Syrian Civil War 2011-2012 - Societa italiana di storia militare
Syrian Civil War 2011-2012 - Societa italiana di storia militare
Syrian Civil War 2011-2012 - Societa italiana di storia militare
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In an interview published 31 January <strong>2011</strong>, al-Assad declared it was time to reform, that the protests in Egypt, Tunisia and Yemen<br />
in<strong>di</strong>cated a "new era" was coming to the Middle East, and that Arab rulers needed to do more to accommodate their peoples' rising<br />
political and economic aspirations. [93]<br />
Women and ethnic minorities have faced <strong>di</strong>scrimination in the public sector. [90] Thousands of <strong>Syrian</strong> Kurds were denied citizenship in<br />
1962, and their descendants continued to be labeled as "foreigners" until <strong>2011</strong>, when 120,000 out of roughly 200,000 stateless Kurds<br />
were granted citizenship on 6 April. [94] Because the government is dominated by the Alawite sect, it has had to make some gestures<br />
toward the majority Sunni sects and other minority populations in order to retain power.<br />
Uprising and civil war Main article: Timeline of the <strong>Syrian</strong> civil war<br />
Summary<br />
When limited protests first began early in <strong>2011</strong>, Assad instituted a policy of combining harsh repression with tardy political<br />
concessions. [97]:8 For example, in early June <strong>2011</strong>, several hundred political detainees were released following the issuance of an<br />
amnesty on 31 May <strong>2011</strong>, but at the same time <strong>Syrian</strong> security forces escalated their response to the demonstrations by deploying<br />
military forces to areas where protest was most intense. [98]:4 This violence led to a dramatic expansion in both the numbers of people<br />
protesting and to an extension of the issues they protested about. [98]:3 Violence began to increase dramatically after March <strong>2012</strong>, as<br />
Assad moved against opposition fighters who were becoming better armed and organised thanks to substantial external assistance. [99]<br />
By June <strong>2012</strong>, deaths of <strong>Syrian</strong> armed forces had increased appreciably; nevertheless, the conflict retained a protracted<br />
outlook. [100][101]<br />
Protests The protest movement in Syria was at first modest, and took a while to gain momentum. The events began on 26 January<br />
<strong>2011</strong>, [103] when Hasan Ali Akleh from Al-Hasakah poured gasoline on himself and set himself on fire, in the same way Tunisian<br />
Mohamed Bouazizi had in Tunis on 17 December 2010. Accor<strong>di</strong>ng to eyewitnesses, the action was "a protest against the <strong>Syrian</strong><br />
government". [104][105] Two days later, on 28 January <strong>2011</strong>, an evening demonstration was held in Ar-Raqqah to protest the killing of<br />
two sol<strong>di</strong>ers of Kur<strong>di</strong>sh descent. [106]<br />
On 3 February, a "Day of Rage" was called for in Syria from 4 to 5 February on social me<strong>di</strong>a websites Facebook and Twitter;<br />
however, protests failed to materialize within the country itself. [107] Hundreds marched in Al-Hasakah, but <strong>Syrian</strong> security forces<br />
<strong>di</strong>spersed the protest and arrested dozens of demonstrators. [108] Al Jazeera labeled Syria a "kingdom of silence", conclu<strong>di</strong>ng that<br />
protests would not succeed due to the popularity of al-Assad and concerns over the prospects of insurgency like that seen in<br />
neighboring Iraq. [109] A protest in late February at the Libyan Embassy in Damascus to demonstrate against the government of<br />
Muammar Gaddafi, facing his own major protests in Libya, was met with brutal beatings from <strong>Syrian</strong> police moving to <strong>di</strong>sperse the<br />
demonstration against a friendly regime. [110]<br />
On 6 March, Time magazine ran a story which analysed the state of the <strong>Syrian</strong> youth and why, despite some in<strong>di</strong>viduals being<br />
extremely critical of the government, it would be unlikely for this anger to develop into a full-fledged uprising. [111] Ribal al-Assad said<br />
that it was almost time for Syria to be the next domino in the burgeoning Arab Spring. [112] Indeed, on 15 March, the protest movement<br />
began to escalate, as simultaneous demonstrations took place in major cities across Syria. [113] Increasingly, the city of Daraa became<br />
the focal point for the growing uprising. This city has been straining under the influx of internal refugees who were forced to leave<br />
their northeastern lands due to a drought which was exacerbated by the government's lack of provision. [114] Over 100,000 people<br />
reportedly marched in Daraa on 25 March, but at least 20 protesters were reportedly killed. [115] Protests also spread to other <strong>Syrian</strong><br />
cities, inclu<strong>di</strong>ng Homs, Hama, Baniyas, Jassem, Aleppo, Damascus and Latakia. Over 70 protesters in total were reported dead. [116]<br />
Late in the month, the first signs were seen that the government was willing to make concessions to the protesters, when al-Assad<br />
announced the release of as many as 200 political prisoners. [117] An Assad adviser said the emergency law would be lifted, [118] and<br />
Assad accepted the official resignation of the government led by Prime Minister Muhammad Naji al-Otari. [119] Assad denied the<br />
emergency law would be lifted at the end of March, however. [120]<br />
In April, the uprising became more extensive, and more violent. Protesters were shot at on 1 April, lea<strong>di</strong>ng to at least 10 deaths. [121]<br />
Well over 30 people were killed in a crackdown on protests on 8 April, activists and human rights groups claimed. [122] Tens of<br />
thousands of protesters were prevented from entering Damascus from Douma on 15 April, though this restriction <strong>di</strong>d not prevent<br />
widespread protests in many <strong>Syrian</strong> cities. [123] Other cities where protesting was particularly strong were in Daraa, Baniyas, Al-<br />
Qamishli and Homs. [124][125] There were also protests in Douma and Harasta, suburbs of Damascus. Firing throughout the country<br />
resulted 88 deaths among security forces and protesters, making it the bloo<strong>di</strong>est day so far. [124] Tanks and sol<strong>di</strong>ers entered Daraa and<br />
Douma and the border with Jordan was also closed. [126] Accor<strong>di</strong>ng to an activist, 18 people were killed in Daraa. [127] Al Jazeera<br />
reported that some sol<strong>di</strong>ers appeared to have been shot by their own comrades-in-arms after refusing orders to fire on protesters. [128]<br />
On 29 April, more than 60 protesters were killed in demonstrations across Syria. The United States responded with harsh sanctions<br />
against the <strong>Syrian</strong> government. [129]<br />
Domestic response Main article: <strong>Syrian</strong> reactions to the <strong>Syrian</strong> civil war<br />
Concessions On 19 March <strong>2011</strong> by legislative decree 35, Assad shortened the length of mandatory army conscription from 21 months<br />
to 18 months. [130] On 20 March, the <strong>Syrian</strong> government announced that it would release 15 children who had been arrested on 6 March<br />
for writing pro-democracy graffiti. [131] On 23 March, by regional decree 120, Faisal Ahmad Kolthoum was removed as Governor of<br />
Daraa. [132] On 24 March, Assad's me<strong>di</strong>a adviser, Buthaina Shaaban, said that the government will be "studying the possibility of lifting<br />
the emergency law and licensing political parties". The <strong>Syrian</strong> government also announced a cut in personal taxation rates, an increase<br />
in public sector salaries of 1,500 <strong>Syrian</strong> pounds ($32.60 US) a month and pledges to increase press freedom, create more employment<br />
opportunities, and reduce corruption. [133] The government, dominated by the Alawite sect, also made some concessions to the majority<br />
Sunni and some minority populations in April. On 6 April, it was reported that teachers would once again be allowed to wear the<br />
niqab, and that the government had closed the country's only casino. [134] Of the 200,000 descendants of <strong>Syrian</strong> Kurds denied<br />
citizenship in 1962, 120,000 who were labeled "foreigners" were granted citizenship. [94]<br />
On 19 April, a bill was approved by the <strong>Syrian</strong> government to lift the emergency law. [135] Two days later, Assad signed legislative<br />
decree 50 into law, together with decrees abolishing the Supreme State Security Court and regulating the right to peaceful<br />
demonstration. [136] On 30 April, Prime Minister Adel Safar announced a comprehensive plan for reforms in the coming weeks in three<br />
areas: political reform, security and ju<strong>di</strong>cial reform; economic reform and social policies; and the development of administration and<br />
governmental work. [137]