Boyer diss 2009 1046..

Table 5.3. Cranial and postcranial characters for optimization. All characters unordered.
Cranial characters used by Bloch et al. (2007) - Note that more extensive discussions of
most of these characters (83-108; renumbered here to c1 through c26)) are available in
Bloch et al. (2007) and Silcox (2001). Sources for the characters in this dataset include
Szalay (1975), Wible and Covert (1987), Kay et al. (1992), Wible (1993), Beard and
MacPhee (1994) and Silcox (2001).
83 (c1). Structure of auditory bulla: membranous, or bony but non-petrosal in origin
(0), or no suture separating bulla from petrosal and/or no developmental
evidence for additional elements (1). This character is modified from Beard
and MacPhee (1994) and is designed to best employ the data that is available
from fossils (i.e., under this definition microsyopids can be coded in spite of
the uncertainty about the composition of their bullae).
84 (c2). Relations of entotympanic: no entotympanic present (0), entotympanic
contacts petrosal medially (1), entotympanic contacts basioccipital medially
(2), or no medial contact (3). This character is modified from Kay et al.
(1992), and was scored only in taxa for which an entotympanic could be
positively identified.
85 (c3). Form of external auditory meatus: not expanded into bony tube (0), or
expanded into bony tube (1). As defined here, this character does not
differentiate between tubular external auditory meati that are formed from
different bones. This reflects the difficulty of accurately reconstructing the
contribution of all of the bones making up the auditory bulla in fossils.
86 (c4). Presence of subtympanic recess (between tympanic ring and bulla):
subtympanic recess absent and ectotympanic does not include distinct ringlike
element (0), or subtympanic recess present and ectotympanic includes
ring-like element separated by annular bridge, membrane or gap between it
and bulla (1). This character is modified from a character relating to the
annular bridge employed by Beard and MacPhee (1994). See discussion in
Silcox (2001). As configured here, this character allows the recognition of the
basic similarity of a ring-like ectotympanic even if this is all that is preserved
(i.e., as is the case for Ignacius; Bloch and Silcox, 2001).
87 (c5). Presence of branches of internal carotid artery: grooves for at least
promontorial branch, no tubes (0), tubes present for one or both arteries (1), or
internal carotid artery absent (2).
88 (c6). Posterior carotid foramen position (or position of entry of internal carotid
artery and/or nerves into middle ear): posteromedial (0), or posterolateral (1).
89 (c7). Subsquamosal foramen: present and large (0), or very small or absent (1).
Note that this feature refers to a foramen located at the distal end of the
zygomatic arch, making it equivalent to the opening called a suprameatal
foramen by Kay et al. (1992; see discussion in Beard and MacPhee, 1994).
90 (c8). Width of central stem and relative size of hypotympanic sinus: broad with
hypotympanic sinus restricted (0), or narrow with hypotympanic sinus
expansive (1). Beard and MacPhee (1994: p. 79) define the central stem as
“the midline keel of the posterior basicranium normally composed of the
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