Monkey Orange extension manual.pdf - Crops for the Future

Practical Manual No. 8
MONKEY ORANGE
Strychnos cocculoides
Field Manual for
Extension Workers and Farmers
2006

Copies of this handbook, as well as related literature, including a monograph and factsheet can
be obtained by writing to the address below:
Southampton Centre for Underutilised Crops
School of Civil Engineering and the
Environment
University of Southampton
OR
Highfield,
Southampton
SO17 1BJ
United Kingdom
International Center for Underutilized Crops
c/o International Water Management Institute
(IWMI)
127, Sunil Mawatha
Pelawatte
Battaramulla
Sri Lanka
ISBN: 085432 8378
© 2005 Southampton Centre for Underutilised Crops
Printed at RPM Print and Design, Chichester, England, UK
Citation: SCUC (2006). Monkey Orange, Strychnos cocculoides, Field Manual for Extension
Workers and Farmers, SCUC, Southampton, UK.
This manual was prepared by Dr C. Mwamba, C and E. Peiler, according to an agreed format.
Photographs: courtesy of Dr. C. Mwamba
Drawings: E. Peiler
THE FRUITS FOR THE FUTURE PROJECT
This publication is an output from a research project funded by the United Kingdom
Department for International Development (DFID) for the benefit of developing countries.
The views expressed are not necessarily those of DFID [R7187 Forestry Research Programme].
A series of underutilised fruits are being researched and this is the Practical Manual No. 8
dealing specifically with Strychnos cocculoides.

CONTENTS
PREFACE .............................................................................................................................i
1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................ 1
2 WHY GROW MONKEY ORANGE ? ........................................................................... 2
2.1 Nutritional Value................................................................................................. 2
2.2 Socio-economic Value ......................................................................................... 3
2.3 Medicinal Value .................................................................................................. 3
2.4 Fuel and Timber.................................................................................................. 3
2.5 Cultural Value ..................................................................................................... 3
2.6 Ecological and Environmental Value .................................................................... 4
2.7 Other Uses .......................................................................................................... 4
3 WHERE TO GROW MONKEY ORANGE ?.................................................................. 5
3.1 Climatic Requirements for Cultivation.................................................................. 5
3.2 Site Requirements................................................................................................ 5
3.3 Symbiotic Associations......................................................................................... 6
3.4 Land-use Systems ................................................................................................. 6
4 WHAT TO GROW ..................................................................................................... 7
4.1 Selected Superior Phenotypes .............................................................................. 7
4.2 Propagule Type................................................................................................... 7
5 HOW TO GROW MONKEY ORANGE ? .................................................................... 8
5.1 Establishment of a planting site ............................................................................ 8
5.2 Propagation by Seeds .......................................................................................... 8
5.2.1 Seed Collection and Handling ...................................................................... 8
5.2.2 Seed Treatment and Germination................................................................. 9
5.2.3 Sowing ........................................................................................................ 9
5.3 Vegetative Propagation ....................................................................................... 9
5.3.1 Coppicing and Root Suckers ......................................................................... 9
5.3.2 Grafting ...................................................................................................... 10
5.3.3 Other Vegetative Propagation Methods........................................................11
5.4 Field Establishment..............................................................................................11
5.4.1 Site Preparation............................................................................................11
5.4.2 Timing ........................................................................................................ 12
5.4.3 Windbreaks................................................................................................. 12
5.4.4 Transplanting.............................................................................................. 12
5.5 Field Management ............................................................................................. 13
5.5.1 Weeding ..................................................................................................... 13
5.5.2 Irrigation..................................................................................................... 13
5.5.3 Fertilising .................................................................................................... 13
5.5.4 Pruning....................................................................................................... 13
5.5.5 Stand Density - Thinning ............................................................................. 14
5.5.6 Intercropping and Soil Conservation............................................................ 14
5.5.7 Protection from Pests and Diseases .............................................................. 14
6 HOW TO HARVEST THE MONKEY ORANGE TREE ? ............................................... 15
6.1 Ripeness and Yield.............................................................................................. 15
6.2 Harvesting Techniques........................................................................................ 15
7 POST-HARVEST HANDLING AND PROCESSING....................................................... 16
7.1 Post-harvest Handling......................................................................................... 16
7.2 Processing and Packaging.................................................................................... 16
8 MARKETING............................................................................................................. 17
8.1 Marketing Potential............................................................................................ 17

8.2 Pricing................................................................................................................ 17
9 SOCIO-ECONOMICS ................................................................................................ 18
APPENDIX 1. MULTIPLE USES OF THE MONKEY ORANGE TREE ................................. 19
APPENDIX 2. MAJOR PESTS AND DISEASES OF THE MONKEY ORANGE TREE .......... 20
APPENDIX 3. HEALTH AND SAFETY WHEN USING CHEMICALS ................................. 21
GLOSSARY....................................................................................................................... 22
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................... 23
TABLES
Table 1: Nutritional composition of fresh fruit pulp of monkey orange ...........................2
Table 2: Climatic requirements for cultivation of monkey orange ...................................5
Table 3: Suitable habitats for monkey orange .................................................................6
Table 4: Characteristics of selected superior phenotypes of monkey orange ....................7
PART II
Technical Note 1:
Technical Note 2:
Technical Note 3:
Technical Note 4:
Technical Note 5:
Technical Note 6:
Technical Note 7:
Technical Note 8:
Technical Note 9:
Why Grow the Monkey Orange Tree?
How to Grow the Monkey Orange Tree? - Seedlings and Young trees
How to Grow the Monkey Orange Tree? – Propagation by Seed
How to Grow the Monkey Orange Tree? – Vegetative Propagation
Where to Grow the Monkey Orange Tree? – Field Establishment
How to Grow the Monkey Orange Tree? – Field Management
Harvesting and Post-harvest Handling
Processing
Marketing and Economics

PREFACE
‘Fruits for the Future’ is a programme implemented by the International Centre for
Underutilised Crops (ICUC) and its partner organisations - The World Agroforestry Centre
(ICRAF) and the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI). This project provides
information enabling further research on underutilised fruit trees and also provides information
on practical techniques that can be used by farmers and rural communities to increase their
product output and ultimately the income from their land.
The project has now been taken forward by ICUC in consultation with stakeholders and
includes 10 underutilised fruits which have potential for immediate development. For each,
ICUC is issuing a monograph summarising known information and a manual for the use by
extension workers and farmers. This publication is the manual for monkey orange (Strychnos
cocculoides). Demand for the production of scientific and extension materials on monkey
orange has been expressed by local, national and regional stakeholders in meetings with
UTFANET and SEANUC and in discussion with ICRAF, FAO, IPGRI and other interested
organisations. The opinions expressed in this book are those of the authors alone and do not
imply an acceptance or obligation whatsoever on the part of ICUC, ICRAF or IPGRI.
The information contained within this manual is for use in the field and can be used by forestry
and agricultural extension staff working with farmers in Central and Southern Africa. The
manual provides practical advice on propagation techniques, selection of high quality materials
and the management of monkey orange trees (Strychnos cocculoides). Information is also
provided on the processing and marketing; however the products and market strategies may
vary from farmer to farmer and country to country. This manual has been published in English.
Any part of this manual can be freely copied or translated into other languages, in order to aid
effective extension work.
The manual is presented in two sections. The first section gives background information for the
effective utilisation of this tree. The second section is made up of a set of leaflets, each covering
a defined topic. These can be used for guidance during work in the field, or for copying and
distribution. Where S.I. units are used in the text, these should be changed to local units where
appropriate. Further detailed information on monkey orange can also be found in an
accompanying monograph by Mwamba (2006), available from ICUC, Sri Lanka and University
of Southampton, UK.
We would like to express our gratitude to the late Dr. Charles Mwamba for the preparation of
the information contained within this manual. We regret that he was not able to see it
published. The manual is dedicated to his memory.
Editors
2005
i

1 INTRODUCTION
Strychnos cocculoides (Baker) belongs to the Loganiaceae family and is known by various
names, but the most common are “monkey orange” or “bush orange”.
Description:
• It is a semi-deciduous spiny shrub or small woodland tree about 1-8 metres tall with one
or several trunks, spreading branches and a rounded crown. The bark is pale grey to
creamy-brown, thick, corky and ridged. The branches have longitudinal corky ridges and
spines of 1-1.5 cm length. The leaves are up to 6 cm long by 4 cm wide and tend to be
rounded or heart-shaped at the base. They have fine hairs on both sides with 1-3 pairs of
secondary veins from the base curved along the margin.
Flowering:
• Monkey orange carries male and female flowers on the same tree. Small greenish to
white flowers appear in short dense bunches at the end of the branches between July
and September in southern Africa. The round orange-like fruit ripen to glossy yellow
orange between June to December of the following year. The fruit is 6-12 cm in
diameter and has a hard shell.
Distribution:
• Monkey orange has a wide distribution in Sub Saharan Africa. It is found throughout
Central and Southern tropical Africa, from Gabon to Kenya, South-West Africa and
Natal, drought prone areas and semi-arid Kalahari Sandvelds.
Habitat:
• It occurs from high rainfall tropical forests to more desert climates and is found in a wide
range of altitudes and soils.
Human introduction:
• The species has also been introduced to South America and India; however it is not
exploited in these countries.
Toxicity note:
• All parts of the plant contain low concentrations of strychnine, an alkaloid poison. In
particular unripe fruits are poisonous, although they can be used medicinally. Reference
to medicinal use in this manual does not constitute medical advice. Advice must be
sought from a medical practitioner.
1

2 WHY GROW MONKEY ORANGE?
Monkey orange is a multipurpose tree with numerous values. It is a source of food, timber,
firewood, medicinal extracts and other components and it can provide a potential economic
return to rural people. The different uses of the monkey orange tree are summarised in
Appendix 1 and described below. See Technical Note 1 in Part II
2.1 Nutritional Value
Monkey orange is a nutritious fruit providing an important source of food for many rural
communities in Central and Southern Africa. It has long been used to complement diets. Table 1
gives nutritional composition of the fresh monkey orange pulp.
• The pulp of ripe fruits is usually eaten fresh and the pips are spat out.
• The pulp can be made into jam, juice and a variety of wines.
See Technical Note 8 in Part II.
Table 1: Nutritional composition of fresh fruit pulp of monkey orange
Energy Value
Moisture
Protein
Fat
Fibre
Carbohydrates
PROPERTY
Calcium (Ca)
Magnesium (Mg)
Iron (Fe)
Sodium (Na)
Potassium (K)
Phosphorus (P)
Copper (Cu)
Zinc (Zn)
Thiamin
Riboflavin
Nicotinic Acid (Niacin)
Vitamin C
FOOD VALUE OF EDIBLE
PORTION
(Fruit weight 400-1200g)
Per 100g
308 kJ
80.4 g
1.3 g
0.1 g
0.9 g
16.8 g
9.41 mg
26.9 mg
0.18 mg
0.89 mg
188 mg
20.2 mg
0.07 mg
0.08 mg
0.03 mg
0.06 mg
0.27 mg
6.7 mg
%RDA
(based on an
adult male)
Per 100g
2.3
0.3
1.3
12.9
0.9
6.4
*2.25/1.0
**
n/a
2.9
7.8
0.7
2.5
4.6
1.7
7.4
Source: Arnold and group (1985)
* Male and female RDA are given here, because female requirement is greater.
** RDA is not calculated for this mineral
2

2.2 Socio-economic Value
• Food security during periods of food shortages and in years of famine for marginalised
groups in particular, with decreased dependence on arable agriculture, leading to a
reduction in the workload for women and in reduced environmental degradation.
• Additional income to farmers if incorporated in their fields or grown on marginal or
unused land through sales of fruits, processed fruit products, timber and medicines in
rural and urban markets, both local and regional. The value of fruit yield from a single
tree could exceed the value of a grain harvest from the same area for a subsistence
farmer.
2.3 Medicinal Value
Nearly all the parts of the monkey orange tree can be used for medicinal purposes. References
to traditional medicines give the following local uses for parts of the plant, but to our
knowledge no clinical information is available:
• Green, unripe fruits:
o To induce vomiting - mashed, mixed with water, soaked and drunk.
o As a purgative - prepared as a powder added to milk (in Zambia).
• Pulp of ripe fruits:
o To treat coughing, mixed with sugar or honey.
o As a constituent of eardrops.
• Fresh leaves: for the treatment of wounds to prevent infection and promote healing -
pounded into a paste, mixed with water, and simmered.
• Bark: to treat stomach pains, a decoction is used.
• Roots:
o To reduce the length and severity of heavy menstrual flows.
o To stop diarrhoea.
o To alleviate eczema.
o To treat sexually transmitted infections, for example gonorrhoea.
2.4 Fuel and Timber
• Wood has a straight bore and can be used in construction.
• Soft, white, pliable wood can be used in building materials, tool handles, utensils.
2.5 Cultural Value
Several parts of the tree have different uses:
• Magical uses, e.g. a hunting charm,
• Art objects.
3

• Traditional percussion musical instruments made from the hard outer shell of the fruit.
The pulp of the fruit is removed through a small hole, the seeds are dried and then
reintroduced into the shell. The hole is sealed with a part of the stem acting as a handle.
2.6 Ecological and Environmental Value
Monkey orange has important characterisitcs:
• It is adapted to the harsh local environmental conditions and has the ability to survive
severe droughts by losing its leaves.
• It is adapted to survive wild fires by having a thick corky bark and capacity to sprout
epicormic and coppice shoots.
• Fruits tend to be held on the tree and survive fire, so the seeds can regenerate new
plants.
In common with other trees the monkey orange tree has other environmental benefits:
• Improved soil fertility by production of humus from fallen leaves.
• Tree forms part of the nutrient recycling system.
• Weed growth is reduced, when trees are mature, due to competition for water, nutrients
and light.
• Root growth improves soil structure.
• Root growth minimises soil loss by wind erosion.
• The tree canopy shades soil preventing overheating.
• The tree canopy absorbs the impact of rain minimising soil run-off.
2.7 Other Uses
• Soap for washing clothes can be made from fruit pulp due to its saponin content.
• A toxic dye can be extracted from the fruit shell which can be used to colour trays and
containers, providing a protective layer against insects.
• Insect repellent made from liquid drained from fresh leaves crushed and soaked in water,
can be used for spraying vegetables to repel aphids and scale insects.
4

3 WHERE TO GROW MONKEY ORANGE?
3.1 Climatic Requirements for Cultivation
• Monkey orange is typically found in areas characterised by two main seasons, a wet one
lasting from November to April and a dry one occurring from May to October, in
central Africa.
• The tree is a generally undemanding species surviving long periods of drought by
shedding its leaves during the dry season. It does not break its dormancy until the new
rainy season starts.
• The tree is able to access available water and use periodic rainfall quickly and effectively,
due to its extensive rooting system.
The climatic requirements for cultivation of monkey orange are summarised in Table 2.
Table 2: Climatic requirements for cultivation of monkey orange
CLIMATIC FACTOR MINIMUM MAXIMUM
Altitude (m)
Rainfall (mm)
Temperature (°C)
400
600
14
2,000
1,200
25
3.2 Site Requirements
See Technical Note 5 in Part II.
Monkey orange grows in a variety of conditions:
• Soil: It grows best on deep sandy and on well-drained slopes. The general physical soil
requirements of the monkey orange tree are shown in Table 3.
5

Table 3: Suitable habitats for monkey orange
CHARACTERISTIC
Soil type (texture)
Topography
Rooting depth
Drainage
Terrain
SUITABLE HABITATS
Deep sandy soils
Black to dark-grey clays
Yellow-red loamy sands
Red yellow-red loams
0-13% slope
Restricted by lack of aeration
Restricted by rock outcrops
Well drained
Flat woodlands and savannahs
Hilly woodland slopes
Rocky slopes
Soil pH Acidic, pH 4-6
• Light: The monkey orange tree has a low capacity to endure shade. Since grasses shade
young trees and compete for soil resources, they should be removed, from around the
tree. However in the rainy season, grass protects soil from erosion.
3.3 Symbiotic Associations
• Monkey orange forms a symbiotic relationship with some beneficial fungi (mycorrhizae),
enhancing the plant’s uptake of important nutrients such as phosphorus. For this reason
the tree is able to survive on nutritively poor soils.
• In areas where monkey orange has never grown before, the lack of natural mycorrhizal
symbionts in the soil can lead to their failure to establish. You can promote the initial
growth of the trees by artificial inoculation of seedlings of monkey orange with isolated
cultures of the mycorrhizal fungi from soils taken beneath parent trees growing in their
natural habitat.
3.4 Land-use Systems
• Pioneer tree: Monkey orange is found naturally as a pioneer tree on abandoned
cultivation sites and open woodlands. Since it provides a good source of fruits it is
typically left undisturbed and protected on cultivated fields near homesteads.
• Agroforestry systems: These are being tested in Botswana, where monkey orange is
interplanted with other trees such as marula (Sclerocarya birrea) and wild medlar
(Vangueria infausta) and annual crops such as traditional sorghum, cowpea and
watermelon.
• Boundary or barrier tree: Its sharp spines which can stop animals from entering secluded
areas.
6

4.1 Selected Superior Phenotypes
See Technical Note 2 in Part II.
4 WHAT TO GROW
Superior phenotypes of monkey orange have been identified and selected as baseline materials
for germplasm collection and for crop improvement. The selection of these phenotypes is based
on the characteristics summarised in Table 4.
Table 4: Characteristics of selected superior phenotypes of monkey orange
CHARACTERISTIC
REQUIREMENTS
Vigour and health of tree - Vigour
- free from any pests and diseases
Yield - short juvenile period
- 300-400 fruits/tree/season
- Minimal variations in seasonal fruit
production
Fruit size - >10 cm in diameter
- Uniform
Sweetness of fruits - sweet and juicy
- >16°Brix
Seeds - small in proportion to the flesh
4.2 Propagule Type
• Monkey orange regenerates naturally by seed, coppice or root suckers. Coppices are
readily produced from the stumps of trees that have been burnt during bush fires or
have been felled. Root suckers are produced when the root is wounded.
• Various methods can be used to artificially propagate trees.
• Seeds:
o Trees grown from seeds generally have deeper roots than those raised from
vegetative propagules, giving firm anchorage to the tree, and allowing
exploration of a wider area of soil for water and nutrient uptake.
o Offspring produced from seed may differ in their growth and fruiting
characteristics from the parent tree.
• Vegetative propagation:
o Used primarily in order to develop true-to-type clones, avoiding heterogeneity
which results from seed propagation.
o Grafting has been found to be the most successful method; budding may also be
used.
7

• New varieties:
o High quality planting material of new varieties can be obtained from:
o Veld Products Research and Development (VPRD)
PO Box 2020 Gaborone, Botswana
Tel: +(267) 347047, Fax: +(267) 347363, Email: enquiries@veldproducts.org
o World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) under its Southern Africa Regional
Programme (SADC) project centres in Malawi, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe
at:
SADC-ICRAF Regional Agroforestry Programme
PO Box MP 128, Mount Pleasant
Harare, Zimbabwe
Tel: +(263) 4 369122, 369124, Fax: +(263) 4 301327,
Email: f.kwesiga@cgiar.org
5.1 Establishment of a planting site
5 HOW TO GROW MONKEY ORANGE
See Technical Note 5 in Part II for siting requirements of monkey orange trees.
This manual is intended for small-scale planting schemes. For those intending to establish a
larger plantation of monkey orange, please see Mwamba and Williams (2005).
5.2 Propagation by Seeds
See Technical Note 3 in Part II.
5.2.1 Seed Collection and Handling
You should only collect seeds from selected superior phenotypes with identified characteristics
specified in Table 4.
• Monkey orange starts to produce fruits between 4 and 6 years of age in open-grown
stands, but it takes several years longer when planted densely.
• Fruits take 8 to 12 months after pollination to mature, from June up to December in
central Africa.
• Pick the light green or yellow fruits from the tree, or collect them after they have
dropped on their own at full maturity.
• Crack the fruit open by hitting them with a stick or tapping gently on a stone.
• Fruits usually contain 25 to 30 pale seeds. Seed size is variable. Large fruits usually
produce large seeds and those seeds closer to the middle of the fruit are larger than those
located at the edge.
• Seeds are easily removed from the pulp since they do not adhere to the sides of the fruit
shell. Small seeds and those which appear immature should be discarded.
8

• After sorting the seeds, clean them by mixing with sand and scraping them over a wire
mesh.
• If seeds are intended for storage you should air dry them, to prevent rotting. Seeds
stored under dry conditions for 8 to 12 months at room temperature (23-28°C) still
show a good germination rate.
• Seed collected from several trees or several locations, is best stored either separately for
each tree, or from all the trees of one location together, so that it can be distinguished,
and the best used for planting.
5.2.2 Seed Treatment and Germination
• The germination rate of freshly harvested seeds usually is 75-80%, but can be lower.
Different pre-treatments have been seen to give variable germination rates. Soaking the
seed in hot water for 24-48 hours immediately after collection may improve
germination.
• Germination takes 4 weeks on average, depending on the sowing date, ranging from
80% germination after 3 weeks, if seeds are sown in summer, to more than 9 weeks if
sown in winter, in Botswana.
5.2.3 Sowing
• Sow seeds at a depth of 2-3 cm in pots or in seedbeds.
• Water seedlings twice a day for the first weeks. Watering should not be excessive, to
avoid fungal infection. This can be reduced later to once a day, in the evening.
• Shade seedlings for about 7 days after germination followed by partial shade for 5-6
days and finally expose to full light after about 14 days.
• Direct sowing of seeds in the field is possible but there is great variation in germination
and seedling survival. If direct sowing is practised, plant two seeds per hole. Planting
distance should be 5x5 m. Two months after emergence of the seedlings, remove the
weaker of the two seedlings.
5.3 Vegetative Propagation
See Technical Note 4 in Part II.
5.3.1 Coppicing and Root Suckers
• Use of coppicing and root suckers is suitable where older trees are regenerated to
improve their fruiting capacity.
• Coppice shoots or re-growth develops from the stumps following clear felling. This
species should be cut at a height of 10-20 cm above ground. Coppicing at higher levels
renders the shoots more liable to be broken off by wind.
• The cut tree also produces numerous root suckers, which can be used for propagation –
see below.
9

5.3.2 Grafting
• Grafting involves the union of a shoot, called a “scion”, and a compatible stem or
“rootstock”. Grafting allows the selection of a root system which is adapted to specific
site conditions and resistant to pests and diseases, and a highly productive shoot, for the
development of true-to-type clones.
• Wedge grafting is a promising grafting method for this species. Whip-and tongue grafting
has also been successful.
You will need the following materials and equipment:
Grafting materials
• Clean, sharp knife.
• Polyethylene tape (budding tape) (1.5-2.0 cm wide x 30-40cm long) or strips cut from
polyethylene bags.
• Clear plastic bags large enough to cover the top of the scion.
• Shoot or bud (Scion).
• Rootstock.
Rootstock preparation
A rootstock is raised from seed.
• The young tree is ready for grafting when its diameter is approximately 1 cm (pencil size)
at a height of 40-60 cm.
• Clear the stem of the rootstock of any soil and debris.
• Cut off the top at the height of 40-60 cm, retaining two or more leaves below the cut.
• Make a downwards cut of about 4-5 cm into the top of the rootstock, at the point of
active growth or where the bark separates easily from wood.
Scion collection and preparation
Scions should be collected from the previous season’s growth of trees which are mature, having
reached fruit bearing age. In addition, the scion material should have the following
characteristics:
• 5-15 cm long.
• 1 cm in diameter (pencil size).
• Have one or more buds.
Method:
• Select and cut scion material from the tree and then remove the leaves and young
growth with a sharp knife.
• It is best to use scions quickly. Over 60-80% rate of success in grafting is obtained with
1-2 day old scions.
• If scions are not used immediately, wrap them in a moist cloth or newspaper and place
in a plastic bag to keep them fresh. They can be kept for up to one week in a dark cool
space with approximately 45-50% success rate.
10

• Make two 4-5 cm long cuts with a knife at the base of the scion on either side of the
twig. Do this by placing the knife almost parallel to the twig and cut in one stroke
providing a completely level surface. The scion should fit exactly and tightly into the
notch of the rootstock.
• Cut away the top of the scion afterwards to encourage the union, leaving at least one
bud. See Technical Note 4 for the steps of scion preparation.
The Graft Union
• After preparing the rootstock and scion, fit the two together, so that the cut surfaces
have firm contact.
• Tightly bind together the union with plastic tape to avoid drying out of the cut surfaces
which may result in union failure. Ensure that the wound is entirely covered.
• Cover the top of the grafted plant with a clear polythene bag, to prevent loss of
moisture by transpiration. The bag can be removed after 3-4 weeks. Water regularly.
• Once the graft union has healed and fresh growth of leaves has occurred on the newly
attached portion, the graft is said to be successful. This should take approximately 4-6
months. The tape can then be removed to allow further growth of the grafted plant.
5.3.3 Other Vegetative Propagation Methods
Propagating monkey orange by airlayering, budding and cuttings has been attempted but the
results have been disappointing. There are no reports yet on the application of tissue culture in
this species.
5.4 Field Establishment
See Technical Note 5 in Part II.
Monkey orange can be planted around homesteads or home gardens, on agricultural land and
in orchards. Because of its sharp spines, it can also be planted as a boundary or barrier tree,
preventing animals from entering secluded areas.
5.4.1 Site Preparation
• Clear vegetation from the planting site.
• Work the soil thoroughly to 20-30 cm depth to break up hard soil clods and permit
aeration.
• Remove herbaceous weeds, especially grasses.
• Mark out the land in squares for planting.
• Dig planting pits of about 60 cm depth and 60 cm width.
• Spacing of 4x4 m spacing provides 625 trees per hectare, 5x5 m provides 400 trees per
hectare, or 10x10 m provides 100 trees per hectare. The spacing depends upon the size
of the planting site and whether or not thinning or intercropping will be carried out.
11

5.4.2 Timing
Prepare the site just before the onset of the rainy season, according to local conditions, to avoid
destroying the soil structure and to minimise the need for watering after transplanting. Land
preparation should not be done earlier than 1-2 weeks before planting to avoid weed
encroachment.
5.4.3 Windbreaks
A windbreak protects grafted, coppiced and sprouted plants from wind damage. Monkey
orange is susceptible to damage by fire, when young. A windbreak can also protect trees from
incidences of fire, and encroachment by weeds which, when dry, can become a fire hazard and
limit light.
5.4.4 Transplanting
Transplant the seedlings and vegetatively propagated materials at 6 months of age or when
they are at least 10-20 cm in height if planting seedlings.
When transplanting seedlings or grafted trees, pay attention to the following concerns:
• Sufficient rainfall should have fallen over a 24 hour period, to bring the soil moisture to
field capacity, when excess water has drained away.
• Plant on cloudy days, in the morning or late afternoon to minimise water loss from the
soil and plants.
• The plants must be watered the night before planting.
• Lift plants carefully without damaging their root systems. A plastic sheet laid underneath
the pots will prevent roots growing into the soil below and also reduce water loss.
• Handle and transport plants carefully, holding them by the pots, not by the shoots. Use
boxes for transport, whenever possible.
• Loosen the soil of the pit base and walls to help the development of the roots. Remove
the plastic container and position the plant straight in the centre of the pit with the root
collar at ground level. The root collar is the bulging ring of tissue at the junction of the
root and shoot. A stick laid across the planting hole can be used to line up the root
collar with ground level.
• Fill the pit to ground level. Remove stones from the soil before filling. If there is not
sufficient soil to fill the pit from digging the holes, use additional topsoil. Flatten the soil
around the tree base to ground level.
• If you plant young trees when the soil moisture is at field capacity, there is no need for
watering. However, if the soil is drier, apply 1-2 litres of water at the base of each tree,
preferably in the late afternoon or early evening twice or three times a week during the
first weeks.
• Monkey orange grows very slowly and even 12 months after planting, no increase in
height may be noticed on some sites.
• Growth is enhanced by the symbiotic relationship between the plant roots and
mycorrhizal fungi, due to improved uptake of important nutrients, particularly
phosphorus, increased tolerance to drought, pests and diseases. Seedlings raised in the
12

nursery can make contact with indigenous mycorrhizal fungi at the planting site. In order
to promote initial plant growth and development and to reduce the transplanting shock,
you can add mycorrhizal fungi, found in soil around parent trees, into the pit at planting
time.
5.5 Field Management
See Technical Note 5 in Part II.
5.5.1 Weeding
Weeds compete with monkey orange for light, nutrients, water and space. In order to protect
new plants, the plantation or orchard must be weeded.
• Weed as necessary, between periods of rainfall.
• Normally, 2-3 spot weedings around each plant after planting may be necessary.
• This weeding may be done once a month for the first three months.
5.5.2 Irrigation
• Watering depends on rainfall and soil conditions, and growth and fruiting of the tree.
• Monkey orange may need watering particularly in the first weeks after transplanting.
Mature trees usually require no irrigation, unless growth or fruiting is poor.
5.5.3 Fertilising
Monkey orange grows and generally produces good crops without fertilizer.
• If necessary to improve production, farmyard manure or organic matter can be applied
at the time of planting or annually as top dressing, 2.5 cm (1 inch) thick, 15 cm (6 inches)
from the tree trunk out to the canopy drip line.
• Monkey orange responds well to phosphorus and NPK-fertiliser applications but their
costs may not be covered by increased sales.
• Phosphorus fertiliser can be given as basal dressing at the rate of 100-150 g per tree after
planting, in the form of super phosphate (guidance on quantities should be given by the
extension officer).
• NPK- fertiliser, such as Nitrosol (NPK 8-3-6) is applied at the rate of 20-30 g per tree as
top dressing.
• When applying inorganic fertilisers, follow the instructions given on the label to prevent
nutrient toxicity.
5.5.4 Pruning
Monkey orange needs pruning of the drooping lower branches to allow better access under the
tree to collect the fruits and to maintain vigour, productivity and quality of the fruits.
• Prune only branches which are not carrying any fruits and flowers.
13

• Remove weak, diseased and dead branches, which promote the spread of diseases.
• Pruning in the dormant period will encourage new growth when the rains arrive. Light
pruning during the growing period will moderate vigorous growth.
5.5.5 Stand Density - Thinning
• Closely planted trees need to be thinned to create space, to reduce competition between
them for resources.
• Plan a thinning regime before planting, when deciding on the spacing between plants.
• Thinning is carried out in the second or third year after transplanting.
• Depending on the intensity of management and the preferable size of the canopy at
maturity, thin from the original spacing of 5x5 m to 10x5 m or 10x10 m. The intensity of
management includes practices such as application of fertilisers (see section 5.5.3) and
pruning (see section 5.5.4).
5.5.6 Intercropping and Soil Conservation
Intercropping controls the weeds, it keeps the soil loose for proper soil aeration and may
reduce soil erosion.
• If you intend to intercrop monkey orange with other crops, include this in the
establishment plans.
• If intercropping is to be done immediately after planting the trees, plant at wide spacing
(10x10 m).
• If you plan to intercrop later, space between trees can be created through thinning.
However, the field has to be weeded before planting the intercrop.
• Choice of suitable crops depends on the area, soil type and climate, and includes maize,
sorghum, millet, sweet potatoes, and melon.
5.5.7 Protection from Pests and Diseases
No serious pests and diseases other than at germination have been reported in the species. Pests
and diseases of minor importance include powdery mildew and termites.
Powdery mildew
• Powdery mildew attacks monkey orange fruits and seeds during storage. The fungi
attack the outer skin of the fruit and seed, but do not penetrate the hard fruit shell or
seed coat.
• Powdery mildew can spread very quickly especially in closely packed fruits and seeds.
• Protect seeds by drying them to low moisture content (less than 10% of fresh weight,
determined by weighing them before and after drying). Protect the fruits by air drying
them thoroughly and using them immediately without over storage.
• Only if there is a serious attack of mildew, is chemical control justified. The following
products can be used:
14

o Thiram.
o Benomyl (trade name Benlate).
o Captan – an older, less effective product.
• Follow the instructions on the container. See Appendix 3 for the correct use of pesticides
and environmental impact. Note: At concentrations higher than recommended, the
chemicals may also be toxic to plants.
Termites
• Termites can be found on young or old plants, or when trees are in poor condition.
Remove weak, diseased and dead branches regularly (see also chapter 5.5.4).
• Usually, the insects attack dead bark and do not penetrate the live stem, so do not cause
much damage.
Further information on pests and diseases, along with possible methods of control, are
mentioned in Appendix 2.
6 HOW TO HARVEST THE MONKEY ORANGE TREE
6.1 Ripeness and Yield
See Technical Note 7 in Part II.
• Monkey orange produces the first fruits 4-5 years following planting, whichever method
of propagation is used.
• Fruits ripen from June to December.
• Fruits have a hard woody shell, which is dark green, speckled or mottled green when
unripe, turning yellow or orange when mature. At maturity, the fruit is 6-12 cm in
diameter, depending on soil type, climatic and other conditions on the site.
• The total yield produced per tree depends mainly on the genotype. If the site conditions
are favourable, a single tree may produce 300-700 fruits in a season, or 40-100 kg in
terms of fruit weight.
6.2 Harvesting Techniques
There are several methods of harvesting fruits:
• You can pick fruits from the tree when fully developed but still green and unripe. Bury
fruits in the sand for several months to ripen slowly, as practised by bushmen in
Botswana. This prevents competition from other fruit hunters including monkeys and
other animals.
• You can pick fruits from the tree after ripening on the canopy, for direct consumption or
further processing.
• You can collect fruits from the ground after they have dropped on their own. This is
least recommended because they may be damaged or bruised.
15

7 POST-HARVEST HANDLING AND PROCESSING
7.1 Post-harvest Handling
See Technical Note 7 in Part II.
Monkey orange fruits are very easily bruised and should therefore be handled very carefully.
• Remove unripe and damaged fruits immediately to prevent spoiling of the crop.
• The remaining fruits may be graded according to their size.
• Wash the fruits to remove debris or pesticides.
• Fruits can be used immediately for direct consumption or further processing or can be
stored for later use.
• If they are to be stored, first air-dry them thoroughly to prevent surface infection by
powdery mildew and to extend the shelf-life.
• Store fruits in gunny bags, grain bags, cloth packs or boxes. Kept under dry conditions at
room temperature (25-30°C), monkey oranges can be stored for 2-3 weeks due to the
hard fruit shell. However, 25 to 50% of fruits can be lost in the field or during storage if
not kept under shelter.
• The fruits of monkey orange could be consumed throughout the year, but, at present,
they are only consumed during the period of 3-4 months of harvest.
7.2 Processing and Packaging
Processing of raw materials from monkey orange can add value. However, so far, mainly the
fruit pulp is processed into jam, jelly and juice and bottled for sale.
• Jam made from monkey oranges has a long shelf-life of up to several months and it is
preferred to jams from other indigenous fruits.
• Pulp is used to prepare alcoholic drinks in Tanzania and Malawi. Pulp may also be dried
for later use, but this method has still to be explored (Phytotrade, 2003).
• Other raw materials of monkey orange are either used in their raw form or are semiprocessed
(see Appendix 1).
• Currently, fruits from monkey orange are rarely processed because of the
o High price the fresh fruits can get on the market.
o Lack of capital for investment.
o Lack of improved processing techniques.
o Lack of availability of skilled manpower and management expertise.
16

8 MARKETING
8.1 Marketing Potential
See Technical Note 10 in Part II.
Currently, the fruits of monkey orange are harvested from farmers’ fields, homestead gardens or
they are collected from natural forests. They are mainly used for domestic consumption, leaving
very little for sale. This small volume of fruit is mainly sold along the roadsides or in local and
urban markets. In Malawi, only about 20% of the fruits are sold directly to the end-consumer.
The remaining 80% is sold to traders who demand a high mark-up, when reselling the fruits to
consumers.
• Farmers and collectors face several problems when marketing fruits from monkey
orange:
o Proximity of markets; transportation represents the main marketing cost. The means
of transport used to move the fruits from the fruit collection points to the market
place are headloads, bicycles, oxcarts and public or hired vehicles.
o Uncertainty of the price of the fruit once it reaches the market (see section 8.2).
o Consumer perception; urban populations may prefer not to eat wild fruits. Rural
populations often regard monkey oranges as children’s food or food to be eaten
only in times of famine. However, perception may change. In Gaborone, Botswana,
where there is now a market for monkey orange fruits but 20 years ago there was no
demand.
• Monkey orange fruits would be suitable for export, even over long distances, because of
the protection provided by the hard shell, which allows them to be stored for a
considerably long period of time under ambient temperatures before they spoil.
However, transport costs may be high because of size and weight of the fruit.
• Development of cottage industries is the first step in encouraging the processing and
marketing of the species.
• Expand the market base of the products by product promotion and encourage further
growth of the processing industries, as profits begin to accrue.
• If desired to increase consumption and overall market base, high priority has to be given
to policy changes and encourage awareness campaigns.
8.2 Pricing
• Prices vary considerably, depending on the season. In general, fresh monkey oranges can
fetch high prices, so that they are rather sold directly instead of using them for further
processing.
• In Zimbabwe, selling prices between US$0.31 and US$0.63 per fruit were observed
(Dzingai and group, 1998).
• Fruits from Zimbabwe are further exported to Botswana where they are sold for
US$0.45 each.
17

See Technical Note 10 in Part II.
9 SOCIO-ECONOMICS
• The costs and benefits involved in the utilisation of monkey orange fruit depend on
whether or not the species is exploited where it is growing or elsewhere.
If fruits are collected from natural forests, the major costs involve:
• Transport to collect fruits and delivery to the market or processing plant.
Generally, exploitation of orchard plantations requires rather large investment involving costs
for:
• Nursery establishment and management or purchasing of planting material.
• Orchard establishment and maintenance.
• Transport costs may be lower than forest exploitation.
However, if fruits are used for further processing, costs for grading, cleaning, processing,
packaging and storing have to be taken into account in both cases.
• Plantations may be established while fruits are collected from natural neighbouring
forests. Combining exploitation strategies covers costs for planting, tending, protection
and waiting for trees to start bearing fruits during the long juvenile period.
18

APPENDIX 1. MULTIPLE USES OF THE MONKEY ORANGE TREE
Leaves
Fruit and pulp
Bark
Wood
Root
• Fresh leaves are used to prepare a porridge for the treatment of
wounds to prevent infection and promote healing. They are
pounded into a paste, mixed with water, heated and simmered.
• Fresh leaves are crushed and soaked in water. The drained liquid
is used for spraying vegetables to repel insects.
• The pulp of ripe fruits is eaten fresh.
• The pulp of ripe fruits is used to prepare jam, jelly, juice and
alcoholic beverages.
• The pulp of ripe fruits, mixed with sugar or honey is used to treat
coughing and in the preparation of eardrops.
• Green, unripe fruits are mashed, mixed with water, soaked and
drunk to induce vomiting.
• Unripe fruits are used to prepare a powder which is mixed with
milk and drunk as a purgative (Zambia).
• The fruit pulp is used for soap making
• The hard outer shell of the fruit is used is used for making art
objects and traditional percussion music instruments.
• A toxic dye extracted from the fruit shell is used to colour trays
and containers to protect them against insects.
• A decoction from the middle part of the bark is used for the
treatment of stomach pains.
• It is used as firewood.
• It is used in local construction.
• It is used in making building materials, tool handles, stirring sticks
and spoons.
• Boiled roots are used by women to reduce the length and severity
of heavy menstrual flows.
• Boiled roots are used to stop diarrhoea.
• Roots are chewed to alleviate eczema and as a cure for
gonorrhoea.
• Roots are used to treat sexually transmitted infections.
19

APPENDIX 2. MAJOR PESTS AND DISEASES OF THE MONKEY
ORANGE TREE
COMMON
NAME
SCIENTIFIC NAME
NATURE OF
ATTACK
BIO-CONTROL
OTHER
CONTROLS
Termites
A range of genera
in the order
Isoptera
Feed on dead
bark.
Remove
regularly weak,
diseased and
dead branches.
Termiticides,
e.g. Permethrin,
are available
but not
recommended.
Powdery
mildew
Of the genera
Erisiphe,
Spaerotheca,
Uncinula,
Phyllactinia,or
Leveillula
Attacks the outer
skin of the fruit
and seed.
No known biocontrols.
Air-dry fruits
thoroughly
before storing.
Dry seeds to a
moisture
content of less
than 10%
before storing.
Standard
fungicides can
be used e.g.
Benlate and
Thiram.
20

APPENDIX 3. HEALTH AND SAFETY WHEN USING CHEMICALS
In general, the use of chemicals should be minimised. Where their use is necessary the rules in
the box below should be followed.
Rules to follow when using chemicals:
• Do not splash chemicals in the eyes, on skin or clothes.
• Do not drink or breathe in the vapours.
• Do not eat while preparing and applying chemicals.
• Wash hands thoroughly after use.
• Wear protective clothing where available (gloves, overalls, rubber boots, etc.).
• Store chemicals always in their original containers and keep them away from water
and fire.
• Keep chemicals away from children.
The following chemicals are examples of those that can be used for control of powdery mildew
on monkey orange and the relevant health and safety advice for each. For a complete list of
chemical controls and precautions for use, please check with your local extension or agricultural
office.
THIRAM
Active ingredients: Thiram
Handling and storage: Users should be careful not to ingest and inhale the chemical and always
wash their hands thoroughly after use. Acute exposure may cause headaches, dizziness, fatigue,
nausea, diarrhoea and other gastrointestinal complaints. It should be stored in an airtight
container and kept away from water or fire.
Environmental impact: Non-toxic to birds and bees, but highly toxic to fish.
BENLATE
Active ingredients: Benomyl
Handling and storage: Users should wear protective clothing and avoid contact with the skin
and eyes. The chemical may irritate the eyes, nose throat and skin. It should be stored in an
airtight container and kept away from water or fire.
Environmental impact: relatively non-hazardous to honey bees, but toxic to fish.
21

GLOSSARY
Agroforestry -
Airlayering -
Brix -
Bud -
Budding -
Coppice -
Cutting -
Dormancy -
Epicormic -
Field Capacity -
Fungicide -
Genotype -
Germplasm -
Grafting -
Indigenous -
Intercropping -
Mark-up -
Mycorrhiza -
Nursery -
pH -
Phenotype -
Propagation -
Propagule -
a land-use system in which woody perennials are used on the same
land management unit as agricultural crops, animals or both, either in
some form of spatial arrangement or temporal sequence.
a method of propagation where a cut is made in a woody stem and
surrounded by damp soil or peat moss and held in place with a wrap
(plastic). When roots from the plant can be seen the stem can be cut and
the plant transplanted.
measurement of sugar content. A 1% sugar solution is a solution of
1ºBrix.
a protuberance on the stem of a plant that may develop into a flower,
leaf, or shoot.
a type of propagation in which a bud is inserted underneath the bark of
a related plant.
the tendency of certain tree species to produce a large number of shoots
when a single or few stems are mechanically removed but the root
system left intact.
a section of a plant that is cut off and rooted to create a new plant.
temporary stopping of growth.
a shoot that arises from latent or adventitious buds; also know as water
sprouts that occur on stems and branches and suckers that are produced
from the base of trees. Epicormic shoots often result from severe
defoliation or radical pruning.
amount of water remaining in a soil after being saturated with water and
after free drainage is negligible.
a substance or chemical that kills fungi.
the internally coded, inheritable information carried by all living
organisms.
the total genetic variability, represented by germ cells or seeds, available
to a particular population of organisms.
method of propagation, by inserting a section of one plant, usually a
shoot, into another so that they grow together into a single plant.
native; originating or occurring naturally in the place specified.
growing two or more crops simultaneously on the same field.
the amount that is added to the cost price to achieve the required selling
price.
a symbiotic relationship between beneficial fungi and plants. Mycorrhizal
fungi live in and around the roots of some plant species. In exchange for
sugars and simple carbohydrates, the mycorrhizal fungi absorb and pass
on minerals and moisture required for the plant's growth.
an area or structure set aside for growth and protection of young plants.
scale for measuring acidity.
the physical characteristics of an organism; the product of interaction
between genotype and environment.
to produce a new plant, either by vegetative means involving the
rooting or grafting of pieces of the plant or by sowing seeds.
any structure having the capacity to give rise to a new plant, whether
through sexual or vegetative reproduction. This includes seeds, spores
and any part of the vegetative body capable of independent growth if
detached from the parent.
22

Pruning -
Purgative -
Rootstock -
Scion -
Symbiosis -
Tissue culture -
Topography -
Turnover -
removal of live or dead branches from standing trees.
stimulating the evacuation of the bowels.
the root system and lower portion of a woody plant to which a graft of
a more desirable plant is attached.
a cutting from the upper portion of a plant, which is then grafted onto
the rootstock of another plant.
a mutually beneficial relationship between two living organisms of
different species living closely together.
a technique in which portions of a plant or animal are grown on an
artificial culture medium (also: in vitro culture).
physical features, such as hills, valleys, and plains that shape the surface of
the earth.
the total amount of income received by a business during a specified
period (usually a year).
REFERENCES
Arnold, T.H., Wells, M.J. and Wehmeyer, A.S. (1985). Khoison Food Plants: Taxa with
potential for future economic exploitation. In: Wickens G. E., Goodin, J. R. and Field, D. V.
(Eds). Plants for arid lands. London. Allen and Unwin. Pp69-86.
Dzingai, R., Kadzere, I., Marunda, C., Nyoka, I. and Kuwaza, C. (1998). Identification of
priority indigenous fruits for domestication by farmers in Zimbabwe. In: Maghembe, J. A.,
Simons, A. J.; Kwesiga, F. and Rarieya, M. (Eds). Selecting indigenous trees for domestication in
Southern Africa. ICRAF, Nairobi. pp. 72 – 94.
ILO (1990) Tree Nurseries. An illustrated technical guide and training manual. Booklet No. 6.
International Labour Office (ILO), Geneva, Switzerland.
Mwamba, C. (2006) Monkey Orange Strychnos cocculoides. SCUC, Southampton, UK.
Phytotrade (2003) info@phytotradeafrica.com
23

Why Grow the Monkey Orange Tree?
The monkey orange tree is a multipurpose tree. It is a source of food, timber,
firewood, medicinal extracts and other components and it can give a potential
economic return to rural people.
1. For Nutritious Food
The pulp is rich in sugars, essential vitamins, minerals,
oils and crude proteins.
Eat the pulp of ripe fruits.
Use the pulp to make jam, juice and wines.
Green unripe monkey orange fruits
Don’t eat green unripe fruits -
they might be toxic!
Ripe monkey orange fruits
B
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2. For Income
One fruit can fetch an average price of up to US$0.45 !
Processing adds value to the fruit to earn more money.
3. For Medicinal Uses
You can use nearly all the parts of the tree for medicinal purposes:
Unripe fruits: use to induce vomiting.
Pulp of ripe fruits: mix with honey or sugar to treat coughing.
Leaves: pound into a paste and use to treat sores.
Bark: cook in water and drink to cure stomach pains.
Roots: chew to treat eczema and gonorrhoea.
1a
© 2005 International Centre for Underutilised Crops, UK

4. Fuel and Timber
You can use the wood for:
Firewood;
Building material;
Making tool handles, stirring sticks and spoons.
5. Cultural Value
You can use the hard outer shell of the fruit to make art objects and
musical instruments.
6. More Uses
Use the pulp to make soap.
Use the fruit shell to make a dye
for containers, which protects
against insects.
Crush fresh leaves and soak them
in water. Use the drained liquid
for spraying vegetables to repel
insects.
7. Ecological and Environmental Value
The tree is adapted to harsh environmental conditions and can survive droughts.
The tree regenerates easily after fires, because the woody fruits survive bushfires.
The tree improves soil fertility and structure.
The tree reduces weed growth and soil erosion.
1b
© 2005 International Centre for Underutilised Crops, UK

How to Grow the Monkey Orange Tree?
- Growing Seedlings and Young Trees
1. Collecting planting material
Trees should be vigorous.
Trees should be free from pests and diseases.
Trees should produce at least 300-400 fruits per season.
Low variation in seasonal fruit production.
>10 cm
Fruits at least 10 cm across and of uniform size.
Fruits should be sweet and juicy.
Seeds should be small in proportion to the flesh.
2. Propagating
By seed (see Technical Note 3) Vegetatively (see Technical Note 4)
Y
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T
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S
3. Collecting potting soil
not too sandy.
not too much clay (Rub moist soil
between thumb and index finger. It
should have the consistency of flour,
not sticky or shiny.)
Sand soil
Clay soil
should not contain any rocks.
Soil containing stones
2a
© 2005 International Centre for Underutilised Crops, UK

4. Symbiotic Associations
Trees may fail to grow in areas where they
have never grown before due to lack of
beneficial fungi (mycorrhizae). Take these
fungi from soils beneath parent trees and
inoculate seedlings to improve their initial
growth.
Take soil from beneath monkey orange trees and mix with
potting soil
5. Growing young trees
You need a supply
of water.
Set up seed- and pot-beds as follows:
Path
Earth mound
60 cm 100 cm
Raised seedbeds
1 m wide and 5-10 m long,
paths between the beds 60 cm
wide.
Seedbeds:
raised above ground level,
flat surface,
low earth mound around the
edge.
Potbeds:
level with the ground, sunken
or, raised in areas with risk of
waterlogging.
Build frames to keep pots in
an upright position.
Sunken potbeds
Raised potbeds
Build a frame from reeds, bamboo or
wood.
Use shading net or grass for the roof,
allowing about 30% sunlight to pass
through.
Good shading
Pots under shade-net
Young plants must be kept free from
weeds throughout the year!
Poor shading
2b
Weeding
© 2005 International Centre for Underutilised Crops, UK

How to grow the Monkey Orange Tree
- Propagation by Seed -
1. Seed Collection and Handling
Collect fruits only from selected trees (see Technical
Note 2a).
The tree starts to produce fruits between 4 and
6 years of age.
Collect mature fruits for seed collection June
to December, about 8 to 12 months after pollination.
July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Pollination
Picking of fruits
Crack fruits by hitting them with a
stick or using a gentle tap on a
stone.
Do not use small seeds for propagation
Collecting fruits from the
ground
© 2005 International Centre for Underutilised Crops, UK
Seeds from monkey orange fruits
Seed collection
Pick the light green or yellow mature
fruits from the tree, or collect
them after they have dropped on
the ground.
Cracking fruits
Separate seeds from the pulp and throw
away immature and very small seeds:
• The fruits contain usually 25 to 30 pale
seeds.
• The largest fruits usually contain the
largest seeds.
• Seeds in the middle of the fruit are
larger than those at the edges.
S
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3a

Clean seeds by scraping them over a wire
mesh with sand and dry them for storage.
Cleaning seeds
Drying seeds
Airtight
bottle
Cotton
sack
Store seeds under dry conditions at room temperature
(23-28°C), not longer than 8 - 12 months.
Storage of seeds
2. Seed Treatment and Germination
Seeds have hard coats. It
may help to soak them in
hot water for 24-48 hours
before sowing.
Boil water
Take off fire and immerse
seed for 1-2 days
Rinse
2-3 cm
3. Sowing
Sow seeds 2-3 cm deep in seedbeds
or pots (see Technical Note 2).
Sowing depth
2x/day
1x/day
Water plants twice a day for the first
weeks and later once a day in the
evening.
First weeks after germination
Later
Shade seedlings for 7 days after germination,
then partial shade for 5-6
days. Allow full light after 14 days.
Full shade for 7 days and then partial shade for 5-6 days
You can also sow directly in the
field, planting two seeds per hole.
Planting distance should be 5 m
apart (see Technical Note 5). Remove
the weaker of the two seedlings
two months after emergence.
3b
2 seeds/hole
Remove weaker seedling 2
months after emergence
© 2005 International Centre for Underutilised Crops, UK

How to grow the Monkey Orange Tree
- Vegetative Propagation -
1. Grafting
Wedge grafting is the most appropriate way to
propagate the monkey orange tree.
You will need:
Shoot (scion) from a superior phenotype:
5-15 cm long,
1 cm thick (pencil size - same as rootstock),
one or more buds.
Rootstock grown from seed of a
desirable plant:
diameter at 40-60 cm height - 1 cm (pencil
size).
Clean sharp budding knife.
Polyethylene tape (1.5-2.0 cm wide and
30-40 cm long) or strips of polythene.
Clear plastic bags.
40-60 cm
Cut off top at the height of 40-60 cm
4-5 cm
Make a cut of 4-5 cm
length
Rootstock prepared
for grafting
2. Rootstock Preparation
1. Clear the stem of soil and debris.
2. Cut off the top at the height of 40-60 cm
retaining two or more leaves below the cut.
3. Make a slit with a cut of 4-5 cm
length.
© 2005 International Centre for Underutilised Crops, UK
1 cm 1 cm
5-15 cm long scion with the diameter of a pencil
Seedling ready for
grafting
5-15 cm
80-100 cm height
Diameter should be
pencil size at this height
40-60 cm
Knife Tape Clear plastic
bags
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4a

3. Scion Preparation
1. Place the blade of the knife almost parallel
to the twig to make a level surface of
about 4-5 cm length with one gently
pulling cut. Make two cuts like this at the
base of the scion to fit to the rootstock.
Cutting scion at the base with one stroke to fit to the
rootstock
2. Cut off the top of the scion. At least one
bud should remain.
Growing
zone
4-5 cm
Cutting off the top of the scion leaving
at least one bud
4. The Graft Union
1. Match the cut surfaces of scion and rootstock to one another.
Make sure that both growing zones have firm contact.
Matching surfaces of
scion and rootstock
2. Bind scion and rootstock together with tape. Take
care not to change the position of the surfaces.
Scion and rootstock are tied together
3. Cover the grafted plant with a polythene bag to prevent
transpiration and loss of moisture.
4. Water plants regularly.
5. Remove bag after 3 to 4 weeks.
Covering grafted
plant with clear
plastic bag
Water plants regularly
6. Remove the tape after 4 to 6 months when the union has
healed and there is fresh growth on the scion.
4b
© 2005 International Centre for Underutilised Crops, UK
Grafted monkey orange plant
ready for transplanting

Where to grow the Monkey Orange Tree
- Field Establishment -
1. Site Characteristics
The tree needs light.
It grows on a wide range of soils.
Plant on relatively flat ground or gentle slopes with
freely drained soil. A south-east aspect.
Don’t plant on hilltops.
Don’t plant in valley bottoms.
Clearing the planting site
Ploughing to 20-30 cm depth
Pickaxe and hoe
> 10-20 cm
Pegs
3. Transplanting
2. Site Preparation
1. Clear all the trees and shrubs from the
planting site. Remove all weeds, especially
grasses.
2. Just before the start of the rainy season,
dig over or plough the land to 20-30 cm
depth, then disc it, at least 1-2 weeks before
planting.
3. Dig planting holes 5m apart at regular
spaces. You need the following tools:
• pegs and string to mark out the
site;
• pickaxe or hoe for digging planting
holes.
Pay attention to the following when transferring seedlings
or grafted plants to the field:
Transfer planting stock at 6 months old and at least
10-20 cm in height for seedlings.
Sufficient rain should have fallen over a 24 hour period
continuously.
© 2005 International Centre for Underutilised Crops, UK
Hilltops/steep
Waterlogged or temporarily
5 m
5 m
Squaring 5x5 m
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Plants should be watered thoroughly the
night before taking them to the field.
Water plants one night
before
Handle plants carefully when moving them to
the planting site.
Hold the bags and not
the seedlings
Use trays or boxes for
the transport
60 cm
60 cm
Planting hole
Remove plastic bags
from plant
Plant in planting holes 60 cm
deep and 60 cm width.
Plant on cloudy days, early in the
morning or late afternoon to
reduce water loss from soil and
plants.
Position seedling
straight in the
centre of the pit.
Root collar should be
at ground level. Use a
stick as a guide. Fill
the pit.
Flatten the soil
around the tree base
to ground level.
4. Watering
Watering trees after field planting is not necessary, if the
soil was wet enough before planting.
If necessary you may apply 1-2 litres of water at the
base of each tree in the early evening twice or three
times a week.
Water plants 2-3x/week
Water only in the early evening
5b
© 2005 International Centre for Underutilised Crops, UK

How to grow the Monkey Orange Tree
- Field Management -
1. Weeding
Weed the plantation once a
month for the first three months
after planting. 2-3 spot weedings
around each tree may be necessary.
5 year old monkey orange trees -
watering is not necessary
3. Use of Fertilizers
2. Irrigation
Mature trees usually don’t require watering.
Monkey orange trees do not require any fertilizer; application is optional to increase
growth.
Organic manure can be added to the planting pits to aid transplanting.
Cow manure is dried in the sun and added to the planting holes
Weeds should be removed around the tree
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Inorganic fertilisers can be applied to increase
growth:
• Apply 100-150 g per plant of superphosphate
as basal dressing.
• Apply 20-30g Nitrosol (NPK 8 - 3 - 6 ) p e r
plant as top dressing.
• Follow the instructions given on the label.
Application of superphosphate
© 2005 International Centre for Underutilised Crops, UK
Application of Nitrosol
6a

5. Pruning
Remove all weak, diseased and dead branches.
Remove all drooping lower branches.
Pruning of tree
Branches below the dotted line
should be removed
Pruned monkey orange tree
8. Protection from Pests and Diseases
The monkey orange tree does not have serious pests and diseases,
but these problems might occur:
Termites can attack dead bark, dry wood, and also weak
nursery seedlings. Remove weak, diseased and dead
branches (see above).
Powdery mildew can attack stored fruits and seeds. Air dry
fruits before storing (see Technical Note 8a).
Monkey orange fruits attacked by
powdery mildew
3. Land-use Systems
The monkey orange tree occurs naturally
as a pioneer tree in old cultivation sites.
You can inter-plant it in natural forests
around homesteads.
You can plant it in orchards
You can intercrop the monkey orange
tree with annual crops such as maize,
sorghum, millet, sweet potatoes, water
melon or others.
You can plant it as a boundary or barrier
tree.
6b
© 2005 International Centre for Underutilised Crops, UK

Harvesting
1. Harvesting Time
The tree produces fruits 4-6 years after planting in open-grown stands. When planted
densely it needs several years longer. Harvest the monkey orange fruits from June until
November/December depending on site characteristics.
July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Pollination
Fruit harvesting
2. Fruit Maturity
At maturity, the monkey orange is about 5-10 cm
in diameter. It is usually dark green, speckled or
mottled green when unripe, becoming yellow or
orange when ripe.
Picking of fruits
Collecting fruits from the ground
3. Fruit Collection
Ripe monkey orange fruits
Pick the unripe green fruits and bury
them under sand for several months to
ripen.
Pick ripe fruits from the tree and eat
them directly or use for processing.
Wait until fruits drop on the ground
and then collect them.
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Burying fruits in sand for ripening
4. Yields
Harvest from one monkey orange tree per season may be
300-400 fruits or 40-100 kg in terms of fruit weight.
Average harvest/tree/year:
300-400 fruits
7a
© 2005 International Centre for Underutilised Crops, UK

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1. Post-harvest Handling
Post-harvest Handling
Monkey orange fruits bruise easily. Handle them carefully!
1. Remove green, unripe and damaged fruits.
2. Grade the remaining fruits according to their size.
3. Wash the fruits with clean water to remove debris.
4. Air dry fruits thoroughly before storing to prevent fungal
infestation and to extend the shelf-life.
5. Pack fruits for storage in gunny bags, grain bags, cloth
packs or boxes or,
use them immediately for further processing.
3. Processing
2. Storage
Store fruits and products in a cool dry place,
away from direct sunlight.
Fruits: store for 2-3 weeks at room temperature
(25-30°C).
Juice, jams and jellies: store for several
months.
You can make jam, juice and wines from the pulp of ripe fruits. The processing steps to
make jam are explained on the back page.
© 2005 International Centre for Underutilised Crops, UK
Remove unripe fruits
Separate big and small fruits
Wash fruits
with drinking
water
Pack fruits for storage
Air dry fruits

Wash jars
Put jars in a pan
with water
Boil jars for 10
minutes
Processing
- Preparation of Monkey Orange Fruit Jam -
2+3 4
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I: Sterilisation of jars
1. Wash jars with clean water.
2. Put washed jars in a large pan
with water.
3. Boil them for 10 minutes.
4. Remove from the water using
tongs or a stick and put them
upside down on a clean tray.
Remove jars
Ripe washed
monkey orange
fruits
Crack fruits
Scoop pulp
including seeds
Mix
Filter
Mix pulp
Heat mixture
while stirring
Continue cooking
mixture
Poor into jars
and seal
Cool at room
temperature
Label
Add some water
Add sugar (1:1)
Add citric acid or
lemon juice
1
2
1. Crack fruits.
© 2005 International Centre for Underutilised Crops, UK
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II: Preparation of jam
2. Scoop out pulp and seeds using
a spoon. Discard the peel.
3. Put the pulp in a pot with a
little water and stir.
4. Filter the mixture using a
stainless steel sieve and discard
seeds.
5. Add sugar equal to the weight
of pulp (1:1) and mix.
6. Heat mixture in a stainless
steel vessel while stirring continuously.
7. Dissolve 5 g citric acid per kg
pulp in some water and add
to the mixture. Alternatively,
lemon juice can be used (50
ml/kg pulp).
8. Continue cooking the mixture.
Do a drop test to determine
the end of the boiling
process: take a small portion
of jam on a spoon, cool it
slightly and drop it into a glass
of water. If the drop falls in a
single piece until it reaches the
bottom, the end has been
reached.
9. Pour jam into pre-sterilised
jars and seal.
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1. Marketing Potential
Sell monkey orange fruits
• along roadsides;
• local markets;
• urban markets.
Marketing and Economics
Sell the fruits directly to consumers or to
traders.
2. Pricing
Roadside market stand
Trader
Consumer
One monkey orange fruit can fetch prices between US $ 0.31 and 0.63.*
Local market place
Producer/Collector
You might face the following problems when marketing monkey orange fruits:
and
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Storage: if not stored carefully, up to 50% of the fruit may spoil.
Transport: fruits are often collected from very distant places. They have to be transported
very carefully and transport costs might be high.
Consumer perception: Urban people may consider it “backward” to eat wild fruits.
Rural people may regard monkey orange fruits as food for children or for times of
famine.
Pricing: prices of monkey orange fruits vary considerably.
3. Economics
You may get a turnover of
US$ 157.5 per tree per year,
provided you don’t have any postharvest
losses and are able to sell
all the fruits. See the
calculation in the box on the right.
Example for calculation:
Yearly production per tree: 350 fruits
Price per fruit: US$ 0.45
Turnover per tree: 350 fruits/tree x 0.45
US$/fruit = 157.5 US$/tree
Turnover for 50 trees: 157.5 US$/tree x 50
trees = 7875 US$
Attention:
You have to deduct the costs for planting, harvesting and transport of fruits to the market
to be able to calculate the profit of your monkey orange crop!
* Selling prices were observed in Zimbabwe in 1998. In Botswana fruit prices of US$ 0.45 were reported.
© 2005 International Centre for Underutilised Crops, UK