small arms and light weapons among pastoral groups in the kenya ...
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African Affairs, 106/422, 47–70<br />
doi:10.1093/afraf/adl002<br />
© The Author [2006]. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Royal African Society. All rights reserved<br />
Advance Access Publication 28 July 2006<br />
SMALL ARMS AND LIGHT WEAPONS<br />
AMONG PASTORAL GROUPS IN THE<br />
KENYA–UGANDA BORDER AREA<br />
KENNEDY AGADE MKUTU<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
Recent decades have seen an escalation <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>terethnic resource conflicts<br />
<strong>and</strong> b<strong>and</strong>itry <strong>among</strong> <strong>pastoral</strong>ists <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Kenya-Ug<strong>and</strong>a border region,<br />
fuelled by a grow<strong>in</strong>g number of <strong>small</strong> <strong>arms</strong>. State management has been<br />
largely unsuccessful <strong>and</strong> often counterproductive <strong>in</strong> reduc<strong>in</strong>g numbers of<br />
<strong>small</strong> <strong>arms</strong>. The creation of paramilitary <strong>in</strong>stitutions <strong>in</strong> rural Kenya <strong>and</strong><br />
Ug<strong>and</strong>a are an example of how legal <strong>arms</strong> are enter<strong>in</strong>g communities <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>tensify<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> conflicts fur<strong>the</strong>r. Underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> sources <strong>and</strong> mechanisms<br />
of <strong>arms</strong> acquisition is a significant step <strong>in</strong> curb<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> violence. The<br />
ma<strong>in</strong> sources <strong>and</strong> routes, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> current costs of <strong>arms</strong> <strong>and</strong> ammunition<br />
are provided. More important however is to appreciate <strong>the</strong> complex reasons<br />
beh<strong>in</strong>d <strong>the</strong> dem<strong>and</strong> for <strong>small</strong> <strong>arms</strong>. Relationships with states, alienation<br />
of <strong>pastoral</strong> l<strong>and</strong>, cultural issues <strong>and</strong> questions of livelihood are all<br />
exam<strong>in</strong>ed, us<strong>in</strong>g empirical evidence collected by <strong>the</strong> author between 2001<br />
<strong>and</strong> 2005.<br />
IN JANUARY 2000, at <strong>the</strong> height of a drought <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Kenya–Ug<strong>and</strong>a border<br />
region, Karimojong warriors from Nakapiripirit manyatta <strong>in</strong> Ug<strong>and</strong>a killed<br />
60 Pokot <strong>pastoral</strong>ists <strong>in</strong> a conflict over pasture. A total of 11 children <strong>and</strong><br />
16 women were killed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> battle <strong>and</strong> several more <strong>in</strong>jured. The guns of<br />
<strong>the</strong> dead <strong>and</strong> 5,000 heads of cattle were taken. 1 The <strong>in</strong>cident is illustrative<br />
of a larger trend which has seen an escalation <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> numbers of <strong>light</strong> <strong>weapons</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> violence <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> area.<br />
The Kenya–Ug<strong>and</strong>a border is one of East Africa’s most severely affected<br />
areas <strong>in</strong> terms of firearm-related <strong>in</strong>security. Over <strong>the</strong> last three decades,<br />
<strong>small</strong> <strong>arms</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>light</strong> <strong>weapons</strong> (SALW) have entered <strong>the</strong> cross-border<br />
regions <strong>in</strong> unprecedented numbers. This is evidenced <strong>in</strong> part by <strong>the</strong> frequent<br />
reports of violent cattle-raid<strong>in</strong>g activities, b<strong>and</strong>itry on roads <strong>and</strong><br />
attacks on <strong>the</strong> Ug<strong>and</strong>an army. In Karamoja, on <strong>the</strong> Ug<strong>and</strong>an side of <strong>the</strong><br />
Kennedy Agade Mkutu is a former lecturer with <strong>the</strong> Kenya Institute of Adm<strong>in</strong>istration <strong>and</strong> is<br />
currently a consultant with Peace <strong>and</strong> Conflict Transfomation.<br />
1. Interview with Rev. John Lod<strong>in</strong>yo, pastor of Baptist Church, Kiwawa, 31 May 2001. The<br />
officer-<strong>in</strong>-charge of <strong>the</strong> police noted that <strong>the</strong> number of Pokot look<strong>in</strong>g for pasture had<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased because of <strong>the</strong> dry spell <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> district at <strong>the</strong> time.<br />
47
48 AFRICAN AFFAIRS<br />
border, estimates of <strong>the</strong> number of <strong>arms</strong> <strong>in</strong> circulation range from 40,000,<br />
for a population of 950,000 men, women <strong>and</strong> children, 2 to 80,000, or even<br />
200,000 <strong>in</strong> some media estimates. 3 To put it <strong>in</strong> ano<strong>the</strong>r way, <strong>in</strong>terviews<br />
with <strong>the</strong> community noted ‘Out of a family of ten, which is quite typical <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>pastoral</strong> areas on <strong>the</strong> border, three are often men <strong>and</strong> each is <strong>in</strong> ownership<br />
of a <strong>small</strong> arm, with boys as young as fourteen years of age’. 4 In Kenya,<br />
<strong>the</strong>re are possibly 50,000 guns <strong>in</strong> civilian h<strong>and</strong>s. 5<br />
The region is ethnically diverse. On <strong>the</strong> Kenyan side, <strong>the</strong> 933-km<br />
boundary traverses <strong>the</strong> homel<strong>and</strong>s of <strong>the</strong> Samia, Teso, Pokot, Sabaot <strong>and</strong><br />
Turkana, divid<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>se <strong>groups</strong> from <strong>the</strong> Ug<strong>and</strong>an Karimojong (compris<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Ma<strong>the</strong>niko, Bokora <strong>and</strong> Pian) <strong>and</strong> also <strong>the</strong> Upe (Ug<strong>and</strong>an Pokot),<br />
Dodoth, Jie <strong>and</strong> mounta<strong>in</strong> <strong>groups</strong>. 6 At its nor<strong>the</strong>rnmost po<strong>in</strong>t, <strong>the</strong> border<br />
adjo<strong>in</strong>s Sudan. Most communities are largely nomadic <strong>and</strong> <strong>pastoral</strong>, with<br />
cattle herd<strong>in</strong>g provid<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> economy <strong>in</strong> this very arid region. Cattle<br />
rustl<strong>in</strong>g is a traditional activity <strong>among</strong> all pla<strong>in</strong>s <strong>pastoral</strong>ists. Historically, it<br />
has been a method of wealth redistribution to ensure that all were fed at<br />
times of scarcity <strong>and</strong> also a means of payment for bride price <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> mak<strong>in</strong>g<br />
of alliances with o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>groups</strong>. For centuries, spears, bows <strong>and</strong> arrows<br />
were used <strong>in</strong> raids, deaths were treated seriously <strong>and</strong> compensated with<br />
cattle, <strong>and</strong> warriors rarely harmed women, children or <strong>the</strong> elderly. However,<br />
<strong>the</strong> last 25 years have seen a transformation of raid<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to large-scale<br />
armed conflict, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> many deaths <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> emergence of racketeers<br />
<strong>and</strong> b<strong>and</strong>its. 7 Recent conflicts <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> cross-border area have been characterized<br />
by a number of worry<strong>in</strong>g developments. First, <strong>the</strong>re have been an<br />
2. Mustafa Mirzeler <strong>and</strong> Crawford Young, ‘Pastoral politics <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>ast periphery <strong>in</strong><br />
Ug<strong>and</strong>a: AK47 as change agent’, Journal of Modern African Studies 38, 3 (2000), pp. 407–30;<br />
Action for Development of Local Communities (ADOL), ‘The Karimojong response to disarmament:<br />
six months later’, (Unpublished report, ADOL/Pax Christi, Ne<strong>the</strong>rl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong><br />
Kampala, 2002); Kennedy Mkutu, ‘Pastoralist Conflict <strong>and</strong> Small Arms: The Kenya–Ug<strong>and</strong>a<br />
border region’ (Consultancy for Saferworld, London, 2003).<br />
3. Interview with former resident district commissioner <strong>in</strong> Kotido, 2 February 2003.<br />
4. Interviews with victims of <strong>small</strong> <strong>arms</strong> <strong>in</strong>juries <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g a 15-year-old victim <strong>in</strong> Kanwata,<br />
Karamoja, 2001–4.<br />
5. How <strong>the</strong> figure is arrived at is unclear: see ‘Disarm <strong>the</strong>m’ East African St<strong>and</strong>ard (30 August 2005).<br />
6. Ug<strong>and</strong>a Bureau of Statistics (UBO), ‘National Population <strong>and</strong> Hous<strong>in</strong>g Census’, (Government<br />
report, Kampala, 2003).<br />
7. For details, see David Anderson, ‘Stock <strong>the</strong>ft <strong>and</strong> moral economy <strong>in</strong> colonial Kenya’,<br />
Africa 56, 4 (1986), pp. 399–416; Richard Hogg ‘The new <strong>pastoral</strong>ism: poverty <strong>and</strong> dependence<br />
<strong>in</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn Kenya’, Africa 56, 3 (1986), pp. 319–32; Kennedy Mkutu, Pastoral Conflict,<br />
Governance <strong>and</strong> Small Arms <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> North Rift, Nor<strong>the</strong>ast Africa (University of Bradford, Unpublished<br />
PhD <strong>the</strong>sis, 2005); Kennedy Mkutu, ‘Pastoralist Conflict <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Horn of Africa’ [Consultancy<br />
for African Peace Forum (APFO)/Saferworld/University of Bradford, 2001]; Derrick<br />
Belshaw <strong>and</strong> Joshua Mal<strong>in</strong>ga, ‘The Kalashnikov economies of <strong>the</strong> Eastern Sahel: cumulative<br />
or cyclical differentiation between nomadic <strong>pastoral</strong>ists’ (Unpublished report, Development<br />
Studies Association, South Bank University of East Anglia, 1999); Suzette Heald, ‘Tolerat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>tolerable: cattle raid<strong>in</strong>g <strong>among</strong> <strong>the</strong> Kuria’ <strong>in</strong> G. Aijmer <strong>and</strong> J. Abb<strong>in</strong>k (eds), Mean<strong>in</strong>gs of<br />
Violence: A cross-cultural perspective (Berg, Oxford, 2000), pp. 101–21. Bruno Novelli, ‘Karimojong<br />
Traditional Religion’ (Comboni Missionaries, Kampala, 1999); Augusto Pazzaglia,<br />
The Karimojong: Some aspects (Camboni Missionaries, Bologna, 1982).
SALW AMONG PASTORAL GROUPS 49<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased number of attacks on unarmed civilians, <strong>in</strong> particular women,<br />
elderly people <strong>and</strong> children. 8 Second, <strong>the</strong>re has been a growth <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
number of raiders <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sophistication of <strong>the</strong> <strong>arms</strong> that <strong>the</strong>y carry.<br />
The raiders often come <strong>in</strong> armies of 100–500 people, sometimes even<br />
thous<strong>and</strong>s, <strong>the</strong>reby outnumber<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> security forces. 9 The area is awash<br />
with SALW 10 which are not <strong>the</strong> cause of <strong>the</strong>se conflicts but which exacerbate<br />
<strong>in</strong>terethnic tensions, <strong>in</strong>tensify violence <strong>and</strong> contribute both to <strong>the</strong><br />
impoverishment of <strong>the</strong> regions <strong>and</strong> to wider destabilization, as <strong>arms</strong> are<br />
dispersed to o<strong>the</strong>r peaceful parts of Kenya <strong>and</strong> Ug<strong>and</strong>a. 11<br />
In <strong>the</strong> recent past, political <strong>in</strong>stability related to cattle raid<strong>in</strong>g has been<br />
experienced <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn regions of Ug<strong>and</strong>a <strong>and</strong> Kenya <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> countries<br />
to <strong>the</strong>ir north, on a massive, even devastat<strong>in</strong>g scale. 12 Even <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
more politically stable regions, raid<strong>in</strong>g appears more virulent because of its<br />
<strong>in</strong>tegration <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> market economy <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>flux of SALW. 13 This<br />
streng<strong>the</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> predatory w<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> <strong>pastoral</strong> economy has posed<br />
obvious threats to both <strong>the</strong> subsistence base <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> security of local communities.<br />
Agencies of <strong>the</strong> state (police <strong>and</strong> courts) as well as traditional<br />
redressive procedures under <strong>the</strong> control of elders have proved <strong>in</strong>effective <strong>in</strong><br />
halt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> depredations of <strong>the</strong> raiders. 14<br />
Sisl<strong>in</strong> et al. note that ‘systematic, rigorous analyses of <strong>the</strong> <strong>arms</strong> acquir<strong>in</strong>g<br />
patterns of disput<strong>in</strong>g ethnic <strong>groups</strong> are lack<strong>in</strong>g. Mostly, this is <strong>the</strong> product<br />
of <strong>the</strong> shortage of reliable data’. 15 Such <strong>in</strong>formation is vital for security <strong>and</strong><br />
development <strong>in</strong>terventions <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> turn for poverty eradication. This article<br />
aims to contribute evidence on <strong>the</strong> transformation brought by <strong>arms</strong> to <strong>pastoral</strong><br />
societies by answer<strong>in</strong>g three questions. First, who are <strong>the</strong> actors<br />
<strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>small</strong> <strong>arms</strong> dynamics, <strong>and</strong> why <strong>the</strong> dem<strong>and</strong> for <strong>arms</strong>? Second,<br />
what are <strong>the</strong> patterns of accumulation <strong>and</strong> flows of <strong>arms</strong> to <strong>pastoral</strong>ists?<br />
8. Kennedy Mkutu, ‘Armed Pastoralist Conflicts <strong>and</strong> Peace Build<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Karamoja: The<br />
Role of Gender’ [Consultancy for Ne<strong>the</strong>rl<strong>and</strong>s Development Agency (SNV), Kampala,<br />
2005].<br />
9. Interviews <strong>in</strong> Karamoja, various sources, 2001–4.<br />
10. ‘50,000 guns <strong>in</strong> wrong h<strong>and</strong>s, says Michuki’ Daily Nation (29 August 2005).<br />
11. Belshaw <strong>and</strong> Mal<strong>in</strong>ga ‘The Kalashnikov economies’.<br />
12. Mkutu, Pastoralist Conflict, Governance <strong>and</strong> Small Arms; Anderson, ‘Stock <strong>the</strong>ft’; Natalie<br />
Gomez <strong>and</strong> Kennedy Mkutu, ‘Break<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Cycle of Violence: Build<strong>in</strong>g capacity for development<br />
<strong>in</strong> Karamoja, Ug<strong>and</strong>a’ (Consultancy for SNV/Pax Christi, Kampala, 2004); Mkutu, Armed<br />
Pastoralist Conflict . . . <strong>the</strong> Role of Gender; Ton Dietz, Pastoralists <strong>in</strong> dire straits: survival strategies<br />
<strong>and</strong> external <strong>in</strong>terventions <strong>in</strong> a semi arid region at <strong>the</strong> Kenya/Ug<strong>and</strong>a border: Western Pokot,<br />
1900–1986 (Instituut Voor Sociale Geografie, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Unpublished<br />
PhD Thesis, 1987); National Council of Churches of Kenya/SNV/Semi-arid Rural<br />
Development Project (SARDEP) ‘Pacify<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> valley: an analysis of <strong>the</strong> Kerio valley conflict’,<br />
(Report NCCK/SNV/SARDEP, Nairobi, 2001).<br />
13. Heald, ‘Tolerat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>tolerable’; Michael Fleisher, ‘Cattle raid<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> household<br />
demography <strong>among</strong> <strong>the</strong> Kuria of Tanzania’ Africa 69, 2 (1999), pp. 238–55.<br />
14. Mkutu, Pastoralist Conflict, Governance <strong>and</strong> Small Arms.<br />
15. John Sisl<strong>in</strong>, John Pearson, Jocelyn Boryczka, <strong>and</strong> Jeffrey Weig<strong>and</strong>, ‘Patterns <strong>in</strong> <strong>arms</strong><br />
acquisitions by ethnic <strong>groups</strong> <strong>in</strong> conflict’, Security Dialogue, 29, 4 (1998), pp. 393–408.
50 AFRICAN AFFAIRS<br />
And third, what are <strong>the</strong> current costs of SALW <strong>and</strong> ammunition <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
cross-border region?<br />
Methodology<br />
The article is based on research for <strong>the</strong> author’s PhD dissertation <strong>and</strong><br />
also conta<strong>in</strong>s data collected dur<strong>in</strong>g a research consultancy. 16 Phases of<br />
research took place every year between 2000 <strong>and</strong> 2005 <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> four districts<br />
of Karamoja region <strong>in</strong> Nor<strong>the</strong>rn Ug<strong>and</strong>a — Moroto, Nakapiripirit, Kotido<br />
<strong>and</strong> Kaabong (newly created) — <strong>and</strong> West Pokot (<strong>in</strong> Kenya).<br />
Work on <strong>pastoral</strong> armed conflict <strong>and</strong> <strong>arms</strong> patterns <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>pastoral</strong> areas<br />
is complex. The <strong>in</strong>struments used <strong>in</strong>cluded observation, <strong>in</strong>-depth <strong>in</strong>terviews,<br />
case histories located with <strong>the</strong> use of snowball<strong>in</strong>g, focus group discussions<br />
(FGDs), structured questionnaires <strong>and</strong> acquisition of public health data.<br />
Observation was used <strong>in</strong> most areas to verify <strong>in</strong>formation on <strong>arms</strong> movements<br />
<strong>and</strong> acquisition. While driv<strong>in</strong>g, young boys were seen carry<strong>in</strong>g <strong>arms</strong>,<br />
even while graz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>ir herds. The author was able to attend some of <strong>the</strong><br />
security meet<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>and</strong> peace meet<strong>in</strong>gs, which <strong>the</strong> warriors attended with<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir <strong>arms</strong>.<br />
More than 300 <strong>in</strong>-depth <strong>in</strong>terviews were conducted with key <strong>in</strong>formants<br />
thought to be knowledgeable <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> <strong>pastoral</strong> conflict <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> diffusion<br />
of <strong>small</strong> <strong>arms</strong>, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g MPs, district officers, district commissioners<br />
<strong>in</strong> Kenya <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir equivalent <strong>in</strong> Ug<strong>and</strong>a, resident district<br />
commissioners, chief adm<strong>in</strong>istrative officers, local council leaders, local<br />
council members (at district, sub-county <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r levels), security personnel,<br />
militia members, cattle traders, bus<strong>in</strong>essmen, racketeers, former<br />
raiders, div<strong>in</strong>ers, elders, religious leaders, NGO workers, doctors, nurses,<br />
counsellors <strong>and</strong> some widows <strong>and</strong> married <strong>and</strong> unmarried girls <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
local brewers <strong>and</strong> bus<strong>in</strong>esswomen. Sometimes, I would r<strong>and</strong>omly <strong>in</strong>terview<br />
any adult <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> village. 17 Individual case histories were obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> a<br />
large number of villages <strong>and</strong> towns. 18<br />
Around 26 FGDs were held with warriors, shepherds, Kenya police<br />
reservists (KPRs)/home guards, women’s <strong>groups</strong>, elders, <strong>and</strong> chiefs with<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir assistants <strong>in</strong> Moroto, Nakapiripirit, Kotido <strong>and</strong> Kaabong districts <strong>in</strong><br />
Ug<strong>and</strong>a <strong>and</strong> West Pokot District of Kenya. A structured open questionnaire<br />
was given between 2001 <strong>and</strong> 2003 to all adm<strong>in</strong>istrative officers<br />
16. Mkutu, Pastoralist Conflict, Governance <strong>and</strong> Small Arms; Mkutu, ‘Armed Pastoralist<br />
Conflict’.<br />
17. For example, <strong>the</strong> first time I <strong>in</strong>terviewed <strong>the</strong> Honorable David Pulkol, <strong>the</strong> former external<br />
security officer for Ug<strong>and</strong>a <strong>in</strong> 2001, he was on a campaign trail.<br />
18. Kotido, Panyangara, Nakapelimoru, Kachire, Moroto, Loputuku, Lokitelekapes,<br />
Lokitelebu, Kalapata, Losilang, Kanwat Iriri, Namalu, Kangole, Nakiloro, Amudat, Karita,<br />
Kotido, Rupa, Musasia <strong>and</strong> Kampala <strong>in</strong> Ug<strong>and</strong>a <strong>and</strong> Kapenguria, Kachiliba, Alale,<br />
Nauypong, Kiwawa <strong>and</strong> Kunyao <strong>in</strong> Kenya.
SALW AMONG PASTORAL GROUPS 51<br />
undergo<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> advanced public adm<strong>in</strong>istration six-month course at <strong>the</strong><br />
Kenya Institute of Adm<strong>in</strong>istration (KIA), to be completed by officers <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>ir own time. 19 From a total of 200 adm<strong>in</strong>istrative officers, 180 were<br />
completed; not all <strong>the</strong> officers are based <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> field, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir comments<br />
were excluded. 20 The Kenya National Archives (KNA) provided <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
on <strong>the</strong> background of <strong>the</strong> problem <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> social structure of <strong>the</strong> communities.<br />
They also provided data on colonial policies towards cattle raids.<br />
Prom<strong>in</strong>ent authors <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> area were also contacted 21 <strong>and</strong> NGO reports <strong>and</strong><br />
books consulted. 22<br />
Sources of <strong>arms</strong><br />
Data revealed that fire<strong>arms</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> area date at least to <strong>the</strong> colonial era<br />
when <strong>small</strong> numbers entered Turkana <strong>in</strong> exchange for ivory. 23 European<br />
explorers <strong>and</strong> colonial agents used guns <strong>and</strong> tra<strong>in</strong>ed soldiers <strong>and</strong> frequently<br />
stole from <strong>the</strong> Turkana, which <strong>in</strong>cited fur<strong>the</strong>r acquisition for selfpreservation<br />
<strong>and</strong> raid<strong>in</strong>g of o<strong>the</strong>r communities to replenish <strong>the</strong>ir stock. 24<br />
Arms orig<strong>in</strong>ally <strong>in</strong>troduced to protect <strong>the</strong> colonial regimes found <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
way <strong>in</strong>to Turkana h<strong>and</strong>s. The Italo-Abyss<strong>in</strong>ian war was a later source.<br />
Like Turkana, Karamoja traded ivory for <strong>arms</strong> <strong>and</strong> by 1910 was export<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>arms</strong> <strong>and</strong> ammunition to o<strong>the</strong>r parts of Ug<strong>and</strong>a. 25 From <strong>the</strong> early<br />
1950s onwards, <strong>the</strong> Karimojong were frequently raided by <strong>the</strong> Turkana,<br />
Toposa <strong>and</strong> Did<strong>in</strong>ga (<strong>the</strong> last two from Sudan). The state’s failure to<br />
provide security provided an <strong>in</strong>centive to <strong>the</strong> Karimojong to acquire<br />
more guns. 26 At this po<strong>in</strong>t, <strong>the</strong> state attempted to curb production, disarm<br />
<strong>and</strong> ‘modernize’ <strong>the</strong> Karimojong. In Bokora county <strong>in</strong> 1973, a<br />
number of Karimojong were murdered <strong>in</strong> one such clampdown. 27<br />
Throughout <strong>the</strong> 1970s <strong>and</strong> 1980s, <strong>arms</strong> were used as a tool of superpower<br />
diplomacy, especially <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Horn, <strong>and</strong> more <strong>weapons</strong> diffused through<br />
19. KIA is <strong>the</strong> senior <strong>in</strong>stitution for tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g upper level policy makers <strong>in</strong> Kenya. I worked<br />
<strong>the</strong>re from 1997 to 2005 (colleagues adm<strong>in</strong>istered <strong>the</strong> questionnaire whilst I was on<br />
sabbatical).<br />
20. This consisted of officers based <strong>in</strong> f<strong>in</strong>ance, home affairs, transport, <strong>the</strong> judiciary <strong>and</strong> foreign<br />
affairs.<br />
21. Communications with Philip Gulliver, Ton Dietz, Michael Bollig, Ben Knighton <strong>and</strong><br />
John Lamphear.<br />
22. Interviews <strong>in</strong> Karamoja, 2001–4.<br />
23. Kenya National Archive, Turkana history, Turkana political records, miscellaneous,<br />
1921–45 TURK 159, DC/TURK3/1, p. 90.<br />
24. Awoundo Odegi, Life <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Balance: Ecological sociology of Turkana nomads (ACTS,<br />
Nairobi, 1990); James Barber, Imperial Frontier (East African Publish<strong>in</strong>g House, Nairobi,<br />
1968), pp. 91–106; Augusto Pazzaglia, The Karimojong.<br />
25. Barber, Imperial Frontier.<br />
26. Interview with Ael Ark Lodou, Member of Parliament for Dodoth <strong>in</strong> Moroto, Ug<strong>and</strong>a,<br />
12 November 2004.<br />
27. Interview with James Chere, former raider <strong>and</strong> Chief of Rupa <strong>in</strong> Moroto, 3 January<br />
2003 <strong>and</strong> October 2004.
52 AFRICAN AFFAIRS<br />
<strong>the</strong> region. 28 Arms’ supplies were augmented aga<strong>in</strong> when Idi Am<strong>in</strong> was<br />
overthrown <strong>in</strong> April 1979, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Ma<strong>the</strong>niko Karimojong broke <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong><br />
Moroto barracks <strong>and</strong> looted guns that had been left beh<strong>in</strong>d by <strong>the</strong><br />
retreat<strong>in</strong>g regime. 29 A fur<strong>the</strong>r process of acquisition of SALW occurred<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1986 when hordes of Karimojong warriors were recruited <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong><br />
Ug<strong>and</strong>a National Liberation Army (UNLA) to fight for <strong>the</strong> fail<strong>in</strong>g Obote<br />
II regime. When <strong>the</strong> National Resistance Army defeated <strong>the</strong> UNLA <strong>in</strong><br />
1986, <strong>the</strong> demobilized Karimojong soldiers fled with all <strong>the</strong>ir <strong>arms</strong> back<br />
to Karamoja. 30 With <strong>the</strong> fall of <strong>the</strong> regime, militias set up by Obote II<br />
to protect <strong>the</strong> Iteso from Karimojong raid<strong>in</strong>g were also disb<strong>and</strong>ed, <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> result was widespread Karimojong raids that left <strong>the</strong> area virtually<br />
without livestock. Cattle rustl<strong>in</strong>g reached heights never seen before <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
history of <strong>the</strong> region. 31<br />
Turn<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> contemporary scene, many actors are currently <strong>in</strong>volved<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> movement, sale <strong>and</strong> acquisition of <strong>arms</strong>; <strong>the</strong> process is a complex<br />
web to disentangle. Guns arrive illegally from outside <strong>the</strong> country via rebel<br />
<strong>groups</strong> such as <strong>the</strong> Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA), Allied Defence Force<br />
or Toposa Militia from Sudan. Indiscipl<strong>in</strong>ed government soldiers <strong>and</strong> also<br />
desert<strong>in</strong>g Local Defence Unit (LDU) personnel have sold <strong>arms</strong> to<br />
Karamoja; Karimojong return<strong>in</strong>g from <strong>the</strong> Democratic Republic of Congo<br />
have also run gun rackets. 32 Arms may be carried by long-distance traders<br />
who barter with cattle, cash or electronic items, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir diffusion may be<br />
facilitated by powerful local figures, racketeers <strong>and</strong> <strong>pastoral</strong>ist warriors. 33<br />
Cappon notes from his research <strong>in</strong> Bar<strong>in</strong>go, Kenya, that ‘The political,<br />
economic <strong>and</strong> cultural dynamics are be<strong>in</strong>g manipulated by certa<strong>in</strong> local<br />
elders, regional traders <strong>and</strong> politicians, who make use of <strong>the</strong> communities’<br />
armed youth, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> police reservists to enrich <strong>the</strong>mselves’. 34 Pastoralists<br />
may also acquire <strong>arms</strong> through raids <strong>and</strong> attacks <strong>and</strong> even have gun-mak<strong>in</strong>g<br />
skills. Pastoralist women may also be <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> buy<strong>in</strong>g <strong>arms</strong> <strong>and</strong> have a<br />
particular role <strong>in</strong> ammunition trad<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> traffick<strong>in</strong>g (discussed later). In<br />
<strong>the</strong> ethnic clashes of 1992 <strong>in</strong> Western Kenya <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r parts, <strong>the</strong>re was<br />
28. Samuel Mak<strong>in</strong>da, ‘Conflict <strong>and</strong> superpower <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Horn of Africa’, Third World Quarterly,<br />
4, 1 (1982), pp. 93–103; For analysis of countries supply<strong>in</strong>g <strong>arms</strong> to <strong>the</strong> Horn of Africa<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> cold war, see also Jeffrey Lefebvre, Arms for <strong>the</strong> Horn: U.S. security policy <strong>in</strong> Ethiopia<br />
<strong>and</strong> Somalia 1953–1991 (University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh, 1991).<br />
29. Interviews with eyewitnesses <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs <strong>in</strong> Karamoja, 2001–4.<br />
30. Interviews <strong>in</strong> Panyangara, Kotido, Moroto <strong>and</strong> Namalu, 2001–4.<br />
31. Charles Ocan, ‘Pastoral crisis <strong>in</strong> Nor<strong>the</strong>rn Ug<strong>and</strong>a: <strong>the</strong> chang<strong>in</strong>g significance of cattle<br />
raids’, (Report, Centre for Basic Research, Kampala, 1992).<br />
32. Interviews 2001–4. I did meet some young men who had fought <strong>in</strong> DRC but were now<br />
jobless <strong>and</strong> orig<strong>in</strong>ated from <strong>the</strong> Karimojong area.<br />
33. Ibid.<br />
34. Jan Cappon, ‘Why do communities want <strong>arms</strong>? Controll<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> dem<strong>and</strong> for <strong>small</strong> <strong>arms</strong>,<br />
<strong>the</strong> search for strategies <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Horn of Africa <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Balkans’, (Report, The Hague/Pax<br />
Christi, Ne<strong>the</strong>rl<strong>and</strong>s, 2003). There is <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g evidence of racketeers, but more work needs<br />
to be done on this secretive area. Some evidence exists <strong>in</strong> Kennedy Mkutu, Guns <strong>and</strong> Governance:<br />
Pastoralist conflict <strong>and</strong> <strong>small</strong> <strong>arms</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> North Rift (James Currey, Oxford, forthcom<strong>in</strong>g).
SALW AMONG PASTORAL GROUPS 53<br />
evidence that some communities may have been armed by <strong>the</strong> state. 35 In<br />
<strong>the</strong> last 15 years, Kenya has also experienced flows of <strong>arms</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>ly from<br />
<strong>the</strong> countries <strong>in</strong> conflict <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Horn, which border <strong>the</strong> <strong>pastoral</strong> areas. 36<br />
Insecurity has triggered fur<strong>the</strong>r arm<strong>in</strong>g of communities, sometimes with<br />
official support or complicity.<br />
Arms may also orig<strong>in</strong>ate from legal sources, such as official security<br />
forces <strong>and</strong> militias armed for <strong>the</strong> defence of <strong>the</strong> community. Security <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>se regions is characterized by quasi-formal security arrangements, such<br />
as vigilantes, 37 Anti Stock Theft Units, LDUs <strong>and</strong> militias <strong>in</strong> Ug<strong>and</strong>a, <strong>and</strong><br />
by police reservists on <strong>the</strong> Kenyan side. In Ug<strong>and</strong>a, several armed <strong>groups</strong>,<br />
both legal <strong>and</strong> illegal, are <strong>in</strong> operation. In 1992, as security conditions <strong>in</strong><br />
Karamoja cont<strong>in</strong>ued to deteriorate, Moroto District Council decided to<br />
take matters <strong>in</strong>to its own h<strong>and</strong>s, organiz<strong>in</strong>g a local community security<br />
force recruited from <strong>among</strong> <strong>the</strong> armed warriors, with <strong>the</strong> responsibility of<br />
track<strong>in</strong>g raided cattle, answer<strong>in</strong>g al<strong>arms</strong> <strong>and</strong> secur<strong>in</strong>g roads. Members of<br />
this force came to be known as ‘The Vigilantes’. Initially, <strong>the</strong>y were supported<br />
by non-governmental organizations (NGOs) <strong>and</strong> churches, <strong>and</strong><br />
President Museveni gave his support, putt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>m under <strong>the</strong> authority of<br />
<strong>the</strong> Ug<strong>and</strong>a People’s Defence Force (UPDF). 38<br />
In 1995, <strong>the</strong> Ug<strong>and</strong>a government exp<strong>and</strong>ed <strong>the</strong> concept, <strong>and</strong> gun<br />
owners were told to register <strong>the</strong>ir <strong>weapons</strong> <strong>and</strong> become part of an <strong>in</strong>creased<br />
vigilante force. Recruits grew from ten to 1000 for each of <strong>the</strong> eight counties<br />
tra<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>and</strong> equipped by <strong>the</strong> government <strong>and</strong> under <strong>the</strong> comm<strong>and</strong> of<br />
<strong>the</strong> national army. 39 In return, <strong>the</strong> government undertook to give each vigilante<br />
10,000 Ug<strong>and</strong>an shill<strong>in</strong>gs (UgSh) ($6.50) each month. More<br />
recently, <strong>the</strong> amount has been <strong>in</strong>creased to 30,000 ($19.50). 40 Initially,<br />
<strong>the</strong>re was success <strong>in</strong> reduc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> levels of <strong>in</strong>security, <strong>the</strong>reby ga<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g community<br />
support. By <strong>the</strong> end of 1993, raid<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> road thuggery were<br />
reduced to isolated petty crim<strong>in</strong>al activities <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g a few people. Armed<br />
crim<strong>in</strong>als, once arrested, were prosecuted <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir guns confiscated.<br />
Raided cattle, looted property <strong>and</strong> sometimes even money were recovered<br />
by vigilantes <strong>and</strong> returned to <strong>the</strong>ir rightful owners. 41 Unlike <strong>the</strong> official<br />
35. National Assembly of Kenya, Report of <strong>the</strong> Parliamentary Select Committee to Investigate<br />
Ethnic Clashes <strong>in</strong> Western <strong>and</strong> O<strong>the</strong>r Parts of Kenya, (National Assembly, Nairobi, Government<br />
Press, 1992).<br />
36. Mkutu, Pastoralist Conflict <strong>and</strong> Small Arms.<br />
37. The term vigilante here refers to a self-appo<strong>in</strong>ted body of citizens organized to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><br />
order <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir local community. For more on vigilantes, see Les Johnston, ‘What is vigilantism?’<br />
British Journal of Crim<strong>in</strong>ology 36, 2 (1996), pp. 220–36. For <strong>the</strong> metamorphosis of vigilante <strong>in</strong><br />
Karamoja region <strong>and</strong> its current status, see Mkutu, Pastoral Conflict, Governance <strong>and</strong> Small Arms.<br />
38. Interviews with Fa<strong>the</strong>r John Bosco <strong>in</strong> Amudat, <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs, 2001–4.<br />
39. Interviews <strong>in</strong> Karamoja, 2001–4.<br />
40. Interviews <strong>in</strong> Karamoja, November 2004. By <strong>the</strong> end of 1995, <strong>the</strong> Ug<strong>and</strong>an government<br />
was spend<strong>in</strong>g over 60 million UgSh per month to pay vigilante <strong>in</strong> Karamoja alone. See<br />
‘Government spends Sh.60m on Karamoja vigilantes’, Daily Monitor, 9 October 1995.<br />
41. Gomes <strong>and</strong> Mkutu, ‘Break<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Cycle of Violence’.
54 AFRICAN AFFAIRS<br />
security forces, which robbed <strong>the</strong> locals of <strong>the</strong>ir cattle <strong>and</strong> were corrupt,<br />
one feature that dist<strong>in</strong>guished <strong>the</strong> orig<strong>in</strong>al vigilantes was that <strong>the</strong>y were not<br />
<strong>in</strong>fluenced by corruption.<br />
There were questions of who should have control of such a paramilitary<br />
group, particularly with regard to f<strong>in</strong>ances. Interviews with <strong>the</strong> vigilante<br />
noted that for months <strong>the</strong>y were not paid, such that, with <strong>the</strong>ir families<br />
starv<strong>in</strong>g, many deserted <strong>and</strong> reverted to warriorhood, cattle rustl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong><br />
b<strong>and</strong>itry. Locals noted that <strong>the</strong> security situation was now worse, because<br />
<strong>the</strong> desert<strong>in</strong>g warriors were now better tra<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>and</strong> were able to tra<strong>in</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs:<br />
In 1997 people were paraded <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir counties <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>y were be<strong>in</strong>g paid. However <strong>the</strong><br />
management deteriorated <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>y allowed <strong>the</strong>se people (<strong>the</strong> vigilantes) to operate<br />
illegally. It became a channel of settl<strong>in</strong>g personal scores. The police <strong>the</strong>n dem<strong>and</strong>ed to<br />
h<strong>and</strong>le <strong>the</strong> money so <strong>in</strong> 1998 <strong>the</strong>ir money was taken back to <strong>the</strong> police. The police at<br />
some po<strong>in</strong>t said <strong>the</strong> money was be<strong>in</strong>g misappropriated so it went back to <strong>the</strong> army.<br />
The same th<strong>in</strong>g happened with <strong>the</strong> army <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> issue with <strong>the</strong> money has never been<br />
sorted out to date. To me, what killed <strong>the</strong>m was corruption. If <strong>the</strong>y are taken care of<br />
well, <strong>the</strong>y should do a better job than <strong>the</strong> military. 42<br />
‘The Vigilantes’ were entirely a Karamoja creation. Thus, districts ravaged<br />
by cattle rustl<strong>in</strong>g, which neighboured Karamoja, dem<strong>and</strong>ed <strong>the</strong> creation of<br />
a more cosmopolitan paramilitary unit that would extend to <strong>the</strong>m. With<br />
<strong>the</strong> start of <strong>the</strong> disarmament <strong>in</strong> 2001, LDUs were recruited; some of which<br />
came from <strong>the</strong> vigilante <strong>groups</strong> <strong>and</strong> some from <strong>the</strong> karachunas (warriors). 43<br />
But <strong>the</strong> conditions for those recruited did not improve. With <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>itial<br />
underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g that <strong>the</strong>y would reside <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> community <strong>and</strong> be able to protect<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir own cattle <strong>and</strong> people <strong>and</strong> with money to feed <strong>the</strong>ir own families,<br />
<strong>the</strong>y were disappo<strong>in</strong>ted to discover that <strong>the</strong>y would often be used away<br />
from home, resid<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> barracks <strong>and</strong> fight<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> LRA <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> north. A resident<br />
district commissioner noted:<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce mid 2002, LDUs became discounted because of poor conditions of service.<br />
The army misunderstood <strong>the</strong> presidential directive of recruit<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
LDUs as a reserve force, but now <strong>the</strong>y are used as regular army <strong>and</strong> taken to fight<br />
Kony with very little pay <strong>and</strong> work as slaves, so most of <strong>the</strong>m have ended desert<strong>in</strong>g<br />
with <strong>the</strong>ir guns. 44<br />
There were o<strong>the</strong>r reasons why <strong>the</strong> LDUs worsened <strong>the</strong> SALW problem.<br />
Their creation was not imbedded <strong>in</strong> law, <strong>and</strong> it was unclear to whom <strong>the</strong>y<br />
were answerable. The police, <strong>the</strong> military <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> elders were all able to<br />
give comm<strong>and</strong>s. One must underst<strong>and</strong> that, with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir own communities,<br />
<strong>the</strong>se men had been used to prompt reaction, not to wait for orders<br />
from a distant cha<strong>in</strong> of comm<strong>and</strong> to which <strong>the</strong>y felt little allegiance. Therefore,<br />
42. Interview, name withheld, <strong>in</strong> Kampala, 17 May 2003.<br />
43. Interviews <strong>in</strong> Karamoja, 2001–4.<br />
44. Interview with resident district commissioner, name withheld, <strong>in</strong> Karamoja, 2004.
SALW AMONG PASTORAL GROUPS 55<br />
<strong>the</strong>y often used <strong>the</strong>ir guns <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir own battles, not only to protect but also<br />
to raid <strong>and</strong> sell <strong>arms</strong> <strong>and</strong> ammunition. 45<br />
Teso <strong>and</strong> Lango have created <strong>the</strong>ir own vigilantes to defend <strong>the</strong>mselves<br />
aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>the</strong> Karimojong. These are known as Arrow boys <strong>and</strong> Amuka boys.<br />
On 22 March 2000, an assortment of <strong>weapons</strong> was given by <strong>the</strong> government<br />
to <strong>the</strong> people (youth) of Teso District to defend <strong>the</strong>mselves aga<strong>in</strong>st<br />
Karimojong raiders. 46 It was also reported that each district had been<br />
required to provide 700 youths for tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g by <strong>the</strong> army. At a workshop<br />
held <strong>in</strong> Ug<strong>and</strong>a, one participant commented: ‘When <strong>the</strong>re is trouble <strong>the</strong><br />
government will come with guns <strong>and</strong> distribute <strong>the</strong>m, also, government<br />
adm<strong>in</strong>istration <strong>and</strong> chiefs are <strong>in</strong>volved, it is well known some get 10 per<br />
cent of <strong>the</strong> loot, <strong>and</strong> so will not expose <strong>the</strong> culprits no matter how much<br />
<strong>the</strong> community identifies <strong>the</strong>m’. 47 In November 2004, a Karimojong<br />
elder claimed that <strong>the</strong>y were fearful of <strong>the</strong>se vigilante <strong>groups</strong>, because<br />
<strong>the</strong> government was plann<strong>in</strong>g to use <strong>the</strong>m disguised as UPDF to disarm<br />
<strong>the</strong> Karimojong. This caused a reactionary <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> <strong>small</strong> <strong>arms</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
Karamoja. 48<br />
There are o<strong>the</strong>r examples of <strong>the</strong> government arm<strong>in</strong>g warriors. After <strong>the</strong><br />
failed first disarmament 2001–3, 49 <strong>in</strong>security escalated as <strong>the</strong> Pian found<br />
<strong>the</strong>mselves victims. The Ug<strong>and</strong>a government responded by re-arm<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
Pian home guards. Interviews noted that nearly 650 guns were h<strong>and</strong>ed out.<br />
This was done for <strong>the</strong> purpose of build<strong>in</strong>g confidence <strong>among</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pian<br />
home guards who were considered vulnerable to attacks from neighbour<strong>in</strong>g<br />
ethnic <strong>groups</strong>. This is a worry<strong>in</strong>g scenario given that <strong>the</strong> purpose of disarmament<br />
was to remove <strong>the</strong> <strong>weapons</strong> from <strong>the</strong> society. Arm<strong>in</strong>g one<br />
community triggers o<strong>the</strong>rs to dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>arms</strong> from <strong>the</strong> state <strong>and</strong> leads to<br />
more diffusion <strong>and</strong> weaponization of <strong>the</strong> communities. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, any<br />
<strong>arms</strong> collected should have been destroyed to avoid <strong>the</strong> same <strong>arms</strong> return<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to <strong>the</strong> community.<br />
On <strong>the</strong> Kenyan side of <strong>the</strong> border, <strong>the</strong> government has provided <strong>arms</strong> to<br />
<strong>the</strong> KPRs who are under <strong>the</strong> control of <strong>the</strong> police <strong>and</strong> district commissioners.<br />
The KPRs were established <strong>in</strong> 1948 to augment <strong>the</strong> activities of <strong>the</strong><br />
regular police force <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>pastoral</strong> areas of Kenya, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> force has been<br />
45. Mkutu, Pastoral Conflict, Governance <strong>and</strong> Small Arms (chapter 4).<br />
46. The Monitor, 22 March 2000.<br />
47. Inter-African Bureau for Animal Resources (IBAR) <strong>and</strong> Organisation of African Unity<br />
(OAU) <strong>pastoral</strong> community harmonization meet<strong>in</strong>g held at Mount Elgon Hotel, Mbale,<br />
Ug<strong>and</strong>a, May 2001.<br />
48. These were recognized by <strong>the</strong>ir language especially <strong>in</strong> Bokora: <strong>in</strong>terviews <strong>in</strong> Lotome,<br />
November 2004.<br />
49. For more on <strong>the</strong> disarmaments, see Mkutu, ‘Guns <strong>and</strong> Governance’; Kennedy Mkutu,<br />
‘Pastoralist conflict <strong>and</strong> <strong>small</strong> <strong>arms</strong>: <strong>the</strong> challenges of <strong>small</strong> <strong>arms</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>security <strong>and</strong> attempts<br />
at management <strong>in</strong> Karamoja, Ug<strong>and</strong>a’ (Paper presented at <strong>the</strong> Nor<strong>the</strong>ast Africa Sem<strong>in</strong>ar,<br />
Institute of Social <strong>and</strong> Cultural Anthropology, University of Oxford, 30 January 2004); From<br />
2004 to January 2006, 1,068 <strong>arms</strong> have been recovered forcibly <strong>and</strong> voluntarily <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> four<br />
districts of Karamoja. See Daily Monitor, 9 January 2006.
56 AFRICAN AFFAIRS<br />
a key element <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> fight aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>in</strong>security. Nearly 2,000 of <strong>the</strong>se are <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> North Rift <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> North Eastern Prov<strong>in</strong>ce. They tackle <strong>in</strong>surgents <strong>and</strong><br />
cattle rustlers from <strong>the</strong> neighbour<strong>in</strong>g countries. KPRs are hired on a voluntary<br />
basis with no allowances or benefits. They are given only m<strong>in</strong>imal<br />
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g, but none<strong>the</strong>less, <strong>in</strong> <strong>pastoral</strong> areas, <strong>the</strong>y are supplied with <strong>arms</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> ammunition by <strong>the</strong> authorities. In <strong>the</strong> Laws of Kenya Cap.14, section<br />
5 (1), it is stated that a licensed officer should issue all fire<strong>arms</strong>, but <strong>in</strong> practice,<br />
reservists simply obta<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir fire<strong>arms</strong> from <strong>the</strong> senior police officer <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> district. 50<br />
KPRs appear to reta<strong>in</strong> significant community support, be<strong>in</strong>g a visible<br />
community security force. The system allows <strong>the</strong> local elders to use ameto<br />
(traditional punishment <strong>in</strong> Karimojong through whipp<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> f<strong>in</strong>es) <strong>and</strong><br />
lapai (compensation) <strong>in</strong> Pokot to punish villagers who have transgressed<br />
<strong>the</strong> law without h<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>m to <strong>the</strong> mistrusted modern judiciary system.<br />
They have good local knowledge of <strong>the</strong> areas <strong>in</strong> which <strong>the</strong>y are operat<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
which helps <strong>the</strong>m to predict when <strong>and</strong> where raids will take place, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
ability to navigate <strong>and</strong> traverse <strong>the</strong> difficult terra<strong>in</strong>. They are well motivated,<br />
because <strong>the</strong>y are protect<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>ir own cattle <strong>and</strong> communities. 51<br />
However, it emerged that it is easy for <strong>the</strong>m to be compromised: guns<br />
issued to <strong>the</strong> reservists are frequently hired out or used <strong>in</strong> b<strong>and</strong>itry <strong>and</strong><br />
raid<strong>in</strong>g. This subsequently underm<strong>in</strong>es <strong>the</strong> security <strong>the</strong>y are supposed to<br />
protect <strong>and</strong> creates <strong>in</strong>stability, dissuad<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>vestment <strong>and</strong> development.<br />
In 2003, because of <strong>the</strong> corruption <strong>and</strong> misuse of <strong>the</strong> <strong>arms</strong> under <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
custody, 600 KPRs were disarmed <strong>in</strong> Tana River, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> most urban areas<br />
of Kenya, <strong>the</strong>y were disb<strong>and</strong>ed as of 18 April 2004. Among <strong>the</strong> reasons<br />
given was that officers had become a threat to <strong>the</strong> national security <strong>in</strong>stead<br />
of defend<strong>in</strong>g it. In some areas, <strong>the</strong> officers comm<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g police divisions<br />
did not know <strong>the</strong> number of men <strong>the</strong>y had, even though <strong>the</strong>y were issued<br />
with fire<strong>arms</strong>, ammunition <strong>and</strong> walkie-talkies. 52 One key advantage of<br />
<strong>groups</strong> like KPR is <strong>the</strong> cost sav<strong>in</strong>gs of us<strong>in</strong>g unpaid local people. Although<br />
a cheap option for <strong>the</strong> exchequer, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> long run, <strong>the</strong>y may be costly for<br />
<strong>the</strong> country. However, <strong>the</strong>y have shown <strong>the</strong>ir worth as an effective early<br />
warn<strong>in</strong>g mechanism, which could be utilized.<br />
Arms are also acquired through attack<strong>in</strong>g enemies. Pastoralists capture<br />
<strong>weapons</strong> from military forces, particularly <strong>the</strong> UPDF. Examples of this are<br />
numerous. A UPDF soldier <strong>in</strong> Namalu noted, ‘The warriors just attack<br />
any UPDF on patrol <strong>and</strong> take <strong>the</strong>ir AK47, <strong>the</strong> warriors have <strong>in</strong>stituted <strong>the</strong><br />
AK47 as <strong>the</strong>ir official fight<strong>in</strong>g <strong>weapons</strong>’. 53 In Namalu <strong>in</strong> January 2003, <strong>the</strong><br />
50. Confirmed by <strong>in</strong>terviews <strong>in</strong> Karamoja, 2001–4.<br />
51. Interviews <strong>in</strong> kraals <strong>in</strong> Karamoja, 2003–4.<br />
52. ‘Protests as state dis<strong>arms</strong> homeguards over clashes’, Daily Nation, 29 November 2004;<br />
‘Police reserves were a threat to security’, Kenya Times, 21 April 2004; ‘Kenya Police reserve<br />
force is disb<strong>and</strong>ed,’ Daily Nation, 10 April 2004.<br />
53. Interview with UPDF soldier <strong>in</strong> Namalu, 28 January 2003.
SALW AMONG PASTORAL GROUPS 57<br />
Upe Pokot assisted by <strong>the</strong>ir Kenyan Pokot cous<strong>in</strong>s raided a newly created<br />
Pian settlement, which hosted some cows from Pian relatives <strong>in</strong> Nabilatuk.<br />
They came at around 11 p.m., took 600 cows <strong>and</strong> killed two karachunas<br />
(warriors) <strong>and</strong> two shepherd boys. 54 Apparently, this was a revenge raid<br />
after Pian from Nabilatuk had raided Pokot kraals <strong>in</strong> Achorichor a month<br />
before, tak<strong>in</strong>g an estimated 60–200 cows. To follow up <strong>the</strong> January<br />
revenge raid, a group of UPDF, LDUs <strong>and</strong> elders from Namalu tracked<br />
<strong>the</strong> footmarks to Karita <strong>in</strong> Upe Pokot, plann<strong>in</strong>g to recover <strong>the</strong> cattle. On<br />
<strong>the</strong> way, a Pian emuron (div<strong>in</strong>er) foresaw problems <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> elders did not<br />
cont<strong>in</strong>ue. Meanwhile, an Upe Pokot div<strong>in</strong>er had also foreseen <strong>the</strong> situation<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>formed <strong>the</strong> Pokot warriors. The Pokot <strong>the</strong>n comb<strong>in</strong>ed with <strong>the</strong><br />
Pokot LDU <strong>and</strong> ambushed <strong>the</strong> recovery party on <strong>the</strong>ir journey kill<strong>in</strong>g an<br />
estimated 60–72 soldiers, confirmed by <strong>in</strong>terviews with medical practitioners<br />
at Amudat. 55 A Catholic fa<strong>the</strong>r <strong>in</strong>terviewed confirmed <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>cident <strong>and</strong><br />
argued that ‘Out of 120 soldiers, 72 were killed <strong>and</strong> this meant that <strong>the</strong><br />
warriors are now 72 guns richer’. 56 In ano<strong>the</strong>r example, from Nyaupong, a<br />
border town, <strong>the</strong> UPDF were pursu<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Kenyan Pokot for carry<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>arms</strong> <strong>in</strong>to Ug<strong>and</strong>a. Once over <strong>the</strong> border, <strong>the</strong> Pokot acquired re<strong>in</strong>forcements,<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> two sides exchanged fire for nearly three hours. The UPDF<br />
lost 28 personnel, <strong>and</strong> reliable local sources revealed that a good number of<br />
<strong>arms</strong> were captured. 57 The author had <strong>the</strong> opportunity to visit <strong>the</strong> site a<br />
few days later <strong>and</strong> collected 20 empty cartridges as evidence. A karachuna<br />
<strong>in</strong>terviewed <strong>in</strong> Kangole said ‘We get some guns <strong>in</strong> raid<strong>in</strong>g. The people<br />
killed are sources of guns to raiders’. 58 A shuffl<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>arms</strong> back <strong>and</strong> forth<br />
between ethnic <strong>groups</strong> was noted by an elder: ‘As you raid lives are taken,<br />
<strong>the</strong> number of guns <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> areas is reduced because of <strong>the</strong> several deaths. But<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> raid<strong>in</strong>g county, <strong>the</strong> <strong>arms</strong> are <strong>in</strong>creased hence <strong>the</strong> rotat<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>arms</strong>’. 59<br />
Routes of <strong>arms</strong> acquisition<br />
Figure 1 shows <strong>the</strong> routes used by <strong>arms</strong> traders to move <strong>small</strong> <strong>arms</strong> <strong>in</strong>to<br />
<strong>the</strong> Kenya–Ug<strong>and</strong>a border area; <strong>in</strong>formation was obta<strong>in</strong>ed through <strong>in</strong>terviews<br />
of prov<strong>in</strong>cial adm<strong>in</strong>istrators <strong>and</strong> community members, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
warriors, elders, racketeers <strong>and</strong> bus<strong>in</strong>essmen. The routes used are not fixed<br />
54. Interviews <strong>in</strong> Namalu, January 2004. The author personally visited <strong>the</strong> kraal where<br />
<strong>the</strong> animals were raided <strong>and</strong> witnessed <strong>the</strong> graves of <strong>the</strong> children who had been killed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
crossfire.<br />
55. Interview with Amudat hospital personnel, January 2003; <strong>in</strong>terviews with several members<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Karimojong <strong>and</strong> Upe Pokot community concurred <strong>in</strong> 2004.<br />
56. Interview with Roman Catholic Fa<strong>the</strong>r <strong>in</strong> Karamoja, name withheld, Karamoja 2004.<br />
57. Interviews with elders <strong>in</strong> Alale, Kenya, August 2002, <strong>and</strong> visit to <strong>the</strong> scene. This was not<br />
reported <strong>in</strong> any press.<br />
58. Interview with karachunas <strong>in</strong> Kangole, July 2001; <strong>in</strong>terviews <strong>in</strong> Musasia, Nakaplimoru<br />
<strong>and</strong> Pangayangara <strong>in</strong> September–November, 2004, confirmed this.<br />
59. Interview with elder Koritantoyo <strong>in</strong> Nakiliro, 2 February 2003.
58 AFRICAN AFFAIRS<br />
Figure 1. Routes of <strong>arms</strong>’ flows on <strong>the</strong> Kenya–Ug<strong>and</strong>a border<br />
[Source: Mkutu (2003, 2005); field <strong>in</strong>terviews 2001–5]<br />
but may be variable with circumstances <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> level of official security.<br />
This is particularly <strong>the</strong> case on <strong>the</strong> Kenyan side, where <strong>the</strong> security forces<br />
regularly mount checkpo<strong>in</strong>ts on routes <strong>and</strong> patrol r<strong>and</strong>omly. Any sale of<br />
<strong>arms</strong> by soldiers on <strong>the</strong> Kenyan side is subject to heavy punishment,<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g dismissal. In Ug<strong>and</strong>a, s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong> launch of <strong>the</strong> third phase of disarmament<br />
<strong>in</strong> Ug<strong>and</strong>a 2004, <strong>the</strong> government has become stricter with <strong>the</strong><br />
conduct of security, but because of lack of resources, <strong>the</strong> routes have<br />
become more established. 60<br />
60. Interview <strong>in</strong> Karamoja, November 2004.
SALW AMONG PASTORAL GROUPS 59<br />
There are four ma<strong>in</strong> routes for <strong>the</strong> movement of <strong>small</strong> <strong>arms</strong> <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> border<br />
area. The first <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> most commonly used route is <strong>in</strong>to Karamoja from<br />
Sudan. The second is <strong>the</strong> Karenga–Lopoch–Kotido route which is a tributary<br />
from <strong>the</strong> first route, supply<strong>in</strong>g Karamoja via <strong>the</strong> Jie peoples. The<br />
Acholi–Jie route is a new emerg<strong>in</strong>g source to <strong>the</strong> Jie <strong>and</strong> is considered <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> same section. The third route considered is <strong>the</strong> route from Sudan <strong>in</strong>to<br />
Lokichogio <strong>in</strong> Kenya. The fourth route is <strong>the</strong> ‘north-eastern route’ <strong>in</strong>to<br />
Kenya from Somalia. There used to be a route orig<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Ethiopia <strong>and</strong><br />
connect<strong>in</strong>g to Ug<strong>and</strong>a via Sudan, but <strong>the</strong> eviction of <strong>the</strong> Sudan People’s<br />
Liberation Army (SPLA) from Ethiopia led to its decl<strong>in</strong>e.<br />
Large quantities of <strong>small</strong> <strong>arms</strong> are brought across <strong>the</strong> Sudan border from<br />
Namule <strong>and</strong> Kopeta directly <strong>in</strong>to Kotido town <strong>and</strong> surround<strong>in</strong>g villages.<br />
From <strong>the</strong>re, some are taken on to Pokot <strong>and</strong> Samburu areas <strong>in</strong> Kenya.<br />
O<strong>the</strong>rs are taken on to Moroto <strong>and</strong> Nakapiripirit districts <strong>in</strong> Ug<strong>and</strong>a.<br />
Interviews <strong>in</strong>dicated that bus<strong>in</strong>essmen were <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> transport<strong>in</strong>g <strong>arms</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> miraa (khat) from Kotido district <strong>in</strong> Ug<strong>and</strong>a to Kachiliba town, West<br />
Pokot district, <strong>in</strong> Kenya. 61 Evidence from <strong>in</strong>terviews with Sudanese refugees<br />
<strong>and</strong> high-placed sources have revealed that, dur<strong>in</strong>g 1993–4, <strong>the</strong> SPLA<br />
laid off several hundred officers, giv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>m vary<strong>in</strong>g quantities of <strong>small</strong><br />
<strong>arms</strong> as a k<strong>in</strong>d of retirement package. The officers sold many of <strong>the</strong>se to<br />
susta<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>mselves at gun markets on <strong>the</strong> Ug<strong>and</strong>an side of <strong>the</strong> border. The<br />
practice cont<strong>in</strong>ues today:<br />
[The] SPLA come <strong>in</strong> to Ug<strong>and</strong>a with donkey loads of ammunition <strong>and</strong> guns <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>y<br />
exchange <strong>the</strong>m for gra<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> livestock. Livestock captured with <strong>the</strong> use of <strong>arms</strong> are<br />
sold or exchanged for <strong>arms</strong>, which actually <strong>in</strong>creases <strong>the</strong> quantities of <strong>small</strong> <strong>arms</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> h<strong>and</strong>s of traders/warlords or warriors. The <strong>arms</strong> are <strong>the</strong>n traded for more cattle.<br />
The SPLA army needs food, <strong>and</strong> that is how <strong>the</strong>y are gett<strong>in</strong>g part of <strong>the</strong>ir food. 62<br />
When <strong>in</strong>terviewed, <strong>the</strong> SPLA personnel denied trad<strong>in</strong>g <strong>arms</strong> for food or<br />
cattle, argu<strong>in</strong>g that <strong>the</strong>y have no l<strong>in</strong>k to <strong>the</strong> <strong>arms</strong> traders mov<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to<br />
Ug<strong>and</strong>a. 63 With <strong>the</strong> comprehensive peace agreement signed recently<br />
between <strong>the</strong> SPLA <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> government of Sudan, this route may be com<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to a close; although without <strong>in</strong>vestment <strong>in</strong> security <strong>and</strong> development,<br />
people would be look<strong>in</strong>g for ways to capitalize on <strong>the</strong> huge number of <strong>arms</strong><br />
still <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> war-torn <strong>pastoral</strong> areas, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>arms</strong> flow may cont<strong>in</strong>ue.<br />
The Karenga–Lopoch–Kotido route is a tributary from <strong>the</strong> above <strong>and</strong><br />
a major route to <strong>the</strong> Jie who are believed to <strong>the</strong>n sell <strong>the</strong>m to <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
Karimojong ethnic <strong>groups</strong>. 64 Interviews <strong>in</strong> Jie revealed o<strong>the</strong>r sources to <strong>the</strong><br />
61. Interviews <strong>in</strong> Karamoja, Ug<strong>and</strong>a <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> West Pokot, Kenya, 2001–4, <strong>and</strong> phone <strong>and</strong><br />
e-mail communications, 2005. In Namalu <strong>and</strong> Kangole <strong>in</strong> Karamoja, warriors could be seen<br />
chew<strong>in</strong>g miraa (Khat).<br />
62. Interview with a SPLA soldier, name withheld, Moroto, 20 June 2001.<br />
63. Ibid.<br />
64. Interview with James Chere, former raider <strong>and</strong> now chief of Rupa <strong>in</strong> Rupa, 2003 <strong>and</strong> 2004.
60 AFRICAN AFFAIRS<br />
Jie, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g those from Did<strong>in</strong>ga <strong>in</strong> Sudan <strong>and</strong> near Kidepo on <strong>the</strong> Sudan<br />
border. There is also a route from Sudan through Labalangit, <strong>in</strong> Dodoth.<br />
In 1995, it was reported that <strong>the</strong>re were six major <strong>small</strong> <strong>arms</strong> markets<br />
along <strong>the</strong> Sudan–Ug<strong>and</strong>a border, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g those at Lobolanget, Kapedo,<br />
Kathile, Kangole, Moroto <strong>and</strong> lastly Karenga, which is a major open market<br />
for <strong>small</strong> <strong>arms</strong>. 65 Small <strong>arms</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>ue to be shuttled between such<br />
markets, although markets are often closed by security clampdowns. 66<br />
Field <strong>in</strong>terviews <strong>in</strong> september 2004 noted that a new source of <strong>arms</strong> was<br />
Acholi through Joseph Kony’s Lord’s Resistance Army. Interviews<br />
<strong>in</strong>formed <strong>the</strong> author that LRA rebels, often desert<strong>in</strong>g, sell <strong>the</strong> guns to <strong>the</strong><br />
Jie kraal leaders <strong>and</strong> karachunas stationed <strong>in</strong> Acholi dur<strong>in</strong>g dry seasons. 67<br />
Also, it was noted that rusty <strong>arms</strong> are com<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> from this source, suggest<strong>in</strong>g<br />
that <strong>the</strong>se are <strong>arms</strong> buried dur<strong>in</strong>g past wars, which are now be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
recovered <strong>and</strong> sold on as opportunities for sale open up. 68<br />
Evidence from <strong>the</strong> field <strong>in</strong>dicated that, from <strong>the</strong> same route, after <strong>arms</strong><br />
have reached <strong>the</strong> Dodoth <strong>and</strong> Jie, <strong>the</strong>y percolate to o<strong>the</strong>r Karamoja areas,<br />
such as Pian <strong>and</strong> Ma<strong>the</strong>niko. Interviews also <strong>in</strong>dicated that <strong>the</strong> source of<br />
<strong>arms</strong> to <strong>the</strong> Turkana is <strong>the</strong> Jie who are <strong>the</strong>ir cous<strong>in</strong>s.<br />
The north-eastern route beg<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> Somalia, mov<strong>in</strong>g through <strong>the</strong> Merille<br />
area <strong>in</strong> Ethiopia <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>n onto <strong>the</strong> Karamoja region <strong>in</strong> Ug<strong>and</strong>a. From <strong>the</strong>re,<br />
<strong>small</strong> <strong>arms</strong> move through Upe Pokot areas <strong>in</strong> Ug<strong>and</strong>a <strong>and</strong> across <strong>the</strong> border<br />
<strong>in</strong>to Turkana <strong>and</strong> Pokot areas on <strong>the</strong> Kenyan side. This route is very costly,<br />
because <strong>the</strong> <strong>arms</strong> have to pass through a series of brokers over a long distance.<br />
For this reason, relatively few <strong>arms</strong> currently come through this route. In<br />
addition, <strong>the</strong> trademark gun of <strong>the</strong> Karimojong as noted early is now <strong>the</strong><br />
AK47, whereas <strong>the</strong> guns that come through this route are G3 rifles, considered<br />
outdated. However, if <strong>the</strong> Sudan–Karamoja route was to be more effectively<br />
policed, <strong>the</strong> north-eastern route could quickly become more important.<br />
Somalis are very <strong>in</strong>fluential <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Kenya–Ug<strong>and</strong>a border area. Their <strong>in</strong>volvement<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>small</strong> <strong>arms</strong> trade may also be facilitated by <strong>the</strong> fact that <strong>the</strong>y operate<br />
<strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> bus transport system from Sudan to Ug<strong>and</strong>a <strong>and</strong> also that <strong>the</strong>y<br />
control <strong>the</strong> m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g of marble <strong>in</strong> Rupa areas. 69 One respondent asserted:<br />
The best <strong>arms</strong> smugglers are Somali, <strong>the</strong>y carry guns on donkeys <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>y exchange <strong>the</strong>m<br />
for oxen. They do not follow roads. They take miraa (khat) to Kachiliba <strong>in</strong> Kenya, Iriri,<br />
Karenga, Namulu <strong>in</strong> Ug<strong>and</strong>a; sometimes <strong>the</strong>y transport <strong>the</strong> guns <strong>in</strong> miraa. 70<br />
65. ADOL ‘Arms traffick<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> border regions of Sudan, Ug<strong>and</strong>a <strong>and</strong> Kenya’ (Unpublished<br />
report ADOL, Kampala, 2001), pp. 202–10.<br />
66. Interview with elder <strong>in</strong> Moroto, 20 June 2001.<br />
67. In <strong>the</strong> field <strong>in</strong> October 2004, reliable sources <strong>in</strong> Karamoja <strong>in</strong>dicated that Kony was spotted<br />
<strong>in</strong> Lira. Interviews <strong>in</strong> Kotido with various people, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g Local Council Fives, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
Kanawat, February 2003, also confirmed Kony as a source of <strong>weapons</strong> to <strong>pastoral</strong>ists.<br />
68. Interviews <strong>in</strong> Losilang <strong>and</strong> Kachile, Jie, October–November 2004.<br />
69. Interviews with Somali bus<strong>in</strong>essmen who own m<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong> Karamoja, 2003–4; <strong>in</strong>terviews <strong>in</strong><br />
Moroto, Nikloro <strong>and</strong> Namalu <strong>and</strong> visits to m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g areas.<br />
70. Interviews <strong>in</strong> Namalu <strong>and</strong> Mbale, name withheld, 20 June 2001.
SALW AMONG PASTORAL GROUPS 61<br />
There appears to be a grow<strong>in</strong>g trend for <strong>the</strong> chew<strong>in</strong>g of miraa by young<br />
warriors 71 <strong>in</strong> many <strong>small</strong> towns <strong>in</strong> border areas, a habit that has spread from<br />
Somalis. Miraa grows wild on Mount Kadama <strong>and</strong> Mount Napa <strong>in</strong> Iriri,<br />
Ug<strong>and</strong>a. Evidence suggests that it is one of <strong>the</strong> best miraa <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> region <strong>and</strong><br />
that <strong>the</strong> harvesters are Somali. This trend <strong>the</strong>n facilitates <strong>the</strong> <strong>small</strong> <strong>arms</strong><br />
trade. Traders from Sudan sometimes pass through Turkana villages <strong>in</strong><br />
Kenya <strong>and</strong> sell <strong>small</strong> <strong>arms</strong> to <strong>the</strong>m directly. Turkana traders <strong>the</strong>n often take<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>arms</strong> <strong>in</strong>to Upe Pokot areas <strong>in</strong> Karamoja region <strong>in</strong> Ug<strong>and</strong>a for sale. From<br />
<strong>the</strong>re, <strong>arms</strong> may once aga<strong>in</strong> be taken back across <strong>the</strong> border <strong>and</strong> re-sold <strong>in</strong><br />
Kenya. Because of <strong>the</strong> rivalry between <strong>the</strong> Turkana <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Samburu, most<br />
<strong>arms</strong> that reach <strong>the</strong> latter come directly from Sudan to Lokichogio.<br />
Some characteristics of <strong>the</strong> dem<strong>and</strong> for <strong>and</strong> use of <strong>small</strong> <strong>arms</strong><br />
Close exam<strong>in</strong>ation of <strong>the</strong> dem<strong>and</strong> for <strong>arms</strong> reveals a complex <strong>in</strong>terplay of<br />
environmental, cultural, historical <strong>and</strong> governance issues. Remoteness <strong>and</strong><br />
environmental scarcity have contributed to <strong>the</strong> difficulties of <strong>pastoral</strong> peoples<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir dependence upon a mobile, cattle-rear<strong>in</strong>g lifestyle <strong>and</strong> to<br />
marg<strong>in</strong>alization, underdevelopment <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>security. In former times, <strong>pastoral</strong>ists<br />
had cop<strong>in</strong>g mechanisms for times of extreme scarcity, which<br />
<strong>in</strong>cluded mobility <strong>in</strong>to o<strong>the</strong>r areas, alliances <strong>and</strong> agreements with o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
<strong>groups</strong>, <strong>and</strong> raid<strong>in</strong>g. Raid<strong>in</strong>g was usually <strong>small</strong>-scale <strong>and</strong> did not <strong>in</strong>volve<br />
modern <strong>weapons</strong>, <strong>and</strong> cattle circulated between <strong>groups</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> area. 72 However,<br />
colonial <strong>and</strong> postcolonial governments have gazetted large tracts of<br />
<strong>pastoral</strong> l<strong>and</strong> such that <strong>pastoral</strong>ists compete for <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly <strong>small</strong> areas of<br />
pasture <strong>and</strong> scarce sources of water. From <strong>the</strong> 1950s, both <strong>the</strong> Kenyan <strong>and</strong><br />
Ug<strong>and</strong>an governments sought to <strong>in</strong>troduce private l<strong>and</strong> tenure, which discrim<strong>in</strong>ated<br />
aga<strong>in</strong>st non-settled peoples who were not adapted to own<strong>in</strong>g<br />
l<strong>and</strong>. Pressure on l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r resources has <strong>in</strong>creased s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>in</strong>dependence,<br />
partly because of <strong>the</strong> regularity <strong>and</strong> severity of droughts. From 1999<br />
to 2000, drought affected West Pokot, <strong>and</strong> severe drought affected<br />
Karamoja <strong>in</strong> 2003. Raids escalated as a result. 73 From 2005 to 2006, West<br />
Pokot was aga<strong>in</strong> fac<strong>in</strong>g severe droughts, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>pastoral</strong>ists have moved<br />
across <strong>the</strong> border to Ug<strong>and</strong>a. 74 To date, <strong>pastoral</strong> l<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> Nakapiripirit <strong>in</strong><br />
Karamoja is still under threat, hav<strong>in</strong>g been offered to private <strong>in</strong>vestors<br />
for agriculture <strong>and</strong> ranch<strong>in</strong>g. This l<strong>and</strong> is vital to <strong>pastoral</strong>ists <strong>in</strong> times of<br />
drought, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> issue has led to arm<strong>in</strong>g by <strong>the</strong> Karimojong. 75 Karamoja is<br />
71. Observed <strong>in</strong> Namalu <strong>and</strong> Kangole <strong>in</strong> Ug<strong>and</strong>a <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> Alale <strong>in</strong> Kenya.<br />
72. S<strong>and</strong>ra Gray, ‘A memory of loss: ecological politics, local history, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> evolution of<br />
Karimojong violence’, Human Organization 59, 4 (2000), pp. 401–18.<br />
73. Mkutu, ‘Pastoralist Conflict <strong>and</strong> Small Arms’, p. 11.<br />
74. Fa<strong>the</strong>r Joachim Omolo Ouko, ‘Clearly fam<strong>in</strong>e caught govt napp<strong>in</strong>g’, Kenya Times,<br />
5 January 2006 (5 January<br />
2006).
62 AFRICAN AFFAIRS<br />
also an area of <strong>in</strong>terest for private m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g companies, of which <strong>the</strong>re<br />
are now six, all of <strong>the</strong>m foreign. This is a major source of conflict between<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>pastoral</strong>ists <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> government <strong>and</strong> has <strong>in</strong>creased <strong>the</strong> acquisition of<br />
<strong>weapons</strong>. 76<br />
Pastoralist <strong>in</strong>ternal political organization promotes bravery <strong>and</strong>, if necessary,<br />
violence — for example, for <strong>the</strong> ascension of young men through <strong>the</strong><br />
age-set system from shepherd boys to warriors. Bridewealth is ano<strong>the</strong>r<br />
major factor with prices rang<strong>in</strong>g from 20 heads of cattle <strong>in</strong> West Pokot up<br />
to 160 <strong>in</strong> Jie. High prices are ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed partly by <strong>the</strong> need to replenish<br />
cattle lost to raid<strong>in</strong>g. In <strong>the</strong> past when <strong>pastoral</strong> societies were more prosperous,<br />
parents would provide <strong>the</strong> cattle for <strong>the</strong>ir sons when <strong>the</strong>y marry,<br />
but now young men need to arm <strong>the</strong>mselves <strong>and</strong> raid. 77<br />
The m<strong>in</strong>ister for Karamoja noted ‘Guns are an economic <strong>in</strong>vestment<br />
<strong>and</strong> a convertible currency’. 78 A Catholic fa<strong>the</strong>r concurred: ‘The people<br />
have come to depend on it as <strong>the</strong>ir source of livelihood’. 79 The <strong>in</strong>troduction<br />
of <strong>arms</strong> <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> <strong>pastoral</strong> areas has allowed <strong>in</strong>fluential bus<strong>in</strong>essmen or<br />
elders to ga<strong>in</strong> control of <strong>the</strong> cattle raid<strong>in</strong>g equation, sell cattle out of <strong>the</strong><br />
district <strong>and</strong> thus impoverish <strong>the</strong> region. Arms are <strong>the</strong>n necessary to enable<br />
one to have a livelihood work<strong>in</strong>g for a racketeer.<br />
Marg<strong>in</strong>alization <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>security<br />
District officers surveyed <strong>in</strong> Kenya stated that <strong>pastoral</strong>ists ma<strong>in</strong>ly<br />
dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>arms</strong> for protection of animals <strong>and</strong> people from attacks by neighbour<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>groups</strong>. A few respondents mentioned <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>ability of <strong>the</strong> government<br />
to adequately protect <strong>the</strong> people, <strong>in</strong> a situation of porous<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternational borders through which <strong>small</strong> <strong>arms</strong> are flow<strong>in</strong>g, such that<br />
<strong>the</strong>re is a localized <strong>in</strong>ter-communal <strong>arms</strong> race. 80<br />
Pastoral areas have historically been <strong>the</strong> victims of marg<strong>in</strong>alization<br />
(political, economic <strong>and</strong> social isolation), with <strong>the</strong> absence of effective<br />
governance or, <strong>in</strong> some places, with <strong>the</strong> total absence of government <strong>and</strong><br />
judicial systems. 81 Colonial governments often appeared to be seek<strong>in</strong>g<br />
not just to end cattle raid<strong>in</strong>g but <strong>pastoral</strong>ism itself, on <strong>the</strong> grounds that it<br />
was a backward way of life. This contributed to a process of grow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
75. Interviews <strong>in</strong> Nakapiripirit, Moroto <strong>and</strong> Nikoloro <strong>and</strong> observation, 2003.<br />
76. Riamiriam, ‘The policy advocacy role of Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) <strong>in</strong> Karamoja:<br />
The challenges <strong>and</strong> successes’ (Unpublished report, Riamiriam, Moroto, 2005).<br />
77. Mkutu, ‘Pastoralist Conflict <strong>and</strong> Small Arms’, pp. 17–18; for numbers of cows paid for<br />
brides, see Mkutu, ‘Pastoralist Conflict, Governance <strong>and</strong> Small Arms’, p. 167; ADOL, ‘Karamoja<br />
response to disarmament’.<br />
78. Interview with Peter Lokeris, M<strong>in</strong>ister for Karamoja, <strong>in</strong> Kampala, January 2003.<br />
79. Interview with Fa<strong>the</strong>r John Bosco who is a victim of a gunshot <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> knee, St Joseph’s<br />
Mission, Amudat, 28 January 2004.<br />
80. Interviews <strong>in</strong> Karamoja <strong>and</strong> West Pokot <strong>in</strong> Kenya, 2001–4.<br />
81. Interviews, visits <strong>and</strong> observations.
SALW AMONG PASTORAL GROUPS 63<br />
marg<strong>in</strong>alization. In 1945, <strong>the</strong> district commissioner for West Suk 82 noted<br />
that:<br />
West Suk, after (I th<strong>in</strong>k) 34 years adm<strong>in</strong>istration, ranks as one of <strong>the</strong> most backward<br />
districts <strong>in</strong> Kenya . . . This lag is attributable solely to <strong>the</strong> fact that geographically <strong>the</strong>y<br />
are, so to speak, on <strong>the</strong> edge of <strong>the</strong> world <strong>and</strong> West Suk has come to be regarded as a<br />
C<strong>in</strong>derella district where noth<strong>in</strong>g much happens <strong>and</strong> to which no great attention need<br />
to be given so long as <strong>the</strong>y behave <strong>the</strong>mselves. This is <strong>in</strong> consonance with <strong>the</strong> policy<br />
which appears to have been adopted by Government, possibly without fully appreciat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>the</strong> implications, viz. ‘To him that hath shall be given’ . . . <strong>the</strong>reby ever widen<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>the</strong> gap between <strong>the</strong> ‘advanced’ <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> ‘backward’ areas. 83<br />
It must be said that not much appears to have changed <strong>in</strong> West Suk (West<br />
Pokot) <strong>in</strong> 60 years, <strong>and</strong> a similar picture exists <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r cross-border<br />
areas. Similarly, <strong>the</strong>re is <strong>in</strong>adequate security, absence of security, or corruption<br />
of <strong>the</strong> security. The illicit <strong>arms</strong> trade persists, despite <strong>the</strong> knowledge<br />
of security personnel who know all <strong>the</strong> routes <strong>and</strong> entry po<strong>in</strong>ts of<br />
<strong>arms</strong>. 84 The <strong>in</strong>adequacy of <strong>the</strong> state <strong>in</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g security, law <strong>and</strong> order<br />
br<strong>in</strong>gs it <strong>in</strong>to conflict with communities who are try<strong>in</strong>g to fill <strong>the</strong> security<br />
void <strong>the</strong>mselves. Knighton deplores <strong>the</strong> manner <strong>in</strong> which confiscated livestock<br />
are stolen by <strong>the</strong> government officers <strong>and</strong> calls <strong>the</strong> state ‘a raider’. 85<br />
The plunder creates at one level destitution <strong>and</strong> demoralization <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> society.<br />
The result is <strong>the</strong> communities see<strong>in</strong>g SALW as <strong>the</strong>ir only protection.<br />
State brutality<br />
The Kenyan <strong>and</strong> Ug<strong>and</strong>an authorities have often used force aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>pastoral</strong><br />
communities, sometimes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> context of efforts at disarmament. 86<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce 1979, <strong>the</strong>re have been 12 operations by <strong>the</strong> Kenyan army to try <strong>and</strong><br />
retrieve unlicensed <strong>arms</strong> from <strong>the</strong> Pokot, with a fur<strong>the</strong>r attempt <strong>in</strong> 2005. 87<br />
Okudi notes that <strong>the</strong> coercive arm of <strong>the</strong> state was taken to Karamoja to<br />
tame <strong>pastoral</strong> society. 88 From 2001 to 2005, <strong>the</strong> government has been<br />
82. West Pokot was formerly known as West Suk.<br />
83. KNA, District Commissioner West Suk, Annual Report, 1945, pp. 2–3.<br />
84. Interviews <strong>and</strong> observations, 2001–4.<br />
85. Ben Knighton, ‘The state as raider <strong>among</strong> <strong>the</strong> Karimojong: where <strong>the</strong>re are no guns<br />
<strong>the</strong>y use <strong>the</strong> threat of guns’, Africa 73, 203 (2003), pp. 427–55.<br />
86. Knighton, ‘The state as raider’, pp. 443–46; ‘Residents plead for army bases at border’,<br />
Daily Nation, 7 June 2002 (7 June 2002); <strong>the</strong> government of Kenya was accused of kill<strong>in</strong>g residents<br />
under <strong>the</strong> guise of ‘security operations’. O<strong>the</strong>r examples <strong>in</strong>clude <strong>the</strong> Wagalla, Malkamari <strong>and</strong><br />
Garissa massacres, where thous<strong>and</strong>s of people were killed <strong>and</strong> property worth millions<br />
destroyed.<br />
87. See ‘Leaders foil<strong>in</strong>g guns surrender plan, says DC’, Daily Nation, 19 September 2004<br />
<br />
(20 September 2004). The DC noted that, of <strong>the</strong> 2,600 <strong>arms</strong> surrendered, <strong>the</strong> majority were<br />
defective, <strong>and</strong> some residents were still withhold<strong>in</strong>g those <strong>in</strong> good condition.<br />
88. Ben Okudi, ‘Causes <strong>and</strong> effects of <strong>the</strong> 1980 fam<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> Karamoja’ (Report, Center for<br />
Basic Research, Kampala, 1992).
64 AFRICAN AFFAIRS<br />
attempt<strong>in</strong>g to retrieve <strong>arms</strong> from Karamoja us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> UPDF. 89 Accord<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to local community representatives, <strong>the</strong>se operations have often been<br />
unduly harsh <strong>and</strong> heavy-h<strong>and</strong>ed, lead<strong>in</strong>g to a paradoxical <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> <strong>arms</strong><br />
acquisition. The cross-border <strong>pastoral</strong>ists have always seen <strong>the</strong>mselves as<br />
enemies of <strong>the</strong> state, with <strong>the</strong> Karimojong word for state, ‘anyang’, mean<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>the</strong> same as enemy! A case <strong>in</strong> po<strong>in</strong>t occurred on 12 January 2003, when Jie<br />
raided both Iteso <strong>and</strong> Bokora <strong>in</strong> Aheket (Katakwi district), secur<strong>in</strong>g 75 animals.<br />
The same night, Jie raided three Bokora herds <strong>in</strong> Kirik <strong>and</strong> killed<br />
four people. A jo<strong>in</strong>t team of Iteso LDUs <strong>and</strong> Bokora warriors traced <strong>the</strong><br />
footmarks of <strong>the</strong> animals to Morulem <strong>in</strong> Labwor. In <strong>the</strong> even<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>the</strong>y<br />
reported to <strong>the</strong> UPDF detachment so as not to be confused with raiders<br />
<strong>and</strong> to seek assistance. However, <strong>the</strong> military asked <strong>the</strong> warriors to surrender<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir illegal guns, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>y even disarmed <strong>the</strong> Iteso LDUs. Two warriors<br />
who ran to <strong>the</strong> barracks to take <strong>the</strong>ir guns back were shot dead by <strong>the</strong><br />
UPDF. In <strong>the</strong> confusion, n<strong>in</strong>e o<strong>the</strong>r warriors <strong>and</strong> LDUs were killed. 90 The<br />
use of brutality which Knighton 91 details can be attributed to poor coord<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
<strong>and</strong> communication <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>discipl<strong>in</strong>e with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> security hierarchy<br />
<strong>and</strong> local adm<strong>in</strong>istration. 92 Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, <strong>the</strong> repressive approach by <strong>the</strong><br />
UPDF/LDU is a backlash aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>in</strong>security because of <strong>the</strong> large number<br />
of <strong>arms</strong> <strong>and</strong> because <strong>the</strong> warriors, sometimes with LDUs alongside, target<br />
UPDF. F<strong>in</strong>ally, <strong>the</strong> UPDF often uses violent measures to assist <strong>in</strong> tasks<br />
because of <strong>in</strong>adequate facilities such as vehicles, equipment, hous<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong><br />
o<strong>the</strong>r basic needs.<br />
Militaristic approaches by <strong>the</strong> states like forced disarmament stimulate<br />
an <strong>arms</strong> trade <strong>among</strong> <strong>the</strong> local communities because <strong>the</strong> bullets <strong>and</strong> <strong>arms</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> value, encourag<strong>in</strong>g o<strong>the</strong>r communities to trade <strong>the</strong>ir <strong>arms</strong>. For<br />
example, as <strong>the</strong> disarmament was started <strong>in</strong> Ug<strong>and</strong>a, <strong>the</strong> Acholi started<br />
sell<strong>in</strong>g <strong>arms</strong> to <strong>the</strong> Karimojong, whereas <strong>the</strong> Pokot were gett<strong>in</strong>g <strong>arms</strong><br />
directly from <strong>the</strong> Ma<strong>the</strong>niko. 93<br />
Costs of <strong>small</strong> <strong>arms</strong> <strong>and</strong> ammunition<br />
Arms are now prolific, easily available <strong>and</strong> a relatively cheap <strong>in</strong>vestment<br />
for a <strong>pastoral</strong>ist. For Karamoja, <strong>the</strong> price of a gun has come down<br />
89. Interviews <strong>and</strong> phone communications Karimojong, NGOs <strong>and</strong> government officials <strong>in</strong><br />
Karamoja, 2004–6; Office of <strong>the</strong> Prime M<strong>in</strong>ister (OPM), ‘Karamoja <strong>in</strong>tegrated disarmament<br />
<strong>and</strong> development programmes: creat<strong>in</strong>g conditions for promot<strong>in</strong>g human security <strong>and</strong> recovery<br />
<strong>in</strong> Karamoja, 2005–2008’ (Government report, Kampala, June 2005).<br />
90. Interviews with warriors <strong>in</strong> Panyangara, Kanawat <strong>and</strong> Kotido <strong>in</strong> Karamoja, February<br />
2003 <strong>and</strong> November 2004.<br />
91. Knighton, ‘The state as raider’, pp. 426–55.<br />
92. Not all <strong>the</strong> UPDF are raiders, <strong>in</strong> my experience <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> field s<strong>in</strong>ce 2000, I found a lot of<br />
<strong>the</strong>m to be very helpful; <strong>the</strong> conditions <strong>in</strong> which <strong>the</strong>y operate need to be considered.<br />
93. Interviews <strong>in</strong> Panyangara, Kacheri, Kotido, Musisia, Loputuk <strong>and</strong> Moroto, November<br />
2004.
SALW AMONG PASTORAL GROUPS 65<br />
enormously s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong> late-1970s because of <strong>in</strong>creased supply. At that time,<br />
a gun could cost up to 70–150 cows, as noted by a Jie:<br />
When my family got our gun, we paid 25 heads of cattle. Then <strong>the</strong> guns were very<br />
rare, we bought from dealers from Labalangit. Before 1979 Moroto barracks <strong>in</strong>tervention,<br />
we used to get <strong>the</strong> guns from <strong>the</strong> Turkana dur<strong>in</strong>g peacetime at 150 cattle. 94<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> 1990s, <strong>the</strong> cost of a gun was between 10–30 cows. By May–<br />
June 2001, at <strong>the</strong> start of <strong>the</strong> research, guns were be<strong>in</strong>g exchanged for five<br />
to ten cows <strong>in</strong> Upe Pokot <strong>and</strong> three bulls at <strong>the</strong> source. In 2003–4, an<br />
AK47 cost two to three cows at <strong>the</strong> source. A Jie who got guns directly<br />
from Sudan stated ‘We are very happy to buy <strong>the</strong> gun at two cows because<br />
it makes it easy to own a gun’. Consultation with <strong>the</strong> elders <strong>and</strong> some<br />
members of <strong>the</strong> community noted that 40–50 goats are also equivalent to a<br />
gun. In Kenya, prices have reduced from 30–100 cows <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1970s,<br />
depend<strong>in</strong>g on <strong>the</strong> area, to three to six cows more recently. Prices at <strong>the</strong><br />
source are lower because of availability. In Moroto, <strong>the</strong> current price of a<br />
gun will be at most five bulls if sold to a fellow Karimojong resident with<strong>in</strong><br />
Ma<strong>the</strong>niko <strong>and</strong> Bokora. But, at <strong>the</strong> cross-border level, if sold to a Turkana,<br />
<strong>the</strong> Turkana will have to pay five to eight oxen or more for an orig<strong>in</strong>al<br />
Russian AK47.<br />
The weekly markets at Kangole (Mondays) <strong>and</strong> Moroto (Thursdays) are<br />
different <strong>in</strong> that cash is <strong>the</strong> means of exchange ra<strong>the</strong>r than barter. Those<br />
who use <strong>the</strong>se markets are look<strong>in</strong>g to generate cash, which is required to buy<br />
certa<strong>in</strong> consumer goods. At <strong>the</strong>se markets, <strong>the</strong> go<strong>in</strong>g rate for a gun <strong>in</strong> 2001<br />
was around 150,000 UgSh, which is equivalent to approximately UK£45.<br />
The price <strong>in</strong> 2003–4 was between 200,000 <strong>and</strong> 400,000 UgSh per gun. At<br />
Nakapelimoru <strong>and</strong> Panyangara <strong>in</strong> Kotido, which are near <strong>the</strong> source, <strong>the</strong><br />
2005 prices ranged from 250,000 to 350,000 UgSh or three to five bulls. 95<br />
The recent <strong>in</strong>creases may be expla<strong>in</strong>ed by <strong>the</strong> disarmament attempts <strong>in</strong><br />
2001 <strong>and</strong> s<strong>in</strong>ce September 2004 till date. One must ask <strong>the</strong> question whe<strong>the</strong>r<br />
this is expla<strong>in</strong>ed by reduced supply because of <strong>the</strong> collection of guns or by<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased dem<strong>and</strong> because of <strong>the</strong> community’s perceived need to re-arm.<br />
The type of guns also determ<strong>in</strong>es <strong>the</strong> price. The commonest gun is <strong>the</strong><br />
AK47. The SAR (Ch<strong>in</strong>ese made) is however cheaper, cost<strong>in</strong>g 150,000–<br />
200,000 UgSh or one to two cows at <strong>the</strong> source. The G3 is more expensive,<br />
because it does not get hot <strong>and</strong> because it is rare, which is to <strong>the</strong> credit<br />
of <strong>the</strong> Kenya government which is <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> source! With <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>troduction<br />
of cash sales, <strong>arms</strong> traders can buy highly desirable goods such as radios,<br />
mobile phones (a network was placed <strong>in</strong> Karamoja <strong>in</strong> 2003), <strong>and</strong> general<br />
94. Interviews <strong>in</strong> Karamoja, 2001–4.<br />
95. Interviews with warriors <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs, Nakapelimoru <strong>and</strong> Panyangara, August 2005.
66 AFRICAN AFFAIRS<br />
electronics from markets like Kampala, Mbale <strong>and</strong> take <strong>the</strong>m to <strong>the</strong> north<br />
to exchange for cheap guns.<br />
The cash economy has led to changes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>pastoral</strong> society. For warriors,<br />
<strong>the</strong> ability to raid <strong>and</strong> sell with cash <strong>in</strong>troduces not only akoko raid<strong>in</strong>g<br />
(<strong>small</strong> raid<strong>in</strong>g by warriors to sell) but also larger scale commercial raid<strong>in</strong>g<br />
for money <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividual ga<strong>in</strong>. In Namalu, I observed that raided cattle are<br />
sold on parallel <strong>and</strong> hidden markets at a lower price <strong>and</strong> transported to<br />
Mbale. Also, <strong>in</strong>terviews alleged that road ambushes are undertaken by students<br />
to pay <strong>the</strong>ir school fees.<br />
Disarmament has affected <strong>the</strong> cost of <strong>arms</strong> as noted by a Ma<strong>the</strong>niko exraider<br />
who is now chief of Rupa,<br />
As a raider, we used sometimes to buy guns from Jie <strong>and</strong> Dodoth . . . disarmament<br />
made people afraid to buy, this has fur<strong>the</strong>r pushed <strong>the</strong> price lower <strong>and</strong> caused traders<br />
to widen <strong>the</strong>ir markets. 96<br />
Bullets as a convertible currency<br />
In Karamoja, a bullet can be used to buy a glass of ekwete (beer). The<br />
commercialization of raid<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> result<strong>in</strong>g poverty has led to <strong>the</strong> emergence of<br />
brew<strong>in</strong>g as a major economic activity, perpetuat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> distribution of<br />
ammunition. As noted by warriors <strong>in</strong>terviewed <strong>in</strong> Panyangara:<br />
When we return from raids, we often do not have money to pay <strong>the</strong> women for brew.<br />
Each of us contributes bullets to pay for <strong>the</strong> brew. In villages, you can f<strong>in</strong>d women<br />
with as many as 20–30 but it depends on how <strong>the</strong> brew is sell<strong>in</strong>g. These women will<br />
sell <strong>the</strong> bullets to those who need <strong>the</strong>m, but may also give <strong>the</strong>m to <strong>the</strong>ir sons or husb<strong>and</strong>s,<br />
if <strong>the</strong>y have guns. 97<br />
Sometimes, women vend<strong>in</strong>g local brew accumulate many bullets, which<br />
<strong>the</strong>y barter for goats or a cow! 98 A local ekwete brewer <strong>in</strong>formed <strong>the</strong> author:<br />
Some times people need bullets <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>y tell me, if some one offers you bullets, take<br />
<strong>the</strong>m <strong>and</strong> keep for me . . . If it’s ten bullets, I get 5,000 UgSh. 99<br />
It is easy to carry bullets <strong>in</strong> a food bag or milk gourds or as water <strong>in</strong><br />
jugs. Security forces rarely check women, mak<strong>in</strong>g it relatively easy for<br />
<strong>the</strong>m to carry ammunition across <strong>in</strong>ternational borders. However, security<br />
forces have become more discipl<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> common places: <strong>in</strong> Jie,<br />
<strong>in</strong>terviews noted that <strong>the</strong>re was a time when one could pay for goods <strong>in</strong><br />
96. Interview <strong>in</strong> Karamoja, November 2004.<br />
97. Interview with warriors <strong>in</strong> Panyangara airstrip, 7 October 2004; <strong>in</strong>terviews with Lotirir<br />
mo<strong>the</strong>rs’ group <strong>and</strong> women <strong>in</strong> Rupa near Moroto, September 2004.<br />
98. Interviews <strong>in</strong> Karamoja, September–November 2004.<br />
99. Interviews with young Ekwete brew sellers <strong>in</strong> Jie County <strong>and</strong> Loputuk, September–October<br />
2004.
SALW AMONG PASTORAL GROUPS 67<br />
shops with bullets, although those days are gone. 100 A Fa<strong>the</strong>r <strong>in</strong> Panyangara<br />
referred to <strong>in</strong>stances where bullets were put <strong>in</strong> offer<strong>in</strong>g plates at<br />
<strong>the</strong> church! 101<br />
Ammunition prices<br />
The cost of ammunition has risen dramatically. About a decade ago,<br />
one could pay three UgSh for one bullet (ten for a penny!) In 2001 <strong>in</strong><br />
Moroto/Nakapiripirit area, however, <strong>the</strong> price had <strong>in</strong>creased to 200<br />
UgSh. Alternatively, one cow can be traded for a bucket full of bullets. 102<br />
The ammunition costs seem to have <strong>in</strong>creased fur<strong>the</strong>r with <strong>the</strong> attempted<br />
disarmament <strong>in</strong> Ug<strong>and</strong>a. Before disarmament, one could get s<strong>in</strong>gle bullets<br />
for 200–500 UgSh (one to two pence!). 103 Currently, ammunition is<br />
sell<strong>in</strong>g for 500–1000 UgSh. In Ma<strong>the</strong>niko, ammunition prices <strong>in</strong>creased<br />
from 200 UgSh when <strong>the</strong> author was present <strong>in</strong> 2001 to 500–1000 UgSh<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> most recent visit <strong>in</strong> 2004. In Pian, ammunition comes from<br />
Kaabong <strong>in</strong> Dodoth. Prices <strong>in</strong>creased from 500 UgSh <strong>in</strong> 2001 to 600–<br />
1000 UgSh <strong>in</strong> 2004. Prices are higher fur<strong>the</strong>r away from <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> routes/<br />
sources, of which Jie is one. A former raider <strong>in</strong>terviewed <strong>in</strong> Kanawat (Jie)<br />
<strong>in</strong> 2003 stated,<br />
I was gett<strong>in</strong>g my bullets by kill<strong>in</strong>g o<strong>the</strong>r raiders <strong>and</strong> some from traders. From traders,<br />
we could buy 1000 bullets for one cow. One bullet went for 200 shill<strong>in</strong>gs. This was<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ly for <strong>the</strong> AK47 SMG, which is <strong>the</strong> common gun <strong>in</strong> Jie. 104<br />
Interviews revealed that <strong>the</strong> UPDF <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> LDUs are known to sell<br />
ammunition to some <strong>pastoral</strong> <strong>groups</strong> <strong>and</strong> especially to <strong>the</strong> Karachunas<br />
(Karimojong warriors) <strong>and</strong> Ng’id<strong>in</strong>gai (Pokot warriors). A warrior <strong>in</strong>terviewed<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Karita area (Ug<strong>and</strong>a) said that apart from be<strong>in</strong>g provided<br />
ammunition by <strong>the</strong> UPDF for official purposes, <strong>the</strong> UPDF soldiers would<br />
sometimes sell <strong>the</strong>m extra ammunition. As one Catholic fa<strong>the</strong>r noted, ‘Soldiers<br />
were not paid at one moment <strong>and</strong> have access to armoury, <strong>the</strong> soldiers<br />
were sell<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong>ir people’. 105 Dur<strong>in</strong>g disarmament, soldiers were<br />
sell<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>ir bullets at 100 UgSh each, to pay for local brew. In November<br />
2004, a UPDF was arrested <strong>in</strong> Kotido, with 700 rounds of ammunition <strong>in</strong><br />
a local beer conta<strong>in</strong>er. 106 Ammunition is more expensive <strong>in</strong> Kenya. Accord<strong>in</strong>g<br />
100. Interviews <strong>in</strong> Kanawat <strong>and</strong> Kotido, February 2003, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> Losilang <strong>and</strong> Kachire,<br />
November 2004. In some places, <strong>the</strong>re is no government adm<strong>in</strong>istration.<br />
101. Interview <strong>in</strong> Karamoja, November 2004.<br />
102. Interview with Pastor Samuel Kotiyot, Amudat, 31 May 2001.<br />
103. Interviews <strong>in</strong> Kachire, Panyangara <strong>and</strong> Kanawat, November 2004. Kotido also came<br />
up with <strong>the</strong> same figures.<br />
104. Interview with reformed raider <strong>in</strong> Kanawat, 2004.<br />
105. Interview with Catholic Fa<strong>the</strong>r <strong>in</strong> Karamoja, name withheld, 19 June 2001 <strong>and</strong> January<br />
2003.<br />
106. Interviews <strong>in</strong> Kotido town, November 2004.
68 AFRICAN AFFAIRS<br />
to one official: ‘For ammunition, it is now 60 Kenya shill<strong>in</strong>gs (50 pence<br />
sterl<strong>in</strong>g) for one live ammunition, s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong>y are not readily available’. 107<br />
This is because of <strong>the</strong> distance from <strong>the</strong> source. Guns will not be sold with<br />
an empty magaz<strong>in</strong>e. It must have 20 or 30 bullets as part of <strong>the</strong> deal.<br />
The high price of ammunition reflects its relative scarcity <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Kenya–<br />
Ug<strong>and</strong>a border area. It is <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g that disarmament has reduced <strong>the</strong><br />
cost of <strong>arms</strong> <strong>in</strong> places because of fear of buy<strong>in</strong>g, whilst <strong>the</strong> cost of ammunition<br />
has gone up. Given that <strong>small</strong> <strong>arms</strong> are valueless without ammunition,<br />
it may be that a coord<strong>in</strong>ated strategy to control its supply <strong>and</strong> use could be<br />
a valuable <strong>in</strong>terim measure to reduce violence <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>security, whereas <strong>the</strong><br />
longer-term efforts to promote complete <strong>and</strong> susta<strong>in</strong>ed disarmament are<br />
pursued, but it is questionable why this has not yet been considered. Good<br />
governance by <strong>the</strong> governments is essential <strong>in</strong> curb<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> flows from <strong>the</strong><br />
LDUs, UPDF <strong>and</strong> KPR.<br />
Conclusion<br />
The ethnic pattern of acquisition of SALW <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> cross-border areas<br />
dates from <strong>the</strong> pre-colonial era, with recurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>mes of communal<br />
resource-based competition, regional <strong>in</strong>stability <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>surgencies, state<br />
weakness, marg<strong>in</strong>alization <strong>and</strong> confrontation with <strong>the</strong> state. The repressive,<br />
corrupt or non-existent state security <strong>in</strong> rural areas has led to communities<br />
tak<strong>in</strong>g responsibility for <strong>the</strong>ir own security. Communities have used<br />
several methods to acquire <strong>arms</strong>: private purchase, attacks on government<br />
soldiers <strong>and</strong> revenge battles. In <strong>the</strong> attempt to improve security <strong>in</strong> such<br />
remote <strong>and</strong> difficult-to-manage areas, <strong>the</strong> states have resorted both to <strong>the</strong> use<br />
of paramilitary forces <strong>and</strong> to <strong>the</strong> pour<strong>in</strong>g of legal <strong>weapons</strong> <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> areas.<br />
While this may provide an <strong>in</strong>creased sense of security <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> short term, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
long term, it would be feed<strong>in</strong>g localized <strong>arms</strong> races.<br />
The communities liv<strong>in</strong>g along <strong>the</strong> Kenya–Ug<strong>and</strong>a border are <strong>the</strong>refore<br />
trapped <strong>in</strong> a spiral of ris<strong>in</strong>g violent crime <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>security, which is be<strong>in</strong>g fed<br />
by <strong>the</strong> flow of <strong>small</strong> <strong>arms</strong> <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> area. Unless checked, <strong>the</strong> flow of <strong>arms</strong><br />
from conflict areas to non-conflict areas is likely to feed this spiral of violence<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>security <strong>and</strong> will ultimately lead to <strong>the</strong> creation of more violent<br />
communities <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Horn region. The cost of guns has drastically reduced,<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g that <strong>the</strong> region is awash with <strong>arms</strong>. Ammunition prices have<br />
however gone up, imply<strong>in</strong>g that more research on ammunition is necessary,<br />
as it could be <strong>the</strong> best approach to manag<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> <strong>small</strong> <strong>arms</strong> problems<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> cross-border region <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> short run.<br />
However, address<strong>in</strong>g supply without address<strong>in</strong>g dem<strong>and</strong> is futile; this<br />
article has shown that guns are now an <strong>in</strong>strument of economic subsistence<br />
107. Interview, name withheld, <strong>in</strong> Alale, 2006.
SALW AMONG PASTORAL GROUPS 69<br />
as well as protection. The issues of weakened governance, security needs,<br />
development (livelihood) <strong>and</strong> access to l<strong>and</strong> are all relevant <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> perceived<br />
need for <strong>arms</strong>. At <strong>the</strong> time of writ<strong>in</strong>g (January 2006), 1.2 million<br />
Kenyan <strong>pastoral</strong>ists were experienc<strong>in</strong>g severe drought <strong>and</strong> Pokot <strong>pastoral</strong>ists<br />
were mov<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to Ug<strong>and</strong>a <strong>in</strong> search of water <strong>and</strong> pasture. 108 Historically,<br />
this has always led to tension <strong>and</strong> acquisition of <strong>arms</strong>. Although droughts<br />
have become frequent, no policy yet exists for provision of adequate l<strong>and</strong><br />
access to <strong>pastoral</strong>ists with<strong>in</strong> Kenya <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> region. Attempts to manage<br />
<strong>small</strong> <strong>arms</strong>’ acquisition have often been <strong>in</strong>sensitive to <strong>in</strong>dividual lives,<br />
livelihood <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> ecological context, factors which are at <strong>the</strong> core of <strong>the</strong><br />
dem<strong>and</strong> for <strong>arms</strong>. Militaristic approaches such as those taken dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
disarmament have fur<strong>the</strong>r <strong>in</strong>gra<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>the</strong> patterns of <strong>arms</strong> acquisition. The<br />
long-term hope for resolution lies <strong>in</strong> build<strong>in</strong>g up accountable national<br />
<strong>in</strong>stitutions that can meet <strong>the</strong> basic needs of <strong>the</strong>ir citizens.<br />
Bibliography of books <strong>and</strong> articles<br />
References to o<strong>the</strong>r sources, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terviews, archives, newspaper articles, websites <strong>and</strong> grey publications,<br />
are conta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> relevant footnotes<br />
Anderson, David, ‘Stock <strong>the</strong>ft <strong>and</strong> moral economy <strong>in</strong> colonial Kenya’, Africa 56, 4<br />
(1986), pp. 399–416.<br />
Barber, James, Imperial Frontier (East African Publish<strong>in</strong>g House, Nairobi, 1968).<br />
Gray, S<strong>and</strong>ra, ‘A memory of loss: ecological politics, local history, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> evolution<br />
of Karimojong violence’, Human Organization, 59, 4 (2000),<br />
pp. 401–18.<br />
Fleisher, Michael, ‘Cattle raid<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> household demography <strong>among</strong> <strong>the</strong> Kuria of<br />
Tanzania’, Africa 69, 2 (1999) pp. 238–55.<br />
Heald, Suzette, ‘Tolerat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>tolerable: cattle raid<strong>in</strong>g <strong>among</strong> <strong>the</strong> Kuria’, <strong>in</strong><br />
G. Aijmer <strong>and</strong> J. Abb<strong>in</strong>k (eds), Mean<strong>in</strong>gs of Violence (Berg, Oxford,<br />
2000), pp. 101–21.<br />
Hogg, Richard, ‘The new <strong>pastoral</strong>ism: poverty <strong>and</strong> dependence <strong>in</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn<br />
Kenya’, Africa 56, 3 (1986), pp. 319–32.<br />
Johnston, Les, ‘What is vigilantism?’ British Journal of Crim<strong>in</strong>ology 36, 2 (1996),<br />
pp. 220–36.<br />
Knighton, Ben, ‘The state as raider <strong>among</strong> <strong>the</strong> Karimojong: where <strong>the</strong>re are no<br />
guns <strong>the</strong>y use <strong>the</strong> threat of guns’, Africa 73, 203 (2003), pp. 426–55.<br />
Lefebvre, Jeffrey, Arms for <strong>the</strong> Horn: U.S. security policy <strong>in</strong> Ethiopia <strong>and</strong> Somalia<br />
1953–1991 (University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh, 1991).<br />
Mak<strong>in</strong>da, Samuel, ‘Conflict <strong>and</strong> superpower <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Horn of Africa’, Third World<br />
Quarterly 4, 1 (1982), pp. 93–103.<br />
Mirzeler, Mustafa <strong>and</strong> Crawford Young, ‘Pastoral politics <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>ast periphery<br />
<strong>in</strong> Ug<strong>and</strong>a: AK47 as change agent’, Journal of Modern African Studies 38,<br />
3 (2000), pp. 407–30.<br />
108. See St<strong>and</strong>ard Team, ‘M<strong>in</strong>ister: Sh28b needed to fight fam<strong>in</strong>e’, Sunday St<strong>and</strong>ard,<br />
8 January 2006; See also John Korir, ‘60 billion livestock threatened’, Kenya Times, 4 January<br />
2006 (4 January 2006).
70 AFRICAN AFFAIRS<br />
Mkutu, Kennedy, Guns <strong>and</strong> Governance: Pastoralist Conflict <strong>and</strong> Small Arms <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
North Rift (James Currey, Oxford, forthcom<strong>in</strong>g).<br />
Mkutu, Kennedy, ‘Management of armed crim<strong>in</strong>ality <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Greater Horn of Africa<br />
through an <strong>in</strong>digenous approach: <strong>the</strong> case of <strong>the</strong> Sungusungu’, Ungozi<br />
Journal of Leadership Dynamics (forthcom<strong>in</strong>g).<br />
Novelli, Bruno, Karimojong Traditional Religion (Comboni Missionaries, Kampala,<br />
1999).<br />
Odegi, Awoundo, Life <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Balance: Ecological sociology of Turkana nomads (ACTS,<br />
Nairobi, 1990).<br />
Pazzaglia, Augusto, The Karimojong: Some aspects (Comboni Missionaries, Bologna,<br />
1982).<br />
Sisl<strong>in</strong>, John, John Pearson, Jocelyn Boryczka, <strong>and</strong> Jeffrey Weig<strong>and</strong>, ‘Patterns <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>arms</strong> acquisitions by ethnic <strong>groups</strong> <strong>in</strong> conflict’, Security Dialogue 29, 4<br />
(1998), pp. 393–408.