Design games as a tool, a mindset and a structure Kirsikka Vaajakallio
Design games as a tool, a mindset and a structure Kirsikka Vaajakallio
Design games as a tool, a mindset and a structure Kirsikka Vaajakallio
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game; the first frame concerns physical space, the second comes from the<br />
conventions of the epoch, the third frame is the drama, <strong>and</strong> the fourth are<br />
the instructions given by the director. Each inner frame contains the rules<br />
of the frames further out, <strong>and</strong> the looser the outer frame, the tighter the<br />
inner frame <strong>and</strong> the converse.<br />
The frames are not static but may change within a performance: for<br />
example, the performance may take place in several locations, thus having<br />
a loose frame concerning the space. Schechner’s concept of frames is<br />
somewhat similar with Caillois’ (1961) proposition that <strong>games</strong> which rely<br />
on improvisation <strong>and</strong> role-playing do not necessarily have well-defined<br />
rules since the improvisation <strong>and</strong> <strong>as</strong> if take the role of rules. This is typical<br />
for <strong>games</strong> belonging to a cl<strong>as</strong>s labelled “mimicry” (ibid.). According<br />
to Schechner (2006, pp 42–43) performances are either make-believe or<br />
make-belief; in the first the distinction between what’s real <strong>and</strong> what’s<br />
pretended is kept clear where<strong>as</strong> in the second these boundaries are intentionally<br />
blurred.<br />
Caillois (1961) criticizes Huizinga for leaving chance outside the scope<br />
of his study on play. That is true: Huizinga does not explicitly include<br />
chance <strong>as</strong> a fundamental character of play, but chance is embodied in other<br />
factors he mentions, such <strong>as</strong> tension, or in the examples he gives about<br />
gambling. According to Huizinga, tension is one of the central characters<br />
of play (Huizinga 1950, pp 10–11), entailing the elements of chance <strong>and</strong> a<br />
desire to succeed in the play.<br />
Caillois (1961, p 7) emph<strong>as</strong>ises the uncertainty more than Huizinga<br />
does; according to Caillois, doubt is fundamental to the nature of play <strong>and</strong><br />
hence doubt must remain until the end. In this respect, the concept of<br />
winning is also closely related to the <strong>games</strong> <strong>and</strong> play. Rather than referring<br />
to the material <strong>as</strong>pects, winning may refer simply to being superior to others<br />
in the outcome of the game (Huizinga 1950, pp 50–52), or it may derive<br />
from the challenges faced in the game. From the game design perspective,<br />
Salen <strong>and</strong> Zimmerman (2004) speak of unpredictability instead of doubt:<br />
if the outcome is predetermined there is no sense in playing. In design<br />
<strong>games</strong>, unpredictability h<strong>as</strong> to do with the motivation <strong>and</strong> explicating the<br />
purposes of the game, <strong>as</strong> well <strong>as</strong> with the consequences of the decisions<br />
made in the game. It matters who are involved <strong>and</strong> what are the outcomes.<br />
Summary of the main characteristics of<br />
<strong>games</strong>, play <strong>and</strong> performance<br />
To summarize, according to the studies referred to above, play is something<br />
voluntary, non-serious, intensive, immersive <strong>and</strong> conducted because<br />
of the pure ple<strong>as</strong>ure it gives. It proceeds within its own proper boundaries<br />
of time <strong>and</strong> space, according to fixed rules <strong>and</strong> in an orderly manner. One<br />
of the most important play characteristics is spatial <strong>and</strong> mental separation<br />
from ordinary, i.e. marked place, a magic circle, in which the play proceeds.<br />
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