Surface voltage and surface photovoltage - Dieter Schroder ...

D K Schroder
(a)
L n (µm)
L n (µm)
5.2. Lifetime
Two types of lifetime are measured in Si wafers: the
recombination lifetime, τ r , and the generation lifetime, τ g [29].
As the name implies, the recombination lifetime characterizes
the recombination of ehps, while the generation lifetime
characterizes the generation of ehps. The recombination
lifetime is determined by depositing sufficient charge on an
oxidized wafer to invert the semiconductor surface forming a
field-induced np junction in a p-type substrate. A brief light
pulse forward biases this np junction, injecting excess carriers
that subsequently recombine. The resulting time-dependent
surface voltage is monitored with a Kelvin probe. This method
is very similar to the open-circuit voltage decay technique. τ r is
determined from the equation [37]
τ r =
kT/q
dV p /dt . (30)
(b)
N Fe (x10 11 cm -3 )
(c)
Figure 15. Diffusion length maps (a) before, (b) after Fe–B pair
dissociation; (c) iron density map (in units of 10 11 cm −3 ). Courtesy
of P Edelman and J Lagowski, Semiconductor Diagnostics, Inc.
those of Fe–B. By measuring the diffusion length before (L ni )
and after (L nf ) Fe–B pair dissociation, the iron density N Fe is
obtained from the expression [34]
N Fe = 1.05 × 10 16 ( 1
L 2 nf
− 1 )
L 2 cm −3 (29)
ni
with diffusion lengths in units of µm. The Fe i and Fe–B
diffusion lengths as a function of Fe density are shown in
figure 14 [35]. This large difference in diffusion length
between Fe i and Fe–B only pertains at low injection levels
and disappears at medium to high injection levels. Maps of
diffusion lengths before and after Fe–B pair dissociation and
the resultant Fe density are shown in figure 15. Metals rarely
pair with impurities in n-type Si, although Cu does form such
pairs [36].
The generation lifetime is determined by depositing a charge
pulse driving the corona–oxide–semiconductor (COS) device
into deep depletion. Electron–hole pairs are subsequently
generated and the resulting voltage transient is monitored
with a contactless Kelvin probe [23]. These two methods
were recently used to characterize both epitaxial films and
their substrates [38]. The epitaxial layer is characterized
through τ g measurements, with the thermal carrier generation
confined to the charge-induced space-charge region, which is
typically of the order of 1 µm below the semiconductor surface.
The recombination lifetime, on the other hand, characterizes
a depth determined by the minority carrier diffusion
length. Figure 16 illustrates corona-induced generation and
recombination lifetime measurements of n-epitaxial layers on
n-substrates. Figure 16(a) shows the results for both ‘good’
layer and ‘good’ substrate with τ g ≈ 4 ms and τ r ≈ 300 µs.
Figure 16(b) shows a ‘good’ epitaxial layer (τ g ≈ 3ms),
but the substrate is contaminated, reducing the recombination
lifetime to about 50 µs. While recombination lifetime
measurements can be made without corona charge, using
conventional surface photovoltage or photoconductance decay
measurements, contactless generation lifetime measurements
require corona charge.
5.3. Charge
The surface voltage dependence on surface charge lends itself
to measurements of charge in the insulator on a semiconductor
wafer or charge on the wafer. This charge can be oxide charge,
interface trapped charge plasma damage charge, or other
charge. Let us illustrate this by considering the mobile charge
density Q m in an oxidized wafer [39]. Such mobile charge
in silicon technology is most commonly sodium, originating
from such sources as humans, chemicals, equipment etc.
Other possible mobile charges are potassium, associated
with chemical polishing compounds, and lithium, which can
originate from pump oils.
One way to measure such a mobile charge is to
combine SV measurements with corona charge techniques
by depositing corona charge on an oxidized semiconductor
surface. First deposit positive corona charge, then heat the
wafer to a moderate temperature of around 200 ◦ Cforafew
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