cols used <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> identify adult victims of trafficking. They are also<br />
physically vulnerable in harsh envir<strong>on</strong>mental c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
2.—Gender<br />
Women are vulnerable <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking because they are frequently excluded from mainstream<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic and social systems, such as employment, higher educati<strong>on</strong>, and legal as<br />
well as political parity. They are often the hidden victims of war and c<strong>on</strong>flict, and this<br />
vulnerability extends <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> their status as displaced pers<strong>on</strong>s or refugees. It is also arguably<br />
exacerbated by their “relatively unequal” (sec<strong>on</strong>dary) status in the family and society more<br />
generally. 30 Women are vulnerable <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> rape, domestic violence, harmful traditi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
practices, trafficking and lack of or limited access <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> resources. Many of these gender-based<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s of vulnerability are linked <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> social and cultural c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s. 31<br />
3.—Poverty<br />
“Poverty” is a complex term that refers <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> numerous negative c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s, including a lack<br />
of food and productive resources; hunger and malnutriti<strong>on</strong>; ill health; limited or no access<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong> and other basic services; increasing mortality and morbidity from illness;<br />
homelessness and inadequate housing; unsafe envir<strong>on</strong>ments; social discriminati<strong>on</strong> and<br />
exclusi<strong>on</strong>; and lack of participati<strong>on</strong> in the decisi<strong>on</strong>-making process. Generalizati<strong>on</strong>s about<br />
poverty, without identifying its comp<strong>on</strong>ents, make it difficult <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> identify resp<strong>on</strong>sibility and,<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sequently, soluti<strong>on</strong>s. Poverty is created by policies and preserved through structures<br />
that reinforce these same policies. 32 For this reas<strong>on</strong>, it is counterproductive <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> say that<br />
poverty is a cause of trafficking without defining the term. Furthermore, it is not necessarily<br />
the poorest of the poor who become victims of exploitati<strong>on</strong> leading <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking,<br />
although victims of labour exploitati<strong>on</strong>, notably in developing nati<strong>on</strong>s, are poor. 33<br />
According <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> Bales: 34<br />
“The ill, the elderly, the malnourished, the disabled and the infirm are not sought<br />
out by traffickers. They are human commodities of insufficient value <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> bring high<br />
profits.”<br />
Clearly, a more sophisticated understanding of the relati<strong>on</strong>ship of poverty <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the risk of<br />
being trafficked is necessary.<br />
30<br />
The Special Rapporteur <strong>on</strong> violence against women, its causes and c<strong>on</strong>sequences has recently observed that<br />
while the failure of the States <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> protect and promote women’s human, ec<strong>on</strong>omic and social rights has created a<br />
situati<strong>on</strong> in which trafficking flourishes, trafficking further subjects women <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> numerous additi<strong>on</strong>al human rights<br />
violati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
31<br />
Women’s Commissi<strong>on</strong> for Refugee Women and Children, Displaced Women and Girls … .<br />
32<br />
Muhammad Yunus and Alan Jolis, Banker <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Poor: Micro-Lending and the Battle against World Poverty<br />
(New York, Public Affairs, 2003).<br />
33<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>al Labour <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g>, A Global Alliance against Forced Labour: Global Report under the Follow-up <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
ILO Declarati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work (Geneva, Internati<strong>on</strong>al Labour <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2005).<br />
34<br />
Bales, op. cit., p. 141.<br />
72
PART ONE.—VULNERABILITY<br />
The effects of globalizati<strong>on</strong> have also introduced new variables in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> traditi<strong>on</strong>al discussi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
of poverty. A World Bank analysis of the social c<strong>on</strong>sequences of the ec<strong>on</strong>omic collapse<br />
of countries of the former Soviet Uni<strong>on</strong> reveals what the study identifies as “new poverty”,<br />
the result of structural adjustments and political decisi<strong>on</strong>s that have destabilized the<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omies of these emerging States and plunged entire sec<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs of the populati<strong>on</strong> in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> situati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
that in fact c<strong>on</strong>stitute a new form of poverty am<strong>on</strong>g people who had never thought<br />
of themselves as poor. 35 This form of crisis-driven poverty has c<strong>on</strong>tributed <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> a feeling of<br />
hopelessness am<strong>on</strong>g many of the populati<strong>on</strong>. Their sense of despair, coupled with a sense<br />
of panic at finding themselves suddenly without any traditi<strong>on</strong>al social protecti<strong>on</strong> mechanisms<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> assist their families, was a motivati<strong>on</strong> behind many young women seeking employment<br />
outside their countries of origin, leading <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> extreme forms of exploitati<strong>on</strong>, abuse and<br />
trafficking. Ascribing trafficking <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> poverty in general terms in such situati<strong>on</strong>s fails <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> recognize<br />
the complexity of cause as well as motivati<strong>on</strong> and leads <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> inadequate preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
programmes.<br />
4.—Social and cultural exclusi<strong>on</strong><br />
In every country, certain groups benefit from privileges and access <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> resources and political<br />
power that inure them <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the potential hazards of ec<strong>on</strong>omic downturns, political instability<br />
or natural disasters. Those who do not fall in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the “preferred” category suffer<br />
discriminati<strong>on</strong> in educati<strong>on</strong>, employment, access <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> social services, including health care,<br />
access <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> resources (especially in times of natural disaster) and lack of a political voice.<br />
Socially excluded groups are cultural subgroups who are marginalized according <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
complex fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs, including ethnic, linguistic and religious differences, low social status and<br />
involuntary minority status. Social exclusi<strong>on</strong> prevents groups from receiving benefits and<br />
protecti<strong>on</strong>s that are intended for all citizens. Their ec<strong>on</strong>omic mobility is usually affected<br />
and they are excluded from mainstream activities such as educati<strong>on</strong> and employment. 36<br />
Social exclusi<strong>on</strong> can be the result of state policies as well as ingrained cultural traditi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
and practices. In developing such preventi<strong>on</strong> programmes, it is important <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> understand<br />
where changes need <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be made.<br />
Social exclusi<strong>on</strong> is particularly important when discussing how <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> prevent revictimizati<strong>on</strong><br />
and re-trafficking. Trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s face c<strong>on</strong>siderable obstacles up<strong>on</strong> their return home,<br />
not the least of which are the attitudes and biases of their own communities. Young women<br />
trafficked for purposes of sexual exploitati<strong>on</strong> may encounter discriminati<strong>on</strong> based <strong>on</strong> their<br />
involvement in prostituti<strong>on</strong>. Others face the shame and humiliati<strong>on</strong> of returning penniless<br />
in spite of hopes of coming back with provisi<strong>on</strong> for their families. <str<strong>on</strong>g>An</str<strong>on</strong>g>d, frequently, these<br />
same pers<strong>on</strong>s return with the added black mark of having been arrested as “illegal immigrants”,<br />
notwithstanding their true status as victims of crime.<br />
35<br />
Nora Dudwick and others, eds., When Things Fall Apart: Qualitative Studies of Poverty in the Former Soviet Uni<strong>on</strong><br />
(Washing<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>n, D.C., World Bank, 2003).<br />
36<br />
Maureen A. Lewis and Marlaine E. Lockheed, “Social exclusi<strong>on</strong>: the emerging challenge in girls’ educati<strong>on</strong>”,<br />
Exclusi<strong>on</strong>, Gender and Educati<strong>on</strong>: Case Studies from the Developing World, Maureen A. Lewis and<br />
Marlaine E. Lockheed, eds. (Washing<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>n, D.C., Center for Global Development, 2007).<br />
73
AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN TRAFFICKING: VULNERABILITY, IMPACT AND ACTION<br />
5.—Limited access <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong><br />
Individuals with limited educati<strong>on</strong> or who are illiterate will likely have fewer incomegenerating<br />
opportunities, whether in the formal or the ec<strong>on</strong>omic sec<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>r. In additi<strong>on</strong>, they<br />
will not have the knowledge or c<strong>on</strong>fidence <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> inquire about the terms of their c<strong>on</strong>tracts<br />
or working c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s. Limited access can be determined by gender, social cus<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ms, ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
capacity, limited access <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong>al instituti<strong>on</strong>s and the cultural relevance of getting<br />
an educati<strong>on</strong>. Once again, tangible as well as intangible fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs c<strong>on</strong>tribute <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> limited access<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong>, including community attitudes <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong>, the need for children <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> earn<br />
an income and lack of gender-appropriate teachers or relevant curriculum.<br />
6.—Political instability, war and c<strong>on</strong>flict<br />
Women and girls are particularly vulnerable <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>sequences of political instability<br />
and armed c<strong>on</strong>flict. The disrupti<strong>on</strong> of traditi<strong>on</strong>al community life, al<strong>on</strong>g with its protective<br />
framework, and the resulting displacement make them extremely vulnerable <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> exploitati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
including abuse of power by relief workers, limited access <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> resources and sexual<br />
assault. 37<br />
7.—Social, cultural and legal frameworks<br />
The status of an individual within his or her envir<strong>on</strong>ment, whether that status is defined<br />
through formal systems (such as a legal system) or informal systems, creates different<br />
levels of vulnerability. A telling example of this is the emerging importance accorded <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
birth registrati<strong>on</strong> as a l<strong>on</strong>g-term anti-trafficking strategy in some parts of the world. 38 Some<br />
fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs that could be c<strong>on</strong>sidered in such a discussi<strong>on</strong> include discrimina<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ry labour<br />
practices; patriarchal social structures; women’s role in the family; precedents of b<strong>on</strong>ded<br />
labour and servitude; and early and forced marriage. Social and cultural frameworks are<br />
particularly sensitive <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>text and must therefore be c<strong>on</strong>sidered with special cauti<strong>on</strong> so<br />
as <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> avoid making harmful generalities. One particularly perceptive study <strong>on</strong> HIV/AIDS<br />
preventi<strong>on</strong> describes the extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> which values related <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> having large families and<br />
disapproval of use of any form of c<strong>on</strong>traceptive are so imbedded in some communities<br />
that they override any efforts <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach women <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> use c<strong>on</strong>doms in order <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> protect<br />
themselves against possibly infected partners. 39<br />
37<br />
Women’s Commissi<strong>on</strong> for Refugee Women and Children, Displaced Women and Girls … .<br />
38<br />
Vital Voices Global Partnership, Stateless and Vulnerable <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in Thailand, (Washing<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>n, D.C.,<br />
June 2007), p. 13 (see www.vitalvoices.org).<br />
39<br />
Desm<strong>on</strong>d Cohen and Elizabeth Reid, “The Vulnerability of Women: Is this a Useful C<strong>on</strong>struct for Policy and<br />
Programming?”, Issues paper No. 28, HIV and Development Programme (New York, <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Development<br />
Programme, 1996).<br />
74
PART ONE.—VULNERABILITY<br />
8.—Movement<br />
Movement under duress exacerbates existing vulnerabilities and creates new c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
under which individuals are made vulnerable <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> exploitati<strong>on</strong> and trafficking. Refugees,<br />
internally displaced pers<strong>on</strong>s and asylum seekers, who find themselves in highly volatile<br />
situati<strong>on</strong>s and without traditi<strong>on</strong>al protecti<strong>on</strong> mechanisms, are extremely vulnerable.<br />
Outreach workers in a large Central European city encountered numerous young foreign<br />
prostituted women in the city’s red light district, who up<strong>on</strong> investigati<strong>on</strong> proved all <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
have been approached by the same agency in their home country offering <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> assist them<br />
in obtaining asylum. Having successfully facilitated their receipt of asylum status, the<br />
agency then forced the women <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> reimburse it by the provisi<strong>on</strong> of sexual services. In the<br />
unnatural and often violent c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s pertaining in camps and asylum centres for refugees<br />
and internally displaced pers<strong>on</strong>s, the need for individuals <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> obtain and/or provide food<br />
and other necessities for dependants is c<strong>on</strong>stant and has reportedly been exploited.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>sequently, women and children, in particular, find themselves in situati<strong>on</strong>s where they<br />
must exchange sexual services for food or other survival-related necessities.<br />
9.—Demand<br />
The c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s listed above are found primarily in countries or regi<strong>on</strong>s of origin, where<br />
most preventi<strong>on</strong> programmes are implemented. A discussi<strong>on</strong> of vulnerability is not complete,<br />
however, without a recogniti<strong>on</strong> that trafficking is driven in large part by the profits<br />
made by various ac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs al<strong>on</strong>g the trafficking chain resulting from the exploitati<strong>on</strong> of men,<br />
women and children. Such profits are realized because of the unabated demand for cheap<br />
labour and services mainly in the developed world, usually in c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>, seas<strong>on</strong>al agriculture<br />
work, the garment and hospitality sec<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs, domestic service and the ubiqui<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>us<br />
commercial sex trade. 40<br />
Demand provides the incentive <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> recruiters, who capitalize <strong>on</strong> misery, despair and desperati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Once an individual is transported <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the site of exploitati<strong>on</strong>, that pers<strong>on</strong> becomes<br />
vulnerable in ways different from those in their countries of origin. Lack of familiarity<br />
with the local language and culture, isolati<strong>on</strong>, fear of reprisal and mistrust of local authorities<br />
(whether real or imagined) all c<strong>on</strong>tribute <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> sustaining an <strong>on</strong>going exploitative relati<strong>on</strong>ship<br />
with traffickers. Preventing, or limiting, demand is different from preventing<br />
exploitati<strong>on</strong>. Preventi<strong>on</strong> becomes important in countries of destinati<strong>on</strong>, although both the<br />
fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs c<strong>on</strong>tributing <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> vulnerability as well as the methods of empowering individuals will<br />
be different from those used in countries of origin. Primary targets for preventi<strong>on</strong> activities,<br />
notably awareness-raising campaigns, are clients, c<strong>on</strong>sumers and members of the different<br />
communities where trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s may be found.<br />
40<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>al Labour <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g>, A Global Alliance against Forced … .<br />
75
AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN TRAFFICKING: VULNERABILITY, IMPACT AND ACTION<br />
V. Practical implicati<strong>on</strong>s for a vulnerability-based<br />
programme for the preventi<strong>on</strong> of trafficking<br />
C<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s of vulnerability are rarely brought about by individual agency or choice. They<br />
are, instead, the results of policies as well as social and cultural practices that place<br />
individuals in circumstances where they feel that they have no choice but <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> submit <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> a<br />
harmful alternative. It should also be evident that the c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s described above<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tribute <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> an individual’s vulnerability <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> many forms of exploitati<strong>on</strong>, abuse and hardship,<br />
including human trafficking, although it is not possible <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> cite any single c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong><br />
as being the sole determinant of vulnerability <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> any <strong>on</strong>e form of abuse. Study of victims<br />
of human trafficking and domestic violence, as well as of those most vulnerable <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
rampant epidemics, indicates that these individuals share many of the same characteristics<br />
of vulnerability. It would appear <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> make fiscal as well as practical sense, therefore, <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
examine preventi<strong>on</strong> from a broader perspective.<br />
How are such c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s of vulnerability <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be used <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> identify individuals at risk of being<br />
trafficked and make preventi<strong>on</strong> of trafficking more effective? In re-examining existing<br />
preventi<strong>on</strong> policies <strong>on</strong> the basis of an understanding of c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s of vulnerability, a framework<br />
must be developed that will include the following:<br />
• Inclusi<strong>on</strong>. The involvement of all relevant ac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs (individuals, community groups,<br />
NGOs and government agencies) in the development of preventi<strong>on</strong> programmes<br />
• Risk reducti<strong>on</strong>. <str<strong>on</strong>g>An</str<strong>on</strong>g> assessment of the scope of the problem in a country, as well as<br />
an assessment of fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs that make individuals vulnerable <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> exploitati<strong>on</strong> leading <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
trafficking and other forms of abuse, relevant <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> each specific c<strong>on</strong>text<br />
• Empowerment. Improvement of the well-being of the individual, including empowerment<br />
of the individual <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> seek opti<strong>on</strong>s that are not potentially harmful or exploitative<br />
The Grameen Bank: an example of preventi<strong>on</strong> through vulnerability<br />
reducti<strong>on</strong><br />
Micro-enterprise development is frequently cited am<strong>on</strong>g preventi<strong>on</strong> activities <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> address the<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic needs of possible victims of trafficking and of returning trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s. Critics<br />
of such programmes, however, have raised c<strong>on</strong>cerns that a “<strong>on</strong>e-model-fits-all” approach <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
helping trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s is not always helpful and indeed, in some cases, can cause harm.<br />
The most comm<strong>on</strong> criticisms directed <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>wards those programmes focusing <strong>on</strong> women<br />
include:<br />
(a)<br />
Trafficked women need extensive physical and psychological rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> before they<br />
can begin <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> establish their own business. It is not reas<strong>on</strong>able <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> expect that a<br />
pers<strong>on</strong> who has experienced severe trauma can immediately begin the complex<br />
process of developing and implementing a business plan; 41<br />
76
PART ONE.—VULNERABILITY<br />
(b)<br />
(c)<br />
(d)<br />
(e)<br />
Limited training and the provisi<strong>on</strong> of seed m<strong>on</strong>ey do not necessarily prepare women<br />
for an entrepreneurial life; 42<br />
In communities targeted for trafficking preventi<strong>on</strong> activities, women who express an<br />
interest in entrepreneurial activities may often be outside of the age group most<br />
vulnerable <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking, although they may be c<strong>on</strong>sidered vulnerable <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> other forms<br />
of abuse and exploitati<strong>on</strong>, notably domestic violence;<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>An</str<strong>on</strong>g> entrepreneurial life is solitary and women do not feel that they have sufficient<br />
support; 43<br />
In some cultures, the empowerment of women is seen as an affr<strong>on</strong>t <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the men of<br />
the community and the negative c<strong>on</strong>sequences outweigh any realized ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
benefits. 44<br />
These opini<strong>on</strong>s are worth examining, especially because, in some areas, microfinance programmes<br />
have proved successful in alleviating poverty, increasing the well-being of entire<br />
communities and providing opti<strong>on</strong>s for ec<strong>on</strong>omic self-sufficiency for indivi-duals who were<br />
at <strong>on</strong>e time reduced <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s of debt b<strong>on</strong>dage and servitude. 45<br />
Muhammed Yunus, an ec<strong>on</strong>omist from Bangladesh, founded the Grameen Bank as a way of<br />
providing the poorest inhabitants of his country with small loans <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> encourage pers<strong>on</strong>al<br />
initiative and ultimately break the cycle of poverty over their lives. Almost 20 years later,<br />
the Grameen Bank model is used throughout the world as a means of empowering individuals<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> improve their own lives. Furthermore, as a business, it makes good sense. It is a<br />
highly cost-effective business and enjoys a remarkably high loan repayment rate. 46<br />
The Grameen Bank works because it identifies fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs that make people vulnerable <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
exploitati<strong>on</strong> and is closely linked <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the cultural and social c<strong>on</strong>texts of vulnerable women.<br />
Project ideas are generated by the loan applicants, who are grouped <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>gether in teams where<br />
they are mutually accountable <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e another for the repayment of their debts as well as<br />
for support. <str<strong>on</strong>g>An</str<strong>on</strong>g>y gain benefits the entire community and this fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>r al<strong>on</strong>e provides a str<strong>on</strong>g<br />
incentive <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>on</strong>going success of its initiatives.<br />
41<br />
Rosenberg and others, op. cit.<br />
42<br />
Barbara Limanowska, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> Beings in South Eastern Europe, 2004: Focus <strong>on</strong> Preventi<strong>on</strong> in Albania,<br />
Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Maced<strong>on</strong>ia, Moldova, Romania, Serbia and<br />
M<strong>on</strong>tenegro and the UN Administered Province of Kosovo, joint report by the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Children's Fund, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> High Commissi<strong>on</strong>er for <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rights and the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g> for Democratic Instituti<strong>on</strong>s and <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Rights of the Organizati<strong>on</strong> for Security and Cooperati<strong>on</strong> in Europe (New York, <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Development<br />
Programme, 2005).<br />
43<br />
Rosenberg and others, op. cit.<br />
44<br />
Maria Vlachová and Lea Bias<strong>on</strong>, eds., Women in an Insecure World: Violence against Women – Facts, Figures and<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>An</str<strong>on</strong>g>alysis (Geneva, Centre for the Democratic C<strong>on</strong>trol of Armed Forces, 2005).<br />
45<br />
Nathanael Goldberg, Measuring the Impact of Microfinance: Taking S<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ck of What We Know (Washing<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>n, D.C.,<br />
Grameen Foundati<strong>on</strong> USA, 2005).<br />
46<br />
Mark Schreiner, “A cost-effectiveness analysis of the Grameen Bank of Bangladesh”, Development Policy Review,<br />
vol. 21, No. 3 (2003), pp. 357-382.<br />
77
AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN TRAFFICKING: VULNERABILITY, IMPACT AND ACTION<br />
VI.—C<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong><br />
This paper has outlined a comprehensive approach <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> preventing trafficking in human<br />
beings based <strong>on</strong> both an understanding of the c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s that render an individual<br />
vulnerable <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking and the empowerment of the individual <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> resist potentially<br />
dangerous situati<strong>on</strong>s in the presence of viable alternatives. The new definiti<strong>on</strong> of the term<br />
“vulnerability” provided here is offered as a guideline <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> both developing comprehensive<br />
preventi<strong>on</strong> strategies as well as <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> identifying those resp<strong>on</strong>sible for changing potentially<br />
harmful policies and practices.<br />
There is <strong>on</strong>e final fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>r that c<strong>on</strong>tributes <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s of vulnerability leading <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
<strong>on</strong>going exploitati<strong>on</strong> of men, women and children around the world that has not yet<br />
been menti<strong>on</strong>ed here: human naïveté. The world recently watched the jubilant<br />
celebrati<strong>on</strong>s marking the 200th anniversary of the end of the transatlantic slave trade, all<br />
the while forgetting that individuals remain in b<strong>on</strong>dage around the world.<br />
Preventi<strong>on</strong> is vital and yet it fails <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> attract attenti<strong>on</strong>. A pers<strong>on</strong> who is trafficked and bears<br />
physical signs of abuse and violence is a visible and newsworthy target for help. Helping<br />
victims gets good press. Most trafficking s<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ries in the popular media focus <strong>on</strong> the<br />
exploitati<strong>on</strong> of victims of trafficking, and a reporter’s first questi<strong>on</strong>, when calling an NGO<br />
or government agency will be: “Can I interview a victim?” But the coverage—and the<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se—remains myopic. Directing media attenti<strong>on</strong>, d<strong>on</strong>or funds and political will<br />
primarily <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>wards the visible end result of a cycle of abuse and exploitati<strong>on</strong> rather than<br />
addressing what allows the cycle <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> occur in the first place will ensure that trafficking in<br />
human beings c<strong>on</strong>tinues.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s of vulnerability are systemic, entrenched within the social, ec<strong>on</strong>omic and<br />
educati<strong>on</strong>al policies of nati<strong>on</strong>s. They are further fuelled by racism and discriminati<strong>on</strong> based<br />
<strong>on</strong> gender, ethnic and cultural c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s. It is necessary <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> ask, therefore, why and<br />
how we as d<strong>on</strong>ors, policymakers, care-givers and nati<strong>on</strong>s have failed <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> take the<br />
preventive acti<strong>on</strong>s necessary and, by that failure, have c<strong>on</strong>tributed <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> an escalati<strong>on</strong> of the<br />
very problem we seek <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> prevent.<br />
78
PART TWO<br />
Impact
The impact of trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Judith Dix<strong>on</strong><br />
I.—<str<strong>on</strong>g>Introducti<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>day is a global phenomen<strong>on</strong>, affecting men, women and children in<br />
over 130 countries of the world. 1 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> is a crime against individuals. 2 As such, the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sequences are most directly felt by trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s. As well documented, trafficking<br />
activities c<strong>on</strong>travene fundamental human rights, denying people basic and broadly accepted<br />
individual freedoms. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> also has broad ec<strong>on</strong>omic, social and cultural c<strong>on</strong>sequences.<br />
As a criminal act, trafficking violates the rule of law, threatening nati<strong>on</strong>al jurisdicti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
and internati<strong>on</strong>al law. Further, trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s redirects the benefits of<br />
migrati<strong>on</strong> from migrants, their families, community and government or other potential<br />
legitimate employers <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the traffickers and their associates. Difficult as it is <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> measure<br />
accurately the scope of human trafficking, it is equally difficult <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> measure its impact. The<br />
dynamics of the trade are c<strong>on</strong>stantly evolving and a range of nati<strong>on</strong>al perspectives exist.<br />
Available statistics are dependent up<strong>on</strong> a variety of sources, methodologies and definiti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Because trafficking is an underground activity, its c<strong>on</strong>sequences are also hidden and<br />
adequate indica<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs have yet <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be developed that will allow the anti-trafficking community<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> successfully measure the impact of this crime. This paper identifies some of the<br />
most notable social, political and ec<strong>on</strong>omic impacts of human trafficking and outlines<br />
important policy c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s in each of these areas.<br />
1<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Drugs and Crime, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in Pers<strong>on</strong>s: Global Patterns<br />
(Vienna, <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2006).<br />
2<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in pers<strong>on</strong>s and the smuggling of migrants are distinct crimes. While there are many similar<br />
comp<strong>on</strong>ents, there are four important differences:<br />
(a) C<strong>on</strong>sent. The smuggling of migrants, while often undertaken in dangerous or degrading c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s, involves<br />
migrants who have c<strong>on</strong>sented <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the smuggling. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> victims, <strong>on</strong> the other hand, have either never<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sented or, if they initially c<strong>on</strong>sented, that c<strong>on</strong>sent has been rendered meaningless by the coercive, deceptive<br />
or abusive acti<strong>on</strong>s of the traffickers;<br />
(b) Exploitati<strong>on</strong>. Smuggling ends with the migrants’ arrival at their destinati<strong>on</strong>, whereas trafficking involves the<br />
<strong>on</strong>going exploitati<strong>on</strong> of the victims in some manner <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> generate illicit profits for the traffickers. From a practical<br />
standpoint, victims of trafficking also tend <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be affected more severely and become more traumatized by their<br />
experiences and are also in greater need of protecti<strong>on</strong> from revictimizati<strong>on</strong> and other forms of further abuse<br />
than are smuggled migrants;<br />
(c) Source of profits. The financial benefits derived from these crimes come from quite different activities. Those<br />
who smuggle migrants profit from effecting the transportati<strong>on</strong> of migrants from <strong>on</strong>e country <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> another. The<br />
key source of criminal income from human trafficking is the exploitati<strong>on</strong> of victims in the countries they are<br />
transported <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>;<br />
(d) Transnati<strong>on</strong>ality. Smuggling is always transnati<strong>on</strong>al, whereas trafficking may not be. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> can occur regardless<br />
of whether victims are taken <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> another country or <strong>on</strong>ly moved from <strong>on</strong>e place <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> another within the same<br />
country. For further reference, see the Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> Prevent, Suppress and Punish <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in Pers<strong>on</strong>s, Especially<br />
Women and Children (General Assembly resoluti<strong>on</strong> 55/25, annex II), and the Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col against the Smuggling<br />
of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air (resoluti<strong>on</strong> 55/25, annex III), both supplementing the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> against Transnati<strong>on</strong>al Organized Crime; available at<br />
www.unodc.org/unodc/en/treaties/CTOC/index.html.<br />
81
AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN TRAFFICKING: VULNERABILITY, IMPACT AND ACTION<br />
While these impacts are described separately below, in reality they cannot be so readily<br />
compartmentalized or discussed in isolati<strong>on</strong>. There are significant and complex interrelati<strong>on</strong>ships,<br />
influences and overlapping fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs within each area. Impacts may both c<strong>on</strong>tribute<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> and/or influence each other in many ways and they are frequently closely<br />
interwoven. Recogniti<strong>on</strong> of the complex nature of trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s and how it has<br />
an impact up<strong>on</strong> us is pivotal <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> informing acti<strong>on</strong> taken in resp<strong>on</strong>se and, ultimately, <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> sustaining<br />
success in countering human trafficking.<br />
II.—The c<strong>on</strong>sequences of trafficking up<strong>on</strong> individuals<br />
Violent crime can have a significant impact up<strong>on</strong> the health and well-being of its victims.<br />
The effects of victimizati<strong>on</strong> strike particularly hard at the poor, the powerless, the disabled<br />
and the socially isolated. Those already affected by prior victimizati<strong>on</strong> are particularly susceptible<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> subsequent victimizati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The effects of trafficking have an impact <strong>on</strong> individuals in all areas of their lives. Victims<br />
of trafficking often experience abuse, exploitati<strong>on</strong>, poverty and poor health prior <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> being<br />
trafficked. These c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s are <strong>on</strong>ly exacerbated by their experiences as victims of crime. 3<br />
Each stage of the trafficking process can involve physical, sexual and psychological abuse<br />
and violence, deprivati<strong>on</strong> and <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rture, the forced use of substances, manipulati<strong>on</strong>, ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
exploitati<strong>on</strong> and abusive working and living c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s. 4 What differentiates the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sequences of trafficking from the effects of singular traumatic events is that trafficking<br />
usually involves prol<strong>on</strong>ged and repeated trauma. 5<br />
A.—The physical impact of trafficking<br />
All forms of trafficking, because of the abusive and exploitative nature of the crime, produce<br />
harmful effects <strong>on</strong> trafficked individuals. For example, the Nati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rights<br />
Commissi<strong>on</strong> of Thailand reported in 2003 the impact of trafficking <strong>on</strong> a group of approximately<br />
100 male fishermen. After three years of exploitati<strong>on</strong>, 39 had died, while those<br />
who returned home were seriously ill—emaciated, emoti<strong>on</strong>ally disturbed and unable <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> see,<br />
hear or walk properly. 6<br />
Trafficked victims may be deliberately selected for their specific physical attributes, which<br />
are then exploited in specific labour c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s. For example, the small size and dexterity<br />
of children makes them desirable for work at rug looms where the exploitati<strong>on</strong> of these<br />
3<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g> for Drug C<strong>on</strong>trol and Crime Preventi<strong>on</strong>, Handbook <strong>on</strong> Justice for Victims: On the Use and<br />
Applicati<strong>on</strong> of the Declarati<strong>on</strong> of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power<br />
(New York, 1999), p. 7.<br />
4<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Drugs and Crime, Toolkit <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> Combat <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in Pers<strong>on</strong>s (<str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
publicati<strong>on</strong>, Sales No. E.06.V.11), p. 154.<br />
5<br />
Cathy Zimmerman and others, The Health Risks and C<strong>on</strong>sequences of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in Women and Adolescents: Findings<br />
from a European Study (L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>, L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, 2003), p. 23<br />
(see http://www.lshtm.ac.uk/hpu/docs/traffickingfinal.pdf).<br />
6<br />
Subhatra Bhumiprabhas, “The misery of male slavery”, The Nati<strong>on</strong> (Thailand), 14 May 2007<br />
(see www.nati<strong>on</strong>multimedia.com/2007/05/14/headlines/headlines_30034148.php).<br />
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PART TWO.—IMPACT<br />
physical attributes leaves them with eye damage, lung disease, stunted growth and a susceptibility<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> arthritis as they grow older. Small children making silk thread dip their hands<br />
in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> boiling water that burns and blisters them, breath smoke and fumes from machinery,<br />
handle dead worms that cause infecti<strong>on</strong>s and guide twisting threads that cut their fingers. 7<br />
However, in terms of global documentati<strong>on</strong>, most is known about the impact of trafficking<br />
up<strong>on</strong> women and children for purposes of sexual exploitati<strong>on</strong>. Detailed research <strong>on</strong><br />
the physical c<strong>on</strong>sequences of trafficking up<strong>on</strong> women is relatively new. In 2006, a major<br />
study gathered statistical evidence <strong>on</strong> the health needs of women who had recently escaped<br />
from a trafficking situati<strong>on</strong>, most of whom had been trafficked for commercial sexual<br />
exploitati<strong>on</strong>. The findings indicate that more than half of the 207 resp<strong>on</strong>dents, from 14<br />
different countries, reported some form of violence prior <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> being trafficked. Nearly all<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>dents (95 per cent) reported physical or sexual violence, with three quarters of<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>dents having been physically hurt, and 90 per cent reporting having been sexually<br />
assaulted, all of which occurred while being trafficked. Most resp<strong>on</strong>dents had been threatened<br />
with violence and forced in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> performing sexual acts. Physical symp<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ms of these<br />
trafficked women included headaches, fatigue and weight loss, s<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>mach, chest, back, pelvic<br />
and vaginal pain, as well as dental and eye, ear and skin problems. A majority c<strong>on</strong>sistently<br />
reported vaginal discharge and gynaecological infecti<strong>on</strong>s, which usually remained<br />
untreated. This is c<strong>on</strong>sistent with earlier work and estimates <strong>on</strong> the extent of health problems<br />
expected <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be experienced by women trafficked for sexual exploitati<strong>on</strong>. 8<br />
B.—HIV/AIDS<br />
Increased likelihood of HIV infecti<strong>on</strong> is often cited as a risk am<strong>on</strong>g women trafficked for<br />
sexual exploitati<strong>on</strong> owing notably <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> a lack of bargaining power c<strong>on</strong>cerning c<strong>on</strong>dom use<br />
and other potentially dangerous sexual practices. Trafficked women are also less likely <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
be beneficiaries of medical or educati<strong>on</strong>al services made available <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>-trafficked women<br />
working in prostituti<strong>on</strong>. 9 Lack of informati<strong>on</strong> about HIV/AIDS, as well as prevalent popular<br />
misc<strong>on</strong>cepti<strong>on</strong>s, including that sexual intercourse with a virgin will cure the disease<br />
and that younger girls are disease-free, has increased the demand for younger victims and<br />
increased the vulnerability of children <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> infecti<strong>on</strong>. 10<br />
A recent study focusing <strong>on</strong> the prevalence and predic<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs of HIV infecti<strong>on</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g trafficked<br />
women and girls rescued from brothels in a South Asian country found that 22.9<br />
per cent of trafficked individuals tested positive for HIV. Those trafficked at younger ages<br />
and having spent a l<strong>on</strong>ger time in brothels were slightly more likely <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> become infected<br />
7<br />
“Child labor”, article available <strong>on</strong> the website of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rights Watch at http://hrw.org/children/labor.htm.<br />
8<br />
Cathy Zimmerman and others, S<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>len Smiles: a Summary Report <strong>on</strong> the Physical and Psychological Health<br />
C<strong>on</strong>sequences of Women and Adolescents Trafficked in Europe (L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>, L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine,<br />
2006), pp. 9-15 (see www.lshtm.ac.uk/genderviolence/).<br />
9<br />
“Youth against HIV/AIDS and trafficking: sensitisati<strong>on</strong> of Nati<strong>on</strong>al Service Scheme (NSS) volunteers in<br />
Mahrashtra: inter-linkages and vulnerability of trafficking and HIV/AIDS”, project available <strong>on</strong> the website of Save the<br />
Children India at www.karmayog.com/ngos/stci.htm.<br />
10<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Development Programme, From Challenges <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> Opportunities: Resp<strong>on</strong>se <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> and<br />
HIV/AIDS in South Asia (UNDP, 2003), p. 7 (see http://www.youandaids.org/UNDP_REACH_publicati<strong>on</strong>s).<br />
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AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN TRAFFICKING: VULNERABILITY, IMPACT AND ACTION<br />
with the HIV virus. 11 These findings dem<strong>on</strong>strate the need for increased attenti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> HIV<br />
am<strong>on</strong>g young victims of sex trafficking in research and practice. It is difficult <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
determine the absolute rates of HIV infecti<strong>on</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s and little research<br />
has been d<strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> determine whether these rates are higher than those of n<strong>on</strong>-trafficked<br />
prostituted women or than those in the general community. 12<br />
C.—Mental health impact<br />
Relentless anxiety, insecurity, fear and physical pain and injury will have significant effects<br />
<strong>on</strong> the mental health and well-being of trafficked victims. Symp<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ms of psychological trauma<br />
reported by trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s include post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety, depressi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
alienati<strong>on</strong> and disorientati<strong>on</strong>. These individuals report feelings of extreme sadness<br />
and hopelessness about the future. 13 They may be suicidal, have cognitive impairment and<br />
memory loss, and may be withdrawn. They may also have difficulty c<strong>on</strong>centrating and<br />
show aggressi<strong>on</strong> and anger. Studies indicate that trauma worsens throughout the durati<strong>on</strong><br />
of the trafficking process. Initial trauma comm<strong>on</strong>ly experienced either before they were<br />
trafficked or when they first discovered that they were trafficked, will be c<strong>on</strong>tinually<br />
increased by the process of the trafficking. The l<strong>on</strong>ger victims remain under the c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
of their traffickers, the more severe and l<strong>on</strong>g-lasting are the effects of their trauma. The<br />
symp<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ms may persist for a l<strong>on</strong>g time after the trafficking experience unless support and<br />
appropriate counselling is provided. 14<br />
D.—Child victims<br />
Child victims of trafficking are subject <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the same harmful treatment as adults. Their age<br />
makes them even more vulnerable <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the harmful c<strong>on</strong>sequences of abusive practices.<br />
Prol<strong>on</strong>ged abuse in children, including physical and sexual abuse, hunger and malnutriti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
may lead <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> permanent stunting of growth. Trafficked children may suffer, for example,<br />
from poorly formed or rotting teeth and may experience reproductive problems at a later<br />
date. The Internati<strong>on</strong>al Labour Organizati<strong>on</strong> (ILO) has documented that children in some<br />
tropical regi<strong>on</strong>s are at high risk of sunstroke, increased heart rhythm, pois<strong>on</strong>ing due <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
chemicals in insecticides, dust inhalati<strong>on</strong> in sawmills and mines, machinery accidents,<br />
burns, road accidents, stagnati<strong>on</strong> of growth and general fatigue that makes them less<br />
resistant <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> malaria and other diseases because of their exposure <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> harsh working<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s. 15<br />
11<br />
J. G. Silverman and others, “HIV prevalence and predic<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs am<strong>on</strong>g rescued sex-trafficked women and girls in<br />
Mumbai, India”, Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, vol. 43, No. 5 (2006), pp. 588-593.<br />
12<br />
Paul Williams, “Sex work, the Palermo Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col and HIV/AIDS”, paper presented by the HIV/AIDS technical<br />
adviser of UNODC <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Global C<strong>on</strong>sultati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> HIV/AIDS and Sex Work, Rio de Janeiro,<br />
Brazil, 13 July 2006.<br />
13<br />
Zimmerman and others, S<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>len Smiles: a Summary Report … , p. 18.<br />
14<br />
Ekaterina V. Shkurkin, “The c<strong>on</strong>sequences of the sexual abuse in human trafficking”, paper presented at <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> C<strong>on</strong>ference, Riga, 5 December 2004 (see http://homepages.stmartin.edu/fac_staff/kshkurkin/<br />
C<strong>on</strong>seq%20of%20Hum%20traffic%20with%20inserts%2025feb05.doc).<br />
15<br />
Kathleen Fitzgibb<strong>on</strong>, “Modern-day slavery? The scope of trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s in Africa”, African Security Review,<br />
vol. 12, No. 1 (2003) (see www.iss.co.za/Pubs/ASR/12No1/EFitz.htmlHigh profits, low risk).<br />
84
PART TWO.—IMPACT<br />
Trafficked children are less likely than adults <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> have accurate informati<strong>on</strong> about the transmissi<strong>on</strong><br />
and preventi<strong>on</strong> of sexually transmitted infecti<strong>on</strong>s and have fewer negotiating skills.<br />
Girls are especially vulnerable, as sexually transmitted infecti<strong>on</strong>s are likely <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> have l<strong>on</strong>gterm<br />
physical c<strong>on</strong>sequences. The emoti<strong>on</strong>al well-being, self-esteem and ability <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> set<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>al goals and form healthy relati<strong>on</strong>ships of these younger victims of trafficking will<br />
be significantly damaged.<br />
Trafficked children find it difficult <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trust authority figures. If their trafficking situati<strong>on</strong><br />
was initiated by a family member, or if they were very young, they may be subsequently<br />
unable <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> return <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> their families or c<strong>on</strong>nect with them. They may have attachment<br />
problems and anti-social behaviours, aggressi<strong>on</strong>, sexualized behaviour or addicti<strong>on</strong>s. If<br />
offered a chance at educati<strong>on</strong>, they may suffer developmental delays, language and<br />
cognitive difficulties, deficits in verbal and memory skills, poorer academic performance<br />
and grade retenti<strong>on</strong>. They may experience difficulty in adapting themselves <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the rules,<br />
regulati<strong>on</strong>s and discipline of the educati<strong>on</strong> system. 16<br />
E.—Substance abuse<br />
Trafficked victims may be subjected <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> substance abuse by their traffickers. Some trafficked<br />
women have described how they were forced <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> use drugs or alcohol <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> ensure<br />
their compliance and <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> enable them <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> take <strong>on</strong> more clients, work l<strong>on</strong>ger hours or<br />
perform objecti<strong>on</strong>able or risky acts. 17 Trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s may also turn <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> substance abuse<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> alleviate the pain of their situati<strong>on</strong>, often resulting in addicti<strong>on</strong>, organ damage,<br />
malnutriti<strong>on</strong>, needle-induced infecti<strong>on</strong>s, overdose and death.<br />
F.—Impact <strong>on</strong> behaviour<br />
Prol<strong>on</strong>ged physical and mental abuse affects victims’ behaviour in negative ways, having<br />
an impact <strong>on</strong> both physical and emoti<strong>on</strong>al resp<strong>on</strong>ses. Because trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s often<br />
experience extreme forms of trauma over l<strong>on</strong>g periods of time, their capacities both <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
understand what has happened <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> them and <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> describe their experiences are directly<br />
impaired as a result of such abuse. Victims can find that it is difficult <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> make pers<strong>on</strong>al<br />
sense of the abuse they have experienced, much less try <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> explain it <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the authorities.<br />
They are even less able <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> identify what help they might need as a result of the abuse. 18<br />
This lack of clarity may have negative c<strong>on</strong>sequences when a victim is being interviewed<br />
16<br />
Yv<strong>on</strong>ne Rafferty, “Child trafficking and commercial sexual exploitati<strong>on</strong>: psychological and social policy<br />
perspectives”, presentati<strong>on</strong> available <strong>on</strong> the website of the Pace University at http://appserv.pace.edu/emplibrary/yv<strong>on</strong>neraffertypresentati<strong>on</strong>050107.pdf,<br />
slides 15 and 16.<br />
17<br />
Zimmerman and others, The Health Risks and C<strong>on</strong>sequences ... , p. 4.<br />
18<br />
Zimmerman and others, S<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>len Smiles … , p. 22.<br />
85
AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN TRAFFICKING: VULNERABILITY, IMPACT AND ACTION<br />
by relevant authorities. Trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s may be unsure of how they are supposed <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
answer questi<strong>on</strong>s. They may be reluctant <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> disclose informati<strong>on</strong>, or may give false<br />
informati<strong>on</strong>, be irritable or hostile and aggressive <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>wards others, even support pers<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
They may seem complaining, uncooperative or ungrateful. As a result, they may not be<br />
identified as victims of crime, further compounding the injustice they have experienced.<br />
In many instances, failure <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> identify a pers<strong>on</strong> as a trafficking victim comm<strong>on</strong>ly results in<br />
deportati<strong>on</strong> from the country of transit or destinati<strong>on</strong> without access <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> legal, medical or<br />
social services. Such behaviour, however, may manifest in individuals for many years.<br />
Up<strong>on</strong> return <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the country of origin, assistance <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s will depend <strong>on</strong><br />
existing ec<strong>on</strong>omic, political and social c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s. Assistance, when available, may be<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tingent up<strong>on</strong> certain behaviours and c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s, for example, zero <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>lerance of<br />
substance abuse and adherence <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> structured daily regimens. Victims may be <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>o traumatized<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> participate effectively in programmes, take decisi<strong>on</strong>s, show preferences or accept<br />
help. Unaddressed physical health symp<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ms and chr<strong>on</strong>ic pain will also affect victims’<br />
ability <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> participate in programmes available for their assistance. In some countries,<br />
service programmes and providers limit a victim’s right <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> determine what is best for themselves.<br />
Where “assistance” is perceived as placing unnecessary or unwanted restricti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<strong>on</strong> victims, trafficked individuals may resp<strong>on</strong>d through various forms of uncooperative<br />
behaviour. Worst case examples are those which impose a “victim” status <strong>on</strong> a trafficking<br />
pers<strong>on</strong> that further victimizes, rather than rehabilitates, that individual.<br />
Fear, in its many manifestati<strong>on</strong>s, is also a comm<strong>on</strong> behavioural resp<strong>on</strong>se <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> return. Leaving<br />
aside the stigma and shame associated with trafficking, trafficking victims anticipate and<br />
frequently suffer reprisals up<strong>on</strong> return <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> their points of origin, from threats and actual<br />
physical violence against themselves or those close <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> them through <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the very real possibility,<br />
in many cases, of being retrafficked.<br />
G.—Stigma<br />
The resp<strong>on</strong>se of family members and the community will have an impact up<strong>on</strong> the recovery<br />
process of trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s. Although more is known about the stigma facing victims<br />
of trafficking for sexual exploitati<strong>on</strong>, all trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s may face social disapproval<br />
if they return without promised wealth, regardless of the harm they suffered. 19 In many<br />
countries, the impact of the trauma is influenced significantly by how victims imagine<br />
their culture will view their experiences. Many victims know that cultural attitudes <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> prostituti<strong>on</strong><br />
could prevent them from being accepted by their families and communities. In<br />
some cultures the entire family could be ostracized as a result of the victim’s past. 20<br />
19<br />
“More needs <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be d<strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> address stigma and discriminati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>wards women trafficked for sexual<br />
exploitati<strong>on</strong>”, Internati<strong>on</strong>al Organizati<strong>on</strong> for Migrati<strong>on</strong>, Regi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g> in Finland, press release for Internati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Women's Day, 8 March 2006 (see www.pld.iom.int/en/news).<br />
20<br />
Elizabeth Peffer Talbot, “<str<strong>on</strong>g>An</str<strong>on</strong>g> assault <strong>on</strong> the soul: an internati<strong>on</strong>al plaque in the 21st century”, paper presented<br />
at the C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> of the North American Associati<strong>on</strong> of Christians in Social Work, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,<br />
Oc<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ber 2006, page 5 (see www.nacsw.org/Publicati<strong>on</strong>s/Proceedings2006/TalbotE<str<strong>on</strong>g>An</str<strong>on</strong>g>Assaul<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ntheSoulE.pdf).<br />
86
PART TWO.—IMPACT<br />
In a recent nati<strong>on</strong>al study, surveyed communities exhibited some understanding of the<br />
role of social and ec<strong>on</strong>omic hardships in vulnerability <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking, but overwhelmingly<br />
blamed the immoral character of the trafficked girl herself, who was seen <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> bring disgrace<br />
and shame <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> her family and community. Returned victims were c<strong>on</strong>sidered likely <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>tinue as prostitutes or try <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> recruit other young girls as prostitutes—all trafficking was<br />
associated with sex work, and those who were trafficked were assumed <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be<br />
infected with HIV/AIDS and <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be a source of infecti<strong>on</strong> in the communities. 21<br />
Preventi<strong>on</strong> messages may unknowingly c<strong>on</strong>tribute <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the stigmas surrounding a trafficked<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>, notably in the way they portray the negative results of a trafficking situati<strong>on</strong>. For<br />
example, some campaigns use fear <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> discourage women from leaving their homes and<br />
associate trafficking with c<strong>on</strong>tracting HIV, implying that all women trafficked for sexual<br />
exploitati<strong>on</strong> have HIV/AIDS. 22<br />
Even participati<strong>on</strong> in a recognized return programme for victims of trafficking may expose<br />
trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the stigma of prostituti<strong>on</strong>. Men trafficked for sexual purposes may<br />
experience the double shame and stigma of being branded a prostitute and of having sex<br />
with men despite not being homosexual themselves. 23 In some cases victims will simply<br />
move away from the home area and return <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> prostituti<strong>on</strong>, while others choose not <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
reveal anything at all about the trafficking experience, with this choice significantly<br />
affecting their physical and psychological recovery. 24<br />
H.—Recovery<br />
Return and reintegrati<strong>on</strong> for a trafficked pers<strong>on</strong> is a l<strong>on</strong>g-term and complex process with<br />
no guarantee of recovery. Even where physical problems can be addressed and stigma<br />
overcome, trauma and psychological damage make recovery a difficult task rendered even<br />
more so by the problems in accessing necessary resources and in communicating with<br />
support pers<strong>on</strong>s and family. Some trafficked victims may not adjust <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> a lifestyle that they<br />
previously c<strong>on</strong>sidered “normal”. If employment can be found, a trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>’s<br />
behaviour, as a result of the experiences of severe trauma, may make it difficult <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> remain<br />
employed.<br />
21<br />
Vaishali Sharma Mahendra and others, Community Percepti<strong>on</strong>s of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> and its Determinants in Nepal<br />
(Kathmandu/New Delhi, Asia Foundati<strong>on</strong>, Horiz<strong>on</strong>s and Populati<strong>on</strong> Council, December 2001), p. 53<br />
(see http://www.asiafoundati<strong>on</strong>.org/pdf/nepal_traffickingperceptios.pdf).<br />
22<br />
Asia Foundati<strong>on</strong>, Horiz<strong>on</strong>s and Populati<strong>on</strong> Council, “Research summary: trafficking and human rights in Nepal:<br />
community percepti<strong>on</strong>s and policy and program resp<strong>on</strong>ses”, August 2001, p. 4,<br />
(see http://www.popcouncil.org/pdfs/horiz<strong>on</strong>s/traffickingsum1.pdf).<br />
23<br />
Barbara Limanowska, “<str<strong>on</strong>g>An</str<strong>on</strong>g>ti-trafficking acti<strong>on</strong> in south-eastern Europe: lack of effectiveness of law enforcement<br />
and migrati<strong>on</strong> approaches”, paper prepared for the C<strong>on</strong>sultative Meeting <strong>on</strong> Migrati<strong>on</strong> and Mobility and how this<br />
movement affects women, Malmö, Sweden, 2-4 December 2003 (CM/MMW/2003/EP.6)<br />
(see http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/meetings/c<strong>on</strong>sult/CM-Dec03-EP6.pdf).<br />
24<br />
Diana Tudorache, A General Review of the Psychological Support and Services Provided <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> Victims of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
outcome of empirical analysis assisted by the Counter-<str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> Return and Re-integrati<strong>on</strong> Programme, Internati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Organizati<strong>on</strong> for Migrati<strong>on</strong> Kosovo, September 2003, p. 84.<br />
87
AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN TRAFFICKING: VULNERABILITY, IMPACT AND ACTION<br />
Problems may be compounded if, as often happens, trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s are returned <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
their place of origin <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> face the same problems of unemployment, abuse and discriminati<strong>on</strong><br />
that compelled them <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> leave in the first place, all of which may be exacerbated by<br />
the new stigma. With previous victimizati<strong>on</strong> a better predic<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>r of future victimizati<strong>on</strong> than<br />
any other characteristic of crime, these circumstances c<strong>on</strong>tribute extra risk. 25 For some,<br />
especially those who survived l<strong>on</strong>ger periods in a trafficking situati<strong>on</strong>, a return <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> a situati<strong>on</strong><br />
of exploitati<strong>on</strong> may provide the <strong>on</strong>ly alternative for which their practical skills and<br />
survival mentality are now oriented. 26<br />
III.—The political implicati<strong>on</strong>s of trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the tragic impact <strong>on</strong> individuals, human trafficking has now reached such<br />
a scale that it has begun <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> influence the domestic and foreign policies of many of the<br />
countries where the problem has become particularly noted. Because trafficking involves<br />
the movement of people across internati<strong>on</strong>al borders, <strong>on</strong>e of the most important areas of<br />
debate is migrati<strong>on</strong> policy. However, because trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s is also a deeply human<br />
issue, it has become a major issue of discussi<strong>on</strong> and c<strong>on</strong>cern in human rights circles. The<br />
following discussi<strong>on</strong> will outline what are some of the major c<strong>on</strong>cerns and challenges in<br />
each of these two areas.<br />
A.—Shaping migrati<strong>on</strong> policies<br />
Unprecedented numbers of people leave their homes and families every year in search of<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic opportunities that are not available <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> them at home. Many of these individuals<br />
migrate legally. The numbers are so great, however, and the restricti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> regular or<br />
legal migrati<strong>on</strong> usually so stringent, that many migrants become absorbed in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the illicit<br />
world of people smuggling. In <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>o many cases, smuggling leads <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s of <strong>on</strong>going<br />
exploitati<strong>on</strong> and human misery. Comm<strong>on</strong>ly, many States equate “trafficking” with “illegal<br />
migrati<strong>on</strong>” or “smuggling of aliens” or movement of asylum-seekers, even though these are<br />
different—albeit often overlapping—phenomena. It is within this overall c<strong>on</strong>cept and not<br />
as a separate issue that trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s has helped <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> shape migrati<strong>on</strong> policies, in<br />
countries both of origin and destinati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
25<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> States of America, Department of Justice, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g> of Community Oriented Policing Services, Deborah<br />
Lamm Weisel, <str<strong>on</strong>g>An</str<strong>on</strong>g>alysing Repeat Victimisati<strong>on</strong>, Problem-Oriented Guides for Police, Problem-Solving Tools Series<br />
No. 4 (Washing<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>n, D.C., August 2005) (see http://www.cops.usdoj.gov/files/ric/Publicati<strong>on</strong>s/e07055803.pdf).<br />
26<br />
Tudorache, op. cit., p. 94.<br />
88
PART TWO.—IMPACT<br />
B.—Border c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
Just as a comm<strong>on</strong> resp<strong>on</strong>se <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> irregular migrati<strong>on</strong> has been <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> tighten borders, so <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>o have<br />
countries resp<strong>on</strong>ded <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the increase in human trafficking by strengthening border c<strong>on</strong>trol.<br />
Stricter border c<strong>on</strong>trols and increased law enforcement are comm<strong>on</strong> methods. 27<br />
Expenditure <strong>on</strong> border c<strong>on</strong>trol is increasing rapidly throughout Australia, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
States, Western Europe and other perceived destinati<strong>on</strong> areas. 28<br />
At the global and regi<strong>on</strong>al levels, internati<strong>on</strong>al cooperati<strong>on</strong> in addressing trafficking is<br />
largely within the c<strong>on</strong>text of acti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> deter and prevent irregular movements and the promoti<strong>on</strong><br />
of nati<strong>on</strong>al legislati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> assist in this. The Bali Process <strong>on</strong> People Smuggling,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in Pers<strong>on</strong>s and Related Transnati<strong>on</strong>al Crime, set up in South-East Asia, has a<br />
str<strong>on</strong>g crime c<strong>on</strong>trol emphasis and focuses <strong>on</strong> capacity-building of operati<strong>on</strong>al-level law<br />
enforcement, immigrati<strong>on</strong> and other key pers<strong>on</strong>nel involved in combating migrant smuggling,<br />
trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s and related forms of transnati<strong>on</strong>al crime. 29 In Western and<br />
Central Europe, the European Uni<strong>on</strong> has focused extensively <strong>on</strong> issues of smuggling and<br />
trafficking within the c<strong>on</strong>text of c<strong>on</strong>trolling immigrati<strong>on</strong> from outside. Following the 1999<br />
Tampere European Council, which guaranteed access <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> European terri<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ry <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> asylumseekers,<br />
draft council directives were formulated <strong>on</strong> penal frameworks for those who facilitate<br />
unauthorized entry and residence. 30<br />
Regi<strong>on</strong>al forums all include bilateral aid and trade programmes, assistance with poverty<br />
alleviati<strong>on</strong> and development as part of their focus. These policies are directly linked <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the expectati<strong>on</strong> that increases in overseas development and humanitarian assistance will<br />
also result in decreases in irregular migrati<strong>on</strong>, including trafficking. 31<br />
C.—<str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> rights<br />
When trafficking is defined within the c<strong>on</strong>text of irregular migrati<strong>on</strong>, the crime c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
focus becomes the illegal entry or stay in a country, that is, infracti<strong>on</strong> of state laws by<br />
the migrant him- or herself. This focus raises the danger that the human rights abuses and<br />
exploitati<strong>on</strong> that are the characteristics of trafficking may not be addressed. Even when<br />
government measures primarily target the recruiters and exploiters, trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s are<br />
at risk of being c<strong>on</strong>sidered collabora<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs in illegal migrati<strong>on</strong> rather than as victims of<br />
crime. 32<br />
27<br />
Raimo Väyrynen, “Illegal immigrati<strong>on</strong>, human trafficking, and organized crime”, discussi<strong>on</strong> paper No. 2003/72<br />
(Helsinki, <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> University, World Institute for Development Ec<strong>on</strong>omics Research, Oc<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ber 2003), p. 4<br />
(see http://www.wider.unu.edu/publicati<strong>on</strong>s/dps/dps2003/dp2003-072.pdf)<br />
. 28 Bimal Ghosh, “Managing migrati<strong>on</strong>: whither the missing regime?”, draft article in the Migrati<strong>on</strong> Without Borders<br />
series, document SHS/2005/MWB/4 (Paris, <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Educati<strong>on</strong>al, Scientific and Cultural Organizati<strong>on</strong>, 15<br />
February 2005), p. 2 (see http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001391/139149E.pdf)<br />
. 29 Australia, Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, “Background <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Bali process” (see<br />
http://www.dfat.gov.au/illegal_immigrati<strong>on</strong>/bali_process_background.html).<br />
30<br />
John Morris<strong>on</strong>, “<str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> smuggling and trafficking”, Forced Migrati<strong>on</strong> Online Research Guide (Oc<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ber 2002)<br />
(see http://www.forcedmigrati<strong>on</strong>.org/guides/fmo011/)<br />
. 31 John Morris<strong>on</strong>, “The trafficking and smuggling of refugees: the end game in European asylum policy?”, prepublicati<strong>on</strong><br />
editi<strong>on</strong>, commissi<strong>on</strong>ed by the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g> of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> High Commissi<strong>on</strong>er for Refugees, July 2000,<br />
p. 93 (see http://www.ecre.org/eu_developments/c<strong>on</strong>trols/traffick.pdf)<br />
. 32 Statement adopted by the European NGO C<strong>on</strong>ference, held in Noordwijkerhout from 5 <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> 7 April 1997, for<br />
presentati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the EU Ministerial C<strong>on</strong>ference from 24 <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> 26 April 1997.<br />
89
AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN TRAFFICKING: VULNERABILITY, IMPACT AND ACTION<br />
The unintended c<strong>on</strong>sequence of this approach can be severe. To cross closed borders,<br />
irregular migrants are more likely <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> use professi<strong>on</strong>al smugglers or traffickers. The involvement<br />
of criminal groups in migrati<strong>on</strong> means that smuggling may lead <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> exploitati<strong>on</strong> and<br />
potential instances of trafficking, victimizati<strong>on</strong> and the violati<strong>on</strong> of human rights.<br />
With trafficking being potentially more profitable than smuggling, owing <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>on</strong>going<br />
exploitati<strong>on</strong> of the victim, States of destinati<strong>on</strong> may be inadvertently creating a lucrative<br />
market for the traffickers. The more strictly the laws of immigrati<strong>on</strong> against the illegal<br />
entrants are enforced, the more sophisticated forms of criminality are used in human trafficking<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> overcome the barriers that are needed <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> making a profit. This may increase the<br />
violence and abuse associated with the practice. 32<br />
The impact of focusing <strong>on</strong> trafficking as a migrati<strong>on</strong> issue is significant. As the Secretary-<br />
General stated <strong>on</strong> 21 November 2003:<br />
“The more we try <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> deal with migrati<strong>on</strong> simply by clamping down <strong>on</strong> it with tighter<br />
border c<strong>on</strong>trols, the more we find that human rights are sacrificed—<strong>on</strong> the journey,<br />
at the border, and inside the host countries.” 33<br />
The vast majority of asylum-seekers now enter Europe and other regi<strong>on</strong>s of destinati<strong>on</strong><br />
in an irregular fashi<strong>on</strong> and quite possibly with the assistance of traffickers and smugglers.<br />
This may in turn lead <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> further blurring of the categories of people movements and threaten<br />
the right of asylum. 34 It is necessary for destinati<strong>on</strong> countries <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> develop accurate and<br />
reliable pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>cols <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> determine the status of all individuals who have entered their borders<br />
under seemingly illegal means acknowledging the possibility that these individuals<br />
may be victims of crime.<br />
D.—Regular migrati<strong>on</strong>: countries of destinati<strong>on</strong><br />
As a result of the increase of illegal migrati<strong>on</strong>, many countries of destinati<strong>on</strong> have tightened<br />
their immigrati<strong>on</strong> requirements. While the demand for unskilled domestic and care<br />
workers, women in particular, has increased, countries of destinati<strong>on</strong> have restricted the<br />
flow of regular or legal migrati<strong>on</strong> by imposing educati<strong>on</strong>al, language and other requirements.<br />
Short-term c<strong>on</strong>tracts with dependence up<strong>on</strong> specific employers, lengthy c<strong>on</strong>tract<br />
approval processes, certificati<strong>on</strong> of skills, recruitment fees, b<strong>on</strong>ds, police and health checks<br />
and travel costs may further impede legitimate migrati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
These practices may not be designed specifically <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> address trafficking, but are rather<br />
aimed at regulating and c<strong>on</strong>trolling legal immigrati<strong>on</strong>. The possible discriminati<strong>on</strong> against<br />
unskilled migrants (in the face of the growing demand) can have the unintended impact<br />
32<br />
Statement adopted by the European NGO C<strong>on</strong>ference, held in Noordwijkerhout from 5 <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> 7 April 1997, for<br />
presentati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the EU Ministerial C<strong>on</strong>ference from 24 <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> 26 April 1997.<br />
33<br />
Franciscans Internati<strong>on</strong>al and others, “The migrati<strong>on</strong> and trafficking nexus”; statement submitted <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
Commissi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rights at its sixtieth sessi<strong>on</strong> (E/CN.4/2004/NGO/115) (see http://www.franciscansinternati<strong>on</strong>al.org/docs/statement.php?id=240).<br />
34<br />
Morris<strong>on</strong>, “The trafficking and smuggling … , p. 101.<br />
90
PART TWO.—IMPACT<br />
of further increasing the vulnerability of migrants <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> being trafficked. 35 Where a legal<br />
opportunity cannot be found, potential migrants may turn <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> traffickers for assistance.<br />
Restrictive migrati<strong>on</strong> policies that limit opportunities <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> migrate safely and legally will fuel<br />
demand for the services of traffickers.<br />
E.—Regular migrati<strong>on</strong>: source countries<br />
It becomes important for labour-exporting nati<strong>on</strong>s, which are the primary source countries<br />
for trafficking, <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> manage migrati<strong>on</strong> in such a way that it c<strong>on</strong>tributes <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> social and<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic development and is not seen as a danger by their own citizens, a threat <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> public<br />
security or as stigmatizing their citizens. Some source countries attempt <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> protect their<br />
citizens from exploitati<strong>on</strong> through a variety of regulated programmes prior <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> departure.<br />
Some important methods comm<strong>on</strong>ly used in the Philippines, for example, include a range<br />
of subsidized benefits, including pre-migrati<strong>on</strong> training <strong>on</strong> social and work c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
abroad, life insurance and pensi<strong>on</strong> plans, medical insurance and tuiti<strong>on</strong> assistance for the<br />
migrant and his or her family, and eligibility for pre-departure and emergency loans. 36<br />
Nevertheless, despite these efforts, significant numbers of migrants, especially women, fall<br />
in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s of exploitati<strong>on</strong> and trafficking.<br />
Other source countries may impose discrimina<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ry exit requirements and may restrict<br />
migrati<strong>on</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g certain populati<strong>on</strong> groups, notably women. These restricti<strong>on</strong>s may stem<br />
from a country’s norms related <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the status of women or as a direct resp<strong>on</strong>se <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> abuse<br />
or exploitati<strong>on</strong> perceived in countries of destinati<strong>on</strong>. The restricti<strong>on</strong>s may take the form of<br />
complete bans or age-, occupati<strong>on</strong>- and country-specific limitati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> women’s emigrati<strong>on</strong>. 37<br />
In some source regi<strong>on</strong>s, well intended trafficking preventi<strong>on</strong> messages have sometimes<br />
taken a negative positi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> migrati<strong>on</strong>. Frightening messages about the dangers of migrati<strong>on</strong><br />
have been used <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> discourage women from leaving their villages. 38 The unintended c<strong>on</strong>sequence<br />
of such strategies may make individuals more vulnerable <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> exploitati<strong>on</strong>. 39 Poor<br />
women job-seekers, in particular from remote rural areas with less access <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> accurate informati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>on</strong> migrati<strong>on</strong> procedures, job opportunities, recruitment channels and legitimate<br />
jobs, are at higher risk of being trafficked in these situati<strong>on</strong>s. Given the global demand<br />
for female labour and the increasing willingness of female migrants <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> travel overseas,<br />
restrictive female migrati<strong>on</strong> policies will encourage women <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> use informal or<br />
irregular channels <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> assist their movement. This in turn increases their vulnerability <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
trafficking. 40<br />
35<br />
Naila Kabeer, “Footloose” Female Labour: Transnati<strong>on</strong>al Migrati<strong>on</strong>, Social Protecti<strong>on</strong> and Citizenship in the<br />
Asia Regi<strong>on</strong> (Ottawa, Internati<strong>on</strong>al Development Research Centre, 2007) secti<strong>on</strong> 6.1<br />
(see http://www.idrc.ca/uploads/user-S/11829727461WRC_WP1_-_Kabeer_-_Migrati<strong>on</strong>.doc).<br />
36<br />
Kevin O'Neil, “Labor export as government policy: the case of the Philippines”, Migrati<strong>on</strong> Informati<strong>on</strong> Source,<br />
January 2004 (see http://www.migrati<strong>on</strong>informati<strong>on</strong>.org/Feature/print.cfm?ID=191).<br />
37<br />
Kabeer, op. cit.<br />
38<br />
John Davies, “The role of migrati<strong>on</strong> policy in creating and sustaining trafficking harm”, University of Sussex,<br />
Migrati<strong>on</strong> Research Centre, 31 August 2002, p. 5 (see http://www.belgium.iom.int/STOPC<strong>on</strong>ference/<br />
C<strong>on</strong>ference%20Papers/OSLO.pdf).<br />
39<br />
“<str<strong>on</strong>g>An</str<strong>on</strong>g>ti-trafficking policies and programs in Nepal may infringe <strong>on</strong> women's rights”, Populati<strong>on</strong> Briefs, vol. 7,<br />
No. 4 (2001) (see http://www.popcouncil.org/publicati<strong>on</strong>s/popbriefs/pb7(4)_1.html).<br />
40<br />
Jean D'Cunha, “<str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in pers<strong>on</strong>s: a gender and rights perspective”, paper prepared for the Expert Group<br />
Meeting <strong>on</strong> trafficking in women and girls, Glen Cove, New York, 18 22 November 2002 (EGM/TRAF/<br />
2002/EP.8), p. 19 (see http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/egm/trafficking2002/reports/EP-DCunha.pdf).<br />
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AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN TRAFFICKING: VULNERABILITY, IMPACT AND ACTION<br />
F.—Management of the status of trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s<br />
The detecti<strong>on</strong> and identificati<strong>on</strong> of trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s in countries of destinati<strong>on</strong> raises<br />
significant political and social challenges. States are faced with rec<strong>on</strong>ciling their obligati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
under the Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> Prevent, Suppress and Punish <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in Pers<strong>on</strong>s, Especially<br />
Women and Children, <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> protect victims with their own domestic policies of preventing<br />
irregular migrati<strong>on</strong>. Trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s will not usually have a regular residence status in<br />
the State of destinati<strong>on</strong>, either because they arrived in an irregular way or because their<br />
residence permit has expired.<br />
A number of countries of destinati<strong>on</strong> have recently recognized the humanitarian risks of<br />
returning victims precipi<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>usly <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> their country of origin. To address both their human<br />
rights obligati<strong>on</strong>s and their nati<strong>on</strong>al security and migrati<strong>on</strong> requirements, several destinati<strong>on</strong><br />
States have adopted measures for the temporary or permanent residence of victims<br />
of trafficking. In some cases, that protecti<strong>on</strong> entitles the victims <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> other rights and benefits.<br />
Additi<strong>on</strong>ally, in some countries, reflecti<strong>on</strong> periods are granted <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> allow for a period<br />
of time in which the presumed trafficked pers<strong>on</strong> is referred for services and counselling,<br />
without having <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> make an immediate statement <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the police. This enables trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> receive appropriate support and <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> make informed decisi<strong>on</strong>s. Such support and<br />
assistance will assist in their recovery and may encourage them <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> testify against traffickers,<br />
assisting in successful prosecuti<strong>on</strong>s. Early assistance can promote recovery and may<br />
in turn have a positive future impact <strong>on</strong> the reducti<strong>on</strong> of trafficking, by preventing retrafficking.<br />
Cooperative bilateral assistance efforts between the State of destinati<strong>on</strong> and<br />
the State of origin have also been developed in some cases and will assist in reducing the<br />
risks faced by victims.<br />
92
PART TWO.—IMPACT<br />
IV.—The ec<strong>on</strong>omic impact of trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s<br />
A.—The costs of trafficking<br />
The cost of crime is essentially a measure of the impact of that crime <strong>on</strong> society. The<br />
costs of trafficking include the value of all resources devoted <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> its preventi<strong>on</strong>, the treatment<br />
and support of victims and the apprehensi<strong>on</strong> and prosecuti<strong>on</strong> of offenders. For<br />
example, as a comp<strong>on</strong>ent of organized crime, there are costs <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the police (who investigate<br />
suspected crime and gather and record evidence), the prosecuti<strong>on</strong> services, criminal<br />
courts, legal aid and n<strong>on</strong>-legally-aided defence costs, and costs of the pris<strong>on</strong> and probati<strong>on</strong><br />
services. The foreg<strong>on</strong>e productivity of impris<strong>on</strong>ed traffickers (although such labour<br />
may not in all cases have been put <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> productive use) should be included. There may also<br />
be costs <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> witness protecti<strong>on</strong> schemes and health, welfare and other government services.<br />
While in some countries a successful prosecuti<strong>on</strong> may mean some cost recovery and<br />
asset c<strong>on</strong>fiscati<strong>on</strong>, in most circumstances, the resources devoted <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> these elements of the<br />
criminal justice system and health and welfare systems come from the public purse, which<br />
may severely challenge existing resources, notably in source countries. Realizing the potential<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> offset these costs through the c<strong>on</strong>fiscati<strong>on</strong> of traffickers’ income and assets is of<br />
great significance <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>tinued success against trafficking activities.<br />
These costs are linked with the human and social costs <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the victims and their communities<br />
and may include the physical and emoti<strong>on</strong>al suffering of victims as well as the <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ll<br />
up<strong>on</strong> community members who may develop increased fear and anxiety about crime as<br />
a result of public trials and media attenti<strong>on</strong>. Given that violence, corrupti<strong>on</strong> and trafficking<br />
are invariably linked, the cost of enforcement and reform may be affected by public<br />
percepti<strong>on</strong>s that government cannot cope with criminal organizati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
The <strong>on</strong>going care and support of victims, costs associated with immigrati<strong>on</strong> and cus<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ms<br />
processes, repatriati<strong>on</strong>, direct government funding or funding grants <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>-governmental<br />
organizati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> assist victims, al<strong>on</strong>g with other health, welfare housing and associated<br />
costs, will also have an impact. For some source countries especially, this is a significant<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic burden.<br />
While expenditures <strong>on</strong> trafficking preventi<strong>on</strong> programmes, advocacy and research projects<br />
may be seen as discreti<strong>on</strong>ary, such expenditures are often accepted by Governments<br />
that are parties <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col as a requirement of their domestic commitment<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> addressing the crime of trafficking and a part of their enforcement efforts against the<br />
crime.<br />
The public health impact of trafficking is potentially very costly. Recent epidemiological<br />
data suggest that tuberculosis, which is regarded worldwide as a re-emerging infectious<br />
disease, has reached the level of an epidemic in some countries from which victims are<br />
trafficked. 41 In areas where vaccinati<strong>on</strong> programmes and health service standards and<br />
41<br />
“C<strong>on</strong>ference background informati<strong>on</strong> and further readings”, paper presented <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the regi<strong>on</strong>al workshop and<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ference entitled “Health Aspects of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in Pers<strong>on</strong>s”, Budapest, 19 21 March 2003 (see http://hub.usembassy.hu/programs/background.doc).<br />
93
AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN TRAFFICKING: VULNERABILITY, IMPACT AND ACTION<br />
pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>cols are not widely developed or infecti<strong>on</strong> rates are higher, diseases such as tuberculosis<br />
or HIV/AIDS may be brought <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the country of destinati<strong>on</strong>, with attendant costs<br />
and problems.<br />
B.—Lost resources<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking results in an irretrievable loss of human resources and reducti<strong>on</strong>s in<br />
revenue. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> yields no tax revenues, and may even lead <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> a net revenue loss as<br />
a result of tax evasi<strong>on</strong> and m<strong>on</strong>ey-laundering. There will be a lower accumulati<strong>on</strong> of human<br />
capital and a lower rate of participati<strong>on</strong> in the labour market. In source countries, trafficking<br />
will influence the future productivity of children, who may lose access <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong><br />
or suffer health problems where a parent is trafficked and family support is lost. There<br />
will be fewer individuals available <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> care for elderly people or children, with fewer<br />
resources.<br />
N<strong>on</strong>-m<strong>on</strong>etary ec<strong>on</strong>omic loss such as health-related impacts may be significant, as trafficked<br />
victims and their families suffer the c<strong>on</strong>sequences of this crime. Since trafficking<br />
may result in premature death, a possible c<strong>on</strong>sequence is the loss of the future productive<br />
capacity of the victim. As is also comm<strong>on</strong> for families of homicide victims, or those<br />
who die prematurely because of crime, the emoti<strong>on</strong>al, psychological, and social impacts<br />
will be borne by the family and community of the deceased pers<strong>on</strong>.<br />
When victims are repatriated <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> their country of origin, the burden of assistance and rehabilitati<strong>on</strong><br />
is shifted <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the source country, where resources are often already limited. The<br />
future impact of untreated health and welfare needs will be significant. In many cases families<br />
and communities will be required <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> take <strong>on</strong> this additi<strong>on</strong>al human, social and ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
burden.<br />
The effects of the bribery and corrupti<strong>on</strong> known <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> accompany trafficking practices may<br />
destabilize regula<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ry regimes and their supporting infrastructure and also significantly<br />
inhibit much needed overseas investment and trade. 42<br />
C.—Remittances<br />
The most direct ec<strong>on</strong>omic impact of human trafficking <strong>on</strong> individuals is the receipt of little<br />
or no income and, c<strong>on</strong>sequently, the loss of migrant remittances. While it is not possible<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> sensibly estimate the potential value of the labour of trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s, some<br />
States have taken tentative steps, <strong>on</strong> occasi<strong>on</strong> in assessing compensati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> calculate<br />
income payments due <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking victims. While compensati<strong>on</strong> payments remain rare<br />
and generally c<strong>on</strong>stitute small financial sums, a well documented motivati<strong>on</strong> for many<br />
identified trafficking victims in initially c<strong>on</strong>senting <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> approaches by traffickers is, firstly,<br />
the opportunity <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> earn an anticipated level of income and, sec<strong>on</strong>dly, <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> apply that income<br />
as remittances.<br />
42<br />
“Searching for transparency: corrupti<strong>on</strong> and the global ec<strong>on</strong>omy”, Multinati<strong>on</strong>al M<strong>on</strong>i<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>r, vol. 27, No. 3<br />
(May/June 2006) (see http://multinati<strong>on</strong>alm<strong>on</strong>i<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>r.org/mm2006/052006/interview-nussbaum.html).<br />
94
PART TWO.—IMPACT<br />
Official remittances, m<strong>on</strong>ey sent home by migrants, made up of milli<strong>on</strong>s of individual, private,<br />
n<strong>on</strong>-market income transfers, have grown steadily and represent a significant internati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
flow of capital. Formal remittance flows from foreign workers now <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>tal over $232<br />
billi<strong>on</strong>, with developing countries receiving $160 billi<strong>on</strong>, while informal flows and nati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
or domestic remittances add 50 per cent more. 43 Women, children and the elderly are<br />
said <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be the majority of beneficiaries of these remittances. While the issue of foreign<br />
remittances themselves is c<strong>on</strong>troversial, any discussi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> this <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>pic must acknowledge<br />
that, in the short term, they provide and make possible a number of benefits <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> those <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
whom they are sent. A direct impact of trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s is <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> deny a victim those<br />
benefits.<br />
Sending members abroad may represent many families’ main survival project and source<br />
of income, with a much higher return than opportunities at home. Funds provided for<br />
household needs enable receivers <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> maintain or increase expenditure <strong>on</strong> basic c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong><br />
and, in cases of extreme poverty, these funds will provide welfare assistance. 44<br />
Remittances may also reduce the vulnerability of recipients <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> crises and be critical <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> how<br />
they survive and recover from disasters. 45 Sending remittances home also improves the<br />
status and negotiating power of women in their families and communities, and may create<br />
better c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s for other females in the family. 46 This may create an effective development<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ol, c<strong>on</strong>tributing <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the improvement of women’s ec<strong>on</strong>omic status in countries<br />
of both origin and destinati<strong>on</strong>. 47<br />
For many developing ec<strong>on</strong>omies, remittances are the single largest source of foreign<br />
exchange and are stable and resilient in the face of ec<strong>on</strong>omic downturns. Increasingly, it<br />
is argued that remittances are a positive force for development. They have been described<br />
as the most stable, abundant and safe source of foreign aid for developing countries, 48<br />
with greater efforts expended <strong>on</strong> how they can be used <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> assist development in recipient<br />
countries, including their use in collective local development projects such as those<br />
set up in Mexico. 49 According <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the World Bank, a 10 per cent increase in the percentage<br />
of remittances as a proporti<strong>on</strong> of a country’s GDP would result in a 1.6 per cent<br />
reducti<strong>on</strong> of the number of people living in poverty in that country. 50<br />
43<br />
Committee <strong>on</strong> Payment and Settlement Systems and World Bank, General Principles for Internati<strong>on</strong>al Remittance<br />
Services (Basel, Switzerland, Bank for Internati<strong>on</strong>al Settlements, 2007), p. 1<br />
(see www.bis.org/publ/cpss76.pdf).<br />
44<br />
Manuel Orozco, “Remittances compete with the dream of an enterprise”, presentati<strong>on</strong> at the Third Internati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Policy and Expert Meeting “Entrepreneurial decisi<strong>on</strong>s across borders: savings, remittances and investments and migrant<br />
household decisi<strong>on</strong>s”, The Hague, 22 November 2006, slide 7<br />
(see http://www.remittances.eu/dmdocuments/Gender%20and%20remittances.ppt#270,19,Leveraging remittances for<br />
financial access).<br />
45<br />
Kevin Savage and Paul Harvey, “Remittances during crises: implicati<strong>on</strong>s for humanitarian resp<strong>on</strong>se”,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g>itarian Policy Group, Briefing paper No. 26 (L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>, Overseas Development Institute, May 2007)<br />
(see www.odi.org.uk/hpg/papers/hpgbrief26.pdf).<br />
46<br />
Sarah J. Mahler, “Gender matters”, id21 Research Highlight, 16 January 2006<br />
(see www.id21.org/id21ext/insights60art7.html).<br />
47<br />
Carlota Ramírez, Mar García Domínguez and Julia Míguez Morais, Crossing Borders: Remittances, Gender and<br />
Development, working paper (San<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> Domingo, Internati<strong>on</strong>al Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of<br />
Women, June 2005), pp. 23- 47 (see http://www.un-instraw.org/en/images/s<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ries/remmitances/documents/crossing_borders.pdf).<br />
48<br />
Ramírez and others, op. cit., p. 19.<br />
49<br />
“Workers' remittances <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> Mexico”, Business Fr<strong>on</strong>tier, vol. 1, 2004<br />
(see www.dallasfed.org/research/busfr<strong>on</strong>t/bus0401.html).<br />
50<br />
Ramírez and others, op. cit., p. 47.<br />
95
AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN TRAFFICKING: VULNERABILITY, IMPACT AND ACTION<br />
There is no way of assessing the value of remittances sent home by trafficked and/or<br />
exploited pers<strong>on</strong>s, given that trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s, by definiti<strong>on</strong>, are not in c<strong>on</strong>trol of the<br />
m<strong>on</strong>ey that is earned as a result of their labour or services. The fact that the profits of<br />
trafficking derive from the exploitati<strong>on</strong> of its victims, which may include keeping a great<br />
part of their earnings and thus preventing victims from sending remittances home or, at<br />
least, reducing remittances, should have an impact <strong>on</strong> the benefits outlined above.<br />
D.—The profits of organized crime<br />
In 2005, ILO estimated that there were 12.3 milli<strong>on</strong> people in forced labour worldwide, of<br />
whom about 2.4 milli<strong>on</strong> had been trafficked, both internally and across borders. 51 The<br />
profits of trafficking are significant. Unlike smuggling of migrants, which produces a <strong>on</strong>e-time<br />
profit, trafficking involves the l<strong>on</strong>g-term exploitati<strong>on</strong> of individuals, which translates in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>tinuous income. Recent ILO estimates suggest that the global profits of trafficking in<br />
human beings are around $31.6 billi<strong>on</strong> annually. Based <strong>on</strong> the previously cited numbers of<br />
trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s, this translates in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> an annual illicit profit of $13,000 per victim. 52<br />
The Internati<strong>on</strong>al M<strong>on</strong>etary Fund assesses the annual turnover of criminal organizati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
at some $1,500 billi<strong>on</strong> internati<strong>on</strong>ally. 53 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in pers<strong>on</strong>s is believed <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be the third<br />
largest source of the profits for internati<strong>on</strong>al organized crime after trafficking in drugs and<br />
arms. 54 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in pers<strong>on</strong>s guarantees criminal networks a stable and regular source of<br />
income with little risk, enabling them <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> form additi<strong>on</strong>al rings for other lucrative and<br />
dangerous illicit activities. 55 These profits have funded the expansi<strong>on</strong> of internati<strong>on</strong>al,<br />
regi<strong>on</strong>al and local criminal groups, c<strong>on</strong>tributed <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> corrupti<strong>on</strong> and undermined the rule of<br />
law. 56 Informati<strong>on</strong> suggests that traffickers have effectively used the new opportunities<br />
created by changes in internati<strong>on</strong>al restricti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> movements of goods, m<strong>on</strong>ey and<br />
services, and the creati<strong>on</strong> and development of new global markets and new technologies,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> operate increasingly at the internati<strong>on</strong>al level. 56<br />
The structure and size of the organized criminal groups involved in human trafficking<br />
range from small local networks <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> large transnati<strong>on</strong>al organizati<strong>on</strong>s. Those who benefit<br />
include recruiters, document forgers, brokers, brothel owners, debt collec<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs and<br />
managers/owners of employment agencies. Corrupt immigrati<strong>on</strong> officials, c<strong>on</strong>sular<br />
workers, embassy pers<strong>on</strong>nel, members of law enforcement bodies and border guards<br />
accept bribes in exchange for passports, visas and safe transit. As a major global crime,<br />
human trafficking is also often intermixed with other organized illicit activities, including<br />
51<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>al Labour <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g>, A Global Alliance against Forced Labour: Global Report under the Follow-up <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
ILO Declarati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work (Geneva, Internati<strong>on</strong>al Labour <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2005), pp. 11-14<br />
(see www.ilo.org/dyn/declaris/DECLARATIONWEB.DOWNLOAD_BLOB?Var_DocumentID=5059).<br />
52<br />
Patrick Belser, Forced Labour and <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g>: Estimating the Profits, working paper (Geneva, Internati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Labour <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g>, March 2005), p. 17 (see www.ilo.org/sapfl/Informati<strong>on</strong>resources/ILOPublicati<strong>on</strong>s/lang--en/docName--<br />
WCMS_081971/index.htm).<br />
53<br />
North Atlantic Treaty Organizati<strong>on</strong>, Parliamentary Assembly, Subcommittee <strong>on</strong> Democratic Governance,<br />
Organised Crime: Drug and <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in Europe, document 141 CCDG 03 E (NATO, 2003), para. 50<br />
(see www.na<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>-pa.int/Default.asp?SHORTCUT=368)<br />
54<br />
“<str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking exposed”, Populati<strong>on</strong> Today, vol. 30, No. 1 (2002), pp. 1 and 4 (for Quotati<strong>on</strong> see<br />
www.lib.msu.edu/harris23/crimjust/human.htm).<br />
55<br />
North Atlantic Treaty Organizati<strong>on</strong>, Organised Crime … , para. 73.<br />
56<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>An</str<strong>on</strong>g>dreas Schloenhardt, Organised Crime and the Business of Migrant <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g>: an Ec<strong>on</strong>omic <str<strong>on</strong>g>An</str<strong>on</strong>g>alysis (Canberra,<br />
Australian Institute of Criminology, 10 November 1999), pp. 51 and 77<br />
(see www.aic.gov.au/c<strong>on</strong>ferences/occasi<strong>on</strong>al/schloenhardt.html).<br />
96
PART TWO.—IMPACT<br />
fraud, ex<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rti<strong>on</strong>, racketeering, m<strong>on</strong>ey-laundering, bribery of public officials, drug use, document<br />
forgery and gambling. 57<br />
Of a global sample of 40 organized criminal groups surveyed by the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<strong>on</strong> Drugs and Crime in 2002, 8 were found <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be involved in human trafficking activities,<br />
with 2 almost exclusively involved in human trafficking and the remaining 6 including<br />
human trafficking as <strong>on</strong>e of a number of diversified criminal activities undertaken by the<br />
group. 58 In 50 per cent of human trafficking cases in <strong>on</strong>e destinati<strong>on</strong> country, the<br />
perpetra<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs were also engaged in illegal trade in drugs or arms. 59 Links <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> other global<br />
criminal activities make human trafficking more profitable, as groups are able <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> use the<br />
safe and tested routes and work through known corrupt officials.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking crimes are also closely integrated in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> legal business interests such as<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>urism, employment or recruitment agencies, agriculture, hotel and airline operati<strong>on</strong>s, and<br />
leisure and entertainment businesses. 60 Criminal organizati<strong>on</strong>s may hide the traces of their<br />
illegal activities by directly and indirectly investing their profits in legitimate financial<br />
instituti<strong>on</strong>s. 61 Although some businesses are simply established <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> launder m<strong>on</strong>ey and not<br />
necessarily <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> make profits, this practice may in turn have a negative impact <strong>on</strong> the<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omy, as legitimate businesses may find themselves having <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> compete against enterprises<br />
being secretly or unknowingly subsidised by laundered proceeds of crime or<br />
supported by the exploitati<strong>on</strong> of trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s. Fair competiti<strong>on</strong> may also be affected<br />
when exploited trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s have been used further down the supply chain <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
produce materials such as textiles. 62<br />
The most visible impact of the profits of organized crime associated with human trafficking<br />
in destinati<strong>on</strong> countries is trafficking for sexual exploitati<strong>on</strong> within the commercial sex<br />
trade. 63 Well-established domestic organized criminal groups often engage in the sex trade<br />
and cheap labour markets with foreign counterparts. 64 Prostituted women have been known<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be used as drug smugglers/couriers and dealers. 65 These crimes, combined with the<br />
movements of illicit profits made by the sex industry, estimated <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be between $7 and<br />
$12 billi<strong>on</strong> annually, 66 have a significant impact <strong>on</strong> ec<strong>on</strong>omic stability and security, human<br />
rights and law enforcement and crime c<strong>on</strong>trol.<br />
57<br />
James O. Finckenauer and Jennifer Schrock, “<str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking: a growing criminal market in the U.S”<br />
(see www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/internati<strong>on</strong>al/ht.html).<br />
58<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Drugs and Crime, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in Pers<strong>on</strong>s: Global Patterns (Vienna, <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
2006), p. 69.<br />
59<br />
William Hill, “<str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in human beings: who does it hurt, and why should we care?”, article <strong>on</strong> the<br />
missi<strong>on</strong> of the Organizati<strong>on</strong> for Security and Cooperati<strong>on</strong> in Europe <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> Moldova, 17 November 2003<br />
(see www.osce.org/documents/mm/2003/11/1219_en.pdf).<br />
60<br />
Aurora Javate De Dios, “Macro-ec<strong>on</strong>omic exploitati<strong>on</strong> and their(sic) impact <strong>on</strong> sexual exploitati<strong>on</strong> and trafficking<br />
of women and girls: issues, resp<strong>on</strong>ses and challenges” (see www.catw-ap.org/macro.htm).<br />
61<br />
John R. Wagley, Transnati<strong>on</strong>al Organized Crime: Principal Threats and U.S. Resp<strong>on</strong>ses, C<strong>on</strong>gressi<strong>on</strong>al Research<br />
Service report for C<strong>on</strong>gress, Library of C<strong>on</strong>gress, 20 March 2006, p. 10 (see www.fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/RL33335.pdf).<br />
62<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> States of America, Department of State, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in Pers<strong>on</strong>s Report: June 2006 (<str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> M<strong>on</strong>i<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>r and<br />
Combat <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in Pers<strong>on</strong>s, 2006) (see http://www.state.gov/g/tip/rls/tiprpt/2006/65983.htm).<br />
63<br />
Lisa L. Thomps<strong>on</strong>, “The sexual gulag: profiteering from the global commercial sexual exploitati<strong>on</strong> of women<br />
and children”, testim<strong>on</strong>y before the Financial Services Committee, <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> States House of Representatives,<br />
22 June 2005, p. 12 (see http://financialservices.house.gov/media/pdf/062205lt.pdf).<br />
64<br />
“Organised Crime and Law Enforcement in Europe: women trafficked for prostituti<strong>on</strong>”,<br />
(see http://www.organisedcrime.info/index.php?mode=12&id=5).<br />
65<br />
Sami Nevala and Kauko Aromaa, eds., Organised Crime, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g>, Drugs: Selected Papers Presented at the <str<strong>on</strong>g>An</str<strong>on</strong>g>nual<br />
C<strong>on</strong>ference of the European Society of Criminology Helsinki 2003, HEUNI Publicati<strong>on</strong> Series, No. 42 (Helsinki, 2004), p.<br />
123 (see http://www.heuni.fi/uploads/v2t9skuki.pdf).<br />
66<br />
Thomps<strong>on</strong>, op. cit., p. 4.<br />
97
AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN TRAFFICKING: VULNERABILITY, IMPACT AND ACTION<br />
V.—The impact <strong>on</strong> the rule of law<br />
Effective and impartial applicati<strong>on</strong> of the rule of law is indispensable for sustaining a<br />
democratic society. Corrupti<strong>on</strong> and other ancillary crimes linked <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking activities<br />
undermine Governments, reduce accountability and representati<strong>on</strong> in policymaking,<br />
suspend the rule of law and result in unequal service provisi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The spread of organized crime, including human trafficking, has become, for example, <strong>on</strong>e<br />
of the most important mechanisms for unlawful redistributi<strong>on</strong> of nati<strong>on</strong>al wealth in South-<br />
Eastern Europe. Organized crime undermines law enforcement efforts, slows ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
growth, raises the cost of regi<strong>on</strong>al trade and disrupts the transiti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> a market ec<strong>on</strong>omy.<br />
It has been suggested that profits from organized crime, in some parts of the globe, have<br />
been used as financial c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> political parties and electi<strong>on</strong> campaigns. 67 This has<br />
a negative impact <strong>on</strong> the public’s trust in democratic and market ec<strong>on</strong>omy instituti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
and breeds disillusi<strong>on</strong>ment with reforms in general.<br />
In countries where there is civil unrest or where major natural disasters have occurred,<br />
the destructi<strong>on</strong> of infrastructure means that Governments may have difficulty exercising<br />
full c<strong>on</strong>trol over their nati<strong>on</strong>al terri<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ry. For example, following natural disasters or as a<br />
result of civil unrest, people housed in refugee camps or in temporary shelters, especially<br />
children separated from their families and women al<strong>on</strong>e, may be at risk from criminal<br />
organizati<strong>on</strong>s and traffickers seeking <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> exploit their desperate circumstances. 68 In these<br />
often chaotic circumstances, traffickers can undermine government efforts <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> exert authority<br />
and <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> protect vulnerable populati<strong>on</strong>s. Public safety may be threatened and communities<br />
may lose faith in their nati<strong>on</strong>al Governments, while internati<strong>on</strong>al d<strong>on</strong>ors may be<br />
reluctant <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> provide aid in such circumstances.<br />
VI.—Post-c<strong>on</strong>flict situati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
In post-c<strong>on</strong>flict areas, the associati<strong>on</strong> between internati<strong>on</strong>al peacekeeping pers<strong>on</strong>nel and<br />
private c<strong>on</strong>trac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs, organized crime and the growth of trafficking in women and children<br />
for sexual exploitati<strong>on</strong> has raised global c<strong>on</strong>cerns. 69 It has been reported, for example,<br />
that during peacekeeping operati<strong>on</strong>s where significant human trafficking activity occurred,<br />
those who were trafficking in people also trafficked in guns and narcotics, the revenue<br />
from which could destabilize a theatre of operati<strong>on</strong>. 70 It has also been suggested that the<br />
67<br />
Center for the Study of Democracy, Corrupti<strong>on</strong>, C<strong>on</strong>traband and Organized Crime in Southeast Europe<br />
(Sofia, 2003), p. 3 (see http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/UNTC/UNPAN016997.pdf).<br />
68<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Populati<strong>on</strong> Fund, Gender-Based Violence in Aceh, Ind<strong>on</strong>esia: a Case Study<br />
(New York, UNFPA), p. 11 (see www.unfpa.org/women/docs/gbv_ind<strong>on</strong>esia.pdf)..<br />
69<br />
Amnesty Internati<strong>on</strong>al, “Kosovo (Serbia and M<strong>on</strong>tenegro) ‘So does that mean I have rights?’ Protecting the<br />
human rights of women and girls trafficked for forced prostituti<strong>on</strong> in Kosovo”, L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>, 6 May 2004<br />
(see www.amnesty-eu.org/static/documents/Kosovo_summary.doc).<br />
70<br />
Sarah E. Mendels<strong>on</strong>, Barracks and Brothels: Peacekeepers and <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in the Balkans (Washing<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>n,<br />
D.C., Center for Strategic and Internati<strong>on</strong>al Studies, 2005), p. 14 (see www.ceu.hu/polsci/Illicit_Trade-CEU/Week10-<br />
Mendels<strong>on</strong>.pdf).<br />
98
PART TWO.—IMPACT<br />
resources accumulated by illegal activities, including trafficking, in post-c<strong>on</strong>flict z<strong>on</strong>es may<br />
also become a part of redirected revenue used for the clandestine political ec<strong>on</strong>omy of a<br />
regi<strong>on</strong>, with serious global c<strong>on</strong>sequences. 71<br />
VII.—Global security<br />
In most regi<strong>on</strong>s of destinati<strong>on</strong>, trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s al<strong>on</strong>g with its links <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> organized<br />
crime and its significant human rights, ec<strong>on</strong>omic, social, and political impacts are acknowledged<br />
as endangering human as well as nati<strong>on</strong>al security. For example, trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s<br />
is described in the European Security Strategy as <strong>on</strong>e of the five key threats for the<br />
regi<strong>on</strong>. 72 Regi<strong>on</strong>al forums both within the European Uni<strong>on</strong> and in South-East Asia comm<strong>on</strong>ly<br />
focus <strong>on</strong> developing collaborative efforts at addressing organized crime, including<br />
law enforcement cooperati<strong>on</strong> and training, and in combating human trafficking by targeting<br />
migrant smugglers and human traffickers within a regi<strong>on</strong>al focus. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> States<br />
regards trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s as an important issue both because of its human impact<br />
and also because of its c<strong>on</strong>sequences for nati<strong>on</strong>al security, primarily with respect <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> terrorism,<br />
crime, health and welfare, and border c<strong>on</strong>trol. 73<br />
In many countries, in particular in source areas, the prioritizati<strong>on</strong> of anti-human trafficking<br />
efforts must compete with a range of significant nati<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>cerns, including addressing<br />
poverty, corrupti<strong>on</strong> and/or civil unrest, as well as competing demands for scarce<br />
resources. 74 As evidenced by the ratificati<strong>on</strong> of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col, there is, however,<br />
broad global agreement <strong>on</strong> the significant risks and harms that relate human trafficking<br />
issues <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> humanitarian c<strong>on</strong>cerns, business interests, political relati<strong>on</strong>ships, investments<br />
in training and assistance, and law enforcement cooperati<strong>on</strong>. The proliferati<strong>on</strong> of trafficking<br />
in pers<strong>on</strong>s and the organized crime associated with it is recognized as having a negative<br />
impact <strong>on</strong> all these areas and undermining the effectiveness of aid and investment.<br />
There is also a c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> that organized crime networks involved in human trafficking<br />
may be a potential terrorism threat. 75<br />
71<br />
Ibid., p. 25<br />
72<br />
Volker Perthes, “European percepti<strong>on</strong>s, America’s ‘greater Middle East’", The Daily Star, 9 March 2004<br />
(see www.pogar.org/themes/reforms/documents/04e-eu-percepti<strong>on</strong>s.pdf).<br />
73<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> States, Department of Homeland Security, written statement of John P. Clark, Deputy Assistant<br />
Secretary, U.S. Immigrati<strong>on</strong> and Cus<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ms Enforcement, Department of Homeland Security, before the House<br />
Committee <strong>on</strong> Homeland Security Subcommittee <strong>on</strong> Management, Integrati<strong>on</strong> and Oversight: the 9/11 Reform Act:<br />
examining the implementati<strong>on</strong> of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> Smuggling and <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> Center, 8 March 2006<br />
(see www.ice.gov/doclib/pi/news/testim<strong>on</strong>ies/060308testim<strong>on</strong>y.pdf).<br />
74<br />
James O. Finckenauer and Ko-lin Chin, Asian Transnati<strong>on</strong>al Organized Crime and its Impact <strong>on</strong> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> States:<br />
Developing a Transnati<strong>on</strong>al Crime Research Agenda: a Final Report, submitted <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Nati<strong>on</strong>al Institute of Justice, <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
States Department of Justice, November 2004, pp. 2-18 (see www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/213310.pdf).<br />
75<br />
Louise I. Shelley, “<str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking: transnati<strong>on</strong>al crime and links with terrorism”, statement <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the House<br />
Committee <strong>on</strong> Internati<strong>on</strong>al Relati<strong>on</strong>s, Subcommittee <strong>on</strong> Internati<strong>on</strong>al Terrorism, N<strong>on</strong>proliferati<strong>on</strong> and<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rights, <strong>on</strong> 25 June 2003<br />
(see http://usinfo.state.gov/eap/Archive_Index/<str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g>_<str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g>_Transnati<strong>on</strong>al_Crime_and_Links_with_Terrorism.html).<br />
99
AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN TRAFFICKING: VULNERABILITY, IMPACT AND ACTION<br />
VIII.—C<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong><br />
As a complex manifestati<strong>on</strong> of the global ec<strong>on</strong>omy, organized crime and human rights<br />
violati<strong>on</strong>s, human trafficking causes extreme hardship <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the suspected milli<strong>on</strong>s of people<br />
worldwide who have become victims of this crime and has an impact <strong>on</strong> the financial<br />
markets, the ec<strong>on</strong>omies and the social structures of countries where trafficking is allowed<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> exist. As a major comp<strong>on</strong>ent of organized crime with its enormous financial power,<br />
trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s has a complex and interlocking negative impact across human, social,<br />
political and ec<strong>on</strong>omic arenas.<br />
The destabilizing and dangerous c<strong>on</strong>sequences range from readily recognized violence,<br />
direct ec<strong>on</strong>omic loss and major migrati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>cerns <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the less easily quantified, equally<br />
serious, but more complex effects of risks and harms <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> envir<strong>on</strong>mental, social, health and<br />
safety, and violati<strong>on</strong>s of human rights. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in pers<strong>on</strong>s directly challenges the development<br />
of stable, more prosperous societies and legitimate ec<strong>on</strong>omies, and works str<strong>on</strong>gly<br />
against the rec<strong>on</strong>ciliati<strong>on</strong> of political interests with humanitarian and human rights obligati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
The range of trafficking-related crimes and their broad and interrelated impacts<br />
have created a cumulative threat <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> global peace, security and stability and have shaped<br />
political, social and ec<strong>on</strong>omic resp<strong>on</strong>ses at both nati<strong>on</strong>al and global levels.<br />
100
PART THREE<br />
Acti<strong>on</strong>
Resp<strong>on</strong>ses <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
internati<strong>on</strong>al norms translated in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
acti<strong>on</strong> at the nati<strong>on</strong>al and regi<strong>on</strong>al levels<br />
Mike Dottridge<br />
I.—Translating internati<strong>on</strong>al instruments in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> acti<strong>on</strong><br />
The adopti<strong>on</strong> in November 2000 of the Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> Prevent, Suppress and Punish<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in Pers<strong>on</strong>s, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> against Transnati<strong>on</strong>al Organized Crime, precipitated intense activity around<br />
the world <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> s<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>p trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s. This paper summarizes the principal resp<strong>on</strong>ses<br />
undertaken by States parties. Their main focus has been <strong>on</strong> detecting and prosecuting<br />
traffickers, identifying, protecting and assisting people who have already been trafficked<br />
and initiating acti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> prevent people from being trafficked in the first place. Relatively<br />
large amounts of m<strong>on</strong>ey have been invested in these anti-trafficking efforts by a range of<br />
d<strong>on</strong>ors.<br />
A.—Legislati<strong>on</strong><br />
Many States that have ratified the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col (and some that have not) have<br />
adopted new laws or amended existing legislati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> translate the Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> acti<strong>on</strong> at<br />
the nati<strong>on</strong>al level, <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> define an offence of trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s al<strong>on</strong>g the lines of the definiti<strong>on</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>tained in the Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col, <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> increase penalties for traffickers and <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> establish instituti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
and procedures <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> implement the law. Numerous agreements and declarati<strong>on</strong>s have<br />
also been adopted at the regi<strong>on</strong>al level <strong>on</strong> the issue of trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s. Some are<br />
based <strong>on</strong> the definiti<strong>on</strong> of trafficking c<strong>on</strong>tained in the Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col. 1 Others focus <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong><br />
commercial sexual exploitati<strong>on</strong> 2 and do not c<strong>on</strong>sider people who have been trafficked in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
forced labour or servitude. Some focus exclusively <strong>on</strong> cases of trafficking involving women<br />
and girls. 3<br />
1<br />
Such as the Council of Europe C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Acti<strong>on</strong> against <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> Beings (Council of Europe,<br />
Treaty Series, No. 197) (2005) (see http://c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Treaties/Html/197.htm).<br />
2<br />
Such as the South Asian Associati<strong>on</strong> for Regi<strong>on</strong>al Cooperati<strong>on</strong> C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Preventing and Combating<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in Women and Children for Prostituti<strong>on</strong> (2002) (see http://www.saarc-sec.org/old/freepubs/c<strong>on</strong>v-traffiking.pdf).<br />
3<br />
Such as the Council of Europe, Parliamentary Assembly, recommendati<strong>on</strong> 1545 (2002) <strong>on</strong> a campaign against<br />
trafficking in women (see http://assembly.coe.int/Main.asp?link=/Documents/AdoptedText/ta02/EREC1545.htm).<br />
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AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN TRAFFICKING: VULNERABILITY, IMPACT AND ACTION<br />
Article 3 of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col specifies a n<strong>on</strong>-exhaustive range of purposes of<br />
exploitati<strong>on</strong> that are associated with trafficking (“at a minimum, the exploitati<strong>on</strong> of the<br />
prostituti<strong>on</strong> of others or other forms of sexual exploitati<strong>on</strong>, forced labour or services, slavery<br />
or practices similar <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> slavery, servitude or the removal of organs”). When adopting<br />
new laws, some States have made a distincti<strong>on</strong> between “sexual exploitati<strong>on</strong>” (such as the<br />
exploitati<strong>on</strong> of the prostituti<strong>on</strong> of others and forced marriage) and “labour exploitati<strong>on</strong>”<br />
(i.e. forced labour and servitude). 4<br />
Several countries facing c<strong>on</strong>siderable instances of child trafficking, such as Benin, have<br />
incorporated the c<strong>on</strong>cept of “worst forms of child labour” in their legislati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> human<br />
trafficking. 5 This is based <strong>on</strong> the definiti<strong>on</strong>s in the Internati<strong>on</strong>al Labour Organizati<strong>on</strong> (ILO)<br />
C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> No. 182, the Worst Forms of Child Labour C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>, and includes forms<br />
of exploitati<strong>on</strong> not covered by the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col is quite<br />
specific in its definiti<strong>on</strong>s that, when a child is recruited or transported, the illegal means<br />
(“threat or use of force or other forms of coerci<strong>on</strong>, of abducti<strong>on</strong>, of fraud, of decepti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
of the abuse of power or of a positi<strong>on</strong> of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of<br />
payments or benefits”) menti<strong>on</strong>ed in article 3, subparagraph (a), are irrelevant for the case<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>stitute trafficking. 6 However, in some countries new legislati<strong>on</strong> does not reflect this<br />
provisi<strong>on</strong>, meaning that investiga<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs must be able <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> show that children under 18 have<br />
been subjected <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the same forms of abusive c<strong>on</strong>trol as adults while being recruited or<br />
transported for their cases <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be categorized as trafficking. Further, some countries define<br />
a child as being under 15 or 16 years of age rather than 18.<br />
The net result of the varied ways in which States have amended their legislati<strong>on</strong> is that<br />
representatives of <strong>on</strong>e State, when referring <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> a case of human trafficking in communicati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
with representatives of another State, may not be referring <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the same practices.<br />
This result clearly c<strong>on</strong>tradicts the intenti<strong>on</strong>s of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col. It also means that,<br />
when collecting data about cases of trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s, there are still no comm<strong>on</strong> criteria,<br />
so that States that have similar trafficking patterns may issue public informati<strong>on</strong> that<br />
suggests that the patterns in the two countries are quite different. All States that have ratified<br />
the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col should therefore review their legislati<strong>on</strong> surrounding both<br />
trafficking and the various forms of exploitati<strong>on</strong> prohibited by the Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> ensure that<br />
they are in compliance with its provisi<strong>on</strong>s. They can use a <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Drugs<br />
and Crime assessment <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ol <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> assess their compliance. 7 For example, <strong>on</strong>e State in Latin<br />
America which ratified the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col in 2004 faced difficulties when the legis-<br />
4<br />
As debt b<strong>on</strong>dage is a form of servitude, in principle any irregular migrant who has <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> work for a specified<br />
employer <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> pay back an ex<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rti<strong>on</strong>ate loan (<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> finance his or her travel expenses) can be regarded as trafficked. In<br />
practice, this interpretati<strong>on</strong> is sometimes c<strong>on</strong>tentious, as some migrants argue that it is legitimate <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> take such loans<br />
(and repay the substantial interest by working), as they have little access <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> alternative sources <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> finance their<br />
migrati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
5<br />
Benin, Loi N° 2006-04 du 5 avril 2006 portant sur les c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s de déplacement des mineurs et la répressi<strong>on</strong> de la<br />
traite d’enfants en République du Bénin (see http://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/)..<br />
6<br />
Article 3, subparagraph (c), of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col specifies: “The recruitment … or receipt of a child for<br />
the purpose of exploitati<strong>on</strong> shall be c<strong>on</strong>sidered ‘trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s’ even if this does not involve any of the means<br />
set forth in subparagraph (a) of this article”.<br />
7<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Drugs and Crime, “<str<strong>on</strong>g>An</str<strong>on</strong>g>ti-trafficking assessment <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ol: a <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ol for rapidly assessing<br />
jurisdicti<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>cordance with the requirements of UN <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col and the UN C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> against<br />
Transnati<strong>on</strong>al Organized Crime”, 2003.<br />
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PART THREE.—ACTION<br />
lature adopted an anti-trafficking law in 2005 that was not c<strong>on</strong>sistent with the terms of<br />
the Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col. The Head of State attempted <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> resolve the inc<strong>on</strong>sistencies by promulgating<br />
a nati<strong>on</strong>al policy <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> combat human trafficking in 2006, which clearly addresses all the<br />
forms of exploitati<strong>on</strong> menti<strong>on</strong>ed in the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col.<br />
B.—Instituti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> combat trafficking<br />
States have established a variety of specialized instituti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>d <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> cases of trafficking<br />
in pers<strong>on</strong>s. Sometimes these instituti<strong>on</strong>s are defined in the State’s anti-trafficking legislati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
while sometimes they are defined separately. These instituti<strong>on</strong>s vary widely and<br />
include nati<strong>on</strong>al rapporteurs (<strong>on</strong> trafficking), inter-ministerial or inter-agency coordinati<strong>on</strong><br />
bodies or mechanisms, bodies <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> coordinate the provisi<strong>on</strong> of services <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> individuals who<br />
have been trafficked (sometimes called nati<strong>on</strong>al referral mechanisms) and special law<br />
enforcement units, as well as specialized prosecu<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> detect and prosecute traffickers.<br />
In some cases it has been left <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> a nati<strong>on</strong>al human rights instituti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> propose new initiatives,<br />
as in India. 8<br />
C.—Learning what works: good practice<br />
The past seven years have been an opportunity <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> learn which approaches are effective<br />
and which are not. Not all the investment has yielded the intended results. Some initiatives<br />
turned out <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be counterproductive for the very people they were intended <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> benefit.<br />
Some prove not <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> work when scaled up or replicated in different places. Although<br />
there has been a c<strong>on</strong>siderable amount of systematic learning, much remains <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be learned<br />
about what c<strong>on</strong>stitutes good practice and how <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> assess the circumstances in which particular<br />
techniques can be replicated successfully.<br />
8<br />
India’s 455-page Report <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in Women and Children in India: 2002-2003 (New Delhi, 2004) was<br />
compiled by the country’s Nati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rights Commissi<strong>on</strong>, in c<strong>on</strong>juncti<strong>on</strong> with India’s Institute of Social Sciences<br />
and the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Development Fund for Women.<br />
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AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN TRAFFICKING: VULNERABILITY, IMPACT AND ACTION<br />
II.—Working <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>gether<br />
Traffickers routinely move their victims from <strong>on</strong>e place <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> another either within a country<br />
or abroad. C<strong>on</strong>sequently, any effective resp<strong>on</strong>se <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking requires the collaborati<strong>on</strong><br />
of multiple agencies, often in two or more countries. Progress has been made in<br />
improving coordinati<strong>on</strong> between separate agencies over the past seven years, at the local,<br />
nati<strong>on</strong>al, regi<strong>on</strong>al and internati<strong>on</strong>al levels.<br />
A.—At the nati<strong>on</strong>al level<br />
States with a nati<strong>on</strong>al structure <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> coordinate anti-trafficking initiatives (such as a nati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
referral mechanism) or a nati<strong>on</strong>al plan <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> combat trafficking or a nati<strong>on</strong>al acti<strong>on</strong> plan<br />
or programme have an instituti<strong>on</strong>al framework for ensuring cooperati<strong>on</strong> between agencies<br />
within their country. In the absence of a designated coordinating body, c<strong>on</strong>certed acti<strong>on</strong><br />
against trafficking has been slower <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> develop and coordinati<strong>on</strong> between different agencies<br />
in the country less easy. These various coordinati<strong>on</strong> mechanisms specify the roles<br />
and resp<strong>on</strong>sibilities of different agencies. They are particularly helpful in cases when an<br />
individual has been identified as a victim of trafficking and requires referral <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> various<br />
agencies for different forms of assistance. 9<br />
In some countries mechanisms for referring victims of trafficking <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> appropriate services<br />
also functi<strong>on</strong> at the local level. This enables locally based agencies <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> coordinate their<br />
efforts <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> protect people who have already been trafficked with their preventi<strong>on</strong> efforts<br />
and <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> target preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> individuals, households or communities that share characteristics<br />
with those already trafficked, that is <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> say, characteristics that appear <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> increase<br />
the likelihood that they might be trafficked.<br />
B.—At the bilateral level between two States<br />
Various States have signed bilateral agreements <strong>on</strong> law enforcement cooperati<strong>on</strong> and mutual<br />
legal assistance. Others specify how citizens from <strong>on</strong>e State who have been trafficked <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
another are <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be treated and assisted in returning home. These agreements generally<br />
emphasize the importance of respecting the human rights of the trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s in<br />
order <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> avoid their being impris<strong>on</strong>ed, <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> ensure that they are protected and kept safe<br />
while being repatriated, and <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>tinue protecting them up<strong>on</strong> arrival in their own country.<br />
Some agreements refer <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> women and children, such as <strong>on</strong>e between Cambodia and<br />
Thailand, while others refer solely <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> children, such as <strong>on</strong>e between Côte d’Ivoire and<br />
Mali.<br />
Despite the existence of such bilateral agreements, many people trafficked or exploited<br />
in States that are parties <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> bilateral agreements have not been identified as victims of<br />
crime and have instead been dealt with as irregular migrants, denied protecti<strong>on</strong> and assis-<br />
9<br />
The role of nati<strong>on</strong>al referral mechanisms in States of the Organizati<strong>on</strong> for Security and Cooperati<strong>on</strong> in Europe<br />
is set out in the publicati<strong>on</strong> Nati<strong>on</strong>al Referral Mechanisms: Joining Efforts <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> Protect the Rights of Trafficked Pers<strong>on</strong>s: a<br />
Practical Handbook (Warsaw, 2004) (see http://www.osce.org/odihr/documents.html).<br />
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PART THREE.—ACTION<br />
tance, and subjected <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> summary deportati<strong>on</strong> procedures. In other cases, as in parts of<br />
South-East Asia, l<strong>on</strong>g delays in official repatriati<strong>on</strong> procedures have reportedly led <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> victims<br />
choosing not <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> identify themselves as such in order <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> return home more rapidly<br />
by being deported.<br />
C.—At the regi<strong>on</strong>al level, involving several States<br />
Regi<strong>on</strong>al intergovernmental organizati<strong>on</strong>s such as the Associati<strong>on</strong> of Southeast Asian<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> (ASEAN), the Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the<br />
Organizati<strong>on</strong> for Security and Cooperati<strong>on</strong> in Europe (OSCE) have adopted either declarati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
against trafficking or more acti<strong>on</strong>-oriented plans <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> improve cooperati<strong>on</strong> and coordinati<strong>on</strong><br />
of their member States’ efforts <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> s<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>p trafficking. The ECOWAS secretariat issued<br />
an Initial Plan of Acti<strong>on</strong> against <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in Pers<strong>on</strong>s (2002-2003) and, jointly with the<br />
Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Community of Central African States, a Joint Plan of Acti<strong>on</strong> against <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
in Pers<strong>on</strong>s, especially Women and Children in West and Central Africa for<br />
2006-2009, 10 while ASEAN’s Senior Officials Meeting <strong>on</strong> Transnati<strong>on</strong>al Crime was<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>sible for following up a declarati<strong>on</strong>, c<strong>on</strong>centrating <strong>on</strong> criminal justice system<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ses <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking. 11 The OSCE Permanent Council issued a detailed OSCE Acti<strong>on</strong><br />
Plan <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> Combat <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> Beings for all participating States in 2003. 12<br />
Declarati<strong>on</strong>s by themselves do not lead <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> change, however. In all the examples cited,<br />
implementati<strong>on</strong> of the full range of commitments has been extremely uneven.<br />
In the case of the six-country Coordinated Mek<strong>on</strong>g Ministerial Initiative against <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
(COMMIT) in South-East Asia, 13 the six States involved adopted a memorandum of understanding<br />
<strong>on</strong> cooperati<strong>on</strong> against trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s in the Greater Mek<strong>on</strong>g subregi<strong>on</strong><br />
in 2004. In 2005, they adopted a three-year subregi<strong>on</strong>al plan of acti<strong>on</strong> (2005-2007), listing<br />
18 activities <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be undertaken <strong>on</strong> seven issues. Although not all of these have been implemented,<br />
cooperati<strong>on</strong> was facilitated by a pre-existing <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> initiative <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> coordinate<br />
anti-trafficking initiatives by intergovernmental organizati<strong>on</strong>s and internati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
n<strong>on</strong>-governmental organizati<strong>on</strong>s (NGOs) in the subregi<strong>on</strong>, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Inter-<br />
Agency Project <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in the Greater Mek<strong>on</strong>g Subregi<strong>on</strong>. In this regi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
as in others, the specific resp<strong>on</strong>sibilities of the States taking part in a comm<strong>on</strong> initiative<br />
are made more complicated by their participati<strong>on</strong> in several overlapping regi<strong>on</strong>al initiatives<br />
(i.e. ASEAN, COMMIT and others), each of which emphasizes different techniques<br />
or activities.<br />
In the European Uni<strong>on</strong> (EU), c<strong>on</strong>certed initiatives <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> harm<strong>on</strong>ize anti-trafficking efforts<br />
began in the 1990s. In 2002 a Council framework decisi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> combating trafficking in<br />
10<br />
The Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Community of West African States Declarati<strong>on</strong> and Plan of Acti<strong>on</strong> are described in the publicati<strong>on</strong><br />
Assistance for the Implementati<strong>on</strong> of the ECOWAS Plan of Acti<strong>on</strong> against <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in Pers<strong>on</strong>s: Training Manual<br />
(New York, <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Drugs and Crime, 2006) (see http://www.unodc.org).<br />
11<br />
Associati<strong>on</strong> of Southeast Asian <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g>, ASEAN Resp<strong>on</strong>ses <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g>: Ending Impunity for Traffickers and<br />
Securing Justice for Victims (Jakarta, ASEAN, 2006), p. 1.<br />
12<br />
Organizati<strong>on</strong> for Security and Cooperati<strong>on</strong> in Europe, Permanent Council decisi<strong>on</strong> No. 557, entitled "OSCE<br />
Acti<strong>on</strong> Plan <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> Combat <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> Beings", of 24 July 2003 (PC.DEC/557)<br />
(see www.osce.org/press_rel/2003/pdf_documents/07-3447-pc1.pdf).<br />
13<br />
The six States of COMMIT are Cambodia, China, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Myanmar, Thailand<br />
and Viet Nam. (For details about COMMIT, see http://www.fmreview.org/text/FMR/25/10.doc).<br />
107
AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN TRAFFICKING: VULNERABILITY, IMPACT AND ACTION<br />
human beings specified minimum standards for member States’ resp<strong>on</strong>ses <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking.<br />
A c<strong>on</strong>ference jointly organized by the European Commissi<strong>on</strong> and the Internati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Organizati<strong>on</strong> for Migrati<strong>on</strong> (IOM) in September 2002 adopted the Brussels Declarati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>on</strong> Preventing and Combating <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> Beings, accompanied by a set of recommendati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<strong>on</strong> standards and best practices. The European Commissi<strong>on</strong> subsequently<br />
established a 20-member Experts Group <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> Beings, which issued a<br />
report in December 2004 making 132 recommendati<strong>on</strong>s for further measures <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be taken<br />
by EU member States. 14<br />
At the regi<strong>on</strong>al and internati<strong>on</strong>al levels, numerous training materials and reference guidelines<br />
have been published <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> inform and train a wide range of government, law enforcement<br />
and other professi<strong>on</strong>als about what they can do in resp<strong>on</strong>se <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking. The<br />
materials are mostly in English and relatively few have been translated in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> nati<strong>on</strong>al languages.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>sistency in the c<strong>on</strong>tents of such materials is not guaranteed.<br />
D.—At the internati<strong>on</strong>al level<br />
1.—The <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> system<br />
Many <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> entities run programmes <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> combat trafficking. 15 In additi<strong>on</strong>, an<br />
intergovernmental organizati<strong>on</strong> that does not bel<strong>on</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> system, IOM,<br />
plays an important role in providing services <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s and organizing their<br />
voluntary repatriati<strong>on</strong>. At both the internati<strong>on</strong>al and the regi<strong>on</strong>al level, it is often unclear<br />
whether <strong>on</strong>e of these bodies is taking the lead or coordinating the acti<strong>on</strong>s of others, or<br />
if a nati<strong>on</strong>al or regi<strong>on</strong>al body assumes that role. Even when it is clear in theory, in practice<br />
separate bodies appear <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be in competiti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in pers<strong>on</strong>s is a multidimensi<strong>on</strong>al problem that raises issues that many different<br />
bodies are equipped <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> tackle at the nati<strong>on</strong>al and internati<strong>on</strong>al levels. Law enforcement,<br />
human rights, ec<strong>on</strong>omic development, gender, migrati<strong>on</strong> and health are all relevant.<br />
Many different intergovernmental agencies see themselves as having a leading role. Similar<br />
coordinati<strong>on</strong> challenges occurred in the case of child labour and efforts were made <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
resolve them at two internati<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>ferences in 1997. In a study of child trafficking, an<br />
NGO observed that the lack of coordinati<strong>on</strong> between different organizati<strong>on</strong>s within the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> system was hampering the effectiveness of their efforts. It suggested that: 16<br />
14<br />
European Commissi<strong>on</strong>, Direc<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rate-General Justice, Freedom and Security, Report of the Experts Group <strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> Beings (Brussels, 2004) (see http://ec.europa.eu/justice_home/doc_centre/crime/trafficking/<br />
doc_crime_human_trafficking_en.htm#Experts%20Group%20<strong>on</strong>%20<str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g>%20in%20<str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g>%20Beings).<br />
15<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> entities working in the area of human trafficking include the Internati<strong>on</strong>al Labour Organizati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Children’s Fund, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Development Fund for Women, the Divisi<strong>on</strong> for the<br />
Advancement of Women of the Secretariat, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g> of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> High Commissi<strong>on</strong>er for Refugees, the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> Nati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Drugs and Crime, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Populati<strong>on</strong> Fund, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Development<br />
Programme, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Educati<strong>on</strong>al, Scientific and Cultural Organizati<strong>on</strong>, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> Nati<strong>on</strong>al Interregi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Crime and Justice Research Institute, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g> of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> High Commissi<strong>on</strong>er for <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rights and<br />
the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Institute for Training and Research.<br />
16<br />
Mike Dottridge, Kids as Commodities? Child <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> and what <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> do about it (Geneva, Internati<strong>on</strong>al Federati<strong>on</strong><br />
Terre des Hommes, 2004), p. 86 (see http://www.s<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>pchildtrafficking.org/site/fileadmin/s<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>pchildtrafficking/downloads/presse/livre_fichier_final.pdf).<br />
108
PART THREE.—ACTION<br />
“The appointment of a high-level mechanism or coordina<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>r in the office of the<br />
UN Secretary-General <strong>on</strong> human trafficking would enable the UN’s multifaceted work<br />
<strong>on</strong> trafficking <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be coordinated properly”.<br />
In 2005, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> System’s Chief for Coordinati<strong>on</strong> recognized the challenges<br />
in countering human trafficking and proposed establishing an inter-agency mechanism <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
strengthen coordinati<strong>on</strong>. 17<br />
2.—Bilateral funding<br />
Many industrialized States fund anti-trafficking initiatives in other countries, especially in<br />
those countries from which people have been trafficked in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> their country or regi<strong>on</strong>. The<br />
effectiveness of the financial support provided by bilateral d<strong>on</strong>ors has sometimes been<br />
undermined when many d<strong>on</strong>ors have committed relatively small amounts separately <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
diverse projects, rather than pooling their c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>s. While these small amounts have<br />
produced some results, they are usually inadequate for more systemic soluti<strong>on</strong>s, such as<br />
an initial needs assessment or the collecti<strong>on</strong> of adequate data about the abuse that a subsequent<br />
interventi<strong>on</strong> aims <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> s<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>p. The interventi<strong>on</strong>s that are supported benefit in large<br />
part because of the goals of the organizati<strong>on</strong> that secures funding and the preoccupati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
of the d<strong>on</strong>or (for example, preferring their funds <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> assist children rather than adult<br />
women), rather than as a result of any objective assessment of needs. Inadequate funding<br />
has also resulted in insufficient evaluati<strong>on</strong> and impact assessment, meaning that less<strong>on</strong>s<br />
about which techniques are effective (and which are not) are not learned properly.<br />
17<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> States of America, Government Accountability <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g>: M<strong>on</strong>i<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ring and Evaluati<strong>on</strong><br />
of Internati<strong>on</strong>al Projects are Limited, but Experts Suggest Improvements, GAO report GAO-07-1034<br />
(Washing<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>n, D.C., July 2007) p. 11.<br />
109
AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN TRAFFICKING: VULNERABILITY, IMPACT AND ACTION<br />
III.<br />
Prosecuti<strong>on</strong> and law enforcement activities<br />
Expertise about techniques <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> detect traffickers, identify and care for their victims and<br />
prosecute traffickers successfully has increased significantly since 2000. Reports of the<br />
arrest and c<strong>on</strong>victi<strong>on</strong> of traffickers are frequent. Nevertheless, trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s is still<br />
reported <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be <strong>on</strong>e of the most profitable sec<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs of organized transnati<strong>on</strong>al crime, suggesting<br />
that numerous traffickers go undetected or unpunished. Comparing the number<br />
of prosecuti<strong>on</strong>s with the number of identified victims shows major gaps. It is often said<br />
that the number of identified victims represents the tip of the iceberg and that large numbers<br />
of trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s pass unnoticed under the noses of law enforcement officials.<br />
In the worst cases they are identified as criminals rather than as victims of crime.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>fusi<strong>on</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g both civil servants and law enforcement officials about the difference<br />
between trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s and smuggling of migrants or other immigrati<strong>on</strong>-related<br />
offences has marred the progress of law enforcement initiatives in many countries.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>siderable funds have been invested in training at both internati<strong>on</strong>al and nati<strong>on</strong>al levels.<br />
One challenge is that it is not sufficient for <strong>on</strong>e part of the criminal justice system<br />
(for example, the pers<strong>on</strong>nel in an anti-trafficking police unit) <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> understand the distincti<strong>on</strong><br />
if other parts, such as fr<strong>on</strong>tline police, prosecu<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs or court pers<strong>on</strong>nel organizing<br />
trials (where in-court protecti<strong>on</strong> measures are often required <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> protect the identity of victimwitnesses),<br />
have not. A specific obstacle still <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be overcome is that some training<br />
courses present simplistic examples <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> show the differences between trafficking and smuggling<br />
of migrants that are not representative of the complicati<strong>on</strong>s encountered at the operati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
level, when victims may be unwilling <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> talk <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> law enforcement officials about<br />
their experiences for weeks or even m<strong>on</strong>ths.<br />
There have been efforts <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> develop minimum standards c<strong>on</strong>cerning the resp<strong>on</strong>se of criminal<br />
justice systems <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking cases. In 2006, ASEAN issued a checklist for its member<br />
countries identifying eight key elements of an effective criminal justice resp<strong>on</strong>se <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
trafficking, 18 which are, in principle, equally applicable <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> other parts of the world. They<br />
emphasize that, because of the complexity of the crime, it is usually appropriate <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> form<br />
a specialist anti-trafficking investigati<strong>on</strong> unit and that it is important <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> have effective systems<br />
in place <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> ensure that the criminal justice agencies in <strong>on</strong>e country can cooperate<br />
with counterpart agencies in other countries. They also emphasize that, if the criminal justice<br />
system is <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> functi<strong>on</strong> effectively, it is important <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> identify victims of trafficking quickly<br />
and accurately, <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> protect them from harm and meet their immediate needs. The checklist<br />
moved the focus off the number of successful prosecuti<strong>on</strong>s as the prime indica<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>r of success<br />
in combating trafficking, as this could encourage a lack of due process and the targeting<br />
of small-scale traffickers rather than major criminals.<br />
18<br />
Associati<strong>on</strong> of Southeast Asian <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g>, ASEAN Resp<strong>on</strong>ses <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> … , p. 85.<br />
110
PART THREE.—ACTION<br />
A.—Identifying trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s<br />
A major challenge for immigrati<strong>on</strong> and law enforcement officials is how <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> distinguish<br />
trafficking victims from others they come in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>tact with, who may be involved in<br />
similar income-generating activities, but who have not been trafficked. Numerous <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ols<br />
have been developed at fr<strong>on</strong>tiers and for police forces <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> aid identificati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
With good intelligence about the profile of adults or children who have already been<br />
trafficked, police have identified the characteristics of such pers<strong>on</strong>s and used this intelligence<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> pick out travellers who warrant advice and protecti<strong>on</strong>. 19 For example, the<br />
Philippine Centre <strong>on</strong> Transnati<strong>on</strong>al Crime developed an 11-point checklist <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> help identify<br />
such people and a further 11-point checklist <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> identify possible traffickers. 20<br />
Unannounced operati<strong>on</strong>s or raids by law enforcement officials are a way of removing<br />
individuals who are held in captivity by their traffickers or exploiters from the site of their<br />
exploitati<strong>on</strong>. In the course of some raids, both trafficking victims and others have experienced<br />
further trauma. The Asia Pacific Forum of Nati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rights Instituti<strong>on</strong>s has<br />
recommended the development of procedural guidelines for raids and rescues <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> ensure<br />
that the human rights of trafficking victims are protected, emphasizing that raids should<br />
not occur without adequate planning for the subsequent protecti<strong>on</strong> and support of trafficked<br />
people. 21 Clearly, it is important that the use of raids <strong>on</strong> places where trafficked<br />
individuals might be located, in the absence of actual intelligence, should be carefully m<strong>on</strong>i<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>red<br />
by senior law enforcement officials and human rights instituti<strong>on</strong>s, in particular <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
ensure that the techniques used are proporti<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the abuse they are intended <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> s<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>p.<br />
B.—Intercepti<strong>on</strong>s at fr<strong>on</strong>tiers<br />
Border posts offer an opportunity <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> identify victims of transnati<strong>on</strong>al trafficking and <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
intercept them. The potential role of immigrati<strong>on</strong> officials is greater where traffickers take<br />
their victims through an official border point. It is more difficult <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trol the movement<br />
of people al<strong>on</strong>g l<strong>on</strong>g land or sea borders, whether they be regular travellers or traffickers<br />
19<br />
In the Netherlands, the Criminal Investigati<strong>on</strong> Divisi<strong>on</strong> developed a system in 2002 for recording informati<strong>on</strong><br />
about individuals suspected of being trafficked in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> prostituti<strong>on</strong>, as well as known victims. The system awards points<br />
in an individual case, according <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> a list of indica<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs suggested by the prosecuti<strong>on</strong> service and police (see A. van<br />
den Borne and others, Investigating Exploitati<strong>on</strong>: Research in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in Children in the Netherlands (Amsterdam,<br />
Defence for Children Internati<strong>on</strong>al, 2005), p. 31. In the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kingdom, “Operati<strong>on</strong> Paladin Child” in 2004 involved<br />
recording the pers<strong>on</strong>al details of every child arriving at a border post in the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kingdom who was assessed as<br />
possibly being at risk (of being trafficked or exploited), so that the child could be visited subsequently by social services<br />
staff. Each arriving child was given a unique identifying number, had his or her pho<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>graph taken and was asked<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> say where he or she would be living in the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kingdom. Details of adults welcoming unaccompanied children<br />
at airports or ports were also recorded. If the child could not be located at the address given, an investigati<strong>on</strong> was<br />
reportedly opened. Details can be found in the m<strong>on</strong>thly magazine of the Metropolitan Police, The Job, vol. 38, No.<br />
953 (May 2005).<br />
20<br />
Quoted in <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ol 6.3, entitled “Checklist <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> facilitate the identificati<strong>on</strong> of victims” (see <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong><br />
Drugs and Crime, Toolkit <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> Combat <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in Pers<strong>on</strong>s (<str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> publicati<strong>on</strong>, Sales No. E.06.V.11)) (see<br />
www.unodc.org/pdf/<str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g>_<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>olkit_Oct06.pdf).<br />
21<br />
Asia Pacific Forum of Nati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rights Instituti<strong>on</strong>s, Regi<strong>on</strong>al Workshop <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> and Nati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rights Instituti<strong>on</strong>s: Cooperating <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> End Impunity for Traffickers and <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> Secure Justice for Trafficked People, Sydney,<br />
Australia, 20 23 November 2005 (see http://www.asiapacificforum.net/services/training/regi<strong>on</strong>al-workshops/trafficking/downloads/c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>/report.pdf).<br />
111
AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN TRAFFICKING: VULNERABILITY, IMPACT AND ACTION<br />
and their victims. Border police and immigrati<strong>on</strong> officials in some countries have developed<br />
criteria <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> help identify victims. Some have been over-simplistic and potentially result<br />
in discriminati<strong>on</strong> against entire categories of people who share very general characteristics.<br />
The <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Children’s Fund (UNICEF) developed a checklist for immigrati<strong>on</strong><br />
officers (border officials) <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> assess whether a child is at risk of being trafficked, which<br />
lists seven indica<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> show that a child might be in the process of being trafficked. 22<br />
C. Increasing the effectiveness of prosecuti<strong>on</strong>s by using victimfriendly<br />
techniques<br />
In the midst of efforts <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> enhance the effectiveness of law enforcement agencies <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> combat<br />
trafficking, tensi<strong>on</strong>s have arisen between initiatives designed <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> enforce the law, <strong>on</strong><br />
the <strong>on</strong>e hand, and other initiatives designed <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> uphold the human rights of adults and<br />
children who are trafficked, <strong>on</strong> the other. This need not be the case. Evidence suggests<br />
that the prompt identificati<strong>on</strong> and appropriate treatment of victims is crucial <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> an effective<br />
criminal justice resp<strong>on</strong>se. In 2002, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g> of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> High<br />
Commissi<strong>on</strong>er for <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rights (UNHCHR) issued a set of Recommended Principles<br />
and Guidelines <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rights and <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g>, emphasizing that the human<br />
rights of trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s should be at the centre of all efforts <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> prevent and combat<br />
trafficking and <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> protect, assist and provide redress <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> victims. 23<br />
Critics have harshly addressed procedures that make assistance <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s and<br />
any form of residence permit c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>al <strong>on</strong> cooperati<strong>on</strong> with the criminal justice system. 24<br />
Substantial evidence is now available indicating that women and girls who have been trafficked<br />
are not in a positi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> make informed choices about their future within a short<br />
time of being withdrawn from the c<strong>on</strong>trol of traffickers, or for some time afterwards, while<br />
they are suffering from shock or trauma. 25<br />
Numerous States have adopted what are comm<strong>on</strong>ly known as “reflecti<strong>on</strong> periods” for trafficked<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>s identified within their borders and who have no legal entitlement <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be in<br />
the country. The length of time granted <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> foreign victims <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> recover and reflect <strong>on</strong> whether<br />
they wish <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> cooperate with law enforcement vary widely, from a few days <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> several<br />
m<strong>on</strong>ths. In some States both victims and other witnesses who can potentially testify against<br />
traffickers are awarded <strong>on</strong>ly a short-term right <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> remain in the country c<strong>on</strong>cerned. One<br />
implicati<strong>on</strong> of this is that trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s are left feeling very insecure about their<br />
futures. Different criminal justice systems have tried a variety of techniques <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> reduce the<br />
22<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Children’s Fund, Reference Guide <strong>on</strong> Protecting the Rights of Child Victims of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in Europe<br />
(Geneva, UNICEF, 2006), p. 115 (see http://www.unicef.org/ceecis/protecti<strong>on</strong>_4440.html).<br />
23<br />
Principle 1 of the Recommended Principles c<strong>on</strong>tained in the report of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> High Commissi<strong>on</strong>er<br />
for <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rights (E/2002/68/Add.1).<br />
24<br />
Elaine Pears<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> Traffic, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rights: Redefining Victim Protecti<strong>on</strong> (L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>An</str<strong>on</strong>g>ti-Slavery Internati<strong>on</strong>al,<br />
2002).<br />
25<br />
Cathy Zimmerman and others, S<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>len Smiles: a Summary Report <strong>on</strong> the Physical and Psychological Health<br />
C<strong>on</strong>sequences of Women and Adolescents Trafficked in Europe (L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>, L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine,<br />
2006) (see www.lshtm.ac.uk/genderviolence/).<br />
112
PART THREE.—ACTION<br />
likelihood that victims and witnesses are exposed <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> further intimidati<strong>on</strong>, either before,<br />
during or after a trial. The c<strong>on</strong>sequences for victims and witnesses who have provided<br />
prosecuti<strong>on</strong> evidence <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> help secure the c<strong>on</strong>victi<strong>on</strong> of traffickers have not been m<strong>on</strong>i<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>red<br />
systematically. One important initiative overlooked in many jurisdicti<strong>on</strong>s has been <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
ensure that victims and witnesses testifying against traffickers are updated regularly about<br />
the progress of the trial. In unfortunate cases, victims have come face <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> face with their<br />
trafficker, while believing him or her <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> still be in pris<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Criminal justice systems have given less priority <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> awarding compensati<strong>on</strong> or damages<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> victims than <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> securing the c<strong>on</strong>victi<strong>on</strong> of traffickers. The result is that victim-witnesses<br />
do not believe that justice has been served. Instances in which individuals harmed by<br />
traffickers have been paid compensati<strong>on</strong>, damages or unpaid wages remain rare. Bringing<br />
such cases has been hard for victims of transnati<strong>on</strong>al trafficking who were obliged <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> leave<br />
the country of destinati<strong>on</strong> before a case came <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> court. In other cases, the c<strong>on</strong>verse is<br />
true, with victims required <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> stay in the destinati<strong>on</strong> country for an unacceptably l<strong>on</strong>g<br />
time if they wish <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> pursue a case.<br />
D.—Mutual legal assistance <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> facilitate prosecuti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
The <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> against Transnati<strong>on</strong>al Organized Crime, adopted in 2000,<br />
is intended <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> promote cooperati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> prevent and combat transnati<strong>on</strong>al organized crime<br />
more effectively. Al<strong>on</strong>g the same lines, <strong>on</strong>e of the purposes of its supplementary <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col is <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> promote cooperati<strong>on</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g States parties <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> prevent and combat trafficking<br />
in pers<strong>on</strong>s, as well as protect and assist the victims of such trafficking. In this c<strong>on</strong>text,<br />
the provisi<strong>on</strong>s of the C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>cerning internati<strong>on</strong>al cooperati<strong>on</strong> in criminal<br />
matters, including extraditi<strong>on</strong> and mutual legal assistance, also apply <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col and can be used <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> facilitate cooperati<strong>on</strong> between relevant agencies in different<br />
States <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> detect cases of trafficking, collect evidence against traffickers and bring them <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
justice. These provisi<strong>on</strong>s can also be used <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> facilitate cooperati<strong>on</strong> in order <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> freeze, seize<br />
and c<strong>on</strong>fiscate traffickers’ assets when these are located abroad. Broader use of the internati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
cooperati<strong>on</strong> provisi<strong>on</strong>s of the C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>, coupled with bilateral and multilateral<br />
agreements or arrangements <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> enhance the effectiveness of relevant mechanisms, are<br />
recommended <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> ensure that an appropriate legal framework is in place <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> pursue traffickers.<br />
Although the efficiency of internati<strong>on</strong>al cooperati<strong>on</strong> depends <strong>on</strong> the existence of<br />
legal <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ols, practical experience has shown that this is not enough. What has also <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be<br />
in place is a sufficient number of well-trained pers<strong>on</strong>nel, <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>gether with the appropriate<br />
resources that help overcome the practical problems arising from operati<strong>on</strong>al deficiencies<br />
and bureaucratic obstacles, which often hamper cooperati<strong>on</strong>. Moreover, meeting and working<br />
with the representatives of the criminal justice system in other countries helps foster<br />
mutual trust and c<strong>on</strong>fidence—an important prec<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> for efficient cooperati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
113
AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN TRAFFICKING: VULNERABILITY, IMPACT AND ACTION<br />
IV.—Preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
Despite the saying that “preventi<strong>on</strong> is better than a cure”, the lack of certainty about which<br />
preventive techniques are effective appears <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> have discouraged d<strong>on</strong>ors from investing in<br />
preventi<strong>on</strong>. Where funds have been invested in preventi<strong>on</strong> initiatives, there has been insufficient<br />
evaluati<strong>on</strong> of the techniques used <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> assess which are most appropriate in particular<br />
circumstances. Furthermore, until better systems are developed <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> collate existing<br />
informati<strong>on</strong> about where and how victims were trafficked, there is a limited basis <strong>on</strong> which<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> locate and target preventi<strong>on</strong> initiatives.<br />
The fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs that c<strong>on</strong>tribute <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking or enable it <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> take place (all of which can be<br />
tackled by preventi<strong>on</strong> programmes) occur at different levels and in different places. In<br />
additi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the immediate causes that put an individual in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the hands of a trafficker, a<br />
variety of underlying and root causal fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs influence decisi<strong>on</strong>s taken by individuals that<br />
lead <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking and c<strong>on</strong>tribute <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> a social and ec<strong>on</strong>omic envir<strong>on</strong>ment in which<br />
trafficking and exploitati<strong>on</strong> can flourish. They include, for example, an ec<strong>on</strong>omic crisis in<br />
the trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>’s home country, social exclusi<strong>on</strong>, gender discriminati<strong>on</strong> (both in<br />
general and specifically in relati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> births, as female infanticide in several countries has<br />
resulted in an excess of men of marriageable age over women and precipitated patterns<br />
of trafficking in women in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> forced marriage) and a weak legal or social protecti<strong>on</strong><br />
system. The remedies for these require a broader set of acti<strong>on</strong>s than those designed<br />
specifically <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> s<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>p trafficking. Relevant fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs exist simultaneously in the areas that<br />
people are trafficked from and in the places <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> which they are trafficked and exploited.<br />
“Poverty” has frequently been identified as a cause of trafficking. In practice, most<br />
people in dire poverty are not trafficked, dem<strong>on</strong>strating that poverty is a c<strong>on</strong>text, but not<br />
the specific cause. A study of the circumstances in which girls migrated and were<br />
trafficked in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the commercial sex industry within <strong>on</strong>e South-East Asian country<br />
identified the social and cultural reas<strong>on</strong>s why certain adolescents were recruited and not<br />
others. The author urged that: 26<br />
“Academics and policymakers must move bey<strong>on</strong>d ‘poverty’ and ‘lack of educati<strong>on</strong>’<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> recognize the subtleties of the challenges and frustrati<strong>on</strong>s c<strong>on</strong>fr<strong>on</strong>ting people living<br />
in the less developed parts of our rapidly developing world.”<br />
A.—Preventi<strong>on</strong> in areas of origin<br />
Preventi<strong>on</strong> efforts in areas of origin have addressed a wide range of causal fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs, some<br />
linked <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the specific circumstances that precipitated individuals in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>trol of<br />
traffickers and some addressing shortcomings in protecti<strong>on</strong> systems. Preventi<strong>on</strong> efforts<br />
can take several forms. The bulk of these activities use informati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> alert people <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
risks entailed in leaving home or seeking work abroad (or <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> alert parents <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the risks<br />
their children run, if they are sent <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> work elsewhere). Al<strong>on</strong>gside awareness-raising, a<br />
26<br />
L. Rende Taylor, “Dangerous trade-offs: the behavioral ecology of child labor and prostituti<strong>on</strong> in rural northern<br />
Thailand”, Current <str<strong>on</strong>g>An</str<strong>on</strong>g>thropology, vol. 46, No. 3 (June 2005).<br />
114
PART THREE.—ACTION<br />
sec<strong>on</strong>d category of efforts has focused <strong>on</strong> promoting income-generating activities in areas<br />
from which people are trafficked, including microcredit, job creati<strong>on</strong> and career advice.<br />
However, in such cases insufficient attenti<strong>on</strong> has been given <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> ensuring that the individuals<br />
at highest risk of being trafficked benefit. Many initiatives assume that increasing<br />
income-generating opportunities in a community as a whole or improving women’s income<br />
in general will be sufficient <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> reduce emigrati<strong>on</strong> and trafficking. Unless there has been<br />
prior research <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> identify the salient characteristics of the individuals being trafficked from<br />
a particular community and <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> understand the social and cultural reas<strong>on</strong>s for their vulnerability,<br />
it is unlikely that microcredit or similar schemes will directly benefit the categories<br />
of people who are at highest risk of being trafficked or reduce the numbers of trafficked<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>s. The need for such research is further explained in secti<strong>on</strong> VI.B below.<br />
A third set of preventi<strong>on</strong> efforts focus <strong>on</strong> formal and n<strong>on</strong>-formal educati<strong>on</strong>, including<br />
teaching life skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> young people. 27 A fourth set target groups of people known <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be<br />
at disproporti<strong>on</strong>ately high risk of being trafficked. For this approach <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be evidence-based,<br />
research has <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be carried out am<strong>on</strong>g people who have already been trafficked in order<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> identify any salient characteristics that distinguish them from others in similar circumstances<br />
who have not been trafficked. Sometimes it appears <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be their identity (they<br />
bel<strong>on</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> a particular ethnic group), while in others it was a particular experience (such<br />
as domestic abuse) or a lack of educati<strong>on</strong> or skills.<br />
Research in areas of origin has also identified weaknesses in social protecti<strong>on</strong> systems,<br />
which have been addressed by a fourth set of measures, strengthening social protecti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
In the case of children, in parts of South-Eastern Europe multidisciplinary teams have<br />
been established, c<strong>on</strong>sisting of a team of professi<strong>on</strong>als, such as social workers, health<br />
professi<strong>on</strong>als and law enforcement officials, who work <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>gether <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> identify children at risk<br />
and implement measures <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> protect them. Similar research has identified gaps that could<br />
be covered by administrative c<strong>on</strong>trols, such as the regulati<strong>on</strong> and m<strong>on</strong>i<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ring of agencies<br />
that have been used by traffickers <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> recruit people in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> various forms of exploitati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
both ordinary recruitment agencies (both private <strong>on</strong>es and sometimes government-run)<br />
and those dealing with au pairs, marriage, entertainment and <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>urism. Giving every<br />
individual a legal identity is essential if administrative c<strong>on</strong>trols are <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> functi<strong>on</strong>, so birth<br />
registrati<strong>on</strong> or other procedures <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> register the existence of individuals, their pers<strong>on</strong>al data<br />
and their nati<strong>on</strong>ality are all important.<br />
Raising awareness about trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s<br />
The assumpti<strong>on</strong> behind disseminating informati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> prevent trafficking is that people<br />
who are trafficked are under-informed about the risks involved in migrati<strong>on</strong> or the potential<br />
risks involved in accepting informal offers of employment away from home. In particular,<br />
many of these programmes have been directed <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> young women, notably those at<br />
risk of being trafficked for purposes of sexual exploitati<strong>on</strong>. The expectati<strong>on</strong> is usually that<br />
the recipients of informati<strong>on</strong> will decide not <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> take the risks involved (and stay at home)<br />
27<br />
Life skills include learning <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> negotiate and take decisi<strong>on</strong>s, problem-solving, critical thinking, communicating<br />
effectively, managing interpers<strong>on</strong>al relati<strong>on</strong>ships, resolving c<strong>on</strong>flicts and coping with emoti<strong>on</strong>s and stress.<br />
115
AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN TRAFFICKING: VULNERABILITY, IMPACT AND ACTION<br />
or take adequate precauti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> avoid traffickers. Materials that stress the dangers<br />
awaiting potential migrants and warn people against leaving home are reportedly perceived<br />
by some audiences <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be untrustworthy anti-migrati<strong>on</strong> propaganda. 28 Some have been<br />
produced without adequate research beforehand <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> find out how and why people make<br />
decisi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> migrate and <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> check whether they are indeed under-informed or choose <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
take risks because of the challenges they face and a lack of alternatives.<br />
The formats for awareness-raising materials and the message they c<strong>on</strong>vey vary. They<br />
include films telling semi-ficti<strong>on</strong>al s<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ries about adolescent girls or young women who have<br />
been trafficked in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> commercial sexual exploitati<strong>on</strong>. Despite the expense involved in producing<br />
these and countless posters, leaflets and car<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>on</strong>s, there have been relatively few<br />
evaluati<strong>on</strong>s of their impact or efforts <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> learn systematically from experience and improve<br />
their effectiveness next time around. 29 Indeed, <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>o many have been “off-the-peg” campaigns,<br />
based <strong>on</strong> similar initiatives in other countries, without being tailored <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the needs and circumstances<br />
of the audience they are trying <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> influence.<br />
Increasingly, anti-trafficking informati<strong>on</strong> materials are advising potential migrants instead<br />
how they can minimize risks by taking precauti<strong>on</strong>s. For example, in Latvia, NGOs gave<br />
adolescents a checklist of acti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> protect themselves against false job promises abroad,<br />
included checking whether a job agency or opportunity was legitimate, seeking an employment<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tract and leaving a copy with relatives or friends. 30<br />
B.—Intercepti<strong>on</strong>s of those in transit<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> intercepti<strong>on</strong>s of pers<strong>on</strong>s by immigrati<strong>on</strong> officials at border points, when<br />
there is evidence that they are being trafficked, the technique of intercepting people has<br />
been used in a variety of other circumstances <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> try and prevent people from being trafficked.<br />
The disadvantage of this technique is that the criteria used for identifying possible<br />
trafficking victims have generally been far <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>o general and the intercepti<strong>on</strong>s have ended<br />
up becoming a form of abuse. Intercepti<strong>on</strong>s have been widely criticized in West Africa,<br />
where c<strong>on</strong>cern about children being trafficked in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> forced labour at the end of the 1990s<br />
prompted several Governments <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> establish village-level “vigilance” committees, ostensibly<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> prevent children from being trafficked. As the distincti<strong>on</strong> between trafficking and other<br />
forms of migrati<strong>on</strong> was not well unders<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>od by committee members or law enforcement<br />
officials, they are reported <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> have intercepted adolescents who wanted <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> leave home <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
seek work elsewhere and obliged them <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> return home, including older adolescents who<br />
were entitled by both nati<strong>on</strong>al law and internati<strong>on</strong>al standards <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> seek employment. 31<br />
28<br />
Barbara Limanowska, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> Beings in South Eastern Europe: 2004 - Focus <strong>on</strong> Preventi<strong>on</strong> in Albania,<br />
Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Maced<strong>on</strong>ia, Moldova, Romania, Serbia and<br />
M<strong>on</strong>tenegro and the UN Administered Province of Kosovo, joint report by the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Children’s Fund, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> High Commissi<strong>on</strong>er for <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rights and the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g> for Democratic Instituti<strong>on</strong>s and <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Rights of the Organizati<strong>on</strong> for Security and Cooperati<strong>on</strong> in Europe (New York, <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Development<br />
Programme, 2005), p. 31.<br />
29<br />
Ruth Rosenberg and others, Best Practices for Programming <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> Prevent <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> Beings in Europe<br />
and Eurasia (Bethesda, Maryland, Development Alternatives Inc., 2004)(see http://www.vitalvoices.org/files/docs/<br />
Preventi<strong>on</strong>%20assessment%20Report-formatted%20CAS1.pdf).<br />
30<br />
Alis<strong>on</strong> Boak and others, eds., Smooth Flight: a Guide <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> Preventing Youth <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> (Internati<strong>on</strong>al Organizati<strong>on</strong><br />
for Adolescents, 2003), p. 95 (see http://www.seerights.org).<br />
31<br />
S. Castle and A. Diarra, The Internati<strong>on</strong>al Migrati<strong>on</strong> of Young Malians: Traditi<strong>on</strong>, Necessity or Rite of Passage?<br />
(L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>, L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, 2003).<br />
116
PART THREE.—ACTION<br />
C.—Preventi<strong>on</strong> in areas where trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s are exploited<br />
Industrialized States <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> which people are trafficked have invested m<strong>on</strong>ey principally in<br />
preventi<strong>on</strong> in the countries from which such people come, but different forms of preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
have also been undertaken in the places where exploitati<strong>on</strong> occurs. The immigrati<strong>on</strong><br />
and employment policies pursued by States <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> which significant numbers of people are<br />
trafficked also have a significant impact, sometimes increasing the likelihood that irregular<br />
migrants end up in the hands of traffickers.<br />
1.—Employment laws c<strong>on</strong>cerning migrant workers in the informal<br />
sec<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>r<br />
As much of the exploitati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> which trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s are subjected occurs in the less<br />
regulated informal ec<strong>on</strong>omy, <strong>on</strong>e technique for reducing such exploitati<strong>on</strong> is <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> check for<br />
abuse in sec<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs of employment that have formerly g<strong>on</strong>e unpoliced, either by making<br />
employment laws applicable in sec<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs such as domestic work in private houses or deploying<br />
labour inspec<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs or other officials <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> check the c<strong>on</strong>tracts and working c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
migrant workers. Of course, this technique <strong>on</strong>ly works if it is clear that the officials c<strong>on</strong>cerned<br />
are dedicated <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> detecting workplace abuse, rather than immigrati<strong>on</strong> offences. In<br />
Thailand, for example, ILO worked with the authorities <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> amend provisi<strong>on</strong>s of the Labour<br />
Protecti<strong>on</strong> Act that excluded certain categories of workers from labour protecti<strong>on</strong> (such<br />
as domestic workers). 32<br />
2.—Regulati<strong>on</strong> of recruitment in sec<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs where trafficking victims are<br />
found<br />
Likewise, as unregulated recruitment practices have resulted in migrants being tricked and<br />
subjected <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> forced labour in numerous countries (that is <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> say, they have been trafficked),<br />
improved oversight or regulati<strong>on</strong> of recruitment practices is a way of preventing<br />
trafficking. For example, after reports in 2003 that temporary workers in the agricultural<br />
and food-processing sec<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs in the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland<br />
were being subjected <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> abuse, including forced labour and violence, and that existing<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trols <strong>on</strong> labour providers, known as “gangmasters”, were ineffective, the Government<br />
introduced a new form of regulati<strong>on</strong>. The Gangmasters (Licensing) Act, passed in 2004,<br />
created a compulsory licensing system for all employment agents supplying workers for<br />
agricultural activities, gathering shellfish and related processing and packaging activities,<br />
supervised by a special licensing authority. 33<br />
32<br />
See Mariska N. J. van der Linden and others, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> for Forced Labour: How <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> M<strong>on</strong>i<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>r the Recruitment of<br />
Migrant Workers: Training Manual (Geneva, Internati<strong>on</strong>al Labour <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2006) (see http://www.ilo.org); and Elaine<br />
Pears<strong>on</strong>, The Mek<strong>on</strong>g Challenge: <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g>: Redefining Demand: Destinati<strong>on</strong> Fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs in the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> of Children<br />
and Young Women in the Mek<strong>on</strong>g Sub-regi<strong>on</strong>, abridged (Bangkok, Internati<strong>on</strong>al Labour <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2005), p. 26<br />
33<br />
Temporary Labour Working Group, A Licence <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> Operate: New Measures <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> Tackle Exploitati<strong>on</strong> of Temporary<br />
Workers in the UK Agricultural Industry (L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>, 2004).<br />
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AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN TRAFFICKING: VULNERABILITY, IMPACT AND ACTION<br />
3. Facilities for migrants that protect them from abuse<br />
While some trafficking victims are under the c<strong>on</strong>trol of traffickers from the time they leave<br />
home <strong>on</strong>wards, many others fall under their c<strong>on</strong>trol later <strong>on</strong>, sometimes after arriving at<br />
a destinati<strong>on</strong> where they intend <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> find work. For many decades, some countries have<br />
made a range of facilities available <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> recently arrived migrants, in particular migrant<br />
women and children, which have helped keep them out of the c<strong>on</strong>trol of criminals who<br />
would abuse them. These include safe accommodati<strong>on</strong> and drop-in centres where recent<br />
migrants can obtain advice and informati<strong>on</strong>, such as those established in Kunming, the<br />
capital of China’s Yunnan Province. 34<br />
4. Using the law <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> tackle demand for the labour or services of<br />
trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s<br />
In the last few years there has been debate about what preventive acti<strong>on</strong> is effective in<br />
reducing “demand” in places where trafficked people are exploited. This means implementing<br />
measures that are likely <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> reduce demand for products made by trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s<br />
and services provided by them, which may subsequently result in fewer people being<br />
trafficked.<br />
In her 2006 report <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Commissi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rights, the then Special<br />
Rapporteur <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in Pers<strong>on</strong>s, Especially Women and Children, Sigma Huda, examined<br />
whether people who paid for the services of trafficking victims could be influenced<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> reduce the numbers of trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s. It is notable that the treatment of demand<br />
as it relates <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> sex trafficking is somewhat different from that for other forms of exploitati<strong>on</strong><br />
and the Special Rapporteur’s report focused <strong>on</strong> demand for commercial sex, c<strong>on</strong>cluding<br />
that prostituti<strong>on</strong> was inextricably linked <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> human trafficking and that demand for<br />
commercial sex was tantamount <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> demand for the services of trafficked women and girls.<br />
She recommended that prostituti<strong>on</strong> not be legalized or decriminalized. 35 This c<strong>on</strong>trasted<br />
with comments by the Special Rapporteur <strong>on</strong> violence against women, its causes and c<strong>on</strong>sequences,<br />
Radhika Coomaraswamy, who in 2000 criticized efforts <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> abolish prostituti<strong>on</strong><br />
by targeting and punishing third-party involvement. This Rapporteur noted that, although<br />
targeting third parties such as men and boys who paid for sex appeared in theory <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> protect<br />
women sex workers from being penalized, in practice women had suffered “the burden<br />
of criminalizati<strong>on</strong>”, even when laws were intended primarily <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> target procurers, pimps<br />
and men and boys who paid for sex. 36 While prop<strong>on</strong>ents <strong>on</strong> both sides of the debate hold<br />
tenaciously <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> their c<strong>on</strong>victi<strong>on</strong>s, there remains no c<strong>on</strong>clusive link between legalizati<strong>on</strong> or<br />
criminalizati<strong>on</strong> of prostituti<strong>on</strong> and the existence of trafficking for sexual exploitati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Further research is needed <strong>on</strong> this <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>pic.<br />
34<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>al Programme <strong>on</strong> the Eliminati<strong>on</strong> of Child Labour (IPEC) Task Team of the Yunnan Provincial<br />
Statistics Bureau, The Mek<strong>on</strong>g Challenge: <str<strong>on</strong>g>An</str<strong>on</strong>g>alysis Report of the Baseline Survey for the TICW Project Phase II in Yunnan<br />
Province (Bangkok, Internati<strong>on</strong>al Labour <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2005).<br />
35<br />
E/CN.4/2006/62, chap. II. “Demand for commercial sexual exploitati<strong>on</strong> and trafficking”.<br />
36<br />
E/CN.4/2000/68, para. 24.<br />
118
PART THREE.—ACTION<br />
Some States have made it an offence <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> knowingly pay for the services of some<strong>on</strong>e who<br />
has been trafficked. In the case of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g>-administered Province of Kosovo,<br />
a law c<strong>on</strong>taining this provisi<strong>on</strong> was intended <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> address demand for women and girls trafficked<br />
in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> prostituti<strong>on</strong>. 37 Few prosecuti<strong>on</strong>s followed, however, apparently because it was<br />
difficult <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> prove that a man paying for sex knew that the prostitute involved had been<br />
trafficked. Instead, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> administrati<strong>on</strong> found it more effective <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> ban individuals<br />
employed by the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Interim Missi<strong>on</strong> in Kosovo and foreign military<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>nel from visiting a range of bars and other places suspected of functi<strong>on</strong>ing as brothels.<br />
Awareness that men in internati<strong>on</strong>al peacekeeping forces and peace support operati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
have created significant demand for commercial sex and that this has resulted in women<br />
and girls being forced in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> prostituti<strong>on</strong> prompted the North Atlantic Treaty Organizati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> adopt a policy <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> combat trafficking in human beings in 2004; 38 this applies <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>trac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs, as well as pers<strong>on</strong>nel taking direct part in operati<strong>on</strong>s led by the Organizati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
There have been other attempts <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> reduce the demand for trafficked adults and children.<br />
As well as suggesting that the purchase of sexual services from children under 18 should<br />
be a crime, a UNICEF reference guide suggests strategies <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> influence the demand for<br />
the services of young people who have been trafficked <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> beg or work as in private houses<br />
as domestics. 39 They include influencing members of the public who d<strong>on</strong>ate m<strong>on</strong>ey <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
trafficked child beggars and influencing minority communities in which school-age children<br />
work full-time instead of attending school. One of the most imaginative measures <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
curb demand was reported in the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> Arab Emirates, <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> s<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>p young boys being imported<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> ride racing camels. Al<strong>on</strong>gside new legislati<strong>on</strong>, in 2005 racing camel owners started<br />
using small robots or mannequins looking and weighing much the same as the boys who<br />
had previously ridden the camels.<br />
5. Publicity <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> prevent trafficking<br />
On several occasi<strong>on</strong>s, agencies c<strong>on</strong>cerned that women or children were about <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be trafficked<br />
in large numbers informed the press of their c<strong>on</strong>cerns in order <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> precipitate preventive<br />
acti<strong>on</strong>. While such tactics achieve publicity in the short term, they risk undermining<br />
public c<strong>on</strong>fidence <strong>on</strong>ce they cease <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be based <strong>on</strong> evidence and become speculative.<br />
Following the tsunami in the Indian Ocean in December 2004, several organizati<strong>on</strong>s publicized<br />
their c<strong>on</strong>cern that c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s were suitable for children <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be trafficked. However,<br />
few cases were reported.<br />
In the run-up <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the football World Cup in Germany in 2006, c<strong>on</strong>cern was expressed that<br />
large numbers of football supporters were likely <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>stitute a market for commercial sex<br />
and thus <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> encourage trafficking. Some publicity suggested that between 30,000 and<br />
37<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Interim Administrati<strong>on</strong> Missi<strong>on</strong> in Kosovo regulati<strong>on</strong> 2001/4 <strong>on</strong> the prohibiti<strong>on</strong> of trafficking<br />
in pers<strong>on</strong>s in Kosovo of 12 January 2001, secti<strong>on</strong> 4, entitled “Using or procuring sexual services of pers<strong>on</strong>, in a<br />
situati<strong>on</strong> of sexual exploitati<strong>on</strong>” (see http://www.unmik<strong>on</strong>line.org/regulati<strong>on</strong>s/2001/reg04-01.html).<br />
35<br />
G. Reiter, “Developing training modules for peacekeeping operati<strong>on</strong>s”, Challenging <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in Pers<strong>on</strong>s:<br />
Theoretical Debate and Practices Approaches, Sec<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>r Project against <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in Women, eds. (Baden-Baden, Germany,<br />
Nomos, 2005).<br />
39<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Children’s Fund, Reference Guide <strong>on</strong> Protecting … , p. 39.<br />
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AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN TRAFFICKING: VULNERABILITY, IMPACT AND ACTION<br />
60,000 women and girls might be trafficked. These dramatic figures spurred others <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> reiterate<br />
this c<strong>on</strong>cern. The figures were not, however, based <strong>on</strong> the evidence available <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Germany’s Federal authorities, which had already initiated preventive steps of their own.<br />
Following the World Cup, the German authorities reported that 33 possible cases of trafficking<br />
had been investigated during the World Cup period and that four women and <strong>on</strong>e<br />
man had been identified who had been trafficked and whose cases were believed <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be<br />
linked <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the World Cup. 40 A separate evaluati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>cluded that the 40,000 estimate was<br />
unfounded and unrealistic. 41 It noted that the number of women believed <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be trafficked<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> Germany each year was usually around a 1,000 pers<strong>on</strong>s per year. The evaluati<strong>on</strong><br />
observed that the publicity (of inaccurate estimates) might hinder the future efforts of<br />
German NGOs <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> gain l<strong>on</strong>g-term attenti<strong>on</strong> and support for the important work they were<br />
doing.<br />
V.—Protecti<strong>on</strong> and assistance<br />
A.—Internati<strong>on</strong>al standards <strong>on</strong> protecti<strong>on</strong> and assistance<br />
C<strong>on</strong>cern that the measures specified in article 6 of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col for protecting<br />
and assisting trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s were of a general nature prompted several intergovernmental<br />
organizati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> issue guidelines clarifying the rights of any<strong>on</strong>e suspected of having<br />
been trafficked under existing internati<strong>on</strong>al law, in particular their rights <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> protecti<strong>on</strong><br />
and assistance.<br />
The first set of guidelines has already been menti<strong>on</strong>ed—the UNHCHR Recommended<br />
Principles and Guidelines <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rights and <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> (2002). Five of these<br />
17 principles address the matter of protecti<strong>on</strong>. They specify, for example, that: 42<br />
“Trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s shall not be detained, charged or prosecuted for the illegality of<br />
their entry in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> or residence in countries of transit and destinati<strong>on</strong>, or for their<br />
involvement in unlawful activities <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the extent that such involvement is a direct c<strong>on</strong>sequence<br />
of their situati<strong>on</strong> as trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s.”<br />
In 2003, UNICEF issued its own guidelines <strong>on</strong> how a pers<strong>on</strong> trafficked before reaching<br />
18 should be protected and assisted, Guidelines for Protecti<strong>on</strong> of the Rights of Child<br />
Victims of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g>. 43 These cover 11 issues, including the appointment of a guardian<br />
for every trafficked child (who has resp<strong>on</strong>sibility for ensuring that all subsequent acti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
40<br />
Council of the European Uni<strong>on</strong>, “Experience report <strong>on</strong> human trafficking for the purpose of sexual exploitati<strong>on</strong><br />
and forced prostituti<strong>on</strong> in c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong> with the 2006 Football World Cup in Germany”, document 5006/1/07,<br />
Rev. 1, Brussels, 19 January 2007.<br />
41<br />
J. Hennig and others, “<str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in human beings and the 2006 World Cup in Germany”, draft report (Swedish<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>al Development Agency and Internati<strong>on</strong>al Organizati<strong>on</strong> for Migrati<strong>on</strong>, September 2006)<br />
(see www.sida.se/shared/jsp/download.jsp?f=World+Cup+Study+Final+Report.pdf&a=25626).<br />
42<br />
E/2002/68/Add.1.<br />
43<br />
The Guidelines were initially designed especially for South-Eastern Europe in 2003. In 2006, a set of revised<br />
Guidelines (see <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> Children’s Fund, Reference Guide <strong>on</strong> Protecting the Rights … , annex I) were issued <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
be applicable globally (see http://www.unicef.org/ceecis/media_1231.html).<br />
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PART THREE.—ACTION<br />
affecting the child make the child’s best interests a primary c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>), the procedures<br />
for deciding <strong>on</strong> a durable soluti<strong>on</strong> that is in the child’s best interests and protecti<strong>on</strong> for<br />
trafficked children involved in court cases (whether as victims of crime or witnesses). In<br />
several other regi<strong>on</strong>s, such as West Africa and South-East Asia, there have been efforts<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> develop versi<strong>on</strong>s that take account of regi<strong>on</strong>al-specific needs and patterns of trafficking.<br />
In 2006, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g> of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> High Commissi<strong>on</strong>er for Refugees issued its own<br />
Guidelines <strong>on</strong> Internati<strong>on</strong>al Protecti<strong>on</strong>: The applicati<strong>on</strong> of Article 1A(2) of the 1951 C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong><br />
and/or 1967 Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col Relating <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Status of Refugees <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> Victims of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> and Pers<strong>on</strong>s<br />
at Risk of Being Trafficked. 44 These point out that some people believed <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> have been trafficked<br />
have a well-founded fear of persecuti<strong>on</strong> and “may therefore be entitled <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> internati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
refugee protecti<strong>on</strong>” (para. 12). The Guidelines list forms of abuse and severe<br />
exploitati<strong>on</strong> which, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g> maintains, “will generally amount <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> persecuti<strong>on</strong>” (para. 15)<br />
and c<strong>on</strong>sequently entitle the individual c<strong>on</strong>cerned <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> protecti<strong>on</strong> as a refugee.<br />
B.—Emergency assistance and medical care<br />
Adults and children who have been trafficked are frequently in need of medical attenti<strong>on</strong><br />
and sometimes suffer from post-traumatic stress syndrome. Intergovernmental organizati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
have issued a range of good practice guidelines c<strong>on</strong>cerning assistance and care, in<br />
order <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> ensure that any<strong>on</strong>e identified as “trafficked” is transferred <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> a safe place and<br />
has his or her needs assessed. In 2004, IOM issued a set of minimum standards c<strong>on</strong>cerning<br />
mental health care for trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s. 45 The IOM minimum standards are intended<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> help ensure that women and girls trafficked for purposes of sexual exploitati<strong>on</strong><br />
receive comprehensive and coordinated psychosocial care, and are a guide for any organizati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
assisting such people. The immediate needs of trafficking victims subjected <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
other forms of exploitati<strong>on</strong> are different: for example, women trafficked in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> forced labour<br />
as domestic workers need compensati<strong>on</strong> (for unpaid work) and new jobs. In 2007, IOM<br />
summarized the less<strong>on</strong>s learned over the previous 13 years in IOM Handbook <strong>on</strong> Direct<br />
Assistance for Victims of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g>. 46<br />
There have also been efforts <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> develop standards for the residential care of both trafficked<br />
adults and children. The c<strong>on</strong>cern about the poor quality of care for trafficked children<br />
mirrors c<strong>on</strong>cerns that other children in instituti<strong>on</strong>al care may be subjected <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> further<br />
abuse. A handbook developed by UNICEF in Kosovo, focusing mainly <strong>on</strong> procedures for<br />
interviews with children who have been subjected <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> sexual abuse or trafficked c<strong>on</strong>tains<br />
a Code of C<strong>on</strong>duct for Safeguarding Children and Young People. 47<br />
44<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g> of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> High Commissi<strong>on</strong>er for Refugees, “Guidelines <strong>on</strong> Internati<strong>on</strong>al Protecti<strong>on</strong>”,<br />
UNHCR document HCR/GIP/06/07, of 7 April 2006 (see http://www.unhcr.org/publ/PUBL/443b626b2.pdf).<br />
45<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>al Organizati<strong>on</strong> for Migrati<strong>on</strong>, The Mental Health Aspects of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> Beings. a Set of<br />
Minimum Standards, Á. Baráth and others, eds. (Budapest, Internati<strong>on</strong>al Organizati<strong>on</strong> for Migrati<strong>on</strong>, 2004).<br />
46<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>al Organizati<strong>on</strong> for Migrati<strong>on</strong>, IOM Handbook <strong>on</strong> Direct Assistance for Victims of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> (Geneva,<br />
IOM, 2007) (see http://www.iom.int/jahia/webdav/site/myjahiasite/shared/shared/mainsite/published_docs/books<br />
/CT%20-handbook.pdf).<br />
47<br />
B. Mitchels, Let’s Talk: Developing Effective Communicati<strong>on</strong> with Child Victims of Abuse and <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g>:<br />
Practical Handbook for Social Workers, Police and other Professi<strong>on</strong>als (Pristina, UNICEF, Kosovo <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2004), pp. 7-8<br />
(see http://www.childtrafficking.org/eng/publicati<strong>on</strong>.html).<br />
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AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN TRAFFICKING: VULNERABILITY, IMPACT AND ACTION<br />
C.—Assessment of cases of trafficked adults and children,<br />
including risk assessments<br />
Procedures for making decisi<strong>on</strong>s about trafficking victims who have no legal entitlement<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be in the country where they have been trafficked vary greatly from country <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> country<br />
and case <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> case. In some countries a de fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> definiti<strong>on</strong> is used <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> define who should<br />
be categorized as a “trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>”, which focuses primarily <strong>on</strong> women trafficked in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
commercial sexual exploitati<strong>on</strong> and does not c<strong>on</strong>sider men or boys trafficked in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> forced<br />
labour as “trafficked”.<br />
States that have ratified the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> against Torture of 1984 are<br />
required <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> ensure that no <strong>on</strong>e is repatriated <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> a State where they would face <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rture<br />
(either by government officials or n<strong>on</strong>-state ac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs such as traffickers), by or at the instigati<strong>on</strong><br />
of or with the c<strong>on</strong>sent or acquiescence of a public official or other pers<strong>on</strong> acting<br />
in an official capacity. The high risk of a trafficking victim being <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rtured makes it virtually<br />
obliga<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ry <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> carry out a risk assessment before returning any trafficked pers<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> his<br />
or her country of origin. Such an assessment must look at possible threats from traffickers<br />
and their associates <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the security of trafficked pers<strong>on</strong> and his or her relatives.<br />
However, in additi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> a security assessment, a risk assessment should take broader, ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
and social fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> account, which might otherwise precipitate an individual<br />
back in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>trol of a trafficker. Re-trafficking can be the result of a returnee being<br />
stigmatized or having no livelihood after returning <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> his or her place of origin. The<br />
Committee <strong>on</strong> the Rights of the Child has outlined the fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> take in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> account when<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sidering whether a child should return <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> his or her country of origin, stating that children<br />
may not be returned <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> a country where there are substantial grounds for believing<br />
that there is a real risk of irreparable harm <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the child. The risk assessment must take<br />
in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> account the c<strong>on</strong>sequences for a child if he or she faces insufficient provisi<strong>on</strong> of food<br />
or health services. 48 A particular challenge c<strong>on</strong>cerns children whose parents are living illegally<br />
in the country of destinati<strong>on</strong>, where it is usually in the child’s best interests <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be<br />
reunited with his or her parents rather than be repatriated.<br />
In practice, repatriati<strong>on</strong>s have frequently taken place in the absence of any risk assessment,<br />
leaving people who have been trafficked vulnerable up<strong>on</strong> their arrival (for example,<br />
at an airport) <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> being re-trafficked. The lack of c<strong>on</strong>sensus am<strong>on</strong>g States <strong>on</strong> what the minimum<br />
acceptable standard is c<strong>on</strong>cerning the treatment of trafficking victims before or after<br />
repatriati<strong>on</strong> seems <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> have undermined the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col’s efforts <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> streamline repatriati<strong>on</strong><br />
procedures.<br />
48<br />
The Committee <strong>on</strong> the Rights of the Child adopted general comment No. 6 (CRC/GC/2005/6) <strong>on</strong> the treatment<br />
of unaccompanied and separated children outside their country of origin (see http://www.ohchr.org/english/<br />
bodies/crc/docs/GC6.pdf).<br />
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PART THREE.—ACTION<br />
D.—Enabling victims of traffickers <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> recover and restart<br />
their lives<br />
When trafficking victims endeavour <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> get <strong>on</strong> with their lives, they face a series of hurdles.<br />
These include recovering their self-c<strong>on</strong>fidence and self-esteem, finding a suitable way<br />
of earning a living and, in the case of girls and women suspected of having been involved<br />
in prostituti<strong>on</strong>, avoiding the stigma attached <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> prostituti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Much has been learned in the past decade about what forms of assistance are c<strong>on</strong>sidered<br />
most effective by people who have themselves been trafficked, although it is rare<br />
that they are m<strong>on</strong>i<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>red for l<strong>on</strong>g enough <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> draw c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>s about the l<strong>on</strong>g-term impact<br />
of different techniques. A significant number of victims who receive vocati<strong>on</strong>al training<br />
are reported <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> return home <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> circumstances that do not allow them <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> obtain a job using<br />
the training they have received. The less<strong>on</strong>s reveal that the c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al assumpti<strong>on</strong> that<br />
victims should be repatriated and returned <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> live with their family is inappropriate and<br />
results <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>o easily in victims being returned <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> a situati<strong>on</strong> where they suffer further harm<br />
(in particular if they originally left <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> escape an abusive situati<strong>on</strong>). By the time the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pro<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>col was adopted, the less<strong>on</strong> was already apparent in West Africa that<br />
sending children who had been trafficked abroad (in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> forced labour or servitude) back<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> their home villages was tantamount <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trying <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> pour water uphill: in numerous cases,<br />
repatriated children who were accompanied back <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> their home villages departed again<br />
within a matter of days. 49 Much has been learned subsequently about the circumstances<br />
in which family reunificati<strong>on</strong> is and is not appropriate. In parts of Eastern Europe, semiindependent<br />
living arrangements for older adolescents proved successful, albeit expensive.<br />
This involved abused adolescents living in accommodati<strong>on</strong> supervised by a social worker<br />
while they restarted school, engaged in vocati<strong>on</strong>al training or started work.<br />
VI.—The role of research<br />
A.—Research reports <strong>on</strong> regi<strong>on</strong>al patterns and specific countries<br />
Research <strong>on</strong> trafficking in human beings is vital. It allows for the identificati<strong>on</strong> of fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>rs<br />
that cause trafficking or enable it <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> happen as well as for the m<strong>on</strong>i<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ring of the effects<br />
of anti-trafficking measures designed <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> prevent trafficking as well as <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> assist trafficked<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>s. The importance of research <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> analyse the causes and c<strong>on</strong>sequences of trafficking<br />
has been repeatedly emphasized, for example by an Organizati<strong>on</strong> of American States<br />
meeting of specialized anti-trafficking agencies. 50 Numerous reports are published every<br />
year, and a growing number of websites publicize the findings of those reports. Some<br />
49<br />
A. F. Adihou, Le trafic des enfants entre le Bénin et le Gab<strong>on</strong> (Enfants Solidaires d'Afrique et du M<strong>on</strong>de (ESAM)<br />
and <str<strong>on</strong>g>An</str<strong>on</strong>g>ti-Slavery Internati<strong>on</strong>al, 1999).<br />
50<br />
Organizati<strong>on</strong> of American States, Meeting of Nati<strong>on</strong>al Authorities <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in Pers<strong>on</strong>s, C<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>s and<br />
Recommendati<strong>on</strong>s of the Meeting of Nati<strong>on</strong>al Authorities <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in Pers<strong>on</strong>s (OEA/Ser. K/XXXIX,<br />
RTP/doc.16/06 rev.1) (see http://www.venezuela-oas.org/Material%20Trata/1CONCLUSIONSAND-RECOM-<br />
MENDATIONS<str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g>inPers<strong>on</strong>s.pdf).<br />
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AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN TRAFFICKING: VULNERABILITY, IMPACT AND ACTION<br />
describe general trafficking patterns, 51 while others focus <strong>on</strong> a specific country or a specific<br />
trafficking route. Some present details obtained from repatriated victims in order <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
draw c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>s about the characteristics of people who are being trafficked, 52 especially<br />
when it seems that specific groups of people are being trafficked in disproporti<strong>on</strong>ately<br />
high numbers.<br />
While reports published in the late 1990s and in the years following 2000 focused primarily<br />
<strong>on</strong> the abuse experienced by trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s (possibly <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> provoke readers <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>clude<br />
that more needed <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be d<strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> combat trafficking), in the past few years there has<br />
been a move <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>wards reports of a more technical nature, which focus <strong>on</strong> methods used<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> address specific aspects of trafficking and examine their effectiveness.<br />
B. Research about those already trafficked, identifying the<br />
circumstances in which they were vulnerable <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> traffickers<br />
IOM has been at the forefr<strong>on</strong>t of efforts <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> identify the salient characteristics of victims<br />
of trafficking in order <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> learn what distinguishes them from others who have not been<br />
trafficked. For example, in South-East Europe a disproporti<strong>on</strong>ate number of trafficked<br />
women and girls have experienced domestic abuse or lived in residential care. A case<br />
study in northern Thailand found that in families with three daughters it was more probable<br />
that the sec<strong>on</strong>d-born daughters would be recruited in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the sex industry than either<br />
eldest or youngest daughters. 53 The report explained the social and cultural reas<strong>on</strong>s for<br />
its findings. On the basis of detailed research of this sort, it has been possible <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> target<br />
preventi<strong>on</strong> efforts <strong>on</strong> individuals or households with similar characteristics <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> those already<br />
trafficked.<br />
Studies of individuals who have been trafficked usually trace what happens <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> them during<br />
the time they receive professi<strong>on</strong>al care, but rarely track their subsequent development.<br />
While the right <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> privacy entitles people <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> refuse <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> inform researchers about their subsequent<br />
experiences, in many cases it is <strong>on</strong>ly with the benefit of informati<strong>on</strong> about what<br />
happens over several years that it is possible <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>clude whether the assistance and protecti<strong>on</strong><br />
they received were appropriate or need improving.<br />
C.—Research about traffickers and the techniques they use<br />
Al<strong>on</strong>gside law enforcement efforts <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> identify individual criminals, researchers have collated<br />
the data available about both traffickers and others who collaborate with them. This<br />
regularly dem<strong>on</strong>strates that the profile of traffickers presented in public informati<strong>on</strong> materials<br />
is inaccurate. For example, in parts of South-East Europe where traffickers were routinely<br />
presented as disreputable male criminals, evidence collected from trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s<br />
51<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Drugs and Crime, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in Pers<strong>on</strong>s: Global Patterns (Vienna, <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
2006), a 128-page report summarizing patterns, based <strong>on</strong> data supplied by States.<br />
52<br />
For example, two annual reports <strong>on</strong> victims of trafficking in South-Eastern Europe issued by the Regi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Clearing Point of the Internati<strong>on</strong>al Organizati<strong>on</strong> for Migrati<strong>on</strong>, the first in 2003 and the sec<strong>on</strong>d in 2005.<br />
53<br />
Taylor, “Dangerous trade-offs … ”.<br />
124
PART THREE.—ACTION<br />
showed that numerous people had been trafficked by women or by relatives. 54 The<br />
challenge, in this case, was <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> work out how <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> warn young people that they had <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> remain<br />
<strong>on</strong> guard about offers made by relatives (<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> go abroad “<strong>on</strong> holiday” or <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> work) without<br />
fracturing family relati<strong>on</strong>ships. 55<br />
In a few cases, research has already examined the roles played by individuals who are<br />
comm<strong>on</strong>ly described as “traffickers”, but who, <strong>on</strong> close scrutiny, turn out <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be involved<br />
in recruitment for jobs in the informal ec<strong>on</strong>omy that is not of a criminal nature. Indeed,<br />
in West Africa <strong>on</strong>e preventive method that has been identified involves supporting and<br />
strengthening certain recruitment practices that already help protect the individuals being<br />
recruited.<br />
D.—Research <strong>on</strong> the numbers of trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Having some idea of the numbers of trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s is helpful for Governments that<br />
choose what level of resources <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> allocate <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> anti-trafficking initiatives. It is problematic,<br />
therefore, that estimates unsupported by evidence have been routinely and widely publicized.<br />
For example, in Europe an elected official reported in 2006 that the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
had estimated that 4 milli<strong>on</strong> people were transported within or between countries every<br />
year in order <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be exploited sexually. 56 No evidence is available <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> support estimates<br />
approaching this magnitude.<br />
A 2006 report issued by the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> States of America Government Accountability <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
criticizes unfounded numbers cited by Governments, including the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> States<br />
Government, noting that the accuracy of the estimates was in doubt because of methodological<br />
weaknesses, gaps in data and numerical discrepancies. 57 The main weakness<br />
noted in such estimates is that terms (such as “victims of trafficking”) are not defined or<br />
used precisely. In additi<strong>on</strong>, data <strong>on</strong> the number of people trafficked are c<strong>on</strong>fused with<br />
those <strong>on</strong> other groups of people, such as the number of migrants smuggled in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> a<br />
country or the number of women in prostituti<strong>on</strong>. One comment in the Government<br />
Accountability <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g> report applies <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> data published virtually everywhere:<br />
“The incompatibility of definiti<strong>on</strong>s for data collecti<strong>on</strong> is exacerbated by the intermingling<br />
of trafficking, smuggling, and illegal migrati<strong>on</strong> in official statistics. Countries<br />
have used different definiti<strong>on</strong>s regarding the scope and means of trafficking; the<br />
activities involved … For example, there are discrepancies in the collecti<strong>on</strong> of data<br />
<strong>on</strong> sex trafficking.”<br />
54<br />
June Kane, Child <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> – The People Involved: a Synthesis of Findings from Albania, Moldova, Romania and<br />
Ukraine, (Geneva, Internati<strong>on</strong>al Labour <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2005); and Mike Dottridge, Acti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> Prevent Child <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g> in South<br />
Eastern Europe: a Preliminary Assessment (Geneva, UNICEF and Terre des Hommes, 2006).<br />
55<br />
Mike Dottridge and Olivier Feneyrol, “Acti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> strengthen indigenous child protecti<strong>on</strong> mechanisms in West<br />
Africa <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> prevent migrant children from being subjected <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> abuse”, May 2007 (see http://www.tdh.ch/<br />
website/tdhch.nsf/pages/trafficking_documentati<strong>on</strong>E).<br />
56<br />
European Parliament, debate <strong>on</strong> forced prostituti<strong>on</strong> during the 2006 football World Cup, Strasbourg, 12 June<br />
2006 (see http://www.europarl.europa.eu/omk/sipade3?L=EN&OBJID=120219).<br />
57<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> States of America, Government Accountability <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g>: Better Data, Strategy, and<br />
Reporting Needed <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> Enhance U.S. <str<strong>on</strong>g>An</str<strong>on</strong>g>ti-trafficking Efforts Abroad, GAO report GAO-06-825 (Washing<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>n D.C.,<br />
July 2006), p. 26 (see http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d06825.pdf).<br />
125
AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN TRAFFICKING: VULNERABILITY, IMPACT AND ACTION<br />
Within the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> system, ILO has paid particular attenti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the questi<strong>on</strong> of<br />
numbers of people around the world being subjected <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> forced labour, including those<br />
who have been trafficked. In 2005, it estimated that the number of people subjected <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
forced labour at any given time as a result of trafficking was 2.45 milli<strong>on</strong>, of whom 43 per<br />
cent had been trafficked for commercial sexual exploitati<strong>on</strong> (i.e. 1.05 milli<strong>on</strong>) and 32 per<br />
cent for ec<strong>on</strong>omic exploitati<strong>on</strong> (i.e. 784,000). 58<br />
Global or nati<strong>on</strong>al estimates may be helpful <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> calibrate an adequate resp<strong>on</strong>se <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking,<br />
but they have also glossed over key differences am<strong>on</strong>g the people who are trafficked<br />
and c<strong>on</strong>sequently may result in funds being allocated <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> inappropriate interventi<strong>on</strong>s. In<br />
Albania, for example, general statistics about the numbers of children being trafficked<br />
failed <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> reveal that they fell in<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> two distinct groups: younger children trafficked for forced<br />
begging, who mainly bel<strong>on</strong>ged <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> a minority group, and older adolescent girls trafficked<br />
for commercial sexual exploitati<strong>on</strong>. Distinguishing between the two was vital, as quite different<br />
initiatives were needed <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> address the two groups.<br />
E. Research <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<strong>on</strong>i<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>r, evaluate and assess the impact of<br />
preventi<strong>on</strong> and rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> efforts<br />
A 2004 evaluati<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> States-financed initiatives <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> prevent human trafficking in<br />
Eurasia noted that numerous initiatives had not been evaluated and that some of the evaluati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
that had been carried out had measured a project’s outputs (e.g. numbers of reports<br />
published or disseminated), but not their impact <strong>on</strong> people’s lives or their c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
reducing trafficking. 59 A 2007 report by the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> States Government Accountability<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g> focused specifically <strong>on</strong> shortfalls in m<strong>on</strong>i<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ring and evaluati<strong>on</strong>, both in <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
States-funded bilateral initiatives and in initiatives by intergovernmental organizati<strong>on</strong>s. 60 It<br />
called for improvements in the assessment of the impact of <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> States-funded projects<br />
and for rigorous evaluati<strong>on</strong> methodologies. It also urged m<strong>on</strong>i<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ring and evaluati<strong>on</strong> weaknesses<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be addressed at the stage of project design.<br />
F.—Research standards: the World Health Organizati<strong>on</strong><br />
Some research about individuals subjected <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> forced labour (whether trafficked or not) by<br />
academic researchers and, in particular, by journalists, is reported <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> have resulted in<br />
reprisals by the traffickers. The research thus caused extra harm <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the very people who<br />
were willing <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> talk about being abused. In 2003, the World Health Organizati<strong>on</strong> published<br />
a set of Ethical and Safety Recommendati<strong>on</strong>s for Interviewing Trafficked Women,<br />
c<strong>on</strong>taining 10 guiding principles for the ethical and safe c<strong>on</strong>duct of interviews with women<br />
who had been trafficked. 61 Many are also applicable <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> children and even adult men who<br />
58<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>al Labour <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g>, A Global Alliance against Forced Labour: Global Report under the Follow-up <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
ILO Declarati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work (Geneva, Internati<strong>on</strong>al Labour <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2005), p. 15.<br />
59<br />
Rosenberg and others, op. cit.<br />
60<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> States of America, Government Accountability <str<strong>on</strong>g>Office</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Human</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Trafficking</str<strong>on</strong>g>: M<strong>on</strong>i<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ring and Evaluati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>al Projects are Limited, but Experts Suggest Improvements, GAO report GAO-07-1034 (Washing<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>n D.C., July<br />
2007), p. 15 (see http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d071034.pdf).<br />
61<br />
Cathy Zimmerman and Charlotte Watts, WHO Ethical and Safety Recommendati<strong>on</strong>s for Interviewing Trafficked<br />
Women (Geneva, World Health Organizati<strong>on</strong>, 2003) (see www.who.int/mip/2003/other_documents/en/Ethical_Safety-<br />
GWH.pdf).<br />
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PART THREE.—ACTION<br />
have been trafficked. IOM has also published a set of Ethical Principles in Caring for and<br />
Interviewing Trafficked Pers<strong>on</strong>s, adapted from the WHO recommendati<strong>on</strong>s, extended <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
include 18 basic principles and explicitly addressing interviews with children as well as<br />
adults. 62 Both emphasize the principle that interviewers should take precauti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> avoid<br />
causing additi<strong>on</strong>al harm <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> individuals who have been trafficked.<br />
While the physical and mental well-being of trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s is always of paramount<br />
importance, <strong>on</strong>e particular challenge is the <strong>on</strong>going need for accurate, first-hand informati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The often justified reluctance of caregivers <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> allow access <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s can<br />
hinder the supply of accurate informati<strong>on</strong> about victims’ experiences and makes it harder<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> ensure that preventi<strong>on</strong>, intercepti<strong>on</strong> or protecti<strong>on</strong> initiatives meet the needs of those<br />
they are intended <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> benefit. In c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>, it seems crucial <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>tinue with ethical,<br />
detailed research <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> ensure that future anti-trafficking efforts are evidence-based and not<br />
based <strong>on</strong> inaccurate exaggerati<strong>on</strong>s. It is likewise important <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> distinguish between research<br />
that brings benefits <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> people who have been trafficked (for example by making preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
efforts more effective) and research designed mainly <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> provide particular bodies or<br />
individuals with informati<strong>on</strong> that they use <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> publicize their activities and obtain funds.<br />
VII.—C<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong><br />
At the same time as summarizing major resp<strong>on</strong>ses <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s initiated over<br />
the past decade, this paper also points <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> numerous ways in which these anti-trafficking<br />
policies and initiatives could be made more effective. In particular, it emphasizes the vital<br />
role of collecting evidence about the numbers of people being trafficked and the forms<br />
of exploitati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> which they are being subjected, so that preventi<strong>on</strong> initiatives and virtually<br />
all other anti-trafficking efforts are tailored <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> meet the task before them. The corollary<br />
is that anti-trafficking initiatives should not be inspired by well-publicized but<br />
unsubstantiated estimates that have sometimes vastly exaggerated the number of people<br />
being trafficked or seriously underestimated them.<br />
In relati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> protecti<strong>on</strong> and assistance for trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s, secti<strong>on</strong> V.A menti<strong>on</strong>s numerous<br />
internati<strong>on</strong>al standards that have been established <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> guide States and their agencies.<br />
No single body or mechanism within the <str<strong>on</strong>g>United</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Nati<strong>on</strong>s</str<strong>on</strong>g> system is resp<strong>on</strong>sible for ensuring<br />
that these standards are adhered <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> or for giving advice <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> States where the level of<br />
protecti<strong>on</strong> and assistance is significantly lower than called for in the standards. Not surprisingly,<br />
the result is that many trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>s prefer not <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> make c<strong>on</strong>tact with government<br />
agencies <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> protect or assist them, which has unfortunate c<strong>on</strong>sequences for the<br />
trafficked pers<strong>on</strong>, who is not able <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> get assistance, and for the States, which are hindered<br />
in their efforts <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> bring criminals <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> justice. It seems <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> be a clear priority <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> raise these<br />
standards and <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> develop mechanisms for mutual accountability between States <strong>on</strong> the<br />
quality of the protecti<strong>on</strong> and assistance they provide.<br />
With so many different (and sometimes c<strong>on</strong>tradic<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>ry) recommendati<strong>on</strong>s made <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Governments by internati<strong>on</strong>al and regi<strong>on</strong>al governmental organizati<strong>on</strong>s and specialized<br />
62<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>al Organizati<strong>on</strong> for Migrati<strong>on</strong>, IOM Handbook <strong>on</strong> Direct … .<br />
127
AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN TRAFFICKING: VULNERABILITY, IMPACT AND ACTION<br />
agencies, it is perhaps not surprising that resp<strong>on</strong>ses <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> trafficking have been so diverse.<br />
The attenti<strong>on</strong> given in recent years <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> identifying “good practice” is encouraging, but the<br />
procedures for allowing different instituti<strong>on</strong>s and States <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> discuss and reach agreement<br />
about what c<strong>on</strong>stitutes “good practice” are still not in place. Overcoming this challenge<br />
and making it a priority <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g> agree <strong>on</strong> what c<strong>on</strong>stitutes “good practice” in the future should<br />
ensure that anti-trafficking initiatives become more effective and that m<strong>on</strong>ey allocated <str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
s<str<strong>on</strong>g>to</str<strong>on</strong>g>pping trafficking in pers<strong>on</strong>s is used more effectively.<br />
128
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