Design games as a tool, a mindset and a structure Kirsikka Vaajakallio

game; the first frame concerns physical space, the second comes from the
conventions of the epoch, the third frame is the drama, and the fourth are
the instructions given by the director. Each inner frame contains the rules
of the frames further out, and the looser the outer frame, the tighter the
inner frame and the converse.
The frames are not static but may change within a performance: for
example, the performance may take place in several locations, thus having
a loose frame concerning the space. Schechner’s concept of frames is
somewhat similar with Caillois’ (1961) proposition that games which rely
on improvisation and role-playing do not necessarily have well-defined
rules since the improvisation and as if take the role of rules. This is typical
for games belonging to a class labelled “mimicry” (ibid.). According
to Schechner (2006, pp 42–43) performances are either make-believe or
make-belief; in the first the distinction between what’s real and what’s
pretended is kept clear whereas in the second these boundaries are intentionally
blurred.
Caillois (1961) criticizes Huizinga for leaving chance outside the scope
of his study on play. That is true: Huizinga does not explicitly include
chance as a fundamental character of play, but chance is embodied in other
factors he mentions, such as tension, or in the examples he gives about
gambling. According to Huizinga, tension is one of the central characters
of play (Huizinga 1950, pp 10–11), entailing the elements of chance and a
desire to succeed in the play.
Caillois (1961, p 7) emphasises the uncertainty more than Huizinga
does; according to Caillois, doubt is fundamental to the nature of play and
hence doubt must remain until the end. In this respect, the concept of
winning is also closely related to the games and play. Rather than referring
to the material aspects, winning may refer simply to being superior to others
in the outcome of the game (Huizinga 1950, pp 50–52), or it may derive
from the challenges faced in the game. From the game design perspective,
Salen and Zimmerman (2004) speak of unpredictability instead of doubt:
if the outcome is predetermined there is no sense in playing. In design
games, unpredictability has to do with the motivation and explicating the
purposes of the game, as well as with the consequences of the decisions
made in the game. It matters who are involved and what are the outcomes.
Summary of the main characteristics of
games, play and performance
To summarize, according to the studies referred to above, play is something
voluntary, non-serious, intensive, immersive and conducted because
of the pure pleasure it gives. It proceeds within its own proper boundaries
of time and space, according to fixed rules and in an orderly manner. One
of the most important play characteristics is spatial and mental separation
from ordinary, i.e. marked place, a magic circle, in which the play proceeds.
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